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Automotive Systems
Broadly an automobile can be divided in to following main systems. Body & Chassis Engine and related Systems Transmission Braking System Steering System Suspension System Heating and Air Conditioning System Safety Systems
Body Construction
There exists 2 main ways of automobile construction
The Chassis and Body method & The Monocoque method.
Body Construction
The Monocoque method.
No ladder frame Suspension, steering etc. are all bolted directly to the body, the body is thus made sturdier. Makes vehicle solid Less rattles and squeaks Handling is better lesser load carrying capacity Highly suitable for passenger cars
Body Shapes
No hard & fast rules for classification as new segments and sub segments keep emerging Broad classifications of the vehicles. SUV MUV/MPV Pik Up Hatchback Sedan/Notchback Station Wagon/Estate 3 Wheeler
The engine area is separate and the passenger and boot area are enclosed together. Equipped with 4 wheel drive or has as an option of 4 wheel drive. Highly performance oriented. (Powerful Engine) Designed for off road usage. Are generally equipped with technologically advanced & luxury features. Examples in India: Scorpio, Tucson, Pajero, Safari, CR-V
MPV / MUV
Two versions
1. Engine, passenger area and boot area enclosed together. 2. Passenger and boot area enclosed with separate engine area
Pick Up
They have a separate engine area, a passenger area and a large loading area. Large tyres High load carrying capacity