Hydrocarbon Processing April 2013

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HydrocarbonProcessing.com | APRIL 2013
PETROCHEMICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
Shale gas provides a
renaissance for North American
petrochemical producers
and downstream chemicals
HPI FOCUS
When does it make sense
to build a new unit instead of
revamping an existing facility?
REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
Upgrading heavy crudes
creates new hurdles
to be solved with catalysts
and better processing methods
The TOYO Group companies work 24/7 to engineer the right
solutions and ensure the success of client projects by utilizing
their vast regional knowhow and cutting-edge technologies.
Toyo Engineering (TOYO) has created a new logo for the entire TOYO Group.
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APRIL 2013|Volume 92 Number 4
HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Cover Image: In 2006, Technip began construction of the Map Ta Phut Olefins facility located in Thailand. The facility uses seven of Technips proprietary GK6 naphtha-
cracking furnaces and one SMK furnace for ethane cracking. The olefins facility was successfully started up in March 2010.The GK6 units are the largest in operation,
with an ethylene capacity of 175,000 tpy per furnace.
SPECIAL REPORT: PETROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENTS
33 Shale energy resources driving resurgence for ethylene industry
M. Eramo
37 North American olefin producers riding the shale gas wave
R. Klavers and M. J. Tallman
43 Use model-based temperature control for fixed-bed reactors
D. Weatherford and J. Ford
47 High-pressure polyethylene:
Reemergence as a specialty chemical or not?
L. Farrell and J. Virosco
HPI FOCUS: NEW VS. REVAMP
51 New vs. debottlenecking projects
for the hydrocarbon processing industry
BONUS REPORT: REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
55 Evaluate challenges in meeting clean-fuel specifications
with heavier crude
S. Al-Zahrani, S. Roy, and E. Bright
61 Improve coker efficiency with reliable valve automation
B. Deters and R. Wolkart
65 Optimize value from FCC bottoms
J. Paraskos and V. Scalco
GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS
73 Take a quicker approach to staggered blowdown
M. Sufyan Khan
TURBOMACHINERY DEVELOPMENTS
77 Select the right shaft-riding brushes for turbomachinery
T. Sohre and H. P. Bloch
GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCESUPPLEMENT
T-85 Overcome barriers to proper planning and scheduling
J. Wanichko
SAFETY/LOSS PREVENTION
99 Conceptually, accidents are a fallacy
M. Sawyer
DEPARTMENTS
4 Industry Perspectives
6 Brief
9 Impact
15 Innovations
102 Marketplace
105 Advertiser index
COLUMNS
23 Reliability
Fact-checking list from recent
reliability conferences
25 Integration Strategies
Industrial considerations
for BYOD
27 Boxscore Construction
Analysis
Ethylene in evolution: 50 years
of changing markets
and economics
106 Water Management
Update: Online measurement
of oxidizing biocides
32
6 54
4APRIL 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Are Arctic projects safe?
Do global energy companies have sufficient safety protocols
in place to deal with the challenges of Arctic projects? The
answer, according to hundreds of votes cast in a recent
Hydrocarbon Processing industry poll, is an old clich: it depends.
Nearly half (48%) of readers surveyed believe practices
vary enough throughout the industry that a single standard
has not been adopted, making it dependent on the company
in question. Another 28% said they believed the industry does
have sufficient safety protocols, while 25% said it does not.
The topic became newsworthy after recent incidents
involving Shell. That company, for its part, is postponing its
planned summer drilling in the Arctic Ocean after a troubled
2012 drilling season marred by bad weather, mechanical
failures and regulatory challenges. Shell had been widely
expected to push back its contentious, multi-billion-dollar
Arctic program after it announced that its rigs needed to be
repaired and analysts said replacements would be hard to find.
Weve made progress in Alaska, but this is a long-term
program that we are pursuing in a safe and measured way, said
Shell president Marvin Odum.
The Kulluk, a drilling ship owned by Shell and operated by
Noble Corp., ran aground on an uninhabited island about 300
miles southwest of Anchorage on Jan. 1 after ships towing it
to Seattle for the winter lost control of the rig during a storm
(FIG. 1). It suffered damage to the hull and electrical systems.
The Noble Discoverer drill ship, which Shell was leasing, had
an engine fire in December when it was on its way to Seward,
Alaska, prompting a US Coast Guard inspection.
Investors and government officials are closely watching
Shells Arctic plans. The company has spent nearly $5 billion
on permits, personnel and equipment over the past six years to
assure regulators and native Alaskans that the first drilling in the
Arctic Ocean would be safe and environmentally benign.
Additional reporting by Dow Jones Newswires
FIG. 1. Shell Kulluk drilling rig in the Arctic.
Key industry officials answer a poll question
from HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Brief
LyondellBasell plans to expand
North American ethylene capacity
LyondellBasell will raise its ethylene capacity in North
America by 18% in coming years through several
debottlenecking projects. Locations where ethylene
capacity will be expanded include crackers in Corpus
Christi, La Porte and Channelview, Texas, according to
the company. The projects are scheduled to be finished
in 2014 and 2015.
Jim Gallogly, CEO of LyondellBasell, made these remarks
at the companys annual investor day in New York. He
said the company aims to finish its projects two to three
years earlier than industry competitors building new
plants, all at a lower cost.
Mr. Gallogly said he expects ethane to stay price-
advantaged in the US for at least the next five years. He
noted that natural gas producers are still incentivized to
produce wet gas and, as a result, LyondellBasell plans
to raise its ability to crack natural gas liquids (NGLs)
from 85% to 90%.
LyondellBasell also said it was in the early stages
of evaluating a 1 million lb/year polyethylene plant in
North America by 2016.
Hydrocarbon Processing|APRIL 20137
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Brief
Enterprise Products plans to develop a new 270-
mile pipeline header system that will deliver ethane
to petrochemical plants in the US Gulf Coast region. The
Aegis pipeline will originate at Enterprises liquids storage
complex in Mont Belvieu, Texas, and have the capacity to
transport purity ethane to multiple petrochemical facilities in
Texas and Louisiana. The final design, including capacity and
delivery points, will be determined at the conclusion of the
projects open commitment period. Aegis is expected to begin
commercial operations in 2014.
Lanxess plans to temporarily shut down its butyl rubber
plant in Belgium and its ethylene-propylene-diene
monomer (EPDM) production in Texas.
Soft underlying demand in the second half of 2012 has
continued into 2013 across most businesses, against the usual
seasonal trend, the company said in an unscheduled earnings
update. In order to counter the current soft demand, the com-
pany is applying its proven flexible asset management strategy.
Lanxess said it expects demand to pick up during the year
and is strategically well positioned to benefit from the ex-
pected recovery in the global economic development.
Russias OAO Lukoil has agreed to sell its refinery in
Odessa, Ukraine, to Vetek Group. The refinery has a
capacity of 3.9 million tpy and has been idle since the end
of 2010. The decision to sell is part of a plan by Lukoil to
restructure its international refining assets, the company said.
The deal is expected to be closed before June 1, after both sides
fulfill a variety of conditions.
The American Fuel and Petrochemical Manufacturers
(AFPM) issued a statement following the withdrawal of
its petition for waiver of the 2012 Cellulosic Biofuel Volumetric
Requirements:
We appreciate the Environmental Protection Agencys
(EPA) prompt action to rescind the 2012 cellulosic renewable
volume obligation (RVO) following a US Court of Appeals
decision to vacate the 2012 cellulosic RVO. As a result of the
EPAs response, AFPM has withdrawn its waiver petition,
since our members are no longer required to purchase credits
for fuel that doesnt exist. We believe that the EPA should re-
consider proposed 2013 volumes, which suffer from the same
shortcomings, and finalize a 2013 cellulosic biofuel RVO that
reflects the Courts directive to aim for accuracy.
While EPAs decision on the 2012 cellulosic RVO is the
right one, it doesnt alleviate the waste of resources and time
spent correcting just this one example of an impracticable re-
newable fuel standard (RFS). A more immediate problem with
the RFS is the fast-approaching blendwall, where the EPA is
mandating the consumption of ethanol in quantities that ex-
ceed the technological limitations of certain engines and refu-
eling equipment. The result is a dramatic increase in the mar-
ket price of ethanol renewable identification numbers (RINs),
which has risen nearly 1,000% since early January. AFPM en-
courages the EPA to reevaluate the amount of ethanol that will
be used to meet thresholds set as part of the RFS.
Technip will form a jointly-owned company with
State Corp. Russian Technologies (Rostec) to provide
engineering, design and turnkey construction for oil refinery,
petrochemical and gas chemical production projects in
Russia. The joint venture agreement, aimed at improving the
construction and renovation of refining and petrochemical units
in Russia, was signed with Rostec subsidiary Rustechexport.
The deal includes facilities required for offshore oilfield
operations. The two companies are also aiming to establish a
joint venture to manufacture flexible pipelines and umbilicals
in Russia. These would be used in the Russian Arctic and
Black Sea for use in water depths up to 3,000 meters. The
agreements were signed during an official meeting between
French President Franois Hollande and Russian President
Vladimir Putin in Moscow.
An international court has awarded Dow Chemical $318
million as a resolution to its dispute with Petrochemical
Industries Company of Kuwait (PIC) related to the K-Dow
transaction. This is in addition to the partial award of $2.16
billion announced last May.
Payment of these damages of nearly $2.5 billion will allow
Dow to accelerate its priority uses for cash by further strength-
ening our balance sheet, said Andrew Liveris, Dows chair-
man and chief executive officer. Dow and Kuwait share a long
history and strong partnership, and this award ruling brings
suitable closure to the arbitration process. The Dow team ful-
ly expects, and we are resolved to ensure, that PIC honors its
contractual commitments in a timely manner.
A survey published by OilCareers.com and partner Air
Energi declares that oil-related salaries will increase
in the future. The increase is attributed to heightened safety
concerns, economic instability and strong oil prices, along
with the ongoing skills shortage. While economic instability
currently ranks as the highest concern for those surveyed, the
shortage of skilled labor in the industry is a major consideration
with far-reaching consequences for safety and security within
the industry. Increasingly high levels of activity currently
underway have contributed to a strong candidates market, the
authors said, though rates remain stable and the trend toward
permanent hires versus contractors observed in 2012 continues.
The authors said they surveyed more than 170,000 oil and gas
professionals worldwide.
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Impact
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Asia-Pacific natural gas
market transformation
Amid the Asia-Pacific regions grow-
ing reliance on imports, a report from
the International Energy Agency (IEA)
identifies obstacles and opportunities for
establishing a gas market that reflects sup-
ply/demand fundamentals. Asia-Pacific is
expected to become the worlds second-
largest gas market by 2015. And yet this
market is dominated by long-term con-
tracts in which the price of gas is linked, or
indexed, to that of oil. In recent years, this
has helped keep Asian gas prices much
higher than those in other parts of the
world (FIG. 1), leading to serious questions
about the sustainability of the system and
its effects on Asian competitiveness.
Natural gas has the potential for im-
proving energy security and yielding
economic and environmental benefits in
Asian-Pacific countries, said IEA Execu-
tive Director Maria van der Hoeven. Asia
is already home to the worlds fastest-
growing gas market. But expanding the
role of gas in Asia will depend on regional
market conditions that allow the fuel to
compete autonomously in local energy
markets that are themselves connected to
global energy markets. The future role of
gas in Asia will depend considerably on
how the pricing of natural gas is tied to
the fundamentals of supply and demand
in the region.
Asia-Pacific supply/demand balance.
Since 1990, the natural gas market in the
Asia-Pacific region has undergone re-
markable growth, to about 560 Bcm in
2010. Natural gas consumption has grown
by more than 350% since 1990, represent-
ing an average year-on-year increase of 6%
over two decades. Japanese consumption
represented the mainstay of Asian natural
gas demand, especially in liquefied natu-
ral gas (LNG), until 2010, when China
surpassed Japan as the largest natural gas
market in Asia.
Since 1998, total natural gas produc-
tion in Asia-Pacific has lagged behind re-
gional consumption. A few countries, such
as Indonesia and Malaysia, were net ex-
porters providing LNG for import-depen-
dent countries such as Korea and Japan. In
2010, natural gas production in the region
fell around 93 Bcm short of consumption,
a shortfall that is expected to increase to
about 200 Bcm in 2017, despite a consid-
erable increase in regional production.
Dependence on natural gas imports
from outside the Asia-Pacific region in-
creased by 12% annually throughout
20002010. It is expected that this import
dependency will grow by 5% annually
over the period 20112017 (FIG. 2). The
relatively moderate increase reflects in-
creasing gas production projected for Chi-
na and Australia. Overall demand in the
Asia-Pacific region is expected to follow
global demand trends, growing at around
3% per annum to reach 875 Bcm in 2017.
Key findings. Long-term contracts can
play a beneficial role in providing invest-
ment security, but their current pricing
does not accurately reflect gas market fun-
damentals or the competitiveness of gas
relative to other fuels. Moreover, without
a competitive spot market for natural gas,
there is little incentive and little scope to
change current commercial practices. This
leaves both consumers and producers
with insufficient room to explore different
options, and limits the degree to which
natural gas can serve as a flexible source of
energy for both growing and mature econ-
omies. Among the reports key findings
and recommendations are the following:
Current market structures discour-
age gas consumption and impact Asian
competitiveness vis--vis more flexible
markets in the US and even Europe
OECD experience suggests that the
single biggest obstacle for an effective gas
market is a lack of infrastructure access
US (Henry Hub)
Europe (German import)
Japan (LNG import)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
$
2
0
1
2
/
M
M
B
t
u
FIG. 1. Relatively high gas prices lead to a competitive burden on
Asian economies.
0
10
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
B
c
m
Gas consumption, Asia-Pacic
Gas production, Asia-Pacic
IEA 2012 forecast
IEA 2012 forecast
FIG. 2. Asia-Pacific demand and production, 1990-2017.
Impact
10
The role of governments must
change: Instead of focusing on price
regulation along the value chain, gov-
ernments must maintain and supervise
competitive market conditions
Credible state commitment to re-
gional gas market competition can instill
confidence, encourage new market partic-
ipants, and promote the use of transpar-
ent hubs to balance producer portfolios
Transport and commercial activi-
ties should be separated and prices de-
regulated at the wholesale level
Singapore holds the best initial
prospects for gas hub development, with
Japan, Korea and China as likely compet-
itors in the future.
The prospects are there, but even the
prime candidates will need to do more,
said Ms. Van der Hoeven. Chinas fast-
growing domestic gas network is still
underdeveloped, and the entire produc-
tion chain remains heavily regulated.
Singapores small domestic market means
that, to grow as a hub, it must rely on re-
exports, which are hindered by regula-
tion. Last but not least, Japan has a great
potential to act as a hub, but it will have to
take some important steps.
Promising forecast for the
US re-refining industry
With a projected compound annual
growth rate (CAGR) exceeding 23% over
the next five years, the future of the US
re-refined basestocks market looks prom-
ising, according to a recent study by Kline
& Co. Given that all announcements per-
taining to expansions and new capacities
go as planned, it is anticipated that the re-
refining industry will see a robust growth
to an estimated 1,390 kilotons by 2016,
suggesting a golden decade for many in
the industry. However, this is contingent
upon the successful and timely ramp-up
of operational facilities.
Key drivers fueling this growth include
enhanced technology and infrastructure,
legislative imperatives and rising crude oil
prices. The improving quality and viabil-
ity of re-refined base oils, coupled with
increased and more consistent collection
rates due to stronger regulations enforce-
ment, are helping the industry assert its
largely untapped potential.
An emerging trend observed in the
US re-refining industry consists of an
influx of foreign re-refiners who, having
identified the expanding opportunities
within North America, are consequently
establishing plants in the country. These
include leading re-refiners from Western
Europe and India.
Despite the encouraging potential, the
report also identifies impediments con-
cerning the otherwise strong re-refining
business. These primarily include access
to used oil and consumer acceptance of
re-refined lubricants. To better ensure
used oil access and supply, re-refiners are
forming alliances or acquiring collectors
and subsequently also reinforcing the
general consolidation trend within the
industry. The acceptance of re-refined
lubricants is likely to be an incremental
phenomenon assisted by more brands
(especially major oil brands) entering
this market, a more omnipresent avail-
ability and a greater emphasis upon in-
trinsic value with little or no compromise.
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How Can KBR Answer
Your Refining Challenges?
Owners of refineries continue to confront
many challenges rising feedstock prices,
shrinking margins, varying global demands
and a changing regulatory landscape that
includes ever-more stringent specifications
on sulfur and carbon footprints. As refinery
owners debottleneck and enhance existing
facilities, they call on KBR to deliver.
To learn how KBR can address your refining
challenges, go to:
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refining.kbr.com/ HP
K13009 2013 KBR, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Impact
12
Driven by China, global
methanol demand rises
23% in two years
According to a new IHS Chemical
global market study, global methanol de-
mand increased 23% during the two-year
period of 2010 to 2012, primarily driven
by Chinese demand.
Annual demand for the product is
expected to increase by more than 8%,
from 61 MM metric tons in 2012, to an
unprecedented level of 137 MM metric
tons in 2022. These rapid demand in-
creases are significant, particularly when
the numbers are compared to the eco-
nomic downturn of 2008 to 2009, when
annual global methanol demand slowed
to just 4% and 2%, respectively.
Methanol is a key option for mone-
tizing gas or coal, said Mike Nash, global
director of Syngas Chemicals at IHS.
An abundant supply of low-cost North
American shale gas resources is driving
methanol capacity additions in the US.
The shale gas revolution is a major game-
changer; mothballed methanol units
have started back up, and one Methanex
unit has been relocated from Chile to
Louisiana with considerations of mov-
ing another unit. Coal supplies in China
are also driving projects there, as well,
particularly as it relates to using cheap
methanol supplies derived from coal to
produce olefins.
Geographically, China remains the
growth center for methanol demand,
with an average annual growth of slight-
ly more than 12%, while the rest of the
world is growing at just below 3%. China
methanol consumption will triple from
31 MM metric tons in 2012 to 97 MM
metric tons in 2022.
Traditional uses for methanol include
derivatives such as formaldehyde, ace-
tic acid and methyl methacrylate. With
China at the epicenter of global growth,
fuels applications are one of the primary
demand drivers. Methanol demand in
the gasoline pool is expected to increase
from nearly 5 MM metric tons in 2012
to just over 11 MM metric tons in 2022,
representing a penetration of nearly
12%. At blend ratios of 15% and slightly
increased gasoline consumption trends,
methanol consumption could rise to 15
MM metric tons.
China has become by far the larg-
est methanol producing country in the
world, representing 54% of world ca-
pacity and 43% of world methanol pro-
duction in 2012. The global methanol
industry is now reaching the end of a
significant wave of capacity expansions.
Since 2007, capacity has been added
at the rate of 14.3%/yr, in an industry
where demand had been growing at
around 8.6%/yr.
However, Chinese capacity utilization
is only around 50%, since China adjusts
operating rates accordingly to balance
world supply and demand. China is near-
ing the end of a major capacity expansion
wave, with only an additional 7.5 MM
metric tons of new capacity for the mer-
chant market expected to come onstream
through 2022. This leaves well over 40
MM metric tons of new China metha-
nol capacity integrated to methanol-to-
olefins/methanol-to-propylene coming
online during the forecast period.
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expected spray performance and withstand process conditions such as thermal stresses, heat transfer,
vortex shedding and more
Proven track record. Companies like Technip, Mustang Engineering, Bechtel, Shell and many others
rely on us to manufacture B31.1 and B31.3 code-compliant injectors and conduct radiographic,
hydrostatic, ferrite tests and more
Learn More. Call 1.800.95.SPRAY or visit spray.com/injectors
This injector sprays liquid into
gas and is just one of many used
for gas cooling, water wash,
desuperheating, steam quench,
slurry backflush and more.
WIDE RANGE OF HYDRAULIC & GAS
ATOMIZING NOZZLES INCLUDING
CLOG-RESISTANT STYLES
DOZENS OF INJECTOR
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Unmatched Global Engineering, Manufacturing & Technical Support
Nozzles | Control Systems | Headers & Injectors | Research & Testing
1.800.95.SPRAY
CFD MODEL ILLUSTRATES
PERFORMANCE BASED ON
INJECTOR PLACEMENT
ZENS OF INJECTOR
SIGNS AVAILABLE UDING
STANT STYLE
Innovations
ADRIENNE BLUME, PROCESS EDITOR
Adrienne.Blume@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Flowmeter uses Coriolis
force in measurement
The Sitrans FC430 flowmeter from
Siemens AG is capable of measuring liq-
uids and gases using the Coriolis princi-
ple. Flows can be measured with a preci-
sion of 0.1%, and different sensor sizes are
available to address various applications.
The technical solution of state-of-the-
art flow devices based on the Coriolis force
uses two vibrating tubes. The tubes are
forced to vibrate using a magnetic driver,
which is controlled by an electronic driver
circuit and the appropriate software. Two
electromagnetic transducers measure the
velocity of the tube deflection between in-
put and output. The driver and the trans-
ducers are part of a closed-loop control
system that continuously causes the tubes
to vibrate at their resonant frequency. The
resonant frequency depends on the con-
struction of the tubes and on the density
of the fluid. The tube temperature is mea-
sured to compensate for changes in the
material stiffness of the tubes.
The phase of the two velocity signals is
proportional to the mass flow of the fluid,
and the frequency of the velocity signal is
equal to the density of the fluid. Volume
flow is calculated based on the mass flow
and density. The measurement calcula-
tions (software) are processed using a
modern digital signal processor (DSP).
The Sitrans FC430 software is modu-
lar, with small blocks that provide struc-
tured and well-defined functions. This
makes it easier to supervise and monitor
the correctness of each of the smaller
units. The various blocks are protected
by advanced safety integrity measures to
detect dangerous errors. For example, the
result of a calculation in the algorithm is
evaluated using well-defined and tested
plausibility checks to ensure that the re-
sult is the expected one. Additional diag-
nostic software secures each block so that
the software runs correctly and reliably.
The Sitrans FC430 flowmeter complies
with safety standard IEC 61508. It can be
used in safety circuits up to Safety Integri-
ty Level 2 (SIL 2) in a single-channel con-
figuration and up to SIL 3 in a redundant
configuration. No additional measures are
required from the application side.
Oil evaporator system
ideal for shale oil analysis
JM Sciences AQUACOUNTER
AQL-22320 automated oil evapora-
tor system (FIG. 1) is an automated Karl
Fischer titrator system consisting of the
AQ-2200 (coulometric titrator) and the
EV-2000L (oil evaporator) units. This ti-
tration system has been designed for ana-
lyzing moisture in difficult samples such
as shale oil, grease, heavy lubricants and
other materials.
Using an azeotropic distillation sol-
vent, like toluene or xylene, moisture can
be evaporated at a lower temperature, sav-
ing on expensive Karl Fischer reagents
and lowering maintenance costs, since
the titration cell remains clean and free of
contaminants. This automated system al-
lows the analyst to load the samples into
glass vials and then place the vials on the
sample tray of the system. The operator
only needs to push the start button once
to begin the analyses.
The sample changer holds up to 20
vials and can process large numbers of
samples. It is equipped with the auto-
matic Karl Fischer reagent exchanging
function, reducing the cost of Karl Fisch-
er reagent and waste disposal. Wide tem-
perature settings cover the full range of
azeotropic points.
Compressor technology
will enhance CCS project
MAN Diesel & Turbo is providing
compressor technology for Shell Cana-
das Quest Carbon Capture and Storage
(CCS) Project, located in Alberta, Can-
ada. Quest will be the worlds first com-
mercial-scale CCS project to tackle car-
bon emissions at an oil sands operation.
Quest will capture more than 1 million
metric tons per year of CO
2
from Shells
Scotford Refinery upgrader near Edmon-
ton, Alberta, and permanently store the
gas deep underground at an injection site
north of the facility. Quest will begin in-
jecting CO
2
underground in 2015. Shell
ordered an integrally geared centrifugal
compressor from MAN Diesel & Turbo
for delivery in 2013.
MAN Diesel & Turbo Berlin will con-
struct and hand over the RG90-8 frame
size for the first time. Four pinions are en-
gaged with a different gear ratio, leading
to diverse rotating speeds. Each pinion
mounts two impellers in a back-to-back
arrangement. The CO
2
is compressed
in eight stages to a discharge pressure of
130 bar. This integrally geared centrifu-
gal compressor handles 80,000 cubic
meters of CO
2
per hour. It will be con-
structed of familiar components that
have proved reliable in different frame
sizes over many years.
The discharge pressure of 130 bar is
sufficient to send the compressed CO
2

about 60 kilometers (km) via an under-
ground pipeline to a wellhead, and to in-
ject the dense-phase CO
2
2.3 km below
the surface into a saline rock formation for
permanent storage (FIG. 2).
Alarm/bypass solution
enables real-time risk
management
Invensys Operations Management
has enhanced its Triconex critical con-
trol and safety offerings for industrial op-
erations. The new Triconex Safety View
FIG. 1. The AQUACOUNTER AQL-22320
automated oil evaporator system analyzes
moisture in difficult samples, such as shale oil.
C O M P R E S S O R S Q T U R B I N E S Q G L O B A L S E R V I C E
EBARA CORPORATION
www.elliott-turbo.com
Q Customers:
Global oil and gas producers.
Q Challenge:
Changing compression requirements
as elds mature and production peaks.
Q Result:
Flexible, reliable compressor designs
for extended, cost-efcient operations.
They turned to Elliott
for reliable compression solutions.
From Aberdeen to Rio de Janeiro, Calgary to Jakarta, Elliott compressors, turbines, and
expanders deliver the reliable, efcient performance that producers and processors require.
And every piece of Elliott equipment is backed by our unmatched global service network.
Customers throughout the world turn to Elliott for critical turbomachinery and service
because our resources are global and our execution is local. Who will you turn to?
The world turns to Elliott.
Innovations
solution is the worlds first software for
alarm and bypass management certified
by TV Rheinland to IEC61508 Sys-
tematic Capability 3 for use in applica-
tions up to Safety Integrity Level 3 (SIL
3). Additionally, the companys Triconex
Trident and Tricon general-purpose safe-
ty instrumented systems (SISs) now sup-
port OPC Unified Architecture (UA) for
greater communications connectivity.
Triconex draws attention to changes
in process conditions that require imme-
diate attention, giving operators, mainte-
nance engineers and shift personnel bet-
ter visibility into the process so they can
take actions that reduce risk, optimize the
total cost of ownership and increase over-
all asset performance. It is built on the
companys ArchestrA System Platform
and Wonderware InTouch HMI software,
which have been adapted specifically for
use in safety applications.
Invensys has also embedded OPC UA
communications with its industry-leading
Triconex, Trident and Tricon general-pur-
pose SISs. OPC UA maximizes interoper-
ability between systems and streamlines
connectivity through open-platform ar-
chitecture and future-proof design. The
new communications interface module
contains an embedded OPC UA server
that supports up to 10 concurrent clients,
delivering high-performance and secure,
reliable communication of real -time data,
alarms and historical events.
OPC UA provides a single commu-
nications solution from the device level
to the enterprise level, maintaining plat-
form independence without sacrificing
performance. It provides better interop-
erability (complete with certification),
reliability by design, access via firewalls
FIG. 2. Flow diagram of the Quest CCS
process. Image courtesy of Shell Canada Ltd.
From Engineering Through Fabrication
For top performing mass transfer and tower internal components let
AMACS Process Tower Internals use your existing drawings or modify them
to improve your process. Our experienced in-house engineering and full
scale fabrication capabilities can streamline your project from inception to
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Valve (numerous options)
Sieve or perforated
Bubble cap trays
Cartridge trays
DuaI ow
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DISTRIBUTORS & SUPPORTS
Manufaotured to oustomer speoitoations or engineered to meet
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COALESCERS
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Removal of tower wet retux Caustio treater applioations
STRUCTURED PACKING
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Texas: 3700 West Sam Houston Pkwy. South, Suite 425, Houston, TX 77042 USA 281-717-9090
LENAsales@linde-le.com
For over 60 years, weve been there for our rening and
petrochemical customers. Linde Engineering North America Inc.
offers single source responsibility for technology, engineering,
procurement and construction.
Selas Fluid renery and petrochemical red heaters
Oxidation/incineration technologies
Engineered revamps and rebuilds
Hydrogen and synthesis gas plants
Air separation plants
A new name, a long history.
Selas Fluid Processing is now
Linde Engineering North America Inc.
Were local. Were global.
And were proud to be both.
Innovations
and across the internet, and reduced con-
figuration time with built-in information
and security models.
Laser-scan point cloud
simplifies pipeline
construction
Intergraph has released CloudWorx
for SmartPlant Isometrics 2012 R1, an
add-on to its SmartPlant Isometrics solu-
tion that allows users to quickly create ac-
curate, as-built piping isometrics directly
from a laser-scan point cloud.
CloudWorx for SmartPlant Isometrics
2012 R1 leverages Leica Geosystems in-
dustry-leading Cyclone software technolo-
gy to efficiently display the laser-scan point
cloud and navigate through it in a window
with measured piping data overlaid graphi-
cally, a revolutionary method of creating
as-built piping asset documentation.
CloudWorx for SmartPlant Isomet-
rics supports the rapid creation of piping
isometric documents, using Intergraph
ISOGEN. The easily understood sketch-
ing functionality and automated drawing
creation means computer-assisted design
(CAD) and 3D skills are not required,
but it also allows experienced piping de-
signers to be highly productive in creat-
ing as-built piping data.
The software is complementary to 3D
model-based solutions based on Smart
3D, Plant Design System or CADWorx,
since the same ISOGEN software is used
to produce the deliverable. Results are
consistent, and underlying data can be
used to create documentation for inspec-
tion of piping systems, including the au-
tomated, rule-based placement of inspec-
tion location points.
When used in conjunction with
SmartPlant Enterprise for owner/opera-
tors (SPO), the comprehensive, as-built
documentation can be managed to en-
sure the integrity of the piping asset. SPO
adds change-management and audit ca-
pabilities when the piping documents are
published to the plant engineering data
store and maintained through time.
With the new SPO TruView integra-
tion capability, CloudWorx for Smart-
Plant Isometrics can use the same point-
cloud data to create piping documentation
as needed for operating and maintaining a
facility, or to document the as-built asset
in line with industry regulations.
Pulse input flowmeter ideal
for hazardous locations
Precision Digitals PD6830 ProtEx-
RTP Pulse Input Rate/Totalizer flowme-
ter (FIG. 3) has a rugged, explosion-proof,
NEMA 4X enclosure and is designed for
quick and easy display of local or remote
flow information in hazardous areas or in
the harshest safe area applications. The
SafeTouch through-glass buttons allow
operation without removing the cover.
Flowmeter K-factor units are auto-
matically converted to the desired display
units; this means that no conversion fac-
tors are needed. The pulse input accepts
a wide range of flow transmitter signals,
including millivolt input from a magnetic
flowmeter, as well as high-frequency sig-
nals. The PD6830 flowmeter includes
backlighting and two open-collector out-
puts as standard.
The PD6830 flowmeter features an
upper display that is 0.7 inches high and
shows five digits of flowrate or total. The
lower display is 0.4 inches high and shows
a combination of flowrate, total, grand to-
tal or a tag with seven alphanumeric char-
acters. The meter is easy to read from a
distance, under various lighting condi-
tions and from wide viewing angles.
Unit conversions are automatically
performed by the PD6830 flowmeter.
This means that no math or conversion
factors are needed. The meter is capable
of data logging up to 1,024 records in real
time. Each record contains the date, time,
rate, total, grand total and log number.
The flowmeter is designed to handle
a wide variety of high-speed inputs and
outputs. Inputs can be discerned with
pulse widths as small as 5 microseconds.
www.borsig.de
BORSIG GmbH
Phone: ++49 (30) 4301-01
Fax: ++49 (30) 4301-2236
E-mail: info@borsig.de
Egellsstrasse 21, D-13507
Berlin/Germany
BORSIG TRANSFER
LINE EXCHANGERS
FOR
ETHYLENE CRACKING
FURNACES
BORSIG is the worlds leading
manufacturer of quench coolers
for ethylene plants with more than
6,200 units installed worldwide.
- BORSIG Linear Quencher
(BLQ)
- BORSIG Tunnelflow Transfer
Line Exchanger (TLE)
A practical design, highly quali-
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methods ensure the high quality
standards to meet all require-
ments with regard to stability,
operational reliability
and service life.
BORSIG - Always
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Visit us at:
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BORSIG
FIG. 3. The PD6830 ProtEx-RTP flowmeter
is designed for display of local or remote flow
information in both hazardous and safe areas.
Innovations
20
Two open-collector outputs are individu-
ally programmable for rate, total or grand
total alarms; rate, total or grand total
pulse outputs; retransmission of pulse
inputs; quadrature paired output; or con-
stant timed pulse output. Operating tem-
peratures range from 40C to 75C.
Portfolio update improves
rod, valve monitoring
The Smart Machinery Health portfo-
lio from Emerson Process Management
now provides an integrated protection
and prediction solution for critical recip-
rocating compressors. Common com-
pressor issues can be predicted before
they cause a process upset, greatly reduc-
ing lost production and repair costs.
Reciprocating compressors are of-
ten maintenance-intensive machines at
a production facility and are critical to
production uptime. With Emersons inte-
grated approach for reciprocating assets,
rotating and reciprocating machines can
now be monitored through one mainte-
nance management system.
Emersons reciprocating compressor
solution includes standard protection
functionality as specified in American
Petroleum Institute (API) 670 and API
618, and it adds powerful predictive
monitoring to identify a users most
troublesome issues: valves, pressure
packing, rider bands and rod faults.
Emersons CSI 6500 Machinery Health
Monitor with PeakVue technology moni-
tors ultrasonic emissions to determine
valve health, which is reported as the No.
1 maintenance issue by users. Transient
monitoring of rod position identifies ab-
normal or excessive changes in rod posi-
tion before they impact pressure packing;
it also monitors vertical rod position to
track rider band wear. Advanced asset-
management capabilities enable users to
view rod position via 2D plots, illustrat-
ing piston rod dynamic motion that can
be viewed live, paused and replayed.
Emersons integrated solution also de-
livers compressor frame vibration shut-
down protection as specified by API 618,
and piston rod monitoring as specified by
API 670. AMS Suite provides additional
performance and machine condition in-
formation through monitoring parame-
ters such as adiabatic efficiency, volumet-
ric flow, rod tension and rod compression.
Combining shutdown protection with
predictive diagnostics delivers the infor-
mation that users need to protect their
equipment health while avoiding produc-
tion downtime.
SiGNa Chemistry acquires
Jadoo Power H
2
assets
SiGNa Chemistry Inc. has acquired
the hydrogen (H
2
) storage and fuel-
cartridge assets of Jadoo Power Systems.
The purchase includes all of Jadoo Pow-
ers portable H
2
products, including the
companys well-known N-Stor cartridge,
as well as associated H
2
storage materials
and patents, and supporting laboratory
and analysis assets.
Since its founding in 2005, SiGNa has
commercialized a range of sustainable
chemistry products that are based on the
companys core competency in trans-
forming reactive alkali metals, which his-
torically have been dangerous to use and
store, into safe, free-flowing powders.
The resulting stabilized materials enable
improvements in safety, efficiency, cost
and environmental sustainability across
a number of chemical processes in power
generation, pharmaceuticals, petrochem-
icals, enhanced oil recovery and other
widely used products.
SiGNa works with a number of fuel
cell integrators and OEMs to develop cus-
tomized H
2
-delivery cartridges. SiGNas
H
2
cartridges enable energy-dense, light-
weight and wearable power systems and
can be designed for any proton-exchange
membrane fuel cell system. In partnership
with Swedish-based myFC, SiGNa was
responsible for the release of the worlds
first fuel cell product certified by the In-
ternational Electrotechnical Commission.
SiGNa anticipates several new prod-
uct releases in 2013 and continues to
seek new development partners interest-
ed in commercializing fuel cell-powered
products for portable military power,
emergency and disaster relief, backup
and standby power, outdoor power and
consumer electronics.
Additional items can be found online
at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Looking for a highly efcient and
compact lter system to improve
your gas ltration application?
Our custom-made lter systems combine all-welded elements
and metal ber based media. The high porosity of this media
allows state-of-the-art surface ltration, which results in low
differential pressures and longer cycle-times. Thanks to their
improved blow-back unit design, Bekaert gas lter systems are
not only compact in size, they are also highly efcient and they
offer a long life-performance.
Benets of bekaert hot gas ltration elements
- Low emissions: 1 mg/Nm for particulate materials
- High efciency: ltration up to 99,9995% at 1
- Continuous & reliable operations, no shutdown
- Increased cycle-time and long-life performance
- Compact size and footprint
Contact
Pavlos Papadopoulos - pavlos.papadopoulos@bekaert.com - +32 (4) 2283976
www.bekaert.com/baf
Todays petrochemical industry provides the building blocks for a wide
range of materials. As the global leader in catalysis, BASF provides
a strong foundation of product and process innovations across the
petrochemical value chain. The result is a broad petrochemical catalyst
and adsorbent portfolio backed by dedicated customer and technical
service and enabled through the strength of BASF The Chemical
Company. At BASF, we create chemistry for a sustainable future.
www.catalysts.basf.com/petrochemicals
We create
chemistry
that makes building
blocks love strong
foundations.
Reliability
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Fact-checking list from recent reliability conferences
Whenever HP editors attend technical conferences, their pri-
mary goals include observing industry practices, finding facts
and spotting trends.
Fact or fiction. Unfortunately, presenters sometimes relate
mere anecdotes of questionable veracity. So, technical colum-
nists must come to grips with snippets of information. Should
the reporters relate the snippets as amusing anecdotes, or should
they withhold the snippets because they add no value? Most
professionals use reasonable judgment and try not to allow er-
roneous information to go unchallenged.
Here are a few recollections, claims, counterclaims and is-
sues amassed from several 2012 reliability conferences attended
by HP editors:
1. In best-of-class (BOC) plants, use of nonpolluting closed
oil-mist systems is increasing. These systems include electric
motor drivers and all standby equipment at BOC plants. Find-
ing: Fact.
2. Oil mist can cause motor insulation to degrade. Finding:
True for motors made in the 1940s and early 1950s. Not true
for motors with epoxy insulation, typically made from 1965 to
the present.
3. Pump vendors always use the best available lube applica-
tion; therefore, oil rings and constant level lubricators should
not be questioned. Finding: Not 100% factual.
4. Some reciprocating compressor purchasers insist on
metal-disc pack couplings. Finding: Some do, but they do so at
their own risk. Mandating metal-disc couplings rarely serves the
purchasers best interests. Elastomeric elements are usually (al-
though not always) safer and more reliable in these machines.
5. Some coupling manufacturers know little about coupling
stiffness under actual operating conditions. Finding: True, un-
fortunately. Repeat failures have resulted.
6. Large electric motors are again being built in the US by
at least one competent legacy manufacturer. Finding: True, and
this is a pleasant development.
7. Plants that spend more money on maintenance are typi-
cally those that dont invest reasonable funds or resources on
reliability improvements. Finding: True. The issue was neatly
summarized by Alan Poling of Solomon Associates at the 2012
ARAMCO Global Reliability Forum, held in Houston, Texas;
see TABLE 1.
8. Plants that have replaced traditional repair-thinking and
now use reliability-thinking invest 5% of the actual equipment
cost in up-front machinery quality assessment (MQA). Find-
ing: True. Effective MQA has been successfully practiced since
the early 1960s.
9. New formulations of polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK)
have joined proprietary formulations of polyimide resins as an
advantageous pump-wear part material. Finding: True, but be
mindful of possible increases in axial load on the pumps thrust
bearing that can result from close-clearance PEEK wear rings.
10. The Southwest Research Institute has refined and vali-
dated methods to better predict turbomachinery vibration. Ro-
tor behavior modeling, often expressed as the log decrement in
critical damping values, is now more accurate. Finding: True.
11. There is a narrowing of the gap in reliability perfor-
mance and profitability of top-quartile companies (upper 25%)
as compared to fourth-quartile (lower 25%) companies. Find-
ing: Not true. Regrettably, the gap is widening.
12. As more maintenance money is spent, pump MTBF in-
creases. Finding: The opposite is true, as shown in FIG. 1.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career began in 1962 and included
long-term assignments as Exxon Chemicals regional
machinery specialist for the US. He has authored over
520 publications, among them 18 comprehensive
books on practical machinery management, failure
analysis, failure avoidance, compressors, steam
turbines, pumps, oil-mist lubrication and practical
lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS
degrees in mechanical engineering. He is an ASME Life
Fellow and maintains registration as a Professional
Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Year one Year two
7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
P
e
r

p
u
m
p

o
u
t
l
a
y
,

$

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
20
25
30
35
40
45
P
u
m
p

M
T
B
F
,

m
o
n
t
h
s
12 months per pump routine maintenance cost
12 months rolling pump MTBF, months
FIG. 1. As MTBF decreases, maintenance costs increase at this location.
TABLE 1. The relationship between reliability and maintenance
Reliability and maintenance are inextricably linked
One cannot cost-cut ones path to improved reliability
Maintenance costs are driven by reliability or the lack thereof
Best performers achieve high reliability at low costs
Poor performers have high costs with low reliability
Each 1% increase in mechanical availability can translate into
a 10% reduction in maintenance costs
www.merichem.com
Sweet Solutions
Flexible H
2
S Removal
LO-CATs fexible technologies and worldwide services are backed by over three decades of
reliability. Over 200 licensees in 29 countries are meeting todays compliance requirements by
turning nasty H
2
S into elemental sulfur with the use of LO-CAT technologies. Efcient, efective
and environmentally sound, LO-CAT is the technology of choice for H
2
S removal / recovery.
LO-CAT
Integration
Strategies
HARRY FORBES, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
HForbes@ARCweb.com
Industrial considerations for BYOD
With the bring your own device (BYOD) trend begin-
ning to take hold in the process industries, plant managers and
IT groups are taking more interest. Not only do they have le-
gitimate security concerns, but, in refineries and petrochemical
plants, field devices must be certified to operate in hazardous lo-
cationsa requirement that excludes most consumer devices.
Mobile computing. Mobility is the core value proposition of
the BYOD trend. Mobile computing is rapidly becoming the
normal use-case for enterprise IT, rather than the exception. In
processing facilities, most workers already own their personal
mobile devices, which they often prefer to use. And in every
industry, workers have distain over mandates forcing them to
carry multiple devices.
Ubiquitous wireless Internet access enables BYOD systems.
Carrier cellular coverage saturated the strategic areas in de-
veloped economies many years ago. However, in recent years,
carriers have rolled out higher-capacity 4G networks capable
of much greater data rates to support the growing numbers of
smartphones served by their networks. These service levels
compare well with what was provided by wire-line enterprise
networks only recently.
The huge volume of the consumer market has also revolu-
tionized the price/performance of smart devices, especially
smartphones. At the same time, there has been a convergence
of the networks and platforms. Most smartphones support
LTE carrier networks, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth local network-
ing along with GPS. There has been a huge convergence in
terms of operating platforms toward Android and iOS, with
the former champions BlackBerry and Symbian both losing
market share, and Windows volumes remaining almost invis-
ible. For industrial service, smartphones, tablets and other
mobility devices require enhanced ruggedness, hazardous-
location certification, and, in some cases, dedicated higher-
performing interfaces for barcode scanning or other job-spe-
cific capabilities.
Management is now the biggest challenge. While
ubiquitous connectivity and technological convergence have
enabled the BYOD trend, it has been constrained by the lim-
ited capability of enterprises to manage the more complex
demands represented by mobile consumer devices operating
within the enterprise. Like all management, network manage-
ment involves the allocation of resources according to policies
and rules to achieve enterprise objectives. Effective network
management balances a number of objectives. One of these is
to improve cost behavior. Enterprise total cost of ownership
(TCO) will scale well when network management reduces
the labor intensiveness of network operation as the network
grows. But TCO is only one of the attributes of BYOD requir-
ing management attention. Other major factors are:
Policy. Organizations need to make policy decisions at the
outset of BYOD. These decisions include a set of supported
devices and platformsBYOD does not mean the same thing
as bring any device. Likewise, a set of carriers must be selected
and rules developed for network selection when multiple net-
works are available. A set of applications must be supported.
Finally, the policies for cost sharing between employees and
the enterprise need to be developed, with a view to keeping the
rules simple and understandable, yet comprehensive.
Device management. Dozens of companies offer solutions
for mobile device management. This includes provisioning,
configuring and updating devices, and deactivating devices as
they are retired, as well as protecting/destroying (zapping) the
content on devices that are lost or stolen. Some level of security
and protection from malware is involved. Billing and network
policies need to be implemented. These solutions can come
from either the carrier or from a third-party enterprise solution.
Mobile application management. Effective mobile ap-
plication management is critical because the apps come from
multiple sources. Besides managing the set of supported appli-
cations, distribution of apps must be managed via the major
online stores or other means.
Mobile identity management. For BYOD, identity man-
agement requires more rigorous authentication, authorization
and accounting. Enterprises need an architecture for distribut-
ed systems that enables control over user access to services and
resources. Multi-factor user authentication is just the first step.
Mobile information management. The coexistence of en-
terprise and personal data on the same device is drawing atten-
tion to the concept of managing device data through various
means such as tracking, sand-boxing, encryption and automat-
ed data time-outs.
Mobile expense management. This consideration is non-
technical, but nevertheless a pain point for real-world imple-
mentations. Enterprises can hardly expect service providers to
manage their costs optimally. They have to implement their own
policies based on both cost and technical considerations.
HARRY FORBES is a senior analyst at ARC Advisory
Group. His research focuses on the impact of industrial
networking and wireless technologies on todays
manufacturing. He also covers smart grid and electric
power vertical industries. His research topics include
the smart-grid, smart-metering and smart-energy
technologies. Mr. Forbes is a graduate of Tufts
University with a BS in electrical engineering and
has an MBA from the Ross School of Business
at the University of Michigan.
platinum standard
For more information about UOP olens solutions, visit www.uop.com/olens.
2013 Honeywell International Inc. All rights reserved.
UOPs propylene production technologies outshine the rest
Low cost feedstocks, high yield products. Theres no better combination for
generating petrochemical prots. As an industry leader in petrochemical process
technology for more than 70 years, UOP continues to deliver proven, exible
solutions with high-yield returns. UOP advanced Methanol-to-Olens (MTO) and
Oleex processes provide a higher return on investment, smaller environmental
footprint and innovation that is second to none. For advanced MTO, you can use
alternative feedstocks such as coal, natural gas and more, and you can produce
the high-value olen of your choice, including propylene and ethylene. Recyclable,
platinum-based Oleex catalysts offer the best performance for environmentally
friendly on-purpose propylene production. From low-energy solutions to eco-friendly
innovations, UOP sets a standard that shines.
Boxscore Construction
Analysis
LEE NICHOLS, DIRECTOR, DATA DIVISION
Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com
Ethylene in evolution: 50 years of changing
markets and economics
Ethylene is the key building block for
the petrochemical industry. This olefin
supports 70% of petrochemical industry
production and is used to manufacture a
wide variety of products for industrial and
consumer markets. Adhesives, chemicals,
coatings, packaging, construction materi-
als, textiles, rubber and plastics are based
on this organic olefin.
The strength of the petrochemical mar-
ket is directly related to the supply and de-
mand for ethylene. Ethylene consumption
is consumer product-driven. This funda-
mental economic concept has dictated
the cyclical nature of the ethylene market.
When supply exceeds demand, petro-
chemical profits decline, producers curtail
construction plans and capital spending,
inefficient plants are permanently shut
down or mothballed, and global capacity
declines. When demand outpaces supply,
companies competitively build and ex-
pand production capacity.
Supply and demand. Ethylene wit-
nessed double-digit growth rates in
the 1960s and 1970s. Supply increased
steadily throughout the 1970s, outpacing
demand, which declined during the re-
cession of the early 1980s. Demand then
increased during the mid-1980s, holding
steady at a growth rate of 3%4% for the
remainder of the decade. Global ethylene
capacity increased from 46 million tons
per year (46 MMtpy) in 1979 to 54 MMt-
py in 1990.
By the mid-1990s, over 50% of new
ethylene capacity was located in the Asia-
Pacific region. The US and Western Eu-
rope saw improved profits due to high
product demand, low feedstock costs and
capacity reductions. Some petrochemical
producers closed older, inefficient plants,
and other operators debottlenecked and
upgraded plants with new technologies to
reduce operating and maintenance costs,
increase capacity, reduce wastes and emis-
sions, and improve reliability and safety.
Most plants constructed during this time
had a capacity of 400 thousand tons per
year (400 Mtpy) to 900 Mtpy and a cost of
$400 million (MM) to $800 MM. Global
ethylene capacity increased to 92 MMtpy
by the end of the decade.
The new millennium saw the continu-
ation of the cyclical wave of demand chas-
ing supply. Advancements in construction
materials and technologies enabled the
design and construction of larger ethyl-
ene facilities. Global ethylene capacity
exceeded 140 MMtpy by the end of 2010,
with the main wave of construction occur-
ring in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific
regions. The Middle East benefitted from
low-cost natural gas feedstock that helped
facilitate expansions to support global
trade aimed at the European and Asian
markets. Chinas petrochemical industry
experienced incredible growth by produc-
ing raw materials for the overall manu-
facturing base, with the goal of exporting
petrochemical-based goods.
Presently, demand is outpacing sup-
ply, and new project announcements
have dominated the petrochemical land-
scape. Global ethylene capacity is expect-
ed to rise 17% through 2016, reaching
over 170 MMtpy. Ethylene plant capaci-
ties now exceed 1 MMtpy at a cost of over
$1 billion (B).
The majority of new capacity will be
located in the Asia-Pacific and Middle
East regions. In China alone, domestic
ethylene demand will spur a 50% rise in
output by 2015, to 25 MMtpy. Mean-
while, over the past five years, Middle
Eastern ethylene capacity has doubled to
over 26 MMtpy. Much of the new con-
struction has taken place in Saudi Arabia,
FIG. 1. Lindes first all-inclusive ethylene plant built for Veba Chemie in Scholven, Germany.
Boxscore Construction Analysis
28
which accounted for 65% of new ethylene
capacity in the Middle East. Cheap ethane
feedstocks and proximity to export mar-
kets in Asia and Europe have provided the
Middle East with an advantage over Asian-
Pacific facilities, which are naphtha-based.
This scenario could change over the near
term, however, as cheap ethane feedstocks
become available in other regions.
An increase in olefins demand and the
availability of cheap ethane are transform-
ing the petrochemical landscape of the US.
Project additions, debottlenecks, expan-
sions and restarts could add almost 30%,
or 10 MMtpy, of new domestic ethylene
capacity by 2017. This would increase
US ethylene capacity to over 30 MMtpy.
Additional ethylene capacity could reach
even higher levels should additional proj-
ects be greenlighted. If so, the US could ri-
val the Middle East in new project activity
over the next decade.
Licensors. Ethylene producers face chal-
lenges in processing, energy efficiency
and feedstock availability. Although the
process of cracking ethylene is fairly
similar among licensors, their stories are
unique and varied.
CB&I Lummus was created in No-
vember 2007 when CB&I acquired Lum-
mus Global from ABB for $250 MM. At
that time, Lummus had licensed 40% of
all global ethylene and olefins technol-
ogy projects over the past decade. In the
mid-1950s, Lummus was acquired by
Combustion Engineering (C-E) to create
C-E Lummus.
In 1990, C-E became a wholly owned
subsidiary of ABB, which merged with Al-
stom Power in 1999, forming ABB-Alstom
Power. During that time, CB&I was ac-
quired by Praxair. Praxair kept the Liquid
Carbonic business and sold CB&I to an
investor group, which spun off CB&I in a
public offering as a Dutch-incorporated
company called CB&I NV. The parent
company was organized into two operating
subsidiaries: CB&I, consisting of the com-
panys North American operations, and
CB&I BV, consisting of non-US operations.
For the next two decades, CB&I would ac-
quire many new business units, including
Lummus from ABB in 2007 and The Shaw
Group in February 2013 for $3 B.
KBR was created when M. W. Kel-
logg, constructor of Europes first crude
oil-based liquid ethylene cracking facility,
merged with Brown and Root under the
direction of parent company Halliburton.
Halliburton acquired Brown and Root in
1962. In the 1980s, Dresser purchased
M.W. Kellogg. A decade later, Hallibur-
ton acquired Dresser and formed the large
subsidiary company Kellogg, Brown and
Root (KBR). KBR eventually broke away
from Halliburton in 2007.
To date, KBR has designed more than
20 new ethylene plants with a combined
capacity of over 13 MMtpy.
Lindes origins began in 1870 after
founder Carl von Linde published his
ideas on improved refrigeration units in
the Polytechnic Associations Bavarian In-
dustry and Trade Journal.
Linde constructed the first plant to re-
cover ethylene by low-temperature rectifi-
cation in 1931. The company built its first
all-inclusive ethylene plant in 1965 for
Veba Chemie (FIG. 1). Additional plants
were constructed in Europe and on other
continents. Lindes ethylene technology
Were changing the future of heat transfer
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Boxscore Construction Analysis
30
has since produced over 20 MMt of eth-
ylene at more than 50 plants worldwide.
Technip has become one of the worlds
leading engineering groups through acqui-
sitions of companies with strong technical
expertise. In 1999, Technip acquired KTI
to obtain its ethylene and steam reform-
ing/hydrogen technology. In 2000, Tech-
nip merged with Coflexip.
In 2012, Technip acquired Stone &
Webster Process Technology Group from
The Shaw Group. In 2000, The Shaw
Group acquired Stone & Webster at auc-
tion for $150 MM after Stone & Webster
filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Technip
purchased most of The Shaw Groups
energy and chemical business, including
Stone & Webster. This transaction cre-
ated the new business unit Technip Stone
& Webster Process Technology.
Technips merger with Coflexip and
its acquisitions of KTI and Stone & Web-
ster deliver ethylene technologies such as
SPYRO furnace design and optimization
software, SMK and USC coil technology
for gas cracking, GK6, USC coil technol-
ogy for liquid cracking, SFT technology
and the T-PAR Process.
UOP was founded by Jesse Dubbs
in 1914. The company was originally
named National Hydrocarbon Co., but
it was changed in 1914 to Universal Oil
Products (UOP). In 1988, UOP became
part of Union Carbide and Allied Sig-
nals joint venture. Honeywell purchased
UOP from Union Carbide and Allied Sig-
nal in 2005.
UOPs gas cracking ethylene technol-
ogy utilizes the Advanced Methanol-to-
Olefins (MTO) Process, which combines
UOP/Hydros MTO Process with Total
Petrochemicals/UOPs olefin-cracking
process. For naphtha crackers, UOP uti-
lizes the MaxEne process. This applica-
tion is the latest development in the UOP
Sorbex process for adsorptive separation.
The cost, size and scope of ethylene
plants have risen dramatically over the
past 50 years. However, the acquisitions of
ethylene licenses by other companies have
compressed the playing field. As global eth-
ylene capacity increases over the next few
years, the licensors that can increase ener-
gy efficiency, reduce wastes and emissions,
and provide the highest cost-efficiency
to their customers will dominate future
licensing and construction activities.
Detailed and up-to-date information
for active construction projects in
the refining, gas processing, and
petrochemical industries across the
globe|ConstructionBoxscore.com
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LEE NICHOLS is director
of Gulf Publishing
Companys Data Division.
He has five years of
experience in the
downstream industry and
is responsible for market
research and trends
analysis for the global
downstream construction
sector.
An expanded version can be found
online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Sulzer Chemtech
Legal Notice: The information contained in this publication is believed to be accurate and reliable, but is not to be construed as implying any warranty or guarantee of performance.
Sulzer Chemtech waives any liability and indemnity for effects resulting from its application.
Sulzer Chemtech, USA, Inc.
8505 E. North Belt Drive | Humble, TX 77396
Phone: (281) 604-4100 | Fax: (281) 540-2777
TowerTech.CTUS@sulzer.com
www.sulzer.com
Tower Technical Bulletin
Tray designs for extreme fouling applications
The Sulzer Renery Applications Group
Sulzer Chemtech has over 50 years of operating and
design experience in renery applications. Sulzer has the
know-how and the technology to provide reliable, high
performance designs in severely fouling applications.
Background
Today reners experience a lot of problems with processing
of opportunity or heavy crudes. Such crudes have vey high
sulfur content and require the addition of amine scavengers
before desalting. These amines decompose in the heater and
create ammonium chlorides in the presence of water in the
top of the crude tower. Dissolved salts start to precipitate
and crystallize when solution becomes saturated and water is
vaporized. Such fouling starts to grow below and above trays
and is hard to remove because deposits are rmly attached
to the surface. Eventually, tray orices become blocked and
pressure drop increases drastically, creating a situation where
the column needs to be shut down to have the trays replaced
or cleaned. Other traditionally fouling services such as sour
water strippers and FCC and Coker fractionators face these
challenges as well.
Historically, standard raised orice devices such as Sulzer
V-Grid
TM
valves have proven to be resistant to scale and fouling.
However, in such aggressively fouling environments, special
designs need to be considered.
Anti-fouling VG AF
TM
Trays
Industrial practice shows that trays with large, elevated
orices operate substantially longer in fouling services. The
large orices take longer to foul and the raised design keeps
the opening away from the heavier sediment near the tray deck.
In these difcult applications, Sulzer typically uses large xed
valves such as SVG or LVG valves in combination with push
valves and a stepped outlet weir. The push valves keep the
liquid and solids moving uniformly across the tray deck and the
stepped outlet weir keeps the solids from accumulating at the
end of the tray deck. This design can often increase column run
lengths by a factor of 2-3 as compared to conventional designs.
SVG-H
TM
Valves: Solutions for Extreme Conditions
While the above solution is ideal for fouling from sediment,
it does not completely address the issues of severe particle
deposition. In these applications, fouling materials deposit and
grow on all surfaces including the underside of the trays and
around the edges of the deck orice. This fouling material then
gradually closes the orice opening from around the perimeter.
Run lengths for small valves in these cases are not long. Such
applications require very large openings with large side valve
open area.

Sulzer has developed special high lift SVG-H valves for these
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When used in combination with VG AF anti-fouling tray features,
the SVG-H valve can delay deposition fouling substantially. A
general rule of thumb would be that run length should increase
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Special Report
PETROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENTS
The outlook for the global petrochemical industry is tied to the accessibility of
low-cost feedstocks, especially natural gas. The ethane-based petrochemical
industry is thriving and supported by abundant, lower-cost shale gas.
Investment in more energy-efficient technologies is driving new project and
revamp activity for petrochemical facilities worldwide.
Night view of Braskems polypropylene facility at La Porte, Texas.
Photo courtesy of Braskem America.
Special Report
Petrochemical Developments
M. ERAMO, IHS Chemical, Houston, Texas
Shale energy resources driving resurgence
for ethylene industry
The abundant supply of North Ameri-
can shale energy resources is proving to
be not only a boon for exploration and
production (E&P) companies and en-
ergy consumers, but it is also changing
the profitability landscape for the conti-
nents ethylene producers. According to
a recently published report, these shale
energy resources are driving chemical
industry job growth, low-cost ethylene
production, significant profitability, and
a competitive resurgence for the conti-
nents producers of ethylene, one of the
most essential building-block chemicals
in the petrochemical industry.
1
Renaissance for North American
producers. In the US, due to the fore-
casted low-cost feedstock scenario pro-
viding for globally competitive econom-
ics, nearly 11 million metric tons (MM
mt tons) of new ethylene capacity has
been announced for North America,
which is a significant amount of new ca-
pacity given the lack of any investment ac-
tivity for more than a decade. This news
is a welcome development for ethylene
producers in the region, who were, until
recently, executing plans that included
capacity closures and asset consolidation.
Not only does this increased capacity
mean more low-cost production to both
domestic and export markets, but it also
means that new, long-term, highly skilled
and well-paying jobs will be added in the
US, including operators, engineers and
maintenance personnel. According to
industry research, for every one of these
chemical jobs added, three others are
created elsewhere, so the job market im-
pact is considerable. Pennsylvania, Ohio
and West Virginia are several of the US
states likely to see petrochemical job
growth, thanks to shale energy resource
availability.
Reverse trend. The US ethylene in-
dustry is experiencing a complete turn-
around. Five years ago, the industry was
trying to determine who was going to
shut down capacity. Now the US ethyl-
ene industry is running at near-maximum
capacity utilization and is seeking to add
significant increments of new production.
As a result of increasing the availabil-
ity of low-cost feedstocks, there is a tre-
mendous amount of capital investment
underway, including new infrastructure
needed for feedstock supply, ethylene and
ethylene-derivative capacity, and new lo-
gistics investments to support higher lev-
els of ethylene-derivative exports. Pres-
ent forecasts are calling for the first wave
of new investment to start up as early as
2016. Whats exciting for the long-term
health of the industry is that many of
these investments are not just being made
by US-based producers, but also from
producers based in other regions, includ-
ing the Middle East, Asia and Europe.
Bellwether effect. Why are these de-
velopments in ethylene capacity addi-
tions and production so important? Quite
simply, it is because ethylene is the bell
weather product for assessing the health
of the petrochemical industry. Consid-
ered the workhorse of the petrochemical
industry, the ethylene market is by far the
largest market of the basic petrochemical
building blocks, including olefins, aro-
matics, chlor-alkali and syngas chemicals.
Polyethylenewhich is the largest
ethylene-derivative market, consuming
nearly 60% of all ethylene produced
is used primarily in a wide variety of
nondurable goods applications such
as packaging materials. Ethylene oxide
(used in antifreeze, polyester fibers and
detergents), ethylene dichloride [used in
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films, coatings
and pipes], and ethylbenzene/styrene
(which is used in polystyrene packaging
and ABS resins) are also important eth-
ylene consumers. The ethylene steam-
cracker typically represents the heart of
a petrochemical complex.
The ethylene industry tends to be a
very cyclical industry in terms of profit-
ability. However, in the US, low regional
ethane prices are supporting high eth-
ylene margins and are creating a very
profitable environment for producers,
despite a global oversupply situation. Ac-
cording to new research, ample supplies
of natural gas liquids from shale develop-
ment are keeping ethane prices low rela-
tive to other steam-cracker feedstocks.
1
As a result, US ethane-based producers
experienced excessively strong profits in
2012, which contrasted with naphtha-
based producers in the US and in other
parts of the world.
These US capacity additions will
bring much more supply than the do-
mestic market demands, so there will
be significant quantities of higher-value
ethylene derivatives exported to Asia,
where demand is greatest. This supply
resurgence is causing a substantial shift in
ethylene-derivative trade patterns, to the
benefit of North American producers.
Global market. The global demand
for ethylene reflects a mixed demand
growth environmentrapid expansion
in developing regions and slower growth
in developed regions. After contracting
considerably in 2008, world ethylene
demand is forecast to be approximately
135 MM mt tons in 2013, which is higher
than the previous demand peak of nearly
130 MM mt tons in 2012. In the next five
years, global ethylene demand is forecast
to grow at more than 4%/yr, reaching
nearly 160 MM mt tons by 2017.
1
34
Asian market. Demand in Asia, particu-
larly China, continues to grow since Chi-
nas chemical industry remains unable to
meet the rapidly growing domestic con-
sumption requirements. Sharp increases
in consumption, stemming from Chinas
rapid industrialization, have spurred the
development of numerous new domestic
ethylene and derivative complexes that are
either under construction or planned for
the next five years, including several coal-
based facilities. The emergence of coal as
a potential olefins feedstock in Northeast
Asia, however, warrants close monitoring.
As a result of high oil prices in the past
several years, there has been tremendous
domestic interest to further develop and
utilize the abundant coal resources in
China. Although the investment involved
is often massive, the operating costs of
the coal-to-olefins units will be very
low, and the units will be competitive
compared to domestic naphtha-based
steam-cracker complexes, as well as most
imports of olefin derivatives. Assuming
that Chinas strong economic growth can
be sustained, this nation will continue
to be a major target for petrochemical
and derivative exports originating from
the Middle East, other parts of Asia and
North America.
The net-equivalent imports of ethyl-
ene and ethylene derivatives into North-
east Asia increased significantly in 2012,
reaching an estimated 8.8 MM mt tons.
1

That trend is expected to continue, with
the net deficit expected to approach 10
MM mt tons by 2017 and to exceed 15
MM mt tons by 2022.
With the opportunities and challeng-
es presented by this rapidly developing
abundant shale resource in North Amer-
ica, there is doubt that the industry will
continue to witness the snowball effect
of investments that are sure to follow. Re-
fining and petrochemical investments are
tied to midstream investments, as well as
to other transportation, storage and ship-
ping investments. Increasing capacities
at individual petrochemical facilities add
high-paying and, equally important, long-
term jobs that help fuel local economies
and small businesses that, in turn, support
the workers who operate these facilities.
It is an exciting time to be a part of this
industry, but also an opportunity for the
many professionals who work in this in-
dustry to educate and remind our fellow
consumers about the positive impacts of
the shale energy developments happen-
ing in North America, but also the inter-
connected petrochemical value chain
that helps drive much of both the US and
world economies, and delivers products
that enrich and enhance daily life.
NOTES
1
IHS Chemical 2013 World Ethylene Analysis covers
historical developments and future projections for
supply, demand, capacity and trade in the global
ethylene and ethylene derivative markets for 2007 to
2022. www.IHS.com.
MARK ERAMO is vice president, chemical market
insights, at IHS Chemical, a leading provider of
information, insight and analysis for the global
chemical industry. He oversees the chemical market
insight teams that provide in-depth market research
and analysis on nearly 300 chemical and plastics
products. Mr. Eramo joined IHS is 2011 through the
acquisition of CMAI, where he was employed 14 years.
Before joining IHS, he worked for more than 12 years
in the petrochemicals, vinyls and surfactants industries
with Vista Chemical Co. Mr. Eramo holds a BS degree
in chemical engineering from Cornell University.
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Special Report
R. KLAVERS and M. J. TALLMAN, KBR, Houston, Texas
North American olefin producers
riding the shale gas wave
Feedstock prices are a major determinant factor in ethylene
production costs. Feedstocks for steam cracking are derived
from natural gas (ethane, propane and butane) or crude oil
naphtha and gasoil (GO). Steam crackers in Western Europe
and Asia are mostly based on naphtha feedstock, while crack-
ers in the Middle East, North America and parts of Southeast
Asia are mostly based on gas feeds. Development of shale gas
in North America has led to a significant drop in natural gas
prices relative to crude oil prices. FIG. 1 shows the near-term
trends for energy prices, especially for crude oil and natural
gas (US), and the resultant ratio.
Most natural gas fields have a quantity of associated heavier
hydrocarbons, ranging from ethane to liquefied petroleum gas
(C
3
and C
4
) and, in some cases, gas condensate with wide
boiling ranges. One consequence of the increased availability
of natural gas is the sudden increase in ethane availability at
very low prices.
Renaissance for North America. Nearly 15 years have
elapsed since the last grassroots ethylene plant was built in
North America. However, with the prospect of abundant low-
cost ethane, several producers have announced intentions to
construct new ethylene capacity. As many as 12 producers
have announced such plans. While it remains to be seen how
many plants will actually be built, there is little doubt that there
will be a significant increase in ethylene production capacity
in North America in the near term. Most North American eth-
ylene producers are also investing in their existing crackers to
increase capacities and light feedstock cracking ability.
Furnace developments. When revamping or expanding ex-
isting crackers, proper selection of pyrolysis technology with
high-ethylene selectivity is critical. A higher ethylene yield
means less furnace effluent for a given ethylene production
level, thus less impact on the recovery section of the plant.
One-pass coils are designed for typical coil residence time
in the range of 0.1 sec to 0.15 sec, providing a much shorter
residence time than other designs. The short residence time
results in higher ethylene yields, as shown in FIG. 2.
1
Another important factor in applications for existing plants
is the ability to run the furnaces at high ethane conversions;
unconverted ethane must be processed by the recovery sec-
tion and then recycled back to the furnaces. The unconverted
products take up space in both the recovery section and fur-
naces. FIG. 3 illustrates the impact of ethane conversion on the
recycle ratio. Furnaces using one-pass coils are capable of
consistently running at 75
+
% ethane conversions. The com-
bination of high ethylene selectivity and high ethane conver-
sions allows for up to 10% more ethylene production for an
existing recovery section.
1
Finally, the furnace layout is also a key factor for expansion
or replacement projects. Compact, cabin-style firebox arrange-
ments allow very-large-capacity furnaces [more than 200,000
tpy (200 Mtpy)] when cracking ethane and up to 200 Mtpy
when cracking naphtha in a single-cell firebox. Such designs
use less plot space than twin-cell arrangements to achieve the
Forecast
0
00
Source: IHS Chemical
01 02 03 04 05
Crude (WTI)
Natural gas (US)
Gas as % of crude
06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2
4
6
8
10
E
n
e
r
g
y

c
o
s
t
,

$
/
M
M
B
t
u
G
a
s

p
r
i
c
i
n
g

a
s

%

o
f

c
r
u
d
e
12
14
16
18
20
FIG. 1. Energy pricing trends for crude oil and natural gas, 20002012.
Ethane conversion
E
t
h
y
l
e
n
e

y
i
e
l
d
C
2
H
4
peak
0.10 sec
0.15 sec
0.4 sec
0.7+ sec
FIG. 2. Ethylene yields vs. ethane conversion.
same capacity. The available footprint for the new furnace is
often an important consideration in revamp situations.
1
Liquid crackersHow to avoid getting crushed. At the
other end of the spectrum, the worlds liquid crackers, largely
operating in Europe and Northeast Asia, incur the highest eth-
ylene production costs, as illustrated in FIG. 4. Operating com-
panies struggle to remain profitable under the present market
conditions. These liquid crackers have become the marginal
producers, and they will be under pressure from a margin and
operating rate perspective.
Defining issues. Availability and pricing of coproducts are
among the key issues reshaping the olefins industry. On a global
basis, the total yield of coproducts from steam crackers relative
to ethylene is declining. This is a direct result of the shift to-
ward ethane and other natural gas liquids (NGLs) feedstocks.
Ethane is a very good feed for ethylene production. With mod-
ern cracking furnaces, the ultimate ethylene yield from ethane
based on recycle-to-extinction operation is 80
+
%. However, the
yields of propylene and butadiene are very low relative to other
feeds, roughly 2% for each.
The global supply of propylene and butadiene has historical-
ly been produced primarily as byproducts from steam crackers
processing liquid feed such as naphtha or GO. There is a resul-
tant supply shortage for butadiene and propylene. This condi-
tion has fostered unprecedented increases and volatility of prices
for both hydrocarbons, particularly for butadiene, as shown in
FIG. 5. Both propylene and butadiene prices are forecasted to re-
main well above historical levels. A key strategy for liquid crack-
ers to maintain competitiveness is maximizing the production of
higher-value coproducts, such as propylene, butadiene and aro-
matics. Most liquid crackers can achieve this by lowering crack-
ing severity and increasing propylene/ethylene (P/E) ratios.
New processing choices. Opportunities to improve prof-
itability have many producers seeking alternative means to
produce propylene and butadiene. Several companies have
invested in propane dehydrogenation (PDH) units. This pro-
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y
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l
e

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a
t
i
o
FIG. 3. Impact of conversion on the recycle ratio.
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Gulf Publishing Company and Hydrocarbon Processing are pleased
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8:30-9:15 a.m. CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:15-9:30 a.m. OPENING REMARKS: John Royall, President and CEO, Gulf Publishing Company
9:30-10:45 a.m. KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
R.K. Ghosh, Director (Reneries), Indian Oil Corporation Limited (Reneries Division)
Future Challenges and Opportunities for Rening in Asia - Suresh Sivanandam, Wood Mackenzie
10:45-11 a.m. COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1 - REFINING TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
11 a.m.-1 p.m. SESSION 1
Session Chair: Syamal Poddar, President, Poddar and Associates
SESSION 2
Session Chair: Eric Benazzi, Marketing Director, Axens
Diesel from Waste Plastics: Use in Vehicles - SK Singal, CSIR-Indian
Institute of Petroleum
Catalytic Olens Technology Enhances Olens Producers Flexibility
and Economics - Michael Tallman, KBR
Liquid Fuel from Coal New Horizons - Atul Choudhari, Aker Optimization of Olen Plants - Vera Varaprasad,
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Hydroprocessed Diesel Produced as Byproduct of Bio-Jet Fuel Process:
A Superior Fuel in IC Engines - M.O. Garg, Director, CSIR-Indian Institute
of Petroleum
Maximizing pX Production Through Optimizing the Phenyl-methyl Group
- Chuck Fink, GTC Technologies
Minimizing Impact on Carbon Footprint while Processing Opportunity
Crudes - Tammy Traphdar, Technip
Polymer Process Developments and Second Generation Metallocene
Catalysis - Howard Paul, SK E&C USA, Inc.
1-2 p.m. LUNCH
2-2:30 p.m. COFFEE & DESSERTS - EXHIBIT HALL
2:30-4:30 p.m. SESSION 3
Session Chair: P.P. Upadhya, Managing Director, MRPL
SESSION 4
Session Chair: Giacomo Fossataro, General Manager, Walter Tosto S.p.A
Axens Solutions for Middle Distillate Hydroprocessing: A Focus on Revamping
and New Catalyst Technology - Stefania Archambeau, Axens
Challenges of Integrating Future Reneries and Petrochemical Plants, and
How to Deal with Them - Romel Bhullar, Fluor Corporation
Implementation of an Integrated Refinery Complex Production
Reconciliation: Benefits and Challenges - Srinivas Badithela, HMEL
Economics-Refinery/Petrochemical Integration - Sanjiv Singh, Panipat
Refinery and Petrochemical Complex, Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Effect of Reliability on Return of Invested Capital ROIC
- Logan Anjaneyulu, Valero
Dynamic Simulation: An Ef cient Tool for Verifying Plant Integrity and
Control System Design - Sheo Raj Singh, Engineers India Limited
Challenges in Design and Engineering of High Pressure Hydro Treaters and
Avenues for Energy Optimization - K. Sudhaker, L&T Chiyoda Ltd.
Optimum Isolation Valve Sealing on Black Powder-Generated Gas Processing
- Omar Al Amri, Saudi Aramco
4:30-5 p.m. AFTERNOON BREAK
5-6:30 p.m. SESSION 5
Session Chair: A.S. Basu, Managing Director, Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
SESSION 6
Session Chair: Carlos Cabrera, Executive Chairman, Ivanhoe Energy
New Solutions from Eco-friendly Gasoline Production - Adarsh Tripathi,
RRT Global
Maximizing Operational Efficiency and Safety by the Use of a Digital Plant -
Sloane Whiteley, AVEVA
Overcoming Pressure Drop Limitations in Hydroprocessing Reactors -
Mahendranadh Desu, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation
Case Study: Design, Development and Deployment of Energy Management
System (ISO-50001 : 2011) at an Integrated Petrochemicals Complex -
Mayur Talati, Reliance Industries Ltd.
Optimum Renery for Changing Feed and Product Demands - Samir
Saxena, KBR
Computational Fluid Dynamics as an Emerging Tool to Improve the
Reliability of the Plant Operations - S. Sathish Kumaran, Technip
6:30-8 p.m. CLOSING RECEPTION - Exhibit Hall
IRPC 2013 Agenda Day 1 | Wednesday, 10 July
8:30-9:15 a.m. CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:15-9:30 a.m. OPENING REMARKS: Stephany Romanow, Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
9:30-10:15 a.m. Dr. Ajit Sapre, Group President, Research and Technology, Reliance Technology Group
10:15-10:45 a.m. ExxonMobil Singapore (invited)
10:45-11 a.m. COFFEE BREAK
11 a.m.-1 p.m. SESSION 7
Session Chair: K.Venkataramanan, CEO and Managing Director, Larsen Toubro
SESSION 8
Session Chair: John Baric, Licensing Technology Manager, Shell Global
Solutions International B.V.
Petrobras ULSD Revamps - Silvio Jose Vieira Machado, Petrobras Phyrophoric Hazard of Catalyst Handling in Rening and Petrochemical
Industry - Renato Benintendi, Foster Wheeler Energy Limited
Advanced Techniques for Enhancing Hydrogen Availability - Sanjiv Ratan,
Technip
Catalysis Solution for Acetylene and Methyl-Acetylene & Propadiene
(MAPD) Selective Hydrogenation - Shankhaneel Borah, Sud Chemie India
Limited, a Clariant Group Company
Improve Protability by Flexibility Hydrocracking Technologies - Sing Yong
Lim, Criterion Catalyst & Technology
Extending the Performance of Maximum Propylene Catalyst and Additives
- Vipan Goel, Grace Catalysts Technologies
Recovery of Valuables from Renery Of Gases to Increase Prot Margins -
Siddartha Murkerjee, Lurgi India Company Pct. Ltd.
Comparative Study of Conventional Petrochemicals (Ethylene Glycol) With the
Bio Based (Bio-Ethylene Glycol) Production with the Application of Life Cycle
Methodology and Foot Printing Tools - Sharma Rajeev Kumar, India Glycols Limited
1-2 p.m. LUNCH
2:00 - 2:30 COFFEE & DESSERTS - EXHIBIT HALL
2:30-4:30 p.m. SESSION 9
Session Chair: B.K. Namdeo, Executive Director-International Trade
& Supplies, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
SESSION 10
Session Chair: Chakrapany Manoharan, Director-Renery, Essar Oil, Ltd.
Energy Consumption Update in Amuay Renery of Paraguan Rening
Center (CRP) - Daniel Reyes, PDVSA
EDC Pyrolysis Furnace Radiant Section Tube Failure-Case Study
- K. Ramesh, Reliance Industries
Prot Improvement Program in KNPC Reneries - Abbas Shamash, Kuwait
National Petroleum Company
Temperature Dependent Catalysts: Optimizing Performance and ROI
with Advanced Temperature Measurement Systems - Eric Heidt, Daily
Thermetrics Corporation
A Study of the Mechanical Failure of Spent Acid Regeneration Combustion
Chamber - Subratat Saha, Reliance Refinery
Controlling Corrosion in Process Refrigeration Systems and Gas Compression
Packages - Amey Majgaonkar, Kirloskar Pneumatic Co. Ltd.
Renery Operation Planning: The Same Application Manages Both
Mid-term Planning and Optimized Scheduling Aurelio Ferrucci,
PROMETHEUS S.r.k.
Best Practices for Mitigation of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Processing Industry
- K. Sudhakar, L&T Chiyoda Limited
4:30-5 p.m. AFTERNOON BREAK
TRACK 1 - REFINING TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICAL
5-6:30 p.m. SESSION 11
Session Chair: Stephany Romanow, Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing
SESSION 12
Session Chair: A.K. Purwaha, Chairman and Managing Director,
Engineers India, Ltd.
Analysis of FCC Reactor Cyclone Flow - Bontu N. Murthy, Reliance Industries, Ltd. Virtual Reality as Effective Tool for Training Field Operators and Making
Decisions: Experiment Results - Simpone Colombo, Virthualis
Sour Water Stripper Units with High Cyanides Contents - Vikas Kapoor, Fluor E-Learning and Universal Simulation for Competency Development - Santosh
Joshi , GSE EnVision
Coke Drum Unheading - Curtiss Wright Regaining Operating Excellence Through Enhanced Training
- Michael A. Taube, S&D Consulting LLC
6:30-8 p.m. CLOSING RECEPTION
IRPC 2013 Agenda Day 2 | Thursday, 11 July
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cess is capital-intensive projects. PDH units can be justified as
long as sufficient margin exists between low-cost propane feed
and high-value propylene products. In China, as well
as in other parts of Asia, there is great activity for on-
purpose butadiene via oxidative dehydrogenation;
this is also a highly capital-intensive option.
Catalytic-cracking technology for olefins pro-
duction can provide synergistic effects with tradi-
tional steam cracking. These catalytic technologies
target propylene and aromatics yields as a primary
focus; the design can be tailored depending on the
available feedstocks. Such catalytic olefin technolo-
gies use fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) processes,
which are similar to a traditional refinery FCC unit
(FCCU).
2
FIG. 6 is a flow scheme of the catalytic ole-
fins reactor.
2
Like any refinery FCCU, the reactor (converter)
has of four sections: riser/reactor, where all of the
cracking reactions occur; disengager, where the cracked gas
is separated from the catalyst; a stripper, where product gases
entrained with the catalyst are recovered; and a regenerator
where coke formed on the catalyst is removed by burning it
with air. Accessory systems for the FCCU include air supply,
flue-gas handling, heat recovery and catalyst storage.
Fresh naphtha can be cracked catalytically, resulting a pro-
pylene yield nearly doubled relative to steam cracking, with a
typical P/E production ratio of nearly 1 as compared to 0.5
0.6 for traditional steam cracking. Olefin-rich streams, such as
olefins plant C
4
/C
5
byproducts, can produce up to 40% of the
ultimate propylene yield, with a P/E ratio of approximately 2.
This technology can be especially beneficial to present-day
naphtha-cracking olefin producers. Studies show that the ad-
dition of a catalytic olefin converter (designed to recycle crack
to extinction C
4
raffinate), single-stage hydrogenated C
5
s and
gasoline nonaromatic raffinate, integrated with the cracker,
can improve the operating margin of an existing 1 million-
tpy steam cracker by $5565 million/yr. There is tremendous
flexibility allowable with such an approach. For example, the
C
4
s can be recycled to the catalytic olefins converter after the
extraction of butadiene, isobutylene (for MTBE production)
and/or 1-butene (as a comonomer for polyethylene). This can
also be done in a new grassroots cracker and it is an excellent
strategy in a capacity expansion/revamp project. The olefins
yield (ethylene plus propylene) and the total P/E production
ratio will be substantially increased.
Flexibility: Key to future competitiveness. In the last de-
cade, we have seen tremendous changes in the olefins industry:
North America has gone from being least competitive to
being second; Europe has gone from second to last.
Coproduct prices have reached historical highs. Some
coproducts, such as butadiene, have endured huge volatilities,
with prices skyrocketing to above $4,000/ton and then declin-
ing to $1,500/ton within months.
While we can foresee the next couple of years with some
level of confidence, ethylene plants are expected to run for de-
cades. It is impossible to forecast with any level of confidence
what will happen to the industry over the long term. Thus, op-
2
0
1
0

e
t
h
y
l
e
n
e

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

c
o
s
t
,

$
/
m
e
t
r
i
c

t
o
n
50
50 20 40 60
Cumulative production capacity, million metric tons
Middle East
Southeast Asia
North America
Northeast Asia
West Europe
80 100 120 140
250
450
650
850
1,050
1,250
FIG. 4. 2010 Ethylene industry production cash cost.
90
U
S

p
r
i
c
e

r
a
t
i
o

t
o

e
t
h
y
l
e
n
e
,

%
90
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
91
US propylene-to-ethylene price ratio
US butadiene-to-ethylene price ratio
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
FIG. 5. US P/E pricing and C
4
-to-ethylene price ratio, 19902016.
Fresh feed
To ue gas system
Reactor efuent
to recovery
Fuel oil
Steam
BFW
Catalyst storage
and handling
Regeneration air
Oil-wash
tower
Catalytic
olens
reactor/
regenerator
Catalyst
nes
Recycle
FIG. 6. Flow diagram of the catalytic olefins process.
2
Many olefins producers are seeking
methods to improve operating margins,
and also seeking alternative on purpose
propylene production technologies, which
will necessarily become more prevalent.
New olefins technologies offer superior
economics. Availability of coproducts are
also reshaping the olefins industry.
erating flexibility should be a keystone of any new grassroots
plant or revamp project. Such flexibility will allow the produc-
erat small, justifiable increases in capital outlaysuperior
ability to respond to changing market dynamics and continu-
ously adjust operations to maximize profit at any given time.
The ability to crack fresh naphtha feed in both pyrolysis
furnaces and a catalytic olefins converter provides the opera-
tor with significant flexibility to meet changing market con-
ditions and demands with respect to the product slate. On a
monthly or even weekly basis, there can be volatility in the
relative prices of ethylene, propylene, butadiene and aromat-
ics. Diversity, with respect to cracking technologies, provides
operators the flexibility to respond to changing market con-
ditions. In general, from most feeds, conventional pyrolysis
will provide higher yield of butadiene and slightly higher yield
of ethylene, while the catalytic olefins converter will provide
higher yields of propylene and aromatics. Having the flexibil-
ity to divert fresh feed (or recycles) either to cracking furnaces
or to an FCC-type reactor allows the operator to continuously
shift operations and maximize return regardless of the prevail-
ing market conditions.
Catalytic olefin units also allow significantly greater flex-
ibility in feeds. In addition to fresh naphtha and the steam
cracker byproduct C
4
and C
5
streams, it would be possible to
also integrate:
Olefin-rich feeds from other sourcessuch as a nearby
refinery FCC, coker or visbreaker unitinto the olefins plant,
which would not be possible with steam cracking alone, unless
the feeds were first hydrogenated
Oxygenates, such as methanol, ethanol or others, which
are converted to olefins in the FCC-type reactor.
NOTES
1
Advance furnace technology by KBR features one-pass coil designs. New designs
increase conversion, thus reducing recycle. KBRs unique furnace design and con-
figuration offers several key advantages for the expansion of existing crackers.
2
KBRs catalytic olefins technologies use process hardware very similar to a tra-
ditional refinery FCCU. KBRs catalytic olefin designs incorporate unique and
innovative patented design aspects that can more efficiently handle lighter feeds
than in a traditional refinery FCCU.
RIK KLAVERS is the vice president of petrochemicals for
KBRs technology business unit and is responsible for KBRs
olefins and chemicals technologies. KBR Technology covers
process licensing, basic engineering, catalysts, proprietary
equipment, and technical services. Mr. Klavers is a
mechanical engineering graduate from the University of
Twente in The Netherlands, and has worked in the process
industries for 25 years.
MICHAEL J. TALLMAN is the manager of KBRs catalytic
olefins technology. His duties include developing, marketing
and licensing KBR proprietary catalytic technologies for the
production of olefins. Mr. Tallman has 32 years of industry
experience. He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering
from the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, and holds
four US patents. Mr. Tallman is a registered Professional
Engineer in the state of Texas.
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Management of Change (MOC) Tracking
aeShield ofers a revision tracking feature that sup-
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data and users can create sandbox projects to assess
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Users can see changes made by others in real time there-
by eliminating the confusion of fat fles. Te AsBuilt
step in the MOC process allows users to view what in-
formation was changed before updating the master re-
cord. Tis step also notifes others who have checked
out a copy of that fle.
Focusing on the sustainability of process safety will
not only help maintain compliance but also help pre-
vent hazardous events that can lead to serious injuries
and loss of production. Organizations can select from a
variety of implementation options and services that best
ft their needs.
aeShield monitors the performance of the safety
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FIG. 2. Management of Change (MOC) tracking model.
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Equipment Unavailability
Historian Tag: TT-1001
SIF: AES-101-001
Achieved SIL: 2
Rolling Annual Average
Logic Solver: AES-101
0%
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Use your QR code reader to learn
more about aeShield Safety Lifecycle
Management or visit www.aesolns.com.
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Special Report
D. WEATHERFORD, BASF Corp., Geismar, Louisiana; and
J. FORD, MAVERICK Technologies, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Use model-based temperature control
for fixed-bed reactors
A process unit at BASFs Geismar,
Louisiana manufacturing facility con-
tains a series of six packed-bed reactors
filled with a proprietary catalyst. This
catalyst promotes an exothermic reac-
tion, which then allows for recovery of
high-value product.
A process flow diagram is shown in
FIG. 1. The steam flow to the first exchang-
er determines the inlet temperature to the
first reactor, while the refrigerated water
flow to the second exchanger determines
the inlet temperature to the third reactor.
The key operating and control variable is
reactor temperature. Higher temperatures
favor higher conversion and higher pro-
duction rate, but the catalyst is extremely
heat-labile; i.e., the excursion of only a few
degrees Celsius above a critical limit leads
to rapid activity loss.
Substantial data analysis has estab-
lished an optimum temperature profile
for setting targets for the second and
sixth reactor outlet temperatures. These
targets represent operating temperatures
that maintain the necessary compromise
between high conversion and extended
catalyst life.
Periodically, one of the six catalyst
beds must be dumped and refilled with
new, active catalyst. The bed to be re-
placed is in the first reactor position. Af-
ter being filled with fresh catalyst, this
reactor goes back into service in the sixth
reactor position, with each reactor mov-
ing up one position. While the reactor is
offline being refilled with fresh catalyst,
only one reactor is in service between
the two exchangers. A complex system
of motor-operated valves (MOVs) and a
multiple piping manifold is required to
automatically achieve the movement of
the reactors into their new positions as
the catalyst replacements occur.
Control problem. Proportional-inte-
gral-derivative (PID) controllers were
previously configured and implemented
in the distributed control system (DCS)
for control of the second and third reac-
tor outlet temperatures. The second reac-
tor outlet temperature controller adjust-
ed the steam flow to the first exchanger,
and the third reactor outlet temperature
controller adjusted the refrigerated water
flow to the second exchanger.
The operator was expected to adjust
the setpoint of the third reactor outlet
temperature to achieve the desired sixth
reactor outlet temperature. Due to the
significant dead time and lag time be-
tween changes in steam and refrigerated
water flows to the respective exchangers,
and the effect of those changes on the
temperatures being controlled, both con-
trollers were detuned with large propor-
tional band and long reset time. The sec-
ond reactor outlet temperature controller
was being utilized by the operators in
auto mode only sparingly, and the third
reactor controller was not used at all.
Temperature control was observed to
be ragged, especially during and imme-
diately after reactor bed recharging. In
addition, the reactor temperature profile
was influenced, in a diurnal cycle, by the
heating up of equipment during the day
and cooling at night. The lack of good
temperature profile control caused ex-
cessive catalyst activity loss, which, in
turn, caused unit productivity to suffer.
BASF sought a DCS resident solution
to achieve more stable reactor tempera-
ture control, and decided to team with a
technology solutions firm to design and
implement a solution.
Control solution. The temperature
rise across any reactor bed is a direct
measure of conversion, and this is the
case for any given reactor charge rate. At
constant feed composition, as is the case
for this process, the temperature rise is a
function solely of inlet temperature and
catalyst activity. At any given time, and at
steady state, the inlet and outlet tempera-
tures can be related by a non-rigorous,
but effectively simple expression (Eq. 1):
T
o
= K T
i
(1)
Here, K is directly related to catalyst
activity. As the catalyst ages and loses ac-
tivity, K decreases.
During a typical run between cata-
lyst changes, catalyst activity slowly
degrades in all the beds, causing the re-
action to shift downstream. The inlet
temperature to the first reactor must
be gradually increased, while the inlet
FC
FPC
TC
TC
TI
Rx
1
Rx
2
Rx
3
Rx
4
Rx
5
Rx
6
LP steam
Feed 1
Feed 2
Refrigerated water
To purication
and recovery
FIG. 1. Diagram showing packed-bed reactors with proprietary catalyst.
temperature to the third reactor must be
gradually decreased to maintain constant
outlet temperatures from the second and
sixth reactors, respectively. Even so, if K
is known at any given time during the
run, then the outlet temperature can be
predicted from the simple relationship
described in Eq. 1. Furthermore, K can
be calculated at any time by inverting the
above equation.
Dynamically, the outlet temperature
can be predicted in real time by time-de-
laying the inlet temperature and applying
it as shown in Eq. 2:
T
o, pred
= K T
i, lagged
(2)
Here, T
i, lagged
is the inlet temperature
appropriately lagged to line up in time
with the outlet temperature. The relation-
ship between the outlet temperature and
the lagged inlet temperature is often re-
ferred to as a process identification model.
Step-testing of the reactor inlet tem-
peratures confirmed that a model con-
sisting of dead time and a first-order lag
was perfectly sufficient to describe the
behavior of this system. A typical dead
time for one reactor at normal feedrates
is around 30 minutes.
Since the prediction is never perfect,
a model bias is maintained (Eq. 3):
Bias = T
o
T
o, pred
(3)
K is calculated independently (Eq. 4):
K
filtered
= (T
o
T
i, lagged
)
heavily filtered
(4)
A 6090-minute linear filter elimi-
nates high-frequency measurement vari-
ance and noise.
Finally, the setpoint for the reactor in-
let temperature predicted to maintain the
reactor outlet temperature can be calcu-
lated as shown in Eq. 5:
SP
Ti
= (SP
To
bias) K
filtered
(5)
Implementation in the DCS. The
control solution was implemented in the
DCS, making use primarily of advanced
calculator blocks. These blocks allow
user-written programs that provide both
calculation and logic functionality, and
that can read and write most system vari-
ables. Each program allows a maximum
of 50 steps, which was entirely adequate
for these controls.
The control solution described below
is for the second reactor outlet tempera-
ture control adjusting the setpoint of the
first reactor inlet temperature control.
Similar, but simpler, solutions were im-
plemented for the third and sixth reac-
tors, where the sixth reactor outlet tem-
perature control adjusted the setpoint
of the third reactor outlet temperature
control using a similar model (with long
dead time and lag time); and the third re-
actor outlet temperature control adjusted
the setpoint of the third reactor inlet tem-
perature control using a similar model.
The first phase of the solution in-
volved stabilizing the first reactor inlet
temperature to eliminate it as a distur-
bance variable and as a secondary in the
control cascade (see FIG. 2). A first reac-
tor inlet temperature controller was con-
figured using a proprietary PID control
algorithm combined with adaptive feed-
forward compensation for the exchanger
inlet temperature and charge rate.
The most important feature of the
PID algorithm is discontinuous integral
action. Logic built into the algorithm
determines, at each controller execution,
whether or not integral action should be
applied and, if so, how much should be
applied based on the progress of the pro-
cess variable returning to the setpoint.
At each control cycle, a sequence of
actions is performed:
1. Identify the second reactor outlet
temperature by examining the status of
digital inputs for MOVs associated with
the flows out of the reactors and into the
intercooler. The reactor with the outlet
FC
FPC
TI TI TI TI TI TI
Rx
1
Rx
2
Rx
3
Rx
4
Rx
5
Rx
6
LP steam
Reactor 2 outlet
temperature control
(model-based)
Reactor 6 outlet
temperature control
(model-based)
Reactor 3 outlet
temperature control
(model-based)
Reactor 3 inlet
temperature control
(smart PID)
SP
SP
SP
PV
PV
PV
PV SP Operator entry
Operator
entry
PV
Reactor 1 inlet
temperature control
(smart PID)
Feed-forward
compensation
Feed 1
Feed 2
To purication
and recovery
FIG. 2. Diagram showing stabilization of first reactor inlet temperature.
10
20
30
40
Rx 2 outlet
Rx 6 outlet
Rx 3 outlet
Rx 3 inlet
Rx 1 inlet
C
50
60
70
FIG. 3. Reactor temperatures over one-week duration prior to APC
installation.
10
20
30
40
Rx 2 outlet
Setpoint change
Rx 6 outlet
Rx 3 outlet
Rx 3 inlet
Rx 1 inlet
C
50
60
70
FIG. 4. Reactor temperatures over one-week duration after APC
installation.
45
stream flowing into the intercooler is the
second reactor.
2. Determine whether or not a reactor
is out of service (i.e., being refilled with
fresh catalyst) by examining the status of
the inlet and outlet MOVs for each bed.
3. Adjust the inlet temperature dead-
time and lag-time compensation con-
stants based on the unit charge rate and
on whether one or two beds are in service.
4. Apply the dead-time and lag-time
compensation to the inlet temperature
measurement.
5. Update the rolling filtered value of K.
6. Calculate the predicted value of
the second reactor outlet temperature
(K T
i, lagged
).
7. Compare the value found in Step 6
to the actual measured variable; i.e., cal-
culate the model bias (T
o
T
o, pred
).
8. Calculate the setpoint of the first
reactor inlet temperature control as pre-
dicted to maintain the second reactor
outlet temperature on target [(SP
To

bias) K
filtered
].
9. Download the setpoint to the first
bed inlet temperature control.
These sets of controls were scheduled
to run every 10 seconds, but they could
have run on a less frequent basis if proces-
sor execution free time had been an issue.
Results. The capability to control the
reactor temperatures prior to advanced
process control (APC) installation is
shown in FIG. 3.
Note: The target temperature of
60C for the second reactor was only ap-
proximately maintained. Sustaining the
target temperature of 50C for the sixth
reactor was even more difficult due to
the longer lag time. Poor control made it
impossible to adjust the operating tem-
peratures while compensting for changes
in catalyst activity.
A complicating element is that, for this
process, the catalyst activity constantly
changes. In addition, the rate of change
depends on the reactor location in the se-
quence, which also must be periodically
changed. This makes for a very dynamic
system, which is difficult to control with
manual intervention, despite the opera-
tors best efforts.
Long-term testing using the new APC
system indicated a catalyst lifetime im-
provement of 20%. This was due to the
improved temperature stability of the re-
actors, as well as the ability to fine-tune
the reactors operating temperatures
based on catalyst activity level (FIG. 4).
This improvement resulted in a return on
project investment cost of over 600%.
FIG. 3 also demonstrates a lesson often
learned in APC projects: The greatest
benefits often result from the most basic
control improvements. Comparing the
behavior of the inlet temperatures of the
first and third reactors in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4
shows significant improvement in stabil-
ity achieved post-APC installation. The
greater stability is a result of the seeming-
ly simple first step taken in implementing
the hierarchy of the controls; e.g., feed-
forward and PID feedback for control of
the first and third reactor inlet tempera-
tures. This control strategy was critical
for achieving stable second and third
reactor outlet temperatures. However,
it should be noted that the sixth reactor
temperature benefited from the stabiliza-
tion of the inlet temperatures, as did the
second reactor temperature.
The old control scheme required ex-
tensive effort by the plant operator to
manually control the reactor tempera-
tures and make constant adjustments due
to changing ambient conditions. As a final
and very important benefit, the APC in-
stallation at the Geismar processing unit
has allowed for the implementation of
set-and-forget protocols that greatly de-
crease the need for manual intervention
to maintain reactor temperatures.
DAVE WEATHERFORD is a technologist with BASF
Corp., responsible for chemical process development
and optimization. He has worked for BASF for 24
years. His fields of work have included research and
development, operations engineering and process
technology. Dr. Weatherford holds a BS degree in
chemistry from Texas State University and a PhD
in chemistry from Texas A&M University.
JIM FORD is a senior engineering consultant with
40 years of industry experience, including 30 years
in APC. In his present role, Dr. Ford assists MAVERICK
Technologies business development managers in
pursuit of domestic APC and related opportunities.
He provides consulting services for APC definition and
justification, DCS migration planning and justification,
and implementation of state-based control strategies.
Dr. Ford has worked at MAVERICK since 2005. Prior
to this, he co-owned and managed a small APC
engineering consulting company. Mr. Ford holds
a BChE degree from Georgia Institute of Technology,
an MS degree and PhD from Tulane University and
an MBA degree from Syracuse University.
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Special Report
L. FARRELL and J. VIROSCO, Nexant,
White Plains, New York
High-pressure polyethylene: Reemergence
as a specialty chemical or not?
Just over 30 years ago, the first third-party commercial li-
cense was signed for a low-pressure gas-phase polyethylene
(PE) process. This development ushered in the age of the lin-
ear-low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). Benefits of the LLDPE
process were stated as lower capital investment and much lower
energy costs. At the time, it appeared that the conventional
high-pressure tubular and autoclave processes for low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) had been eclipsed by new technology.
Result: Investment in high-pressure PE plants came to a halt.
Mature PE technology. However, history indicates that such
a dire forecast was premature for several reasons. First, LLDPE
processes use catalysts that are very sensitive to polar comono-
mers, meaning that LDPE copolymer materials that incorporate
a polar monomer, such as vinyl acetate for ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA), could not be made in these processes. Second, in spite of
decades of development, LLDPEs remain very difficult to pro-
cess; thus, LLDPEs are not preferred by fabricators with older
or underpowered converter equipment. Third, the processing
characteristics of LLDPEs cannot match the fabrication ease of
LDPEs in some processes, most notably extrusion coatings.
Growth. LDPE is the the smallest and slowest growing of the
polyolefin markets, due to ongoing substitution by LLDPE and
the maturity of many LDPE applications. However, LDPE has
maintained slow but steady growth on a global basis. LDPE has
very strong growth in places such as China, India and Eastern
Europe, even as LLDPE has steadily increased its share of the
combined market, as shown in FIG. 1. In many applications,
LLDPE substitution has been nearly completed, as proven by
the decreasing rate of penetration.
The dominant end use for both LDPE and LLDPE is film
applications, and this is where most of the substitution oc-
curred. However, the end-use pattern for LDPE is more diversi-
fied than for LLDPE, with nonfilm applications accounting for
about 35% of the global demand compared with less than 20%
for LLDPE. These applications, and especially EVA (which
comprises about 12% of LDPE demand) have shown ongoing
growth and have been insulated from LLDPE replacement.
Value-added properties. The value of LDPE resin to con-
vertors depends on material properties such as ease of process-
ing, optical clarity and tensile strength. LDPE has the best clar-
ity and optical properties, and this polymer is the easiest PE
type to process, which is especially important to fabrication
processes such as extrusion coating, wire and cable, and blow
molding. In contrast, LDPE is of less interest in applications
where tensile strength, puncture resistance and/or low temper-
ature properties are desirableall important film properties.
Therefore, in many film applications, LDPE has experienced
significant substitution by LLDPE.
LDPE defends its market share based upon its ease of pro-
cessing compared to LLDPE and that it is also used as a blend-
stock with LLDPE. Considerable volumes of film are produced
with some LDPE in the blend to aid processability and optical
performance of the film. Demand for EVA, especially for foam
molding for footwear in China and India, has also helped bolster
LDPE demand and growth. Another high-growth area for EVA
is as an encapsulation material in photovoltaic applications.
Second-generation LLDPE technology advancements are
aimed at improving/enhancing LLDPE properties to extend its
performance into LDPE applications that have historically been
insulated from LLDPE penetration. A combination of process
and catalyst options results in a balance of resin properties. Some
are improved at the expense of others, and each must be consid-
ered with respect to the final cost (investment and production)
of the polymer products. Typically, increasing the strength of a
polymer will result in more difficult processing, while produc-
tion of an easy-processing bimodal-LLDPE resin will reduce
clarity. Balancing these property trade-offs is a key challenge for
polymer producers, as illustrated in FIG. 2. In some situations,
the trade-offs can be compensated by blending polymers.
Low pressure vs. high pressure. LDPE is the original PE
form, and it is produced using high-pressure autoclave or tu-
24%
34%
43%
50%
54%
58%
61%
63%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
P
E

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

t
o
n
s
LDPE
LLDPE
FIG. 1. LLDPE penetration into the combined LDPE/LLDPE market.
bular reactors. Current installed LDPE capacity favors tubular
reactors (with 62% of the global capacity), which are available
at a much larger scale. Autoclaves have been favored for spe-
cialty polymers, but technology advancements have increased
the product range of tubular reactors. LLDPE is the newest PE
form, and it is produced using gas-phase, solution, slurry and
auto clave reactors. The original gas-phase process still continues
to dominate new capacity additions, with 74% of global capacity.
Economics. One major aspect of technology selection is eco-
nomics. This includes not only the initial capital investment
but also the operating costs. In this time of rapidly advanc-
ing developments, where many technologies are available for
license, the choice between a low-pressure LLDPE process and
a high-pressure LDPE process has become less obvious. Based
on the global proliferation of LLDPE technology, it was gen-
erally found that an LLDPE plant was the least expensive to
build and operate; however, history has shown that this did not
directly correlate to the highest return on investment (ROI).
To assess the LDPE, EVA and LLDPE businesses, the com-
mercial, technical, cost structure and historical margins of each
polymer must be analyzed. This is especially important for high-
pressure LDPE and EVA, as pricing continues to offer substan-
tial premiums over LLDPE products, thus complicating LDPE/
LLDPE investment decisions. This is in spite of numerous fore-
casts of the demise of the high-pressure PE processes at the hands
of the more energy-efficient low-pressure LLDPE processes.
Developing PE markets. With the focus of polyolefins in Chi-
na, a recently completed case study modeled a series of PE plants
to evaluate historical cash cost margins for the past 11 years and
the corresponding ROI.
1
The plants modeled included:
LLDPE gas-phase plant, 400,000 tpy (400 Mtpy) of
capacitybutene-1 comonomer
LDPE tubular plant, 400 Mtpy of capacityno comono-
mer
EVA tubular plant, 250 Mtpy of capacity18% vinyl
acetate monomer (VAM) comonomer
EVA autoclave plant, 135 Mtpy of capacity28% VAM
comonomer.
Cash margins were calculated, and ROIs derived, as shown in
FIG. 3. Note: This analysis does not include post-plant costs, such
as license fees, sales and marketing, etc.; these costs can vary con-
siderably and have a significant impact on project profitability.
The analysis results indicate that, while investment capital for
new plants favors LLDPE, plant profitabilitywhich is a func-
tion of product slate (revenue) and costis, in many cases, high-
er for LDPE plants. Higher revenues have generally offset higher
operating costs, making the LDPE business more attractive on
an ROI basis than the LLDPE business. Accordingly, the LDPE
business has stubbornly remained as the most attractive segment
of the global polyolefin business. New LDPE plants will con-
tinue to be built around the world, even as older, less-efficient
plants are closed. This leaves one to wonder: are we witnessing
the reemergence of low-pressure PE as a specialty product?
NOTES
1
Nexant recently modeled a series of plants in China to evaluate historical cash cost
margins for the past 11 years and the corresponding return on investment.
LUANN FARRELL is a senior consultant in Nexants Global
Chemicals and Polymers consulting practice. In this role, she has
responsibility for Nexants polyolefins technology reports for the
Process Evaluation/Research Planning (PERP) and PolyOlefins
Planning Service (POPS) multi-client programs. In addition,
Ms. Farrell has worked on numerous technical, financial
modeling, competitive economics, and market research projects
covering olefins, polymers and other petrochemicals. She has 17 years of
consulting experience. Before joining Nexant, Ms. Farrell was a project engineer
for Praxair and the Linde Division of Union Carbide in applications, research and
development. She holds a BE degree in chemical engineering from Manhattan
College and an MS degree in chemical engineering practice from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
JAMES VIROSCO is a principal in Nexants Global Chemicals and
Polymers consulting practice. In this role, he is responsible for
Nexants North American polymers practice, covering materials
such as commodity polymers, engineering and performance
polymers, thermoplastic elastomers, and other specialty
polymers. He assists clients in market analysis, competitive
economics, trend analysis, and growth strategy development.
Mr. Virosco also manages and contributes to strategic planning engagements, such
as long-term strategic plan formulation, market and industry analyses, competitive
positioning, and feasibility studies. He has 26 years of consulting experience. Before
joining Nexant, he was a research engineer in Union Carbides Polyolefins Division.
He holds BS degrees in chemistry and chemical engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and an MBA degree from the University of Michigan.
Strength
Processability Clarity
Traditional LDPE
B
i
m
o
d
a
l

L
L
D
P
E

M
e
t
a
l
l
o
c
e
n
e

L
L
D
P
E
FIG.2. Performance balancing for LDPE and LLDPE.
50
0
50
100
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

R
O
I
,

%
LDPE, tube, 400 Mtpy
LLDPE, gas-phase, 400 Mtpy
EVA (18%), tube, 250 Mtpy
EVA (28%), a/c, 135 Mtpy
FIG. 3. Relative ROI for LDPE, LLDPE and EVA facilities in China.
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increase in mind, or does the owner want
to determine the best return on invest-
ment (ROI) for several competing cases?
Are there other changes in processing ob-
jectives, such as changing feedstocks?
Many units built before 1985 were
designed with healthy design margins
and could be easily revamped for higher
capacities. Most new units built in the
last 20 years were designed with much
tighter margins; these facilities are less
likely to have inexpensive debottleneck-
ing options or free capacity. A unit that
was designed with a healthy design mar-
gin and never revamped may only have
a few equipment items that limit it from
increased capacity. Conversely, a unit
that has already been revamped a few
times will likely have numerous equip-
ment items at or near the operating limits.
Result: Significantly more scope will be
required to increase capacity for the facil-
ity that was revamped earlier.
New unit conundrumadd or retire?
HP operating companies have two poten-
tial options to consider when examining
a new unit vs. revamping an existing unit:
Build a smaller unit to work in par-
allel with existing facilities, or
Build a larger unit and retire the
existing unit.
One advantage of building a parallel
unit is the possible higher reliability for
the facility, due to more operational flex-
ibility when one of the units is down for
maintenance. Conversely, the operating
costs to run two smaller units will likely
exceed the costs for one larger unit. A
new, larger unit could be favored if ex-
pensive equipment in the existing unit
is reaching the end of its useful life, or if
major upgrades of the existing unit will be
required to meet owner specifications.
Advantages for new units. Potential
benefits for a new unit are:
Less disruption to existing opera-
tions during construction.
Less lost production if the turn-
around is extended.
Grassroots design will enhance
safety during construction since it elimi-
nates pre-turnaround construction in an
operating unit. Work permitting will be
simplified, and construction productivity
will be higher.
More technology options are avail-
able. The project is not locked to the
original unit configuration and design
conditions. Higher energy efficiency and
state-of-the-art designs can be used.
Optimal layout reduces capital cost.
Modular and/or standard designs
from previous projects can be used.
Less post-startup surprises, with
existing equipment not meeting perfor-
mance expectations.
Global engineering resources can
be used.
Debottleneck vs. revamp. Revamp-
ing an existing unit for higher capacity is
often a cost-effective approach to gain in-
cremental capacity, and it is frequently the
option with the lowest capital cost. How-
ever, it is easy for owners of HP facilities to
underestimate revamp costs early in a proj-
ect, particularly if the state and capabilities
of the existing equipment are not well un-
derstood. Other potential advantages for
revamping a unit are:
Possible shorter project schedules,
if reusing long-lead time equipment
Less total plot space required
JAMES TURNER
Exective Process Director,
Fluor Corp., Sugar Land, Texas
James Turner is an executive process director
i n Fl uor s Sugar Land, Texas offi ce. He
manages the Houston Process Technology and
Engineering Group, which has over 250 process
engineers working on projects for Fluor clients.
Mr. Turner has more than 25 years of experience
in process design for a wide range of projects
in the refining and gas processing industries,
in domestic and international locations. He has
published numerous technical articles about
process design and project execution, and he
holds patents for a combined hydrotreater
process design. In 2006, he was a panelist at
the NPRA Q&A and Technology Forum. Active
in several professional organizations, he is
the Past Chair of the South Texas Section of
the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE). Mr. Turner is also on the AIChE Board
of Trustees, and he has held several offices
with AIChE in the past, including member of
the Executive Board Programming Committee,
and several positions with the Fuels and
Petrochemicals Division, including Chair of
the Division. In 2012, he received the Fuels and
Petrochemicals Service Award for distinguished
service to the division and industry. Mr. Turner
is a graduate of Texas A&M University with a
BS degree in chemical engineering. In 2011,
he was inducted into the Texas A&M Chemical
Engineering Academy of Distinguished Alumni.
New vs. Revamp
As demand for a product rises, manu-
facturing companies are faced with two
options:
1. Increase their organizations capaci-
ty to meet new demand in a timely manner
2. Surrender potential market share
to a competitor or new producer, and al-
low others to fill this demand.
Assuming that the manufacturing
company desires to maintain, and pos-
sibly increase, its market share, the orga-
nization owner must either build a new
facility or expand the existing site via
debottlenecking or revamping it. Further
considerations are building at a greenfield
site or, better yet, constructing the new
capacity at a brownfield site adjacent to
an existing plant, to share support utilities
and other infrastructure.
Decision-making process. Informa-
tion is required to determine the appro-
priate path forward, and questions to be
raised and answered are usually exten-
sive. For all options, several vital ques-
tions should be addressed:
Should the new capacity be located
near the growing demand center or the
facilitys feedstock source?
Is new technology available that is
more economical than existing methods?
If so, can the new technology be retro-
fitted into an existing facility?
Is the new demand such that the
present process facility will not cover the
demand gap?
What will be the environmental
impact? While the permitting process
is generally thought to be easier for de-
bottlenecking an existing facility or for
building at a brownfield site, this is not
always the case.
What is the schedule requirement to
meet market needs? The schedule to com-
plete debottlenecking and brownfield-
based projects generally can be shorter
than for a greenfield plant due to easier
environmental permitting. However, a de-
bottlenecking project requiring major new
equipment (e.g., a large compressor),
working within tight space limitations or
working within an existing planned turn-
around can have completion schedules
similar to those for a greenfield plant.
Design approach. The design approach
to a debottlenecking project is different
from that used for greenfield projects. As
greenfield plants are basically designed
from scratch, the engineering of these fa-
cilities is straightforward. Engineers start
from a clean slate and have the most op-
tions. The engineering for a revamp is
like reverse engineering, and it is usually
a significantly more complex and tedious
effort due to the constraints of using ex-
isting equipment, piping and instrumen-
tation. The new design must fit with the
existing equipment and plot plan. For
each bottleneck uncovered, the impact
of removing that bottleneck must be ex-
amined to determine the next subsequent
bottleneck and if the cost of removing that
bottleneck is justified. Brownfield proj-
ects, depending on the degree of shared
facilities, will fall between greenfield and
debottlenecking projects in engineering
approach and complexity.
Debottleneck vs. brownfield projects.
Debottlenecking or new brownfield proj-
ects require more information, such as:
Is the existing plant well maintained?
Are plant drawings current?
What are the plot and equipment
layout constraints?
What area is available for equip-
ment laydown during construction?
What are the plants equipment con-
straints to increasing capacity, and what
must be done to remove them?
What upgrades for supporting util-
MARTIN J. VAN SICKELS
President, MVS Consulting LLC,
Houston, Texas
Mr. Van Sickels is a registered professional
engi neer and hol ds BS and MS degrees
i n chemi cal engi neeri ng. He has over 47
years of experience in the engineering and
construction (E&C) industry. Through his firm,
MVS Consulting LLC, he provides a wide range
of services to clients in the process and E&C
industries and the US Department of Energy. Mr.
Van Sickels also serves as executive director and
member of the board of the Rice Global E&C
Forum. During a 30-year career with KBR and
its predecessor companies, he was a member
of the executive committee, vice president
and chief technology officer, responsible for
the management, marketing, licensing and
development of all KBR-licensed and special-
execution technologies. Prior to that position,
he hel d vari ous executi ve management
positions, serving in a wide range of managerial,
technical and commercial assignments. Before
joining KBR, Mr. Van Sickels served in various
management and engineering positions with
J.F. Pritchard and Co., Haldor Topse Inc. and
The Chemical Construction Corp.
May make better use of existing
infrastructure for utilities, OSBL piping, etc.
A key issue for all revamp projects is:
what can the existing unit really do? Are
there good operating data under various
conditions to show the limits of each system
or equipment item? Are test runs of the unit
under a wide range of conditions required?
If possible, when examining revamp
options, consider studying the existing
unit to take advantage of natural equip-
ment capacity breakpoints instead of
specifying a specific revamp throughput
up front. However, this approach may not
be practical if other considerations set the
required throughput.
Know that revamp options need to be
considered early and in enough depth to
avoid over-optimism that can lead to un-
derestimating the scope and complexity of
the project, which can cause the cost and
schedule to increase significantly later.
Lessons learned. To determine the
optimum path forward between differ-
ent options, a conceptual study compar-
ing the alternatives and determining the
likely scope and capital cost is a wise
approach. As most owners do not have
adequately skilled engineering teams to
study these scenarios, engaging an expe-
rienced, qualified engineering contractor
to support the conceptual study is often
warranted.
New vs. Revamp
When the subject of new installa-
tions vs. debottlenecking arises, the de-
cision depends on a variety of criteria,
including time frame allowed, size of the
increased throughput, available plant
space, permitting, construction schedule
and craft availability, and, of course, capi-
tal and downtime costs.
Example. Consider a throughput increase
of more than 20%, which is generally
more than the built-in design allowances,
and assume downtime is critical and the
project work could be accomplished dur-
ing a scheduled turnaround. Permitting
within the existing site plan should not
be a problem unless the project modifica-
tions result in increased emissions, which
should be a red flag in any organization.
Gulf Coast project. This example is
from my experience in the early 1990s
within an existing ethylbenzene (EB)/
styrene monomer (SM) plant on the
Texas Gulf Coast. The challenge was to
increase the SM throughput by 33% and
to upgrade the SM technology as part of
the process license agreement.
Once the limiting capacity equip-
ment was identified, the dehydrogena-
tion reactors, integrated reactor area heat
exchangers, and product distillation col-
umn needed to be replaced or modified
considerably for the higher throughput.
Fabrication time for some of this equip-
ment was 1214 months due to the full-
vacuum high-temperature conditions
requiring exotic metallurgy. The piping
and expansion joints in the dehydrogena-
tion reactor area were high-nickel alloy
and up to 96 in. in diameter. The decision
was made to buy new equipment due to
the excessive downtime required to mod-
ify the existing facility, which produced
well over 1 billion pounds per year of SM.
SM plants have approximately 1824
months of catalyst run time before a
changeout is required during a scheduled
turnaround. Most turnarounds on the
Gulf Coast take three to four weeks. Also,
the market price of SM can be signifi-
cantly affected if this period is extended,
not to mention the impact on the profit-
loss statement for the SM facility due to
the downtime.
The execution plan was to purchase all
new equipment in the reaction area and
to design and install new foundations and
undergrounds, as well as to modify exist-
ing structures. Interesting outcomes re-
sulted from the fact that a new exchanger
structure had to be modified to accom-
modate differential settling between al-
ready settled equipment and the structure
from 12 years of operation, in comparison
to the extended equipment and structure
on new foundations, which will result in
some future settling.
The new equipment in the reactor area
was placed on new foundations, and the
final tie-ins were minimized by maximiz-
ing the preturnaround activities. The final
three weeks in the field required daily
planning sessions with the client and all
construction contractors to describe, in
detail, firewater system shutdowns, plant
road closures and the heavy lifts.
Ultimately, success was evident by
the 18-day turnaround, surpassing the
liquidated-damages initiation point, suc-
cessful performance test run and perfect
safety record. In this case, the old equip-
ment was left in place to either abandon
in place or remove at a later date. The new
facility was operational at a 133% name-
plate capacity with updated technology,
and it was done during the already sched-
uled three-week turnaround.
GARY LUCK
Vice President of Project
Management, SNC-Lavalin,
Hydrocarbons & Chemicals,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Gary Luck has been wi th SNC-Laval i n
Hydrocarbons & Chemicals since September
2012. He brings over 30 years of experience
in engineering and project leadership. In his
current role, he is responsible for overall project
management activities for the Hydrocarbons
& Chemicals business unit globally. Prior
to joining SNC-Lavalin, he served as plant
manager, over operations and maintenance,
for a new ammonia plant in Egypt with Kellogg,
Brown and Root. Mr. Luck holds a BS degree
in chemical engineering from Northeastern
University in Boston.
ity systems and infrastructure, including
the control room, will be required?
Does any equipment requiring up-
grading need to be moved to a shop?
Can equipment to be replaced be
used for another service in the revamp?
What is the estimated downtime
and lost production while performing in-
spections and implementing the revamp?
What equipment, piping and instru-
mentation must be inspected?
Will removal or disturbance of as-
bestos insulation be required?
Are there any laws requiring changes
to the facility that are not related to the re-
vamp if the facility is changed in any way?
The capital cost of a debottlenecking
or brownfield project on an absolute basis
will be less than a greenfield plant due to
the reduced work involved. However, for
the same level of engineering, the accuracy
of the estimated cost for a debottlenecking
project will be much less due to the uncer-
tainties associated with the design basis
and the potential unanticipated problems
during construction. Estimates for proj-
ects involving debottlenecking should
include a contingency that realistically
reflects these uncertainties. Contingency
should be part of the economic evaluation
to justify the debottlenecking project. Due
to the uncertainties with debottlenecking
projects, contractors are loath to under-
take such projects on a fixed-price basis.
Bottom line. The path to achieving sig-
nificant capacity increases is rarely obvi-
ous, and careful study is required to deter-
mine the optimum outcome.

|
Bonus Report
REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
Energy is the driving force behind the global economy. Transportation
fuel supplies are a critical factor in present and future economic
growth. To meet growing clean fuel demand, refiners are constantly
applying new energy-efficiency methods and process changes to
increase product yields while maintaining safe operations.
Photo courtesy of the National Cooperative Refining Association
(NCRA), McPherson, Kansas.
Bonus Report
Refining Developments
S. AL-ZAHRANI, S. ROY, and E. BRIGHT,
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Evaluate challenges in meeting clean-fuel
specifications with heavier crude
At a Saudi Aramco refinery, a revamp
was planned for processing a different
crude oil blend to meet Euro 5 diesel
and gasoline specifications. The refin-
ery, which processes semi-light crude oil,
is scheduled to run a blend of light and
medium crude oils in the future to meet
clean diesel and gasoline specifications.
Simulation models were used to de-
termine the yields and properties of
various petroleum fractions from crude
and vacuum distillation units (CDUs
and VDUs) that meet Euro 5 specifica-
tions. The data helped establish the ap-
propriate feedstock characteristics for
secondary processing units, such as hy-
drocracking (HC), hydrotreating (HT)
and catalytic reforming (CR) plants.
The evaluation revealed that a crude
oil quality change will result in lower
distillates recovery from the CDU, along
with a reduction in crude oil processing,
due to the hardware bottleneck in the
downstream units. The charge rate to the
vacuum distillation columns will be high-
er, which will result in extra vacuum gasoil
(VGO) and vacuum bottoms production,
compared to the base-case operation.
During the study, the equipment
i.e., reduced crude oil (RCO) pumps,
crude column bottom trays, the vacuum
furnace, the vacuum column and vac-
uum bottom pumpswas found to be
limiting. To mitigate the vacuum furnace
heat duty, it was proposed that a portion
of the overflash material from the CDU
tower be diverted to the VDU tower,
bypassing the vacuum furnace. More-
over, several modificationsincluding
revamping of the vacuum tower internals
and pumparund (PA)were anticipat-
ed to enhance separation between the
VGO and the vacuum bottoms, despite
the production of deep-cut VGO.
Additionally, the VGO output from
crude oil processed at the present re-
finery charge rate is expected to be 20%
higher than the HC charge rate needed
to meet ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD)
distillation specifications. Therefore, the
HC unit will pose a major bottleneck for
the upgrading of extra VGO recovered
from clean fuel. The HC will also hinder
reprocessing of the additional inventory
of VGO streams, such as HC fresh feed
filter backwash and additional VGO in-
ventory, during catalyst changeouts.
Furthermore, increased vacuum bot-
toms production will force the refinery
to sell more fuel oil (FO) to the custom-
er under post-clean-fuel scenarios. The
feedstream quality for catalytic process-
ing units, such as the HT unit, the cata-
lytic reformer and the HC unit, will also
be relatively inferior.
Refinery overview. The current con-
figuration of the refinery is shown in FIG.
1. The refinery produces liquefied petro-
leum gas (LPG), gasoline, diesel, jet fuel,
FO, asphalt and sulfur, and the remain-
ing crude oil is sold directly to local cus-
tomers for power generation.
The refinery is operating at full capac-
ity to meet growing regional demand for
gasoline and other transportation fuels.
At present, the refinery is undergoing a
major revamp to reduce the sulfur con-
tent of its fuels, and to meet new envi-
ronmental regulations.
Under present operating conditions,
85% volume distillation temperature
(T85) for diesel is a maximum of 350C.
For clean diesel fuels, 95% volume dis-
tillation temperature (T95) is kept at a
maximum of 360C, in line with Euro 5
specifications.
H
2
PLT
Fuel gas amine
Fuel gas
H
2
C
1
/C
2
C
1
/C
4
LPG
C
3
/C
4
C
4
LSRN treater No. 3
LSRN
LPG
CSF
Raw crude
Naphtha
+
LPG
Stabilized
crude
Whole
naphtha
Crude
distillation
No. 2
Vacuum
distillation
unit No. 3
Stabilizer
Splitter
Kerosine
hydrotreater
Kerosine
Kerosine
Low-sulfur
diesel
DHT
Naphtha
Diesel
Jet fuel
Premium
gasoline
LDO
HDO
RC
LVGO
HVGO
DMO
HDO
LDO
VGO/DMO
HC
Asphalt
plant
Asphalt
PHC
HC
fractionator
Direct
recycle Frac BTMS to fuel
Vacuum
bottoms to FO
Crude
sales
Solvent
extraction
HSRN
NHT
LSRN
treater No. 2
H
2
PLT
amine
LSRN
LSRN
CR
GCU
FIG. 1. Process flow overview of the refinery.
Methodology. The methodology used
in the study included:
The primary units (CSF, CDU,
VDU, stabilizers and naphtha splitters)
were simulated, and the model was vali-
dated with the current crude assay
The crude assay was replaced with
the new crude assay; see the true boiling
point (TBP) distillation curve in FIG. 2 for
the existing and new crude blends
For diesel HT units, light gasoil
(LGO) and heavy gasoil (HGO) streams
were considered
For HC fresh feed, light vacuum gas-
oil (LVGO) and heavy VGO (HVGO)
were considered
For the naphtha hydrotreater
(NHT), 85C to 171C ASTM D86
cutpoints were considered
The crude charge rate for the pri-
mary units was kept the same as in the
base case.
Base case validation. The model is
considered to be validated, as there was
a close match between the plant data and
the simulated data. See TABLES 17 for the
validation results for the primary units.
The parameters that did not match
with the plant data are shown in red. The
deviations have been carried forward
while predicting the flowrates for the
new crude blend case. Deviations found
in the crude column top section are not
expected to affect the final conclusion,
as the new crude blend loads the bottom
section rather than the top section.
Target case capacities. The vali-
dated models were used to predict the
capacities of the downstream units for
clean-fuel specifications. TABLE 8 lists the
expected incremental unit capacities, as
percentages, for the new crude blend.
Results and observations. For the
new crude assay, it was found that the
product yields from the CDU had de-
creased, except for kerosine and RCO.
The reduction in diesel was expected,
since Euro 5 diesel specifications require
a reduction in the heavy end of the die-
sel fraction to meet the T95 distillation
specification. Therefore, the reduced
crude circuit, including pumps, piping,
the vacuum charge heater, the vacuum
tower and associated equipment, are
prone to bottlenecks due to increased
flow, especially when meeting clean-die-
sel specifications.
A suggested modification was to
avoid revamping the vacuum heater by
diverting the CDU overflash material
directly to the vacuum tower, bypassing
Current crude
New crude oil blend
0
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Temperature, F
V
o
l
u
m
e

d
i
s
t
i
l
l
e
d
,

%
650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1,000 1,050 1,100 1,150
Yields comparison
FIG. 2. Yield comparison between the present crude blend and the new crude blend.
TABLE 1. Simulation operating parameters vs. actual operating parameters for the CSF
Simulation
number CSF parameter Unit Plant data
Simulation
data
2 Flash drum temperature C 142.88 142.88
3 Flash drum pressure kg/cm
2
g .8 .7
10 Debutanizer bottom temperature C 174.6 174
11 Debutanizer top temperature C 75.3 75
12 Debutanizer top pressure kg/cm
2
g 10.33 10.33
13 Debutanizer bottom pressure kg/cm
2
g 11.27 11.27
14 Debutanizer reux rate m
3
/hr 61 80
15 Tray 6 temperature C 85.5 91
16 Naphtha splitter (NS) top temperature C 78.7 64
17 NS top pressure kg/cm
2
g .84 .84
18 NS bottom temperature C 227 239
19 NS reux rate
1
m
3
/hr 1.7 45
1
A 25-m
3
/hr quench ow at 225C is taken.
TABLE 2. Simulation lab data vs. actual lab data for the CSF
Simulation
Simulation
data
CSF LN
1 5% distillation temperature C 44 31
2 Final boiling point C 91 91
CSF HN
5 Specic gravity .736 .72
6 Sulfur ppm 178 364
the heater. This option will eliminate
the need for increased vacuum charge
heater capacity.
The vacuum bottoms flow with the
new crude blend is expected to be in-
creased by about 8%. Therefore, FO
sales from the refinery must be raised to
maintain the management of black oil
(i.e., reduced crude oil, VGO and vacu-
um bottoms) in the refinery. Alternative-
ly, the capacity of the asphalt plant must
be increased to consume extra vacuum
bottoms as asphalt product, to maintain
sustainable refinery charge rates with the
new crude oil blend. TABLES 2, 4, 6 and 7
show the properties of the streams from
the crude stabilization facility (CSF),
the CDU and the VDU.
In conclusion, black oil management
will be impacted significantly at present
refinery capacity with 100% new crude
oil blend processing, especially when
meeting clean-diesel specifications.
Sustaining the present refinery charge
rate is not an option for meeting clean-
fuel specifications with 100% of the new
crude blend, until black oil management
is improved.
Expected throughput reduction
without investment. The expected
throughput reduction for the new crude
oil blend, without any capital invest-
ment, was determined by keeping the
VDU heater capacity the same as the
original installed capacity. The CDU
throughput will be reduced to 94% if the
current diesel specification is to be main-
tained, and to 91% to meet the Euro 5
diesel specification.
Expected HC capacity. The VGO
production with the new crude oil
blend will be higher than with the exist-
ing crude oil blend. Therefore, the HC
capacity with the new crude oil blend
will be constrained during catalyst chan-
geout, plant shutdowns and other oc-
casions to reprocess the extra VGO in
storage. The required HC capacity for
processing VGO generated during cata-
lyst changeout is 20% higher than the
present HC capacity.
Semi-regenerative reformer and
HT capacities. The semi-regenerative
catalytic reformer will not be operating at
full capacity at the present CSF and CDU
throughputs, as the heart-cut naphtha
yield is lower in the new crude blend.
Moreover, the reformer feed pre-
cursor N + 2A content of the heart-cut
naphtha was also found to be lower for
the new crude blend. This will severely
affect the octane number of fuel from
the reformer; consequently, total gaso-
TABLE 3. Simulation operating parameters vs. actual operating parameters for the CDU
Simulation
Simulation
data
5 Top tower temperature C 131 131
6 Top tower pressure kg/cm
2
g 1.02 1.02
7 Reux drum temperature C 42 42
8 Reux drum pressure kg/cm
2
g .4 .4
9 Reux owrate m
3
/hr 8.97 2
10 Top pumparound (PA) owrate m
3
/hr 400 400
11 Top PA drawof temperature C 153 158
12 Top PA return temperature C 63 63
13 Top PA T C 90 95
15 Kerosine drawof temperature C 195 202
17 LGO drawof temperature C 250 255
18 LGO PA owrate m
3
/hr 379 379
19 LGO PA return temperature C 174 174
20 LGO PA T C 76 81
22 HGO drawof temperature C 337 329
23 HGO PA return temperature C 215 215
24 HGO PA T C 122 114
25 Flash zone temperature C 371 371
26 Flash zone pressure kg/cm
2
g 1.28 1.28
27 Tower bottom temperature C 363 365.8
28 Tower bottom pressure C 1.4 1.4
30 Stripping steam at 3.5 kg/cm
2
g kg/hr 5,511 5,511
TABLE 4. Simulation lab data vs. actual lab data for CDU
Simulation
number CDU parameter Unit Plant data
Simulation
data
1 Overhead liquid owrate m
3
/hr 138 136
2 Final boiling point C 172 176.5
4 Sulfur wt% .05 .05
5 Kerosine owrate m
3
/hr 88 88
8 Sulfur wt% .1871 .382
9 LGO owrate C 176 176
12 Sulfur wt% 1.1 1.14
13 HGO owrate m
3
/hr 97 97
16 Sulfur wt% 1.9 1.8
line production will be reduced. To fill
the capacity of the semi-regenerative
reformer, a deep stabilization operation
must be carried out at the CSF, which
will recover more heavy naphtha (HN)
from the crude before it is sold to power
plants. This will make crude oil to the
CDU relatively heavier; consequently,
more black oil production is expected.
Another option is to increase the cut-
point of HN from the CDU. Since the
gasoline endpoint is 210C and, typical-
ly, the final boiling point of the reformate
increases by around 7C in the semi-re-
generative reformer, the endpoint for the
NHT feed can be raised further. How-
ever, other contaminants and reformer
catalyst performance at such high NHT
feed endpoints should be investigated
before making such a decision. There-
fore, a thorough investigation with the
reformer licensor is recommended to
evaluate the potential consequences of
increasing the HN endpoint.
As the diesel specification has been
changed from a T85 of 350C maximum
to a T95 of 360C maximum for clean-
fuels production, the diesel output from
the CDU will be reduced by 83%. The
tail-end of the diesel fraction goes to the
HC, and it is eventually converted to
naphtha and diesel. Therefore, neither
the semi-regenerative reformer nor the
DHT is expected to have capacity con-
straints. The capacity available in the
distillate hydrotreater (DHT) can be
supplemented with kerosine feed and
normal sour diesel feed during low jet
fuel lifting from the refinery.
Feed sulfur to the kerosine HT unit
is around 0.2 wt%. Sour kerosine can be
processed in the DHT, along with nor-
mal sour diesel feed, during the catalyst
changeover in the kerosine unit, through
proper tank management. The time re-
quired to consume this extra inventory
in the DHT is less than one month. Al-
though there is no capacity limit in the
DHT for processing this kerosine, meet-
ing the diesel flashpoint will be a chal-
lenge, and the DHT stripper should have
adequate capacity to produce an on-
specification diesel flashpoint when the
DHT feed is blended with atmospheric
gasoil and kerosine.
With only LGO and HGO, the flash-
point of diesel is 60C, and the required
diesel flashpoint specification is 55C. A
small quantity of diesel is cracked in the
DHT, and the DHT stripper removes
the light ends to meet the diesel flash-
point specification.
The present kerosine flashpoint is
46C. Blending this kerosine in a die-
sel feed pool will decrease the diesel
flashpoint; therefore, the DHT strip-
per requires an additional reboiling
duty to meet the diesel flashpoint. A
minor modification is required in the
DHT stripper to meet the diesel flash-
point. During this operation, the DHT
TABLE 5. Simulation operating parameters vs. actual operating parameters for the VDU
Simulation
number VDU parameter Unit Plant data
Simulation
data
1 Top tower temperature C 48 52
2 Top tower pressure mmhg 18 18
3 LVGO PA owrate m
3
/hr 137 158
4 LVGO PA drawof temperature C 101 101
5 LVGO PA return temperature C 49 49
7 HVGO PA owrate m
3
/hr 212 220
8 HVGO PA drawof temperature C 281 287
9 HVGO PA return temperature C 101 101
11 Indirect recycle owrate
1
m
3
/hr 50 50
12 Indirect recycle temperature C 350 350
13 Indirect recycle pressure kg/cm
2
3.5 3.5
14 Slop wax owrate m
3
/hr 13 19.7
15 Slop wax drawof temperature C 386 381
16 Flash zone temperature C 392 391.4
17 Flash zone pressure mmhg 35.65 35.65
18 Tower bottom temperature
2
C 366 365.3
19 Vacuum tower bottoms owrate
(vacuum slop included)
m
3
/hr 165 161
20 Stripping steam at 3.5 kg/cm
2
g kg/hr 2,298 2,298
21 RCO owrate m
3
/hr 338 339
1
Indirect recycle is the HC main fractionator bottoms used as a wash liquid.
2
A 25-m
3
TABLE 6. Simulation lab data vs. actual lab data for the VDU
Simulation
number VDU parameter Unit Plant data
Simulation
data
LVGO
3 Specic gravity 0.8984 0.8728
4 Sulfur wt% 1.98 1.93
HVGO
8 Specic gravity 0.9196 0.9254
9 Sulfur wt% 2.3 2.6
HC feed
10 Specic gravity 0.919
11 Sulfur wt% 2.53
stripper overhead produces more light
naphtha (LN), which must be accom-
modated in the overall naphtha balance
for the refinery to fill the NHT and the
catalytic reformer.
Takeaway. In summary, changing the
crude oil slate from semi-light crude to
a mixture of light and medium crude will
result in several changes. The changes
have been identified using process simu-
lation software.
Distillate recovery from the CDU
will be impacted at the expense of extra
VGO and vacuum bottoms production.
The extra VGO production requires an
increase in HC capacity and, therefore,
an HC revamp is required. The extra
vacuum bottoms production increases
FO production.
Therefore, with the new crude blend,
no spare capacity is available at the HC
to reprocess VGO recovered from the
HC feed filter backwash, or to maintain
the present refinery charge rate during
occasions such as catalyst changeout.
The feed quality for catalytic process
units, such as the CR, the DHT, the HC
and others, will be inferior and will im-
pact yields, catalyst performance and
cycle lengths. A revamp is required to
process this new crude oil blend and to
meet clean-fuel specifications.
SAID A. AL-ZAHRANI is the general supervisor in the
process and control systems department at Saudi
Aramco. He is the chairman of the multi-disciplinary
product specifications committee, tasked with
managing various issues related to Saudi Aramco
products and fuel specifications. Mr. Al-Zahrani holds
a degree in chemical engineering from King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, and began his
career at Saudi Aramco as a process engineer
in the Ras Tanura refinery. He is a member of several
local and international societies and an officer
of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
Saudi Arabian chapter.
SAMIT ROY is an engineering consultant at Saudi
Aramcos downstream process engineering division.
A chemical engineering graduate, he has more than
33 years of experience in process engineering and
technical services. His experience includes 21 years
in Saudi Aramco refining and engineering services
and 12 years at Indian refineries. He has worked
at most refinery units associated with distillation,
hydroprocessing and gas treating.
EDWIN BRIGHT has over 17 years of experience in
the petroleum refining industry. Before joining Saudi
Aramco, he worked for Reliance Industries Ltd., Indian
Oil Corp., ATV Petrochemicals and Foster Wheeler
India Ltd. He holds a bachelors degree in chemical
engineering and masters degrees in petroleum
refining and petrochemicals from Anna Universitys
Alagappa College of Technology in Chennai, India.
He also earned a masters degree in management
from the Asian Institute of Management in Manila.
TABLE 7. Key properties of the feed to secondary processing units
Unit parameter Unit Plant data
Simulation:
30% new crude
Simulation:
100% new crude
CDU overhead liquid
Final boiling point C 172 176.5 171
Specic gravity 0.7 0.7265 0.7307
Sulfur wt% 0.05 0.05 0.075
Kerosine
Final boiling point C 267 258 254
Specic gravity 0.789 0.8053 0.8055
Sulfur wt% 0.1871 0.382 0.3525
LGO
Final boiling point C 363 357 360
Specic gravity 0.8415 0.8463 0.8492
Sulfur wt% 1.1 1.14 1.22
HGO
100% C 407 417 410
Sulfur wt% 1.9 1.8 1.94
LVGO
90% C 463 441 470
Specic gravity 0.8984 0.8728 0.878
Sulfur wt% 1.98 1.93 2.1
HVGO
90% C 539 524 524
95% C 562 551 551
Specic gravity 0.9196 0.9254 0.923
Sulfur wt% 2.3 2.6 2.6
DHT feed
Specic gravity 0.85 0.8638 0.8604
Sulfur wt% 1.4 1.4 1.4
HC feed
Sulfur wt% 2.3 2.5 2.5
TABLE 8. Required capacities of diferent
units for the new crude blend
Unit parameter
With 100% new crude,
specication of T95
at 360C for diesel,
% of current operation
CSF NS owrate 82
CSF LN 99
CSF HN 69
CSF LPG 62
CDU LPG 62
CDU LN 100
CDU HN 86
NHT feed (excluding
HC naphtha)
86
Kerosine 105
LGO plus HGO 83
RCO 115
HC combined feed
1
120
HC fresh feed 124
Vacuum bottoms 108
Indirect recycle
2
100
1
A 25-m
3
2
Indirect recycle is the HC main fractionator bottoms
used as a wash liquid.
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R. WOLKART, Emerson Process Management, Houston, Texas
Improve coker efficiency with reliable
valve automation
A refinerys delayed coker unit (FIG. 1) operates under
what are perhaps the harshest conditions of any process in the
plant. Equipment with moving parts, notably valves and the
actuators that operate them (FIG. 2), are especially vulnerable
to these severities. The following case history discusses con-
ditions occurring in delayed coker operations at two refiner-
ies in Louisiana, US; the impacts on valve performance; and a
solution that provides extended life, increased reliability and
other benefits at the facilities.
Severe conditions in the coker. Severe operating condi-
tions, including excessive heat, vibration and corrosion, exist
in every refinerys delayed coker operation. High inlet temper-
atures of the residual oil flowing from the fractionator through
the transfer line into the coke drum exceed 800F (425C) at
low pressures of 10 psig to 15 psig.
As the operating drum fills with coke, torques on the valves
wetted parts tend to increase, putting additional stress on the
transfer line ball valve and added operational torque on the
multi-turn electric valve actuators. During the coke removal
process, there is extreme vibration. The high-pressure water
lines used to drill out and cut the coke from the drum internals
create pressures of up to 4,000 psi. The steam and quench wa-
ter piping used in the decoking process is susceptible to rapid
expansion and temperature fluctuations of condensate and/or
water, producing an often violent water hammer effect. Corro-
sion is present as the cokes traces of sulfur combine with the
units washdown water.
During the washdown phase, a significant amount of abra-
sive, airborne dust is created, covering all surfaces within the
drum and its immediate surroundings. The coke dust not only
creates challenges for corrosion protection, but also builds up
in crevices, impeding instrument and equipment functionality.
In addition to the harsh conditions present, the space available
for performing maintenance is confined, hot and potentially
dangerous for plant personnel.
Impact on valves and actuators. Typically, there are eight
to 10 valves for each drum in the coking process. These valves
perform multiple services including recirculation, switch-
ing, quenching, washdown, steam hydrocarbon stripping and
drum steam reheating. They control flow in piping that trans-
ports steam, water, slurry, hydrocarbons and product, and they
are critical to the operation.
Controlled by a programmable logic command, the valves
sequential event must be consistently and reliably executed by
an actuator (FIG. 3). To maintain process control, valves have
safety interlocks restricting their opening and closing through
limit switches. An inoperable valve actuator must be reinstated
quickly so that the system can continue functioning. If actua-
tors fail, the valves must be opened or closed manually. This is a
strenuous, time-consuming and potentially dangerous process
FIG. 1. Multiple valves and actuators control the coking/decoking process.
for the unit operator, although it is necessary to keep the cok-
ing/decoking process in sequence and on schedule.
Automated valve performance and mean time between fail-
ure (MTBF) are constant and costly problems for the refinery.
While valves are not as susceptible to failure and can generally
be serviced during periodically scheduled shutdowns, actuators
have been prone to early, unplanned failures and the need for
continual repair.
Coker actuator failure can occur almost immediately after in-
stallation, and normal life expectancy is less than one year. Experi-
ence has shown that actuator failure can be attributed to a variety
of conditions that are fairly consistent in any coker application.
Water hammer and vibration effects can break internal electrical
connections and dislodge sensitive microprocessor components.
Also, motors can become disconnected from the actuator hous-
ing through vibration. When inspected, these motors have been
found precariously hanging from their wiresand nothing else.
Furthermore, coke dust fines regularly penetrate the actua-
tor housing, causing inoperability of electronic components and
on/off pushbuttons to become clogged and faulty. Corrosive el-
ements erode aluminum actuator housings, wiring and even the
external handwheel, rendering this sole backup device useless.
Maintenance costs can be excessive, accumulating with con-
tinual callout and overtime repair charges. Ongoing actuator
problems have even necessitated the use of a full-time, dedi-
cated troubleshooter whose sole function is to keep the valves
operating as scheduled, or repaired in a timely manner.
A successful solution. In the case of two Louisiana refineries
with delayed coker operations, the search for a robust and reli-
able actuator solution to provide extended service life resulted
in the testing and selection of a modified, multi-turn, electric de-
sign that had provided exceptional service in other applications.
While not the newest version of the technology, this estab-
lished actuator had been engineered to provide the necessary
FIG. 2. Actuators are compact and versatile so as to be configured
in a variety of mounting configurations
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features for success in this challenging service. The selected unit
used industrial-grade epoxy coatings on all external surfaces as
standard construction to provide excellent corrosion resistance.
Also standard was its marine-grade aluminum enclosure with
stainless-steel captured bolting.
Unlike some newer and more sophisticated actuator designs,
this solution had no microprocessor components. Rather, it
featured incorporated, reliable circuit boards with no termina-
tion wiring, and compact internal limit switches and relays that
could withstand the high temperatures in a delayed coking unit.
The actuator could be remotely managed from a hardwired
push-button panel unaffected by the dust; yet, the control was
within sight of the actuator to verify its proper operation. Inter-
nal control components were smaller, compact and lightweight
to resist self-destruction from inertia and the momentum gen-
erated from vibration and water hammer effects. Its linear drive
train and gearbox assembly were specifically configured to with-
stand high torque and thrust loads while maintaining alignment.
Sizing safety factors were also considered. For reliable op-
eration, this actuator was sized to provide a two-times safety
factor, which is highly recommended to account for the vari-
able and generally higher torques needed as the process pro-
gresses and as piping expands and contracts, requiring higher
torques not included in new torque values. The overall actua-
tor footprint and weight were sufficient for operation in con-
fined spaces and for accommodating a variety of horizontal
and vertical valve installation positions.
After being tested and installed, the selected actuator provid-
ed the refineries with immediate relief from failure. The units
have been in continuous service for more than six years in one
refinery and for more than three years in the other. There have
been virtually no failures, and the limited need for maintenance
can be completed during scheduled plant shutdowns.
Takeaway. The importance of valves and the electric actua-
tors that control the operation in a delayed coker unit cannot
FIG. 3. An actuator executes sequential events for coker valves.
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be minimized. As a batch process, the coker becomes the po-
tential bottleneck in an otherwise continuous refining opera-
tion. If the critical coke drum filling, drum switching and de-
coking schedule is significantly interrupted, it can impact the
entire refinery throughput, costing the company millions of
dollars per day in lost production.
The valve actuator, seemingly a very small item in the total
process, has a significant importance and a great impact on the
delayed coking operation. Premature failure can lead to extra
costs for operator overtime, additional labor and safety risks
for manual valve operation, replacement costs and potential
refinery downtime.
The robust, reliable solution was found to be a field-prov-
en, ductile iron-housed, powder-coated actuator with external
control in proximity of the valve. Its compact physical size and
weight, unique internal electric circuitry configuration and
modified hardwired operation have provided the refineries
with considerable cost savings and have averted potential pro-
duction outages.
The refineries using the selected actuators have been able
to increase production, improve personnel safety and conduct
regularly scheduled shutdowns, thereby significantly reducing
maintenance costs.
BENNY DETERS is the director of manufacturing at Calabrian Corp., a specialty
chemical manufacturer in Port Neches, Texas. He is an electrical engineering
graduate from McNeese State University, and he has more than 25 years of
management experience in delayed coking and plant operations.
ROSS WOLKART is the gas and pneumatic product manager for Emerson
Process ManagementValve Automations EIM line. He is the companys
refining and pipeline application specialist and a graduate of Southeastern
Louisiana University. Mr. Wolkart has more than 16 years of sales and service
experience and expertise in delayed coking operations.
What is delayed coking?
A semi-batch thermal cracking process used to
upgrade and recover residual liquid and gas streams
while leaving behind petroleum coke, which is usable
as an industrial fuel source or can be further refined
for additional industrial purposes
Inlet temperature: 900F (480C)
Inlet pressure: 15 psig to 35 psig
Process temperature: 700F (371C)
Coke drum size range:
Height: 55 ft to 120 ft
Diameter: 15 ft to 30 ft
Cycle length:
Online coke drum filling: 10 to 12 hours
Drum decoking process: 4 to 6 hours
Delayed coker facts
Rigorously tested Ior over
60 years Ior exceptional
perIormance
Resistant to harsh
chemicals, high
temperatures, and high
pressures
Long service liIe
Globally
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San Francisco, California; and V. SCALCO, General Atomics,
San Diego, California
Optimize value from FCC bottoms
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most versatile
and profitable upgrading processes in a refinery. FCC has main-
tained its place in the refinery through a series of evolutionary
changes to meet changing demands. FCC slurry oil (SO) is the
lowest value product from the unit (typically, a 5% yield). It is
a highly aromatic, low API material containing FCC catalysts.
Because of the catalyst content and high aromaticity, possible
environmental restrictions make easy sludge disposal from set-
tling tanks expensive. Meanwhile, processing the catalyst-laden
slurry can cause severe erosion of refinery equipment. Within
this context, possible product uses for SO include fuel-oil (FO)
blending, carbon-black feedstock, needle-coke feedstock and
upgrading to lighter fuels. By using an electrostatic separator,
catalyst fines in SO can be reduced, allowing for the production
of specialty product feedstocks, higher value fuels and blend-
stocks that reduce erosion and disposal concerns.
SO is a high boiling, viscous, aromatic, high-density mate-
rial containing FCC catalyst particles. The key to improving
the value of this stream is to economically remove the solids to
low levels. Historically, refiners have used heated holding tanks
with very long residence times to allow the solids to settle. Once
settling occurs, decant oil is removed from the upper part of
the tank, and the bottoms sludge (which is listed as a hazard-
ous waste) is also periodically removed. Other approaches for
removing catalyst include hydroclones, filtration and, in some
cases, centrifugation. Electrostatic separation is different; a
charge causes the catalyst particles to become trapped in beds
of glass beads while maintaining flow without significant pres-
sure drop. In this way, electrostatic separators have been able to
remove over 97% of the catalyst present in most SOs. As the
concentration of vacuum-tower bottoms in FCC feeds grows,
modern techniques used for catalyst removal selection from SO
will increasingly favor electrostatic separation, because it is in-
herently less likely to foul or coke due to increasing asphaltene
levels in the slurry.
As refiners introduce more resid into FCC units, SO yields
will increase and the quality of the SO will decrease. The level of
asphaltenes in the SO becomes a factor in deciding which tech-
nology is best for removing particulate solids. Asphaltenes are
the most hydrogen-deficient constituents of SO. They become
more active and react with one another at higher temperatures
and especially in the presence of metal surfaces and form coke.
Yields and properties. SO yields from FCC and residue FCC
(RFCC) are a function of operational severity and are generally
inversely proportional to such factors as catalyst activity, tem-
perature and catalyst-to-oil ratio. They are directly proportional
to nitrogen, sulfur and asphaltene (or alternatively, vacuum bot-
toms) FCC feed content. SO yields ranging from about 1 vol%
to 2 vol% for paraffinic feeds to as much as 15 vol % on RFCC
feeds have been observed. TABLE 1 shows a range of typical SO
properties. SO quality is a function FCC feed, severity of the
operation, catalyst type and operating conditions in the FCCU.
Most SOs contain asphaltenes. Asphaltenes are large chemi-
cal structures with a high carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, which also
generally contain nickel (Ni) and vanadium (V) and promote
coke generation when deposited on FCC catalysts. They are
complex structures defined by their solubility. When crack-
ing residual feedstocks, the FCC catalyst pore size is not large
enough to allow the asphaltene structures to enter.
The asphaltene conversion level in a RFCC unit is then a
function of the catalyst matrix activity.
1
If the FCC feed con-
tains significant asphaltene levels, as it would in RFCC, the SO
will most likely also contain higher asphaltene concentrations.
When asphaltenes are present, Ni and V will also be present on
the catalyst, initially deposited as part of the coke and in the
slurry as metallorganic compounds. Catalyst particles in the
slurry, besides containing Ni and V, can also bring in sodium
and trap iron. Other materials that may be present on the cata-
lyst or in the slurry include antimony and tin, which are used
as metal passivators. SO may also contain other FCC additives
used to control carbon monoxide, sulfur oxide and nitrogen ox-
ide emissions.
Particle-size distribution ranges from a variety of SOs are
shown in TABLE 2. Note that for these SOs, over 90% of the
particles range in size from 0 microns to 25 microns in particle
diameter. This means that very large holding tanks and long
TABLE 1. Range of properties for typical SOs
Property Range (Min. to max.)
API gravity 6 to +8
Sulfur, wt% 0.3 to 5.0
Nitrogen, wt% 0.1 to 0.5
Nickel, ppmw 0 to 110
Vanadium, ppmw 5 to 200
Asphaltenes, vol% Nil to 8
Solids, ppmw 1,000 to 6,000
holding times are required to meet higher value product speci-
fications; some benefits are possible with settling aids in this
service.
2
However, sludge from SO holding tanks is listed as a
hazardous waste by the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), so frequent cleaning of these tanks becomes expensive.
Applications and markets. Worldwide FCC SO production
is estimated to be about 750,000 bpd. North America repre-
sents about 45%, while Europe and Asia-Pacific have 42% of the
total production. Possible applications for SO include:
Recycle to extinction in the FCC
Charge to a coker
Use as fuel in the refinery
Market as a FO blending stock, as carbon-black feedstock
or as a component of anode-grade/needle-coke feedstock
Further refine to a higher-value fuel.
Each end use has a differnt specifications on the SO. Typi-
cal solids specifications allowable in SOs are shown in TABLE 3.
FO blending accounts for about 80% of the production, while
carbon black and needle coke consume about 150,000 bpd. The
market value is highest for needle-coke applications, but this is
a very limited market.
SO has been recycled to the FCCU, but this route increases
coke make, resulting in higher regenerator temperatures that
can adversely affect selectivity to prime products and econom-
ics. In this application, however, one may not need to remove
the catalyst to low levels, as long as FCC injector erosion and
heat exchanger fouling are not an issue. Some refiners charge
their SO to a coker avoid making shot coke.
SO use as fuel in the refinery is practiced routinely and is a
good option as long as applications are well thought out and
the equipment used is thoroughly vetted. Equipment such as
piping, burner tips, nozzles and heat exchangers need to be
evaluated for long-term viability when charging solids contain-
ing streams. To minimize downstream processing difficulties,
it is advisable to remove the contained catalyst, keeping solids
diluted below recommended concentration levels.
SO use as cutter stock for heavy FO blending has also his-
torically been a major outlet. However, trace metals deposited
on FCC catalysts can combine with other elements to form
high melting point compounds that are corrosive to valve seats
and exhaust valves in diesel engines. Solids contents for marine
and refinery use in the range of 50 ppmw to 150 ppmw are gen-
erally permissible.
Beyond fuel use, clarified SO is also sold to make carbon
black, which is used in automobile tires, belts and hoses. Typi-
cal carbon-black feedstock properties are given in TABLE 4.
3
Worldwide consumption of carbon-black feedstock is about
130,000 bpd. The required density for carbon-black feedstock
is high, and special attention must be given to operating the
FCC fractionator at temperatures to obtain the desired density,
which some refiners are unable to do.
Clarified SO can also be a component or the primary feed
to make acceptable anode-grade coke and needle coke.
4
Anode-
grade coke is a sponge coke that is used in aluminum produc-
tion. Needle coke is crystalline with aligned needle-like clusters
and it is used for steel manufacturing, usually requiring spe-
cially designed cokers and calciners. Although the SO particle
concentration can be readily reduced to meet anode-grade and
needle-grade specifications, other properties such as Ni, sulfur
and nitrogen content are far more problematic for the refiner.
Typical needle and anode-grade coke properties are shown in
TABLE 5.
5
Globally, only about 22,000 bpd of SO production is
used for creating needle coke. It should also be noted that the
cokes feedstock price can be considerably greater than that for
TABLE 2. Typical particle size distribution in SOs
Particle diameter, microns % in Range
05 3060
515 3055
1525 212
25+ 15
TABLE 3. Typical permissible solids content for various
SO product applications
Market Claried slurry oil solids, ppm
Carbon-black feedstock 50500
Renery use, fuel or coker feed 50150
Marine fuel, No. 6 50150
Pitch feedstock 25100
Needle/anode coke feedstock 25100
Hydroprocessing feedstock 1050
Carbon-ber feedstock 510
TABLE 4. Typical carbon-black feedstock requirements
Property Value
BMCI, min. 120
API, max. 2
Specic gravity, min. 1.06
Sulfur, wt% max. 0.54
Ash, wt% max. 0.050.07
Sodium, ppmw max. 10
Potassium, ppmw max. 510
Pentane insolubles, wt% max. 7
Water, wt% max. 0.2
Viscosity, Saybolt @210F, sec max. 100
Flash, F, min. 180
TABLE 5. Typical anode and needle coke properties
Property Anode-grade coke Needle-grade coke
Green Calcined Green Calcined
Sulfur, wt. % 4 max. 3.5 0.5 0.5
Nitrogen, wt. % 0.7 0.5
Ash, wt. % 0.4 max. 0.4 max. 0.1 max. 0.1 max.
Nickel, ppmw 250 max. 200 max. 57
Vanadium, ppmw 400 max. 350 max.
Real density, g/cc 2.05 min. 2.12.14
residual FO blending and fuel-grade coke manufacturing, most
likely $1/bbl to $2/bbl higher than carbon-black uses.
Particulate removal technologies. Holding tanks have his-
torically been used to settle out solids of the SO. The resulting
decant oil solids content is a function of the sedimentation tank
design, the physical characteristics of the slurry, the tempera-
ture of the storage tank, and whether or not settling aids are
used. Another product is being generated along with clarified
oil is sludge. SO holding tank sludge is a hazardous waste and,
therefore, requires special treatment and expensive disposal.
Depending on the tank size and rate of SO production, costs
range from $1 MM to $4 MM per cleaning. In the absence of
countermeasures, increasing resid feed to the FCCU will in-
crease SO production and sludge formation.
Perhaps the least expensive capital and maintenance cost
method for removing solids from SO is the liquid-phase cy-
clone separator or hydroclone. Liquid-phase hydroclones have
been in departiculating SO service for over 50 years. Unfortu-
nately, this method only allows solids levels to be reduced to
300 ppmw to 500 ppmw at best. The hydroclone does not give
the refiner as much product application flexibility as the other
solids-removal methods. Because of the dynamics of the hydro-
clone, about 10% of the feed slurry is sent back to the riser.
Although centrifuges have been used to remove solids from
SO, their use is limited and it is difficult to make generalizations.
The one refiner known to use centrifuges in this service has ex-
pressed satisfaction with their operation, but the ultimate dis-
position of that SO is not known.
The first membrane filters were put into SO service around
1990. Mechanical filtration operates at temperatures up to 600F
and apply tubular porous metal elements. The solids collect on
the inside of the elements while the filtrate passes through to the
outside. Some filters use porous, sintered, woven-wire-mesh met-
al filters and operate at 400F to 650F. Other filters use a micron
woven-wire filter element and use light cycle oil as a backwash at
350F, claiming 85% to 95% solids removal from the feed slurry.
Electrostatic precipitators are routinely used to remove cata-
lyst fines from the FCCU stack and a similar principle is used to
separate solids from liquids in the electrostatic separator. Elec-
trostatic separation of FCC catalyst fines from SO has been in
commercial operation for over 30 years. It has improved and is
a robust, automatic process that removes catalyst fines from SO
or other hydrocarbon streams. Because this technology is not af-
fected by the presence of asphaltenes, it is an excellent choice for
removing solids not only from resid FCC-derived SO but also
from gasoil crackers. The separator comes in two design charge
capacities, each constructed of multiple modules. The units are
skid mounted, fully piped and instrumented and arranged in a
small plot space configuration. All regulatory fabrication and
electrical codes are followed in the design.
Design and operation. Electrostatic separators come in a
modular design. Each model is constructed of multiple separa-
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tor modules. A 12-module electrostatic separator is shown in
FIG. 1. Each module is filled with glass beads. In this case, the
module is 18 in. in diameter and 11 ft in length. Flowrates to
this module can range from 600 bpd to 1,000 bpd, and each
module has a holding capacity of 40 lb for catalyst fines.
During the separation cycle, the beads become ionized in an
electrostatic field, causing a loss of ions on the surface of the beads,
thereby creating a depletion zone. Catalyst fines are attracted to,
and held back at, the many points of contact between the glass
beads, while the particle-free liquid flows through the module.
The separator operates in cyclic fashion, working through three
cycles: separation, back flush and a brief purge. During the sepa-
ration cycle, catalyst-laden SO is fed to the modules. Voltage is
then applied to the glass bead bed, capturing the catalyst particles
in the bed. This is followed by the back flush cycle, during which
the voltage is turned off. Charge to the electrostatic separator
during the back flush cycle is, in most cases, a portion of fresh
FCC feed, which is then fed back to the FCCU, along with the
catalyst particles recovered during the separation cycle.
In the back flush cycle, the beads are fluidized, and, as they
rub against each other, they dislodge any sludge. This freshly
exposes the glass bead surface, fully restoring the bead activity,
with no change in capture efficiency. This cycle also features
charge removal, allowing the catalyst particles to be liberated
from between the beads.
FIG. 2 shows a corner view of an electrostatic separator. This
unit takes up a minimum of plot space. For example, a high
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FIG. 1. A high capacity electrostatic separator module.
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capacity unit with 12 modules is only 33 ft long, 16.5 ft high
and 13.2 ft wide.
Economics. Using a separator to remove FCC catalyst fines
from SO creates value. In this example, an 80,000-bpd gasoil
FCCU has a SO yield of 4 vol%, or 3,200 bpd. SO catalyst con-
tent is 2,000 ppm, 3,000 ppm or 4,000 ppm. All cases are com-
pared against the base case in which the refinery uses a holding
tank to reduce its solids. The slurry holding tank is assumed
to require cleaning once per year at 2,000 ppm slurry solids,
at a cost of $1.5 MM. Increased catalyst loads will incur higher
cleaning and total costs. A portion of the FCC feed is used to
backwash the electrostatic separator, after which it and the as-
sociated catalyst are fed back to the FCCU, thus reducing fresh
FCC catalyst costs. FCC catalyst costs are assumed to range
from $2,000 to $5,000 per metric ton. It is estimated that the av-
erage product upgrade value for this clarified SO can range from
$2/bbl to $4/bbl. The added savings from not having to pur-
chase chemical settling aids were not considered, even though
such costs are estimated to be in the order of 6 cents to 20 cents
per barrel treated.
2
Heating costs for maintaining the holding
tank at temperature are also not included.
FIG. 3 shows graphical results of this analysis. Three cases
with SO catalyst concentrations of 2,000 ppm, 3,000 ppm and
4,000 ppm and slurry uplift of $2/bbl are presented, along with
one case for recovering 4,000 ppm of catalyst with $4/bbl up-
lift. Savings with the electrostatic separator range from about
$4.5 MM to $11 MM.
A six module electrostatic separator removes > 99% of the
catalyst from the slurry to give a clarified SO product contain-
ing less than 50 ppm of FCC catalyst. This model costs about
$3 MM installed and is sufficiently robust to handle any of the
cases investigated.
FIG. 4 shows the estimated payout times for the various cases,
which range from three to eight months for all the various cases.
Catalyst savings might not be as valuable for a resid unit, but
would still be significant. Individual cases involving deep-resid
cracking benefits would have to be calculated based on a thor-
ough knowledge of the resid FCCU feed, operating conditions
and catalyst characteristics. Smaller catalyst particles returned
to the unit have an inherently larger surface-to-volume ratio and
provide a considerably higher resid cracking activity than the
larger equilibrium catalyst held in the unit.
LITERATURE CITED

1
Silverman, L. D. and S. Winkler, Matrix effects in catalytic cracking, NPRA
annual meeting, Los Angeles, California, March 2325, 1986.

2
Minyard, W. F. and T. S. Woodson, Upgrade FCC slurry oil with chemical settling
aids, World Refining, November/December 1999.

3
Guercio, V. J., US producing, exporting more slurry oil, Oil and Gas Journal,
October 4, 2010.

4
Motaghi M., Shree, K. and S. Krishnamurthy, Anode-grade coke from traditional
crudes, PTQ, Quarter 2, 2010.

5
Elliott, J. D., Impact of feed properties and operating parameters on delayed coker
petcoke quality, ERTC Coking and Gasification Conference, 2008.
FIG. 2. Side view of an electrostatic separator.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
Y
e
a
r
l
y

s
a
v
i
n
g
s
,

$
M
M

Catalyst price, $/mt
4,000 ppm
catalyst recovery, $2/B uplift
3,000 ppm catalyst recovery, $2/B uplift


4,000 ppm
FIG. 3. Estimated savings when using an electrostatic separator.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1,500 2,500 3,500 4,500 5,500
P
a
y
o
u
t

t
i
m
e

i
n

m
o
n
t
h
s

Catalyst price, $/mt

2,000 ppm

FIG. 4. Payout times when using an electrostatic separator.
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after receiving his PhD degree in chemical engineering from the University of
Massachusetts. During his 17 year stay at Gulf, he was the recipient of over 35
patents in various processes.
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Gas Processing
Developments
M. SUFYAN KHAN, WorleyParsons,
Muscat, Oman
Take a quicker approach to staggered blowdown
The design of a reliable blowdown system for a large sour
gas-processing facility is one of the most important aspects of
plant design. Safe design is vital for facility operation. With the
development of advanced plant design techniques and the evo-
lution of sophisticated engineering programs, large, complex
plants processing highly sour gas are being built that require
larger flare systems and more precise blowdown system design.
Faster blowdown is also required due to the tightening of
design standards in the oil and gas industry to minimize risk
e.g., to blowdown the equipment to 50% of the design pressure,
or 7 barg, in 15 minutes. Larger pieces of equipment operating
at elevated pressures yield high blowdown loads, and it may be
impractical or uneconomical to design a flare system to simul-
taneously handle the blowdown loads of the entire facility. A
staggered blowdown technique is applied in such situations to
optimize the flare system design capacity.
Staggered blowdown. This process is required when the
simultaneous blowdown load of the facility is significantly
higher than the largest relief load under governing contingen-
cy and when the design of the flare system for simultaneous
blowdown load is impractical or uneconomical. The staggered
blowdown system should be designed to optimize the flare sys-
tem design capacity while maintaining the ability to blowdown
the facility as quickly and safely as possible.
Zonal blowdown approach. The conventional approach
to staggered blowdown is to divide the blowdown loads into
different zones and carry out the blowdown zone by zone.
Zones can be made by two methods:
Physical separation of units
Combining the blowdown loads of adjacent units to
make the total zonal blowdown load equal to the flare capacity.
Zones by physical separation. Preference should be given
to physically segregate zones based on allowable radiation cri-
teria. This is a more efficient way of staggered blowdown, since,
during a fire or any other emergency, the entire affected zone
will blowdown immediately, followed by the adjacent zones.
However, this approach is primarily effective for relatively
small facilities where the number of units is less, and where all
of the units are placed within a few blocks on the plot.
In this case, the largest zonal blowdown load dictates the
flare capacity, if it is not challenged by any other relieving rates
under simultaneous or individual contingency. However, if the
largest zonal blowdown load is still big enough to make the
flare system design impractical or uneconomical, then layout
changes should be considered to keep the blowdown load units
in different zones.
Zones by blowdown load. If physical separation of zones is
not possible, or if the blowdown load of a zone is still high, then
the zones can be made on blowdown loads analysis. All unit
blowdown loads should be listed, and the adjacent unit loads
should be combined to make a reasonable total that will equal-
ize the flare capacity.
Consideration should be given to individual relief valve ca-
pacities. Of course, one zone load should not be less than the
largest relief valve capacity. For an initial guess of the flare sys-
tem capacity, a comparison should be made between the larg-
est relief valve load (typically the blocked discharge of the inlet
separators) and the largest individual blowdown load. If the
flare capacity is selected as the largest relief valve/blowdown
load, then the next step is to determine how many zones will
be needed to blowdown the entire facility and how long this
process will take.
This evaluation will determine if flare capacity should be
increased. It is not necessary to keep the flare capacity equal
to the largest simultaneous or individual relief load if the relief
load is not excessive. In this case, the flare capacity can be in-
creased to optimize the staggered blowdown design.
In some emergency situations, certain units may have pref-
erence over others and may need to undergo blowdown first.
One example is a simultaneous loss of seal gas to all process
compressors. If such a constraint is present, then the combined
loads of all preferential units should be evaluated to match the
flare capacity. Putting all of these unitswhich immediately
require blowdown under an upset situationin one zone, and
setting the flare capacity equal to the combined zonal load, may
help simplify the blowdown and emergency shutdown (ESD)
system design. Once the flare capacity is selected, then differ-
ent zones can be made, preferentially of adjacent units, with
each zone totaling to the flare capacity.
Case study. A gas-processing facility has several processing
units, with a combined blowdown load of 93 million standard
cubic meters per day (MMscmd). The flare capacity is 16.55
MMscmd, of which 3.13 MMscmd is reserved for a relief valve
from the trunkline. The relief from the trunkline relief valve
is coincidental with the blowdown and continues throughout
the entire blowdown duration. The effective flare capacity
Gas Processing Developments
available for facility blowdown is 13.42 MMscmd. Therefore,
the combined blowdown load of the facility is about six times
the flare system capacity. Developing an effective staggered
blowdown sequence for this case is a challenge due to the large
combined blowdown load compared to the flare capacity.
Unit sizes are bigger due to the high processing capacity
of the facility; therefore, the layout includes one processing
unit or train per block. Categorizing zones based on physi-
cal segregation of the units yields numerous zones, and each
zone capacity is significantly lower than the effective flare
system capacity. Therefore, zones are made based on blow-
down load analysis.
Based on the calculated blowdown loads for each processing
unit, six zones of 13.42 MMscmd each were made. Adding the
relief valve load of the trunkline to each zones blowdown load
makes each zones total load equal to the flare system capacity.
Under a plantwide blowdown situation, such as an instru-
ment air failure or a power failure, all the zones will blowdown
one by one. Since each zones combined load equals the flare
capacity, the blowdown delay between two zones is about 15
minutes, since the first zone under blowdown will reach its
minimal load after about 15 minutes. Only then will blow-
down begin in the next zone, so that the total blowdown load
does not exceed flare system capacity at any point. The last
zone begins to blowdown at 84 minutes, as shown in FIG. 1.
In the case of a plantwide power failure scenario, the total
blowdown time is found to exceed the given uninterrupted
power supply (UPS) backup time and, therefore, a safe blow-
down cannot be conducted. This puts a challenge on the de-
sign and calls for a quicker approach to reduce the total facility
blowdown time within the UPS backup time.
Reducing blowdown time. A quicker approach is adopted
to reduce the total blowdown time of the facility within the
UPS backup time. The idea of the quicker approach
lies in the fact that the peak depressuring rate oc-
curs in the beginning of the blowdown and then de-
pletes exponentially. A typical depressuring curve is
shown in FIG. 2. The depressuring rate falls rapidly
in the beginning and then drops to half of the peak
rate in less than four minutes.
The quicker approach to staggered blowdown
developed for the case study is depicted in FIG. 3. As
can be seen, the last unit starts to blowdown at 45
minutes, which is about half of the blowdown time
calculated by a conventional zonal blowdown ap-
proach; it is also within the UPS backup time.
Methodology of quicker approach. The blowdown load of
each processing unit in the facility is listed in TABLE 1. The de-
pressuring curve of each blowdown valve for each processing
unit is extracted from the simulation model and built into a
calculation program. The blowdown load of preferential units
[reinjection compressor 2 and 3, low-pressure (LP) acid gas
compressor 1 and 2, the flash gas compressor and high-pres-
sure (HP) acid gas compressor 1] are combined, which gives
nearly 13.14 MMscmd. The relief valve load from the trunk
line is added, bringing the total to 16.3 MMscmd.
At zero time, when the plantwide depressurization is ac-
tivated by the ESD system, the first set of units will start to
blowdown (see peak 1 in FIG. 3). It can be seen from FIG. 3 that,
after two minutes, the blowdown load has dropped to 10.46
MMscmd. TABLE 1 lists the blowdown load of reinjection com-
pressor 1 and HP acid gas compressor 2 at 6.21 MMscmd, at
which point the units can safely start to blowdown.
At 2.17 minutes, the blowdown of reinjection compres-
sor 1 and HP acid gas compressor 2 is started, which raises
the total blowdown load to 16.4 MMscmd (peak 2 in FIG. 3).
Similarly, after 4.5 minutes, the blowdown rate falls to 11.08
MMscmd, and inlet separator A can be safely started to blow-
down (peak 3 in FIG. 3).
Flare capacity: 16.55 MMscmd 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2
4
6
8
10
12
F
l
o
w
,

M
M
s
c
m
d
Time, minutes
14
16
18
FIG. 1. Staggered blowdown curve for zonal approach.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 240 420 600 780 120 180 300 360 60 480 540 660 720 840 900
D
e
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
i
n
g

r
a
t
e
,

M
M
s
c
m
d
Depressuring time, seconds
FIG. 2. Typical depressuring curve.
Larger pieces of equipment operating
at elevated pressures yield high blowdown
loads, and it may be impractical or
uneconomical to design a flare system
to simultaneously handle the blowdown
loads of the entire facility.
Gas Processing Developments
By this method, the moment that the total blowdown load
in the flare system falls to a level where another units load can
be added, that units blowdown is initiated. This method uti-
lizes the maximum use of flare header capacity. As soon as the
capacity becomes available in the header, the next blowdown
is activated.
Units with smaller blowdown loads, such as the test sepa-
rator and the seal gas compressor, will experience smaller
peaks if blowdown is initiated independently. The combi-
nation of several smaller units is recommended to bring the
total blowdown load to a reasonable level (e.g., 2 MMscmd
3 MMscmd), so that the number of peaks will be less and ESD
logic will have a reasonable time delay during which to initiate
blowdown at additional units.
Making smaller groups to reduce the number of smaller
peaks will not increase the total blowdown time of the facility.
In this case study, both options (blowing down each unit one
by one, and combining smaller units into a reasonable capac-
ity group) were examined. The difference was only a few min-
utes, with a gain of ESD logic simplicity.
ESD design for quicker approach. For the ESD system de-
sign of the facility, several staggered blowdown sequences may
need to be developed, depending on the ESD philosophy of
the project. If the project philosophy is to initiate a plantwide
blowdown in case of fire detection in any area of the plant, the
fire detection in each area of the facility will need a separate
staggered blowdown sequence, as the area under fire will be
the first unit in the sequence to blowdown.
In the case of common-mode failure scenarios (i.e., an
instrument air failure or a plantwide power failure), a set of
preferential units will blowdown first. Thus, the ESD system
will be provided with several staggered blowdown sequences
to accommodate different emergency situations.
Takeaway. This case study shows that a quicker approach to
blowdown can reduce the total time by around half, compared
to the conventional zonal approach. A faster approach makes
good use of the flare header capacity, as unit blowdowns begin
the moment capacity becomes available in the flare header.
The quicker approach helps to expedite the total blowdown
time and improves the design of the UPS system for instru-
mented protective system backup.
MUHAMMAD SUFYAN KHAN K.K. is a process engineer with
WorleyParsons. He has over seven years of process design and
engineering experience in the oil and gas sector, with emphases
on process simulation, FEED development and detailed
engineering. Mr. Khan has worked on greenfield and brownfield
projects at oil refineries and gas processing plants around the
world, and he has experience in dynamic simulation. He holds a
degree in chemical engineering from the University of Karachi, Pakistan and is an
associate member of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE).
Flare capacity: 16.55 MMscmd
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1314 15 16
17
0
2
4
6
8
10
F
l
o
w
,

M
M
s
c
m
d
12
14
16
18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, minutes
FIG. 3. Staggered blowdown curve for quicker approach.
TABLE 1. Blowdown loads for various units
Unit Peak depressuring rate, MMscmd
Inlet separator A 5.48
Inlet separator B 5.48
Inlet separator C 1.23
Test separator 0.53
Condensate stabilizer unit 2.21
Flash gas compressor 1
Trunk line 3.13
Sweetening unit 1 5.42
Sweetening unit 2 5.42
Export gas compressors 2.48
Dewpoint control unit 7.31
Reinjection compressor 1 5.67
Dehydration unit 1 2.15
Dehydration unit 2 1.09
HP acid-gas compressor 1 0.54
HP acid-gas compressor 2 0.54
LP acid-gas compressor 1 0.11
LP acid-gas compressor 2 0.11
Piping segment 1 10.46
Seal gas compressor 0.18
Seal gas bufer vessel 6.53
Fuel gas unit 1.71
Total 93.06
T HE E X P E CT E D.
We provide solutions. Smith & Burgess is the expert in are and relief system design.
Our methodology is cost-efective and we pride ourselves on using realistic assumptions
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w w w . s mi t h b u r g e s s . c o m
Turbomachinery
Developments
T. SOHRE, Sohre Turbomachinery, Monson,
Massachusetts; and H. P. BLOCH, Reliability/
Equipment Editor, Westminster, Colorado
Select the right shaft-riding brushes
for turbomachinery
Since the mid-1950s, much progress has been accom-
plished in the development, design and production of shaft-
riding brushes for turbomachinery applications. The machin-
ery includes steam and gas turbines, gears, turbocompressors
and ship propulsion systems. The brushes assist in controlling
shaft current problems, especially under conditions in which
the shafts operate at high-surface velocity, oil-splash and other
susceptible environments.
Shaft currents are often generated by nonelectric machines.
Of course, they also occur in equipment trains with electric
motors and generators. Shaft currents can be of electrostatic or
electromagnetic origin. They can cause severe damage to bear-
ings, shafts, seals, gears and other machine elements. FIGS. 1 and
2 are typical examples of such damage.
The application of brushes (FIGS. 35) can assist in monitor-
ing shaft voltage and determining how much shaft current is
being developed. Brushes and proper monitoring will provide
warnings of dangerous current buildup. This buildup can be
caused by self-magnetization and self-excitation, among other
reasons.
Strongly magnetized machines must be demagnetized. Re-
sidual electromagnetic currents of reasonable strength can be
grounded to protect the machine against discharge damage.
Typical electrostatic currents can always be grounded through
a brush because the amount of current is usually low in com-
parison to magnetically induced currents.
NEW SOLUTIONS
Another application for modern brushes is signal transmis-
sion from strain gages or other instrumentation located on the
rotor. For example, the measurement of torque, torsional and
lateral vibration, blade vibration, temperatures and pressures
on rotor components can be facilitated by brushes.
Good brushes provide a very low electrical noise level, even
at high-surface velocity and in an aggressive environment. To-
gether with a low-wear rate and easy replacement during opera-
tion, a low electrical noise level permits continuous, long-term
monitoring and removal of modest amounts of current during
both normal and abnormal equipment operation.
Competent brush manufacturers provide standardized
products, and many parts are interchangeable. Models of
FIG. 1. This thrust bearing damage could have been prevented
by a well-engineered shaft-riding brush.
FIG. 2. Spark damage of the type that can be prevented by using
shaft-riding brushes for early detection of developing problems.
Turbomachinery Developments
varying lengths are available from experienced vendors to ac-
commodate requirements of various turbomachinery manu-
facturers, and to meet the requirements dictated by emer-
gency-retrofit field installations. Many installations are in
hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) facilities and often in
aggressive environments. It is vital to inform vendors of the
processing conditions in which the brush will operate. It is
very important to define if an installation will be in a hazard-
ous, chemical attack-prone or otherwise severe environment.
Materials. Shaft material is also an important item, as most
shaft-riding brushes will run best on carbon steel or low-alloy
carbon steel. Other shaft materials should be avoided for HPI
installations. For instance, operation of typical metal-fiber
(bristle) brushes on aluminum, titanium, high-alloy austenitic
steels, copper, brass or any material with poor wear character-
istics can result in shaft grooving, rapid bristle depletion, or
some other undesirable, perhaps catastrophic, consequences.
Never run a brush on a highly stressed surface, especially if
vibratory stresses are present. Examples of such cases include
thin-wall hollow shafts or spacers, areas of stress concentra-
tion and quill shafts. Running brushes on a shaft can introduce
stress concentrations. For example, frosting can occur due to
unusually high current above the brush rating. On a highly
stressed surface, this can lead to catastrophic failure.
MATERIAL SELECTION IS IMPORTANT
All brush materials used must have good stability in high-
temperature service. The standard brush design is suitable
for operation in environments to 400F (205C). Even the
vendors standard brushes should be equipped with a wear
indicator. Brush elements can often be inspected or replaced
within a few minutes while the machine is in operation.
Therefore, replacement is not restricted to periods of shut-
down or plant turnaround.
Brushes installed by the original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) during initial construction of the machine often have
longer bristle element life. Those installed as an emergency
field retrofit typically have shorter wear livesfor reasons of
much less than ideal shaft surface finish, out-of-roundness,
cleanliness, and lubrication conditions. Also, the excessive
shaft currents often found in field retrofit situations will dras-
tically reduce bristle element life.
Well-designed shaft brushes work with shaft surfaces dry
or wetted with oil, or the brush may operate in an oil-splash
or submerged surrounding. Applications operating with a rea-
sonable oil-splash or oil-spray work better and last somewhat
longer than brushes running in completely dry applications.
The reasons are found in the effects of lubrication and the
removal of dirt, gum and wear debris. The axial shaft space
requirement for many brush installations can be of real impor-
tance because of the very restricted areas in typical machines.
One brush manufacturers standard version requires about
in. (20 mm) of axial shaft space. The larger brushes require a
minimum of approximately 2.5 in. (63 mm).
Description of typical models. There are two basic types of
brushes: The toothbrush type, shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, and the
plunger type, as illustrated in FIG. 5. Different sizes and minor
changes accommodate a very wide range of turbomachines.
Plunger applications. In general, plunger types are used
where available space requires a radial- or axial-brush instal-
lation. It is especially suited for field retrofit applications, in
which the mounting possibilities are usually very limited, and
FIG. 3. A toothbrush type of shaft-riding brush.
Bearing case or
coupling guard
Bristle element, (replaceable)
silver/gold
Brush raising screw
Wear indicator
Lead wire
Internal cartridge can be
removed while in service
FIG. 4. Typical mounting arrangement of a toothbrush type of shaft-
riding brush.
Brush raising screw
Lead wire
Wear indicator
Spring assist
Bristle element silver/gold
(replaceable in service)
FIG. 5. Cross-section view of a plunger type of shaft-riding brush.
79
the axial positioning in an outboard bearing case end cover
may be especially attractive. Retrofits can sometimes be ac-
complished while the machine is in operation. A temporary
cover plate has been used occasionally while the permanent
cover is removed for machining and mounting of the brush.
For turbine generators, one manufacturer suggests expe-
rience-based sizing guidelines, as described in TABLE 1. These
guidelines are approximations and actual figures will depend
on particulars of a given installation. Some particulars may not
be fully known in advance and may need to be established at the
time of brush installation. There are many factors that can have
a strong influence on the life expectancy of the sacrificial brush
elements. Examples include residual magnetism in shafts and
casings, or the design and condition of a motor or generator
and exciter. At higher frequencies of current, the rate of bristle
burn-off increases significantly, but its complexities are not yet
well understood or predictable. Installations for retrofits are,
by necessity, often difficult. OEMs have an opportunity dur-
ing the design stage to select the most favorable arrangements.
These manufacturers can modify bearing housings and other
components to provide good mounting conditions. Usually,
OEMs design and manufacture their own mounting flanges, to
which the brush casing is then welded at the assembly stage.
Typically, these flanges should be about -in. (6-mm) thick
and should be made of 300 series, nonmagnetic, stainless steel.
Frequently asked questions. Because details tend to vary
considerably, a user may wish to consult a competent brush
manufacturers guidelines. Manufacturers may refer to relevant
instruction and installation manuals for additional information.
Frequently asked questions include:
Q1. Why use shaft-riding brushes? To measure stray
electrical currents (shaft currents) on the rotating shafts of
machinery, and to ground modest amounts of electrical rotor
currents. This should prevent or minimize electrical damage to
bearings, seals, gears and other critical components.
Q2. What are the orientations in which well-designed
brushes can be installed? Installation can be in any position
with respect to the shaft: tangential, radial, axial or skewed, as
well as vertical, horizontal or upside down.
Q3. What is the correct method of permanently install-
ing the brush? There are six installation steps. A general sum-
marized procedure is:
Prepare a stainless steel mounting flange
Mount flange to brush with temporary brackets
Bolt to machine and adjust
Weld flange to brush casing
Bolt and dowel brush and flange unit to machine
Make electrical connections, and check out everything.
Q4. What conditions are required on the shaft? A sur-
face finish of 63 micro-inches root-mean-square (RMS) is
acceptable, but 32 RMS is preferred. Shaft surface finish is
an important factor in bristle element life. A rough shaft will
result in an unacceptably high rate of bristle element replace-
ment. On a smooth shaft, the rate of bristle depletion due to
mechanical wear will be close to zero. Electrical burn-off will
still be a factor. The shaft needs to be free of irregularities such
as rust, nicks, dings, scratches and match marks. Some oil-
splash, spray or mist is ideal but not essential.
Q5. How long will bristle elements normally last? On a
smooth shaft, the sacrificial bristle element will typically last
from one to three years. Actual performance depends very
much on how much current is flowing through a brush, as
well as, the shaft surface finish. The amount of current flowing
through a brush is difficult to predict and can change signifi-
cantly during operation, even on a daily basis.
So, then, the primary factors affecting the life of the sacrificial
bristle element are the amount of current through a brush, and
the shaft-surface finish. Bristles deplete due to electrical burn
off caused by the current, and the shaft surface finish affects
the rate of bristle depletion attributable to mechanical wear.
An experienced manufacturer typically tries to select a
model type and then a number of brushes that will result in
about one year of bristle element life. (Note: In many cases, it
will be possible to replace the bristle element while the unit is
TABLE 1. Brush rating or sizing guidelines
Up to 25-MW generator rating per brush, or up to 1 amp DC
continuous for one year of bristle element life.
80
online.) However, there are many factors to consider, not all of
which will be known at the time of brush installation. For that
reason, it is not unusual for bristle elements to be depleted sig-
nificantly sooner, or to last much longer than expected.
When considering the brush burn-off rate, remember that
the brushes are sacrificial components. The bristles burn
down to prevent spark damage to far more expensive parts of
the machine (bearings, governor and gears). Consequently, a
high burn-off rate would simply mean that the brush is do-
ing what it was supposed to, i.e., preventing expensive dam-
age, which would otherwise occur inside the machine. It is
often possible to reduce the burn-off rate by installing a larger
brush, or by installing more than one brush. For instance, the
time between brush insert replacement will be about four
times as long if two brushes are used instead of just one.
Q6. Why pay more for silver/gold composite bristles
when copper or carbon brushes work fine? Solid copper or
carbon brushes are not suitable for high-shaft surface veloci-
ties; they will groove the shaft, spark or quit working altogeth-
er. Solid copper or carbon brushes will also stop performing at
low levels of current. For instance, copper straps and carbon
brushes do not function well in oil or in contaminated or dirty
environments. Well-designed brushes
are, by comparison, self-cleaning even in
dirty environments; they actually benefit
from an oil environment.
Q7. What is the advantage of silver/
gold bristles over other materials? The
noble metals are corrosion-resistant,
even in very hostile environments. Also,
silver/gold bristles have exceptionally
good electrical contact characteristics at
the shaft surface and produce the lowest
possible residual shaft voltage.
Q8. How many brushes should
be installed, and what type of brush
should be used? The quantity and
model of grounding brush best used on
a particular unit will depend on the peak
current flowing to ground, as well as, on
physical constraints. For this reason, reli-
ability professionals should stay in touch
with an experienced manufacturer and
ask for competent guidance. Realistic
professionals are prepared to pay for good
counseling and quality products. The
amount of current is difficult to predict,
since it depends on many factors such as
the strength of residual magnetism in the
machine (particularly in the rotor, stator,
foundation, piping, etc.). With electrical
equipment, generator and exciter designs
or conditions are also very important.
In some situations, it may be neces-
sary to install more than one brush. For
example, if a turbine is driving a generator
through a gear, then current could be gen-
erated either by the generator, turbine,
gear or any combination of the three.
In case only one grounding brush is in-
stalled (on the turbine, for instance), cur-
rent from the generator could be drawn
across the gear teeth. This would result
in damage to the gear teeth or bearings
of the gear set. Installing brushes at both
ends of the gear would eliminate this pos-
sibility. It would ground the gear, as well,
and prevent it from magnetizing the rest
of the train. Gear-type couplings are sus-
ceptible to damage in a similar manner.
1967 Nova Pro Street
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Generally speaking, a particular brush category is suitable
for mechanical-drive equipment and small turbine genera-
tors. Another category is designed for central station power
plants with units of 100 MW to over 1,000 MW. Of the smaller
brushes, a premium type will carry about four times as much
current as a certain related type will do for the same bristle
burn-off rate.
For this reason, one type may distinguish itself as the most
economical of the small brushes in terms of ampere-hours
per dollar and have the longest bristle element replacement
interval in a type or configurational grouping. Working with a
competent brush manufacturer is valuable and provides eco-
nomic sense.
Q9. Why is residual magnetism in rotors and casings im-
portant and what should be done about it? Residual magne-
tism in rotors and stators is a common and troublesome cause
of stray-electrical shaft currents. For this reason, it is appropri-
ate to do a careful and thorough check for residual magnetism
whenever a machine is disassembled.
It is mandatory that not only rotors should be demagne-
tized, but also the casings, piping, base plate, foundation and
so on. If the demagnetization step is omitted, remagnetization
will occur immediately when a rotor is placed in its casing. In
fact, the entire unit, its mounting, and accessories will start to
be magnetized as soon as the rotor is turned.
Here are very general rules-of-thumb for turbomachinery
and similar equipment:
Rolling-element bearings are much more vulnerable to
shaft current damage than hydrodynamic bearings. In the case
of residual magnetism-induced stray electrical current damage
to rolling-element bearings, the best remedial action would be
to reduce all residual magnetic field levels as far as possible (1
gauss2 gauss), especially in the bearing, its surroundings and
the nearby shaft.
Measure each component and de-gauss as necessary be-
fore installation, and as the machine is being assembled. Mag-
netic field levels will often increase as the parts are assembled
and installed into the machine.
The suggested maximum allowable levels of residual mag-
netism for typical turbomachinery with hydrodynamic bear-
ings are summarized in TABLE 2.
Q10. What is the suggested electrical arrangement for
shaft-grounding brushes and voltage-sensing brushes? Ex-
perienced manufacturers will be pleased to supply drawings
or schematics. The purpose of a shaft-grounding system is to
bypass stray currents around the parts to be protected (for ex-
ample, a thrust bearing). Connecting the brush to the lower
half of the casing, close to the part to be protected, is suggested.
This is as close as possible to the current path, assuming it had
traveled through the component. It is also desirable to have the
shortest and simplest connection from the brush to ground.
Connecting directly to a plant grounding grid (rather than
the lower half of the casing) can cause a high rate of bristle
depletion and is not advisable. Also, grounding a brush to the
frame of an electrically active machine, such as a motor or gen-
erator, will often result in a very high rate of bristle burn-off.
Q11. Are there additional issues to consider? Stray
electrical shaft current situations and their remediation can
become surprisingly complex. Consequently, reliability en-
gineers are encouraged to contact a competent provider for
all new installations, as well as for installations exhibiting
unexpected behavior. It should be recognized that, in some
situations, simply installing a shaft-grounding brush without
taking additional investigative and corrective action will not
eliminate the problem. For example, if a machine has become
highly magnetized, grounding brushes will not be able to pro-
tect the machine. The brushes will not draw off all the current
generated, and the rate of bristle burn-off will be unaccept-
ably rapid.
At worst, the unit could become electromagnetically self-
excited, resulting in a catastrophic failure. This phenomenon
is described in the technical information kits supplied by
highly experienced brush manufacturers. The correct action
in the event of unusual behavior is to thoroughly investigate
the situation. The equipment should be carefully monitored
and surveyed for both residual magnetism and shaft-current
activity. Again, the equipment may need to be carefully de-
magnetized without undue delay. Brushes should then be
installed for the purpose of grounding and monitoring any
remaining electromagnetic activity.
Certain electrical problems with generators and motors
can create shaft current magnitudes far beyond the capacity
of any shaft-grounding device. Electric motors or generators
driving from both ends deserve special consideration, as will
variable frequency drives.
Bottom line. There is no substitute for understanding preven-
tive and proactive measures needed to preserve both physical
and human assets. Reliability professionals are urged to stay
abreast of shaft-current-elimination technologies and to work
with a competent vendor-manufacturer. Both actions will pay
great dividends over the long term.
TOM SOHRE has been professionally involved with
turbomachinery for approximately 40 years and is the general
manager of Sohre Turbomachinery, a manufacturer of shaft riding
brushes for turbomachinery. His prior positions have included
design and field service engineering at Westinghouse, GE, Brown
Boveri, and the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance
Co. Mr. Sohre is a graduate of the University of Connecticut.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career began in 1962 and included long-term
assignments as Exxon Chemicals regional machinery
specialist for the US. He has authored over 520 publications,
among them 18 comprehensive books on practical machinery
management, failure analysis, failure avoidance, compressors,
steam turbines, pumps, oil-mist lubrication and practical
lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS degrees in mechanical
engineering. He is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains registration as a
Professional Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
TABLE 2. Maximum suggested levels of magnetism allowed
with hydrodynamic bearings
Bearing components, including pads and retainers,
journals, thrust disc, seals, gears and coupling teeth
2 gauss
Bearing housings 4 gauss
Mid-shaft and wheel areas, diaphragms, etc. 6 gauss
Components remote from minimum clearance areas,
such as casings, piping, etc.
10 gauss
Linde Process Plants, Inc.
6100 South Yale Avenue, Suite 1200, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74136, USA
Phone: +1.918.477.1200, Fax: +1.918.477.1100, www.LPPUSA.com, e-mail: sales@LPPUSA.com
A member of The Linde Group
5HQLQJ
Linde Process Plants, Inc. has extensive design, engineering, and construction experience with nearly every
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GLOBAL TURNAROUND
AND MAINTENANCE
Overcome barriers to proper planning and scheduling T85
CORPORATE PROFILES
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control T88 FabEnCo T89 Farris Engineering T91
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE 2013 T85
GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE
OVERCOME BARRIERS TO PROPER
PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
J. WANICHKO, T.A. Cook Consultants Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina
Planning and scheduling must work hand-in-hand for a
turnaround, outage or shutdown to be executed to budget and
schedule. Unless proper diligence is given up-front to plan-
ning and scheduling, no amount of execution excellence will
recover the waste associated with unclear work plans, inflated
estimates and poorly defined schedules.
Scheduling practices in use today are examined here, and
the common pitfalls encountered in planning and scheduling
are explored. Additionally, tips to avoid these pitfalls are pro-
vided.
Present scheduling practices. In a survey of European com-
panies involved in conducting shutdowns, turnarounds and
outages, 57% of the respondents did not have detailed, step-by-
step procedures for creating a schedule, and they did not reuse
schedules from previous events as a starting point when building
a new schedule.
Building a schedule is considered the exclusive domain
of the scheduler, and it is dependent upon each schedulers
experience and knowledge. A surprising 26% of schedulers
have built less than 10 schedules, and 45% of schedulers have
learned scheduling by doing it (FIGS. 1 and 2). When sched-
ules are built, 77% are made either by hand or by importing
data to create a new schedule. Only 23% of companies have an
archive of schedule templates from previous events that they
can modify to create a new schedule.
However, on the positive side, the use of a schedule during
execution shows that 54% of companies provide continuous
feedback and updates to the schedule. Only 17% produce a
schedule, hang it on the wall, and then never update it. A full
70% of schedules are updated either at the end of the shift or at
least once per day.
Expectations of planning and scheduling. When beginning
an event, it is important for all stakeholders involved to under-
stand and agree to certain ground rules or expectations. For a
schedule to be an accurate and useful tool, it requires the effec-
tive and timely interaction of planning, estimating, scheduling
and operations departments, as well as the contractors working
the job. If any one party is absent, the resulting schedule will not
reflect the actual requirements of the event and will likely result
in failure for the execution team.
There must also be a high degree of information consisten-
cy between all parties involved. Everyone must understand
what the information requirements will be prior to and during
the event, including but not limited to:
Timing of input
Frequency of updates
Information required (in what format and level of detail)
How estimates for schedule progression will be calculated
Who is responsible for providing these estimates.
It is best to build a communications matrix prior to the
event and to include all information requirements/updates, in-
volved parties, frequencies and templates/level of detail. This
matrix should be reviewed with all stakeholders in a pre-event
coordination meeting (FIG. 3).
Expectations for the planners are straightforward; walk
down jobs and build complete work packages for each job as
defined by the scope of the event. Ideally, the planner will have
a library of work packages from the last time the turnaround
was conducted and can update the old work package to current
conditions.
The planner and the scheduler must agree on who will build
contingency into work estimates and where this contingency
will be located. This is primarily the schedulers responsibility,
but both the planner and the scheduler must understand how
the contingency will be managed.
The objective of the scheduler (with the support of plan-
ning, estimating, operations and contractors) is to build a sin-
gle turnaround schedule that incorporates all planned activities
for the turnaround, any capital project work being done during
26%
29%
23%
13%
9%
Less than 10
10 to 29
30 to 49
50 to 99
100 or more
FIG. 1. Scheduling experience and training.
45%
15%
13%
20%
7% Learning by doing
Once-of training
(concerning software tools)
Once-of training
(methodologically in
fundamentals of scheduling)
Regular training and
further qualication
None
FIG. 2. Level of scheduling training.
32%
38%
20%
10% Immediately after a job
has been completed
At the end of the shift
Once a day
Continuously throughout
the day
FIG. 3. Time of feedback (asked only if feedback is provided).
T86 GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
the event, and the operations departments detailed shutdown
and startup plans for the unit.
The first 24 hours of the shutdown plan must be detailed
and include sequenced hour increments, identified dependen-
cies and specific resource requirements for each activity. The
scheduler will provide operations with a date by which the plan
must be delivered in sufficient detail and accuracy to be incor-
porated into the overall turnaround schedule.
The schedule should be built with the goal of having a high
degree of repeatability and sustainability to support its reuse
in future events, with some updates and modifications, vs. re-
building a schedule from scratch each time.
Present turnaround planning and scheduling. Increasingly,
contractors are doing more planning and scheduling on behalf
of the operators. While the contractors must bring expertise and
knowledge of the tools, the operator cannot abdicate the leader-
ship role to the contractor. It must be the operator who defines
which scheduling IT tool will be used, what level of detail will
be seen in the schedule by each functional group involved in
the turnaround, how job progression to the schedule will be
calculated and when updates will occur.
Note: Although more contractors are being used, some
level of expertise must be retained in-house. This is necessary
to ensure that specific knowledge remains with the operator to
validate or challenge work estimates and plans built by contrac-
tors for accuracy. This knowledge will also enable effective co-
ordination between operations and contractors.
Differences exist in the area of work estimation using stan-
dardized work values, resulting in inconsistent and inaccurate
work plan estimates. North American operators rely more on
expert judgment, so it is not uncommon for work estimates
to be inflated by as much as 40%. Europe, on the other hand,
uses standardized work component estimation, providing
greater consistency and accuracy. Work estimates and plans
should always be validated by a credible source prior to being
entered into the schedule.
With the increased use of contractors, contracts and how
they are structured play an increasingly important role in the
success of any event. More precisely, integrated and compre-
hensive job evaluations allow for the introduction of modern
contract types for contractors, reducing the need to push risk
to the contractor.
Frequently, the objective of the contract is to create a win-
win agreement for both the operator and contractor. Establish-
ing a win-win contract allows the operator and the contractor
to work together instead of against each other. Time and ma-
terial contracts, favored in North America, drive contractors
TABLE 1. Common planning pitfalls and how to avoid them
Pitfall Details
Assigning the wrong person as planner Availability is not a skill set. The skills a planner needs to have are mechanical understanding,
attention to detail, discipline to follow a process, ability to think logically and computer skills.
Selecting an inadequately trained planner Planners must know how to work the computerized maintenance management systems (CMMs)
they will be using, how to process work requests and plan them to the agreed standard, how to extract
data from the CMMS and generate reports, how the kitting and staging process works and how to
follow the safety standards for the assigned area.
Hiring a multi-tasking planner A planners job is to plan. A planner should not be used to expedite parts, to supervise if a backup is
needed, to procure quotes from vendors, to order parts or to schedule.
Using a planner for emergency
or unscheduled work
If a planner is reghting, he or she is not planning. The right personnel must be used in emergency
and unplanned situations; planners should not be counted on to assist with unscheduled work.
Hiring a desk planner Every job requires a walk down. Even if a library of well-dened work packages exists,
planners must assess each job in person and update the package. Planning is not a desk job!
Improperly allocating resources and materials Planners must understand sequences, dependencies and space limitations, and plan for them. Work
and resources must be planned in the sequence they will be performed, and jobs should be planned
so that crews do not need to stop for anything (e.g., permits, tools or personal protection equipment).
Likewise, waste should be eliminated before it occurs.
Providing poor job instructions Planners should use detailed, proper descriptions of work to be performed. Open pump, x it is not
sufcient. A new hire will benet from a detailed description, while an experienced hire can use
the information as a checklist.
Not providing feedback To improve plans, planners must receive feedback from the eld, especially when steps are missed,
when estimates are too high or too low, or when required parts or equipment are missing.
Not kitting and staging Planning is work preparation. The work crew should not need to stop for anything. The planner must
communicate clearly with the person who is kitting. Note: planners should not rely on vendor promises.
Nothing should be added to the schedule unless all elements are accounted for and present.
Not gaining cooperation and commitment
from operations
Work, no matter how well planned, cannot be performed in a vacuum. The operations department
owns the equipment, signs the permits and locks out the equipment, and it must buy into the schedule
prior to it being communicated. After agreeing to the schedule, the operations department must
adhere to it and supply the right resources to honor the schedule.
Managing the backlog poorly The backlog must be free and clear of old and obsolete work orders, duplicate work orders and
completed work orders that have not been closed out.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE 2013 T87
to integrate as many workers as possible into the turnaround.
This creates an immediate conflict, as operators prefer to com-
plete the turnaround with the minimum resources required in
the shortest time possible. To prevent these types of conflicts,
improved accuracy based on better advance estimates and
planning is required.
There are three phases to the scheduling process:
The concept phase, which is the foundation for an effec-
tive and efficient schedule
The creation phase
The usage and update phase.
During the concept phase, several parameters should be
defined: the schedule structure, standards for the schedule
elements and progress feedback procedures, and schedule re-
porting during the execution phase. Once these parameters are
defined, they must be communicated to operations, to the ex-
ecution team and to the contractor team.
A precondition for the creation phase is that the scope must
be defined, and the detailed technical planning results must be
available. Many companies seem to ignore this precondition
and then do not understand why the events schedule and bud-
get are not met. In conjunction with scope management and
cost control, scheduling forms the magic triangle of project
management for turnarounds.
There must be flexibility in schedules to enable a quick and
easy response to any changes that become necessary. Schedules
should be reasonably flexible without sacrificing the necessary
control mechanisms. Schedule flexibility is necessary because
of unscheduled repair work, uncertainty about equipment
availability and capacity, and logistical challenges and restric-
tions due to limited space in the plant.
The quality of the schedule is defined by scope freeze. The
scope needs to be frozen and the schedule prepared using opti-
mization techniques, ideally 12 months prior to the shutdown
phase of the turnaround. Scope freeze begins with all stake-
holders understanding and agreeing to the reason for the turn-
around. Once the scope-freeze phase is finished, any suggested
additions must be challenged into the scope, not out of it. A
rigorous scope-management process should be well managed
and based on a companys defined risk-management processes.
The pitfalls of planning. Planning is the starting point, and the
schedule can be no better than the items that go into it. With this
point in mind, TABLE 1 reviews common planning pitfalls and
recommendations for avoiding them.
JERRY WANICHKO is the director of consulting operations for
T.A. Cook Consultants in North America. He has over 25 years
of international consulting experience in several industries, with
particular expertise in oil, gas and chemicals. Previously, he was
director of operations for Fluor, where he provided routine
maintenance, reliability, and planning and scheduling services
at 13 different petrochemical sites. Mr. Wanichko provides
consulting services to asset-intensive businesses in the refining and petrochemicals
industries. His work supports clients with maintenance optimization, turnaround,
outage, shutdown optimization and overall equipment effectiveness improvement.
FOR A FREE 2-WEEK TRIAL,
contact Lee Nichols at +1 (713) 525-4626
or Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com.
www.ConstructionBoxscore.com
THE DEFINITIVE SOURCE FOR TRACKING
GLOBAL HPI CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY
For more than 50 years, Hydrocarbon Processing magazine remains the only
source that collects and maintains data specically for the HPI community,
publishing up-to-the-minute construction projects from around the globe with
our online product, Boxscore Database.
Updated daily, our database helps engineers, contractors and marketing
personnel identify active HPI construction projects around the world to:
Generate leads
Market research

NOW, WEVE MADE OUR BEST PRODUCT EVEN BETTER!
ENHANCEMENTS INCLUDE:
Exporting your search results to Excel so you can
compile your research
Delivering the latest updated projects directly to
your inbox each week
Designing customized construction reports for your
company using our 50 years of archived projects
Detailed information for key contacts at planned and
ongoing construction projects
Track trend analysis
Decide future budget planning
T88 GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE SUPPLEMENT 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com SPONSORED CONTENT
CURTISS-WRIGHT FLOW CONTROL
DELTAVALVE, TAPCOENPRO,
AND TAS AFTERMARKET SERVICES
Our aftermarket services group has a keen focus on safety, quality
and on-time completion of all projects. Our team extends complete on
and off-site services with DeltaValve, TapcoEnpro, or Total Automation
Solutions (TAS) products in their facilities, anywhere in the world.
To meet customer needs, we maintain major service facilities staffed
with certified technicians in the US and Europe. We are working to
establish additional service facilities globally to service our growing list
of worldwide customers. Our current network of field service technicians
are on call around the clock, and are specifically trained to evaluate,
troubleshoot and resolve problems in a timely, professional manner. Our
teams focus on equipment installations and rebuilds, turnaround service,
maintenance and repair, site acceptance tests and audits, commissioning
supervision, hydraulic flush services, electrical loop checks, bolt tension-
ing and torqueing, on-site training, and more.
Whether you need on-site training or have an emergency at two
oclock in the morning, our aftermarket services group is ready to help.
Our 24-hour service number is 1-281-247-8100.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control
Aftermarket Services
16315 Market Street
Channelview, Texas 77530
Phone: 1-281-247-8100
Fax: 1-281-552-3424
tapcoenpro@curtisswright.com
www.cwfc.com
SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|GLOBAL TURNAROUND AND MAINTENANCE SUPPLEMENT 2013 T89
FabEnCo
FALL PROTECTION WITH FabEnCo
SELF-CLOSING INDUSTRIAL SAFETY GATES
As the worlds leading manufacturer of adjustable, self-closing
industrial safety gates, FabEnCo is the one-stop shop for high-quality,
American-made safety gates. With a full range of gates for fall protec-
tion as required by OSHA, FabEnCo gates fit unprotected openings up
to 60 inches at ladders, platforms, stairs, catwalks, mezzanines and
machine guarding.
FabEnCos family of safety gates includes the A Series (the original
double bar gate), the XL Series (for extended vertical coverage), the R
Series, (a competitively-priced, metal alternative that replaces aging and/
or deteriorating plastic gates) and the Z Series (designed specifically
for new construction projects). FabEnCo also offers its Toe Board Kit as
an optional clamp-on extension to the Z Series gate.
FabEnCo Self-Closing Safety Gates are available in carbon steel,
as well as aluminum and stainless steel for special applications and
environments. Finishes include galvanized and safety yellow powder
coat. FabEnCoat finishes include galvanized and safety yellow pow-
der coated.
Easy to install on all types of handrails (angle, flatbar, pipe) or to
existing walls, FabEnCo Self-Closing Safety Gates save companies
the time and money it takes to fabricate their own gates. Most gates
can be mounted on either the left or right side of handrail openings, at
different levels. Once the stop bolts have been adjusted, each safety
gates reliable stainless steel spring automatically closes the gate to the
customizable stop point set on the gateup to a 90 degree angle.
Safety gates are shipped directly from FabEnCos manufacturing
facilities in Houston, Texas, and arrive with all of the necessary mount-
ing hardware. Easy-to-follow mounting tips are included with each gate.
In addition to contacting the company by phone, customers have the
option of easy online ordering using a major credit card or charging
their open account.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Address: 2002 Karbach Houston, Texas 77092
Phone: (713) 686-6620
Fax: (713) 688-8031
Toll Free: (800) 962-6111
www.safetygate.com
Farris Engineerings global FAST Center network adds value to every Farris valve.
Our FAST Centers offer total valve replacement, service and repair any hour, any
day 24/ 7/365. The FAST Centers employ factory trained valve repair technicians
working in ASME and VR certifed valve testing facilities. At Farris, our work is
never done. Once we sell you a valve, our FAST Team is there to keep your valves
in service and your plant safe.
Real value behind
every valve.
Thats the FAST Center guarantee.
To locate your local FAST Center: http://farris.cwfc.com or 1-877-FARRIS1
FARRIS ENGINEERING
FARRIS GETS YOU BACK TO BUSINESS FAST
A HISTORY OF INNOVATION
Farris Engineering, a business unit of Curtiss-Wright Flow Control
Company, is celebrating 70 years of innovation and manufacturing
excellence. Farris legacy of providing unique pressure relief solutions
started with the balanced bellows pressure relief valve (PRV) design.
Introduced in the 1950s, the balanced bellows mitigated the effects
of back pressure and chemical erosion on internal valve components.
The balanced bellows remains a standard feature used in PRVs to this
day. In the 1980s, Farris introduced SizeMaster, the original PRV sizing
software. SizeMaster automated and simplified the complex process
of sizing and selecting PRVs and is the foundation for our patented
iPRSM software.
Farris manufactures a complete line of spring loaded and pilot
operated relief valves, servicing refining and hydrocarbon processing
facilities. Farris has earned its reputation as the First Line of Safety
providing automatic and positive protection against overpressure
situations in thousands of industrial facilities around the world.
FARRIS ENGINEERINGS FAST CENTER ADVANTAGE
Another Farris legacy is our Farris Authorized Service Team, or
FAST Center Network. Over the years, Farris Engineering has
carefully developed our global network of independently owned and
operated valve repair facilities. FAST Centers support aftermarket
ser vice and valve maintenance with factor y trained technicians
specializing in knowledge of the design, function and repair of PRVs.
Our FAST Centers can diagnose and solve PRV problems, track and
manage maintenance and repair history and reduce plant downtime
with local service, inline testing and field service capabilities. FAST
Centers provide you with the confidence that your valves will function
properly during an overpressure situation. Our asset management
solutions keep your plant safe and deliver peace of mind.
Local InventoryEvery FAST Center carries a large inventory of
new PRVs and spare parts, backed by a web-based global inventory
to draw upon.
24/7 Valve Service and ReplacementEnjoy quick,
localized testing and repair of your valves, or the prompt installation
of new ASME certified valves.
Factory Trained TechniciansFAST Center valve technicians
go through certified training at the Farris factory and in the field.
OEM partsFAST Centers use only OEM parts, restoring your
valves to OEM specifications. All valves are assembled and tested to
ASME standards.
ASME CertificationFAST Centers carr y all the required
certifications to assemble, set and test your valves.
VR CertificationFAST Centers have VR certification issued by
The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
Mobile Repair Units Available at select FAST Centers.
Global Access FAST Cent ers work wit h our ext ensive
representative network, providing support to all global regions
Valve ExpertiseEvery FAST Center is technically supported
by Farris Engineering, a leader in valve design.
VALUE BEYOND THE VALVE
With Farris, a trustworthy valve is only part of our promise. Farris
provides customers with total pressure relief management solutions that
support a facilitys entire lifecycle, transforming the way you ensure
plant safety:
DesignUsing the power of iPRSM technology and our Farris
Engineering Services team, correctly design your pressure relief system
to respond to every overpressure scenario.
BuildEquip your plant with Farris full line of spring loaded and
pilot operated PRV hardware, knowing your plant is protected by 70
years of manufacturing experience.
MonitorMonitor your pressure relief valves with the SmartPRV
and leverage the technology of proven leaders, Farris and Emerson.
MaintainLocalized aftermarket service and repair assistance
through the Farris Authorized Service Team or FAST Centers.
AuditOur Farris Engineering Ser vices team and iPRSM
technology will keep your pressure relief systems audited and in
compliance.
CONTACT INFORMATION
10195 Brecksville Road, Brecksville, OH 44141 USA
Telephone: 440-838-7690
Fax: 440-838-7699
Farris@curtisswright.com
http://farris.cwfc.com
Legend: Manufacturing Facility FAST Center Representative
Farris Global FAST and Sales Representative Network
FOURQUEST ENERGY
VAPOR PHASE CLEANING (DEGASSING)
OVERVIEW
Improved safety regulations, mandatory vessel inspections, and
new environmental requirements are increasing the demand for system
decontamination in the oil and gas industry. In the past, system decon-
tamination involved a lengthy steaming process that was applied until
the contaminant levels dropped under the required values. This process
was both expensive and inefficient, consuming a significant amount of
time and steam. Vapor phase cleaning is an enhanced steaming method
used to speed up the decontamination process. It works by injecting a
small amount of chemicals (usually less than 1%) into the steam Vapor
just before it enters the system. The specialized chemicals accelerate
the cleaning process, target specific contaminants, and reduce overall
cleaning time by as much as 60% to 70%.
Vapor phase cleaning can be used with most types of process equip-
ment, including: reactors, columns, vessels (in general), heat exchang-
ers, compressors, storage tanks, filters, piping, etc., and is effective
in decontaminating main contaminants, such as: hydrocarbons (LELs,
Benzene), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), pyrophoric iron (FeS), ammonia
(NH3), and mercaptans
VAPOR PHASE CLEANING PROCESS
Vapor phase cleaning requires a saturated steam supply and spe-
cific cleaning agents to perform an efficient cleaning cycle. To establish
a flow of chemicals throughout the vessel, it is essential to connect the
top of the vessel (or unit being cleaned) to the flare line to ensure that
aggressive contaminants are not released into the atmosphere before
being incinerated. The best location to inject steam into a vessel is in its
lower portion, and some vessels may require multiple injection points to
improve or speed up the cleaning process. This is based on the number
of trays or packings inside the vessel. Chemicals are injected into the
steam upstream of the vessel entry point. They are then carried by the
steam throughout the vessel. However, due to metal thermodynamic
properties, steam tends to condense on metal surfaces inside the
vessel with the chemicals. The chemicals carried further by the steam
condensate react with deposits on the wetted metal surfaces inside
the system. The reaction products then flow down to the bottom of the
vessel toward a drain system. To improve cleaning performance, it is
important to collect all condensed waste and drain it out of the ves-
sel. This can be done using either a closed drain system or a vacuum
unit equipped with a Vapor scrubber unit connected to the bottom of
the system. To ensure effective cleaning throughout the system, part
of the chemistry should be carried out through the top of the system
in Vapor form and part should condense down the system walls. This
crucial step of Vapor phase cleaning is controlled by making sure the
temperature of the system is kept within the optimal range prior to and
during chemical injection.
To ensure system cleanliness, emissions may be monitored by taking
gas samples at system vents or monitoring liquid samples at drain points.
Vapor phase cleaning is typically completed in three phases:
a) System preheating (heat the entire system to a temperature
between 190F and 210F)
b) Chemical injection (Vapor phase cleaning)
c) Rinsing out the chemistry
BENEFITS OF VAPOR PHASE CLEANING
Vapor phase cleaning has several advantages over conventional
chemical cleaning:
The time required to prepare process equipment for hot work or
inspection is reduced significantly (over 60%), translating to lower main-
tenance costs and decreased system downtime.
Vapor phase cleaning procedures and resources are both reliable
and predictable, making it easier to schedule work with high accuracy
and eliminating the risk of extended project schedules.
Vapor phase cleaning requires less energy to maintain Vapor phase
temperature than liquid phase temperature.
Vapor phase cleaning increases the production efficiency of equip-
ment, and therefore increases equipment lifespan.
Vapor phase cleaning uses significantly lower amounts of chemi-
cals, resulting in significantly less waste generated.
The chemicals used in Vapor phase cleaning are biodegradable
and therefore easy to handle, with no negative environmental footprint
left behind.
CONTACT INFORMATION
4820 Railroad Street, Deer Park, Texas 77536
Office: +1 281-476-9249
info@fourquest.com
www.fourquest.com
WE BUY AND SELL COMPLETE PROCESS PLANTS,
PROCESS LINES AND PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Featured Plants: Refinery Gasification (Syngas), LNG, Hydrogen, Methanol and Refineries
Michael Joachim
Director, Plants Dept.
Office +1 609 454 2932
Direct +1 609 838 5930
Mobile +1 609 516 9107
MichaelJ@ippe.com
+1 609 454 2932 http://info.ippe.com/syngasgasification
We Are Cash Buyers For Closed Manufacturing
Facilities, Land And Equipment Globally.
In Addion To Complete Plants, IPP Stocks Over 30,000 Pieces Of Process Equipment. Visit www.ippe.com.
CONSULTANT NEEDED
Have a knowledge base in the Hydrocarbon markets and looking to expand
your horizon in 2013? IPP wants to speak with you. +16094542932
3,000 Metric Ton/Day Refinery Gasification (Syngas) Plant
http://info.ippe.com/syngasgasification #600759
Converts Refinery Residues Into Clean Syngas And Can Be Converted To Use Coal As The Input
Commercial StartUp: 2003
Still In Operation
Designed to consume 59 Metric Ton/Hr (1,400 Metric Ton/Day) of heavy residues to produce
130 Metric Ton/Hr (3,000 Metric Ton/Day) of Clean Syngas, consisting primarily of CO and H2.
Technology: Texaco (GE Gasification), ABB, UOP, Parsons (Claus Units) and Praxair
Overdesigned to accomodate crude oils other than the standard Arab Heavy, such as Basrah Medium
highsulfur and Iranian Heavy feedstocks,
Upgraded To High Alloy Piping
Abundance Of Spare Parts
Raw Materials: Natural Gas, Steam and Refinery Tar
Sections: (Contact IPP For Equipment List And Process Descriptions)
Complete Documentation Available (including Process Description)
Gasification Unit (Texaco)
Carbon Extraction Unit
Gas Cooling Unit
Acid Gas Removal Unit
Sulfur Recovery Unit (2 Parsons Claus Units)
Praxair Air Separation Unit (Produces 95% Pure O2)
Grey Water Treatment Unit
Sour Water Stripper Unit
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Peak Shaving Plant
http://info.ippe.com/lngplant #600594
Liquefaction: 2,400 NM/Hr NG, Resulting In 4 NM/Hr LNG
Storage: 22,700 M Liquid (6 Million Gallon) Can Be Vaporized Into 14 Million NM Of Gas; 600:1 Ratio
20 Million Euro Spent On Upgrading Plant In Last 5 Years
Shut Down: 2010
Natural Gas Transported Via Pipeline Is Liquified And Stored As LNG
Liquify Natural Gas For Vehicle Transportation
LNG Filling Station (for trucks): 34 NM/Hr LNG
Major Equipment: (Contact IPP For A Complete Equipment List)
6 Million Gallon, 37 M dia. x 32 M X8Ni9 (9% Nickel Alloy) DoubleWall Cryogenic LNG Storage Tank
(2) 80 CBM/Hr Submersible/retractable 2stage Centrifugal InTank Pumps
8Stage Ingersoll Rand Reciprocating Compressor with 2,800 kW Motor
(2) 81.5 CBM/Hr Bingham Centrifugal High Pressure Pumps
(3) 2.5/2.9 M dia. x 12.7/13.7 M (10,000 Gallon) DoubleWall Liquid Nitrogen Tanks
(3) 5,000 CBM/Hr Liquid Nitrogen Pumps
(2) 50,000 CBM/Hr (Gas Flow) LNG Vaporizers with Natural Gas Burners
875 CBM/Hr Burckhardt BoilOff Reciprocating Gas Compressor, 250 kW
New Electronic Instruments and Siemens PCS7 Control System
Site Has Good Rail And Truck Access And A Dock On A Major Waterway Mile Away
LNG Plant Uses Include: Associated Gas Liquefaction, Fuel Use And Delivery To Industrial Sites With
No Natural Gas Pipeline. Contact IPP to discuss other uses for this plant.
Complete Documentation Available (including Complete Process Description)
(11) Crude Oil Refineries
http://info.ippe.com/refineries 15,000 Barrel/Day to 275,000 Barrel/Day
Complete Refineries And Individual Units. Contact IPP For A List Of Available Units.
(5) Hydrogen Generation Plants
http://info.ippe.com/hydrogenplants
1,580 NM/Hr to 25,000 NM/Hr
(2) Hydrogenation Reactor Systems Available
400 Metric Ton/Day Methanol Plant
http://info.ippe.com/methanolplant #600304
Start Up: 1997; Shut Down: 2007
The process is a middle pressure process at 45 bar. The
synthesis gas came out from the synthesis gas generation
with 24 bar and have been compressed to 45 bar. The
compressor is included.
Designed for the production of synthetic gases from heat
valuerich waste, biowaste and different types of coal.
Sections: Waste preparation by pelletizing of waste, Synthetic
gas production by pressurized bed gasification, Methanol
production and the Power plant.
Chemical quality to be used in: Acetic Acid, Solvents, Vitamin
Products, Formaldehyde, AntiKnocking Agents, Antifreeze
and Chemical Synthesis.
Complete Documentation Available
WE BUY AND SELL COMPLETE PROCESS
PLANTS, PROCESS LINES AND EQUIPMENT
International Process Plants (IPP) is a self-funded global buyer and seller
of surplus manufacturing facilities, process plants, industrial real estate,
and individual equipment. IPPs business model serves clients in two ways:
1. IPP provides companies the opportunity to acquire existing assets
at competitive prices and in a fraction of the lead time of building or
buying new
2. for companies looking to divest assets that have become surplus
to their needs, IPP serves as an outlet to convert those assets into funds
quickly in a fiscally and environmentally conscious manner.
IPP, started over 35 years ago by 2 brothers who still lead the com-
pany, has grown to company-owned operations in 17 countries serving
a client base of 160,000 companies in the worldwide oil & gas, power
generation, petrochemical, chemical, pharmaceutical and food process-
ing industries. One of the largest companies in this business, IPPs inventory
includes over 100 complete plants, more than 30,000 individual pieces
of process equipment and multiple industrial real estate development sites.
BUYING EXISTING PLANTS: A STRATEGIC WEAPON
Many of IPPs clients compete in mature industries where todays chal-
lenging economic climate demands creative solutions for business suc-
cess. Given that IPPs plants cost a fraction of the capital needed to build
new ones (savings typically reach 4050%), buying an existing plant is
the only economically viable option to satisfy plant needs for many of
IPPs clients. IPPs clients also save valuable uptime as most plants can be
relocated and ready for operation within 18 months or less compared to
new plant construction that can take 34 years.
IPPs stock of complete plants includes several properties of interest to
the hydrocarbon processing industry:
IPPs Gasification Plant: 3, 000 metric tons / day
LNG Peak Shaving Plant:
11 Refinery Facilities: 15,000275,000 barrels / day
5 Hydrogen Plants: 1,58025,000 NM / hr (99.9%+ pure)
Methanol Plant: 400 metric tons / day
Gasification allows oil refineries to convert residue waste into valuable
commodities. A study by the National Energy Technology Laboratory
(NETL) estimated that typical US refineries using gasification to produce
these commodities could save up to $55,000 / day. The syngas pro-
duced by gasification could also be sold. Refineries buying an existing
gasification plant can save up to 50% of the capital required to build
new (US $500$800MM). Coupled with operating cost savings and
potential revenue from syngas sales, refineries can fund a significant
number of incremental projects.
IPPs LNG plant can be used to store surplus natural gas for demand
spikes, to liquefy associated gas in oil fields while reducing emissions
and increasing pumping capacity, in industrial sites with no natural gas
pipeline to delivery LNG and for vehicle fueling stations.
WHY BUY ASSETS FROM IPP?
Buying existing plants or equipment assets from IPP maximizes the
impact your fixed capital budget can have by saving you 3050% vs.
buying new plus youll get to market or back online faster. Plant clients tell
us they are up and running in the time it would have taken for a new
plant. Equipment clients love reducing downtime when equipment fails
because IPP delivers within days.
SELLING ASSETS TO IPP
Unlike some companies in this business, IPP utilizes its own assets
to purchase the entire plant site outright. With no 3rd parties involved,
selling to IPP maximizes your plants value and generates your cash infu-
sion faster, funds you can immediately use. IPP also purchases idle and
surplus processing lines or individual equipment pieces, turning those
non-productive assets into instant funds as well.
Selling your plant to IPP avoids the carrying costs of an idled plant.
IPPs clients have saved as much as $700,000 a year in utilities, insur-
ance, taxes, etc. From a human capital perspective, IPPs clients dont
have to supervise plant or equipment shut downs, provide security or
sell assets piecemeal. IPP can help manage any needed dismantling or
environmental remediation, eliminating further costs.
IPP is highly experienced in extracting multiple revenue streams from
our plant acquisitions, often achieving 100% recycling of the plants
contents, a process that benefits the seller too. For example, one plant
site included timber that IPP sold to a client in the paper business, value
that was reflected in the plants purchase price.
INTERNATIONAL PROCESS PLANTS (IPP)
CONTACT INFORMATION
Address: 17A Marlen Drive, Hamilton, NJ 08691
Phone: +1-609-586-8004
Fax: +1-609-586-0002
sales@ippe.com
http://www.ippe.com
Complete Process Plants, Process Lines, Industrial Real Estate
and Major Pieces of Process Equipment
real time responsiveness
In an industry driven by tight turnarounds and critical paths,
theres no time to waste. Waiting for the call back.
Waiting for quotes, parts, and startup...
Built on a foundation of deep industry experience and having
engineered the most challenging combustion equipment
in use today, the ZEECO
Rapid Response Team

changes everything. Whether our burners, flares, and
incinerators or the competitions equipment,
we help you stop waiting and start running.
Zeeco, Inc.

22151 E 91st St., Broken Arrow, OK 74014 USA
+1-918-258-8551 sales@zeeco.com zeeco.com
Zeeco, Inc. 201
ZEECO
Aftermarket shouldnt equal afterthought. At Zeeco, we took a long
look at the typical challenges our customers faced in getting the right
parts within the demanding timeframes that define the petrochemical
and related industries. After years of aiding customers who have faced a
sudden need for replacement parts or equipment, the Zeeco Aftermarket
Parts and Service team decided to change nearly every aspect of tight
turnaround projects for customers. Our answer is the Rapid Response
Team, or RRT. Designed to shrink production times through the develop-
ment of a separate aftermarket workflow, the RRT eliminates the common
problem of bottlenecking, or interrupting the existing project schedule.
Featuring a separate production facility with machining, welding, plasma
cutting, pipe bending, cutting and threading all in-house are what sepa-
rates Zeecos RRT production capabilities from the approach of typical
aftermarket parts suppliers. With the addition of a separate quality con-
trol/inspection team, purchasing and supply chain management, and
in-house packaging and shipping, our RRT has international manufactur-
ing capabilities for an urgent project response on a worldwide level.
Why the Zeeco RRT? Zeecos combustion engineers understand the
challenges of meeting emissions regulations and project deadlines in the
Gulf Coast. Refineries and chemical plants experiencing an unplanned
outage due to equipment failure or damage count the cost per hour
until the plant is up and running again, and the pressure to deliver a
replacement part as soon as possible can be intense. Zeecos RRT is built
from the ground up to handle the pressure from the quote/engineering
process through to shipment or installation of the new part. When a Gulf
Coast refinery recently experienced a plant upset in production on a
Friday, initiating what is known as a Friday fire drill as the maintenance
and operations team at the plant tried to source must-have parts, they
called Zeeco. The RRT went into action and had pilots, auxiliary lances,
wind boxes, gas tip and riser assemblies, plenums, and burner tiles all
produced and ready to ship in four days. The RRT regularly replaces gas
tips or other parts on an expedited basis, whether ZEECO brand or a
competitors, keeping customer outage times to a minimum.
A follow up visit from the Zeeco Houston office experts ensured the
problem was fixed for good and was the final step in quickly responding
and solving a maintenance crisis. Our Zeeco Houston Service Center
provides local service to the Gulf Coast region 24/7 including boiler/
heater tuning, start-up assistance, installation, burner cleaning, controls
upgrading, and more. With approximately 17,000 square feet of
manufacturing space and the largest Gulf Coast permanent presence of
sales and service personnel of any combustion company in the world,
Zeeco achieves better support and response times for our customers than
anyone in the region.
Beyond just a quick response when something goes wrong, Zeeco
works with customers to do proactive and preventative maintenance.
Zeecos industry-leading combustion experts have deep experience and
knowledge from working on-site in the worlds largest facilities. Our team
conducts preventative and cost-saving pre-turnaround maintenance inspec-
tions. We perform a complete inventory analysis and component checklist
to help customers order the necessary parts and components needed for
the next plant turnaround. The customer will not only save on expediting
fees but also save by eliminating potential errors caused by inexperienced
technicians and avoid unnecessary plant downtime. By choosing an
experienced Zeeco combustion expert, long-term maintenance costs are
greatly reduced and the lifespan of the current equipment is prolonged.
CONTACT INFORMATION
22151 East 91st Street
Broken Arrow, Oklahoma USA 74014
Ph: +1 9182588551, Fax: +1 9182515519
sales@zeeco.com
www.zeeco.com
The Zeeco service team in action.
ZEECO RAPID RESPONSE TEAM
DELIVERS ON DEMAND
Zeecos Rapid Response Team has separate manufacturing/fabrica-
tion facilities and workflow, including plasma cutting tables, weld-
ing, and purchasing to meet quick turnarounds and tight deadlines.
JULY 3031, 2013
Norris Conference Centers CityCentre Houston, Texas Houston, Texas
Hydrocarbon Processing Introduces the
Inaugural Gas-to-Liquids Technology Forum
Hydrocarbon Processing and Gulf Publishing Company are pleased to announce that the
inaugural Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) Technology Forum will be held July 3031, 2013, in Houston,
Texas. The conference will investigate the technology and trends at work as GTL usage and
projects become increasingly popular. The two-day technology forum will feature industry
keynotes and presentations from GTL technology experts.
GTL is poised to become an increasingly important part of the North American energy
industry. As the natural gas boom in North America continues and new technologies emerge
to reduce costs, company interest is increasingand so is investment. Project announcements
and planning from industry innovators like Sasol, Shell and BP are beginning to ramp up in
this energy niche.
How You Can Participate
Submit an Abstract
This is your chance to share your ideas and hear from top innovators and technology
leaders from across the global hydrocarbon processing industry. Submission deadline:
May 13. For a full list of suggested topics, please visit HydrocarbonProcessing.
com/GTLTechnologyForum.
Sponsor or Exhibit
Participation as a sponsor or exhibitor at GTL Technology Forum 2013 will benet
the following types of companies active in the GTL sector: GTL technology
providers, GTL engineering companies, major and independent operators, catalyst
companies, specialized equipment manufacturers, turbine specialists and others.
For more information, contact your local Hydrocarbon Processing
sales representative or Bret Ronk, publisher, at +1 (713) 520-4421 or
Bret.Ronk@GulfPub.com.
HydrocarbonProcessing.com/GTLTechnologyForum
Safety/Loss
Prevention
M. SAWYER, Apex Safety Consultants,
Houston, Texas
Conceptually, accidents are a fallacy
Websters unabridged dictionary defines accident as Liter-
ally, a befalling; an event that takes place without ones fore-
sight or expectation; an undesigned, sudden and unexpected
event; chance; contingency; often, an undesigned and unfore-
seen occurrence of an afflictive or unfortunate character; a ca-
sualty; a mishap; as, to die by an accident.
When viewed in conjunction with the workplace, no one
dies or is injured by accident. Each worker fatality and injury is
preventable. Yet, sadly, thousands of workplace fatalities, inju-
ries, fires and other losses occur each year. Aside from the com-
passion for all workers well-being and the legal obligation of
employers to provide a workplace free of recognized hazards,
there are economic factors pertaining to losses. Significant and
irrecoverable economic losses within the US are the result of
workplace incidents each year. Large-scale incidents within in-
dustry segments, such as the oil and gas industries, can repre-
sent severe economic concern, as well as a national security is-
sue. For example, refining capacity reductions due to incidents
have caused regional shortages and inflated gasoline prices.
Redefining accident. The use of the word accident to de-
scribe a workplace loss is a misnomer. Although Websters defi-
nition is widely accepted and used extensively, it is neverthe-
less erroneous when used in relation to workplace losses. Quite
simply, there are no accidents and no undesigned, unexpected
events in the workplace. And, frankly, most losses could be pre-
vented without incurring significant costs.
One of the primary axioms of risk is that there will always be
some unknown, unforeseen residual risk associated with tasks
and activities. Risk, however, should not be confused with the
causal factors of an incident. Risk, as a product of probability
and severity, is a quantitative term used to describe the various
outcomes of an incident, along with its probability.
Known, repetitive causal factors of numerous incidents are
chronicled among published textbooks, professional articles,
litigation cases and engineering studies. Replication herein
would be of little value, other than for sheer dramatic effect.
One caveat is that weather-related eventslike floods,
earthquakes, lightning and hurricanesare not included. Even
weather events are predictable to some extent, earthquakes
being the likely exception. Prevention measures can mitigate
some weather events. For example, flood gates, lightning pro-
tection and hurricane-resistant structures can be implemented
to limit damage from weather-related events.
The word accident is a fallacy. Each purported accident
comprises a well-choreographed series of events, often prac-
ticed multiple times. Each series of events has an array of pos-
sible outcomes. The ultimate or final unwanted outcome cul-
minates into an incident. The formula for an incident requires
that events (causal factors) align within a predetermined order,
in proximity, and occur within a particular timed sequence.
Simply, an incident can occur when linked events align
within a given proximity or boundary and time sequence. It
may be explained as a matrix of events that are randomly gen-
erated within a continuum, whereby a select grouping within
the sequence will result in an incident; i.e., loss. All factors or
events must align to create the outcome of an incident. Intro-
duction of any new event or absence of an event will break the
chain, and the events will have to reform within another pre-
determined time for an incident to occur.
Predictable events. Once an incident occurs, the proximate
causes can be identified through analysis and incident recon-
struction. This ability to identify causes confirms that causal
factors or conditions are not unforeseen occurrences and can
be identified before the incident occurs. Thus, these events can
be predicted and, therefore, should not be termed as accidents.
Much like the elements of a fire triangle, take away one of
the causal factors and the outcome will change. But how does
one know what to take away to prevent an incident?
The answer is straightforward; understand the hazard asso-
ciated with the task and either eliminate the hazard or reduce
Where:
A = hot work required on existing hydrocarbon system
B = system not properly cleared of hydrocarbons or inerted/purged
C
1
= system properly cleared, isolated, and vented
C
2
= not isolated
C
3
= isolated with out proper venting
D = hot work begins
t = timing of sequence of events such that hydrocarbon vapors are present during hot work
t
o
A
C
1
D B
Incident
Job task completed safely
C
2
C
3
D
FIG. 1. Interaction of events that can lead to a job well done
or an unfortunate incident.
Safety/Loss Prevention
100
it to a form that cannot evolve into an incident. Sounds too
simplistic, right? This is not an attempt to trivialize incidents;
however, most incidents that occur could have easily been
avoided if those involved had simply understood the hazards
and proper mitigation techniques.
This can be illustrated through an interaction of events,
shown in FIG. 1. Without B in the sequence of events, the inci-
dent does not occur; therefore B is the incident blocker. Even
if the system is not isolated, or is isolated without proper vent-
ing without B, the incident does not occur.
Using the FIG. 1 example, understanding the simple principle
that hydrocarbon systems must be thoroughly cleaned before hot
work helps to avoid an incident. Taking away event/condition B
by clearing hydrocarbons prior to hot work avoids an incident in
this hypothetical. It should be understood that this hypothetical
and FIG. 1 do not attempt to define various incident outcomes or
severities, like fatality vs. injury and fire vs. explosion.
The key is to first understand the hazards and then apply
corrective actions to block the events needed for the forma-
tion of an incident.
In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration and the National Fire Protection
Association understand this concept, which is evi-
denced by their standards and recognized safe work
practices.
1,2
Both explicitly state that hot work is pro-
hibited in the presence of explosive atmospheres.
Yet, numerous accounts of hot work being autho-
rized without clearing tanks, equipment, or pipelines
of flammables have resulted in incidents.
The capability to sustain a loss in conjunction
with a capacity to cause a loss is typically present
in most industrial settings. Therefore, understand-
ing the setting and how hazards form under certain settings is
paramount in comprehending the anatomy of an incident. Un-
less blockers are developed and strategically implemented the
events leading to an incident may form.
Hazard mitigation. Process safety engineers understand how
to analyze hazards and develop mitigation techniques; howev-
er, its the field service workers, contractors and maintenance
technicians that are actually conducting the tasks. Until the
actual worker is properly instructed and rewarded for analyz-
ing hazards in the workplace prior to beginning an assignment,
incidents will continue.
Focusing on process safety and prevention programs can be
highly effective in reducing incidents. If companies will train
and empower their workforces to not undertake assignments
until they thoroughly understand the hazards and have verified
that all identifiable hazards have been eliminated, incidents can
be essentially reduced to zero.
The preparation of procedures stipulating that all workers
must understand and eliminate hazards prior to attempting a
task can easily be accomplished in short order. Implementation
of such practices into the workplace and ensuring that every-
one understands and maintains the practice remain the chal-
lenges for proactive companies.
In essence, failure to adhere to reasonable hazard mitiga-
tion measures will, in all likelihood, result in unsafe working
conditions and subsequent losses. This does not imply that the
conditions surrounding the loss were, as characterized by Mr.
Webster, events occurring without ones foresight or expecta-
tion. Failure to conduct reasonable mitigation of a known haz-
ard is simply negligence.
Process losses are not comprised of unidentifiable events
and they should not be characterized as accidents. Each is
preventable.
LITERATURE CITED
1
US Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
General Industry Regulations 29 CFR 1910.252.
2
National Fire Protection Association 51B; Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting and Other Hot Work; 2009.
MIKE SAWYER is a consulting engineer at Apex Safety Consultants in Houston,
Texas. He has over 30 years of industry experience.
The word accident is a fallacy. Each
purported accident comprises a well-
choreographed series of events, often
practiced multiple times. Each series
of events has an array of possible outcomes.
The ultimate or final unwanted outcome
culminates into an incident.
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ADVERTISERS INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The first number after the company name is the page on which an advertisement appears. The second number, appearing in parentheses, after the company
name, is the Reader Service Number. There are two ways readers can obtain product and service information:
1. Go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS. Follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action.
2. Go online to the advertiser's Website listed below.
Company Page RS#
Website
Company Page RS#
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Company Page RS#
Website
AE Solutions .......................................................4041 (160/65)
www.info.hotims.com/45678-160
AFPM .......................................................................101
AMACS ...................................................................... 17 (153)
Avondale .................................................................. 71 (77)
Axens ..................................................................... 108 (51)
BASF Corporation ...................................................... 21 (70)
BASF SE .................................................................. 107 (100)
Bekaert Advanced Filtration SA ................................. 20 (155)
BETE Fog Nozzle ....................................................... 60 (58)
Borsig GmbH ............................................................19 (154)
Burckhardt Compression AG ...................................... 69 (79)
Carboline Company .................................................. 64 (164)
Carver Pump Company ............................................. 80 (167)
CB&I ......................................................................... 13 (53)
Curtiss-Wright ...................................................... T-88 (169)
Elliott Group .............................................................16 (52)
FabEnCo, Inc. ........................................................ T-89 (170)
Farris Engineering ................................................. T-90 (56)
Flexitallic LP .............................................................. 5 (93)
Foster Wheeler .........................................................22 (62)
FourQuest Energy .................................................. T-92 (78)
Gulf Publishing Company
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HP Webcast.......................................................... 68
HPI Market Data 2013 ......................................... T-84
Marketplace ................................................. 102104
Hermetic Pumpen GmbH .......................................... 38 (159)
Heurtey Petrochem ...................................................22 (64)
HTRI ........................................................................ 28 (156)
Hytorc ..................................................................... 49 (54)
Idrojet ..................................................................... 79 (166)
Intergraph ................................................................ 12 (152)
International Process Plants (IPP) .......................... T-94 (94)
Intratec Solutions LLC ............................................... 67 (165)
KBR .......................................................................... 11 (96)
Kobe Steel Ltd .......................................................... 50 (82)
Koch-Glitsch ............................................................ 62 (162)
Linde Engineering NA ................................................ 18 (73)
Linde Process Plants ................................................. 82 (85)
Merichem Company .................................................. 24 (84)
Metso Automation.................................................... 29 (98)
OMI Industries .......................................................... 42 (91)
Paratherm Corporation ..............................................10 (151)
Pittsburgh Corning Corporation ................................. 63 (163)
Quest Integrity Group LLC.......................................... 45 (161)
Smith & Burgess LLC ..................................................76 (72)
Spraying Systems Co .................................................14 (66)
Sulzer Chemtech, USA Inc. .......................................... 31 (88)
Summit Industrial Products, Inc. ............................... 30 (157)
Team Industrial Services ............................................35 (95)
ThyssenKrupp Uhde GmbH ......................................... 8 (81)
Total Safety ............................................................. 36 (99)
Toyo Engineering Corporation ..................................... 2 (86)
Trachte USA ............................................................100 (168)
UOP LLC ................................................................... 26
Velan ...................................................................... 34 (158)
Wood Group Mustang ............................................... 46 (89)
Zeeco ................................................................... T-96 (87)
ZymeFlow ................................................................72 (92)
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Water
Management
LORAINE A. HUCHLER, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Huchler@martechsystems.com
Update: Online measurement of oxidizing biocides
Nearly all owners of industrial cooling towers feed oxidizing
biocideschlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br)to kill bacteria in
the recirculating cooling water. Minimizing the populations of
bacteria is critical to avoid microbiological fouling and a subse-
quent loss of heat transfer and to eliminate pathogenic strains
of bacteria being present in water droplets entrained in the
cooling tower plume.
Control is vital. Precise feed control for biocide systems
is critical: too little biocide allows bacteria populations to
thrive; conversely, too much biocide makes the system sus-
ceptible to corrosion. Oxidizing biocides may be fed continu-
ously or intermittently (slug feed), depending on site-specific
conditions such as the system size, constraints on discharge of
spent blowdown, and compatibility with cooling water treat-
ment chemicals.
Feedback is the optimal control strategy. Why? Because
the consumption (the demand or feedrate) of oxidizing bio-
cides strongly depends on the changes in ambient temperature
and sunlight throughout a 24-hour period. This highly dynamic
system requires an online sensor to measure the free halogen
(chlorine and bromine) concentration and automatically adjust
the biocide feedrate. Plant personnel typically install an online
sensor in the cooling water line from the plant that returns to
the cooling tower (the return).
Key monitoring methods. There are two technologies for
online meters: colorimetric and amperometric. Colorimetric
technology has been the standard methodology for accurate
and reliable online measurement. Recent developments in am-
perometric technology have improved the accuracy and main-
tainability of these sensors.
Colorimetric meters. This meter uses the same reagent-
based, spectrophotometric method used in the laboratory. The
analyzer adds chemical reagents to the sample to adjust the pH
and react with the hypochlorite (OCl
) and hypochlorous acid

(HOCl) forming a color. The analyzers spectrophotometer
measures the transmittance of light through the colored sam-
ple that is proportional to the concentration of free Cl.
Colorimetric meters require replacement of reagents on a
monthly basis and replacement of the transfer tubing for the
reagent delivery system on a semi-annual basis. TABLE 1 lists
several suppliers of industrial analyzers with automatic pH
compensation.
Amperometric meters. Process engineers commonly re-
fer to amperometric meters as oxidation reduction potential
(ORP) meters. The amperometric method is an electrochemi-
cal method. The sensor measures the very small currents pro-
duced by the HOCl that are directly proportional to the con-
centration of free Cl in the sample. The sensors accuracy is
highly dependent on pH because the sensor detects only HOCl.
Even small changes in the pH that do not change the concentra-
tion of free chlorine will affect the sensors current output, caus-
ing an inaccurate measurement result.
Conventional ORP sensors required extensive tuning for
each installation to correlate the analyzers reading to the con-
centration of free Cl because there is no compensation for the
pH dependence of the free Cl measurement. The latest sensor
design has an acidic solution inside the sensor that converts all
the OCl
ions to HOCl, eliminating the pH dependence of the

measurement. The sensor requires a replacement of the selec-
tive membrane and acidic solution every three to six months,
depending on the duty. Most suppliers have designed conve-
nient replacement cartridges that eliminate exposure to the
acidic solution and simplifies routine maintenance. TABLE 1 lists
several amperometric meters for cooling water applications.
How to choose. The primary advantage of colorimetric meters
is the direct measurement of the halogen concentration. Like
all reagent-based analyzers, these units require replenishing of
reagents and periodic refurbishment of the reagent pumps. Am-
perometric meters are very versatile, and they solve the problem
of pH dependence of the ORP measurements. These meters,
likewise, require periodic replenishment of reagents but do not
have any reagent pumps.
TABLE 1. Online biocide meter providers
Colorimeters Amperometric meters
Hach, Cl-17 Hach, 9184sc
Swan, Analyzer AMI Codes-II,
II TC, II CC
Swan, Analyzer AMI Codes-II,
II TC, II CC
Yokogowa, RC400G Yokogowa, Fc400G, FC500G
Prominent, Dulcometer D1C, D2C
Rosemont, FCLi
Disclaimer: Information about specic products is a service and does not signify any
business relationship with the suppliers or an endorsement by the author.
LORAINE A. HUCHLER is president of MarTech
Systems, Inc., a consulting firm that provides technical
advisory services to manage risk and optimize energy-
and water-related systems including steam, cooling
and wastewater in refineries and petrochemical plants.
She holds a BS degree in chemical engineering, along
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Were Not Exaggerating.

NEW MAJOR RELEASE!

Significantly improved graphing capabilities

K KOCH-GLITSCH and SUPERFRAC

PFS POOL FIRE SUPPRESSANT

PFS system can assist in

tough. From routine decontamination to heavy oil.

is the most complete

Rapid Response Team

) and hypochlorous acid

ions to HOCl, eliminating the pH dependence of the

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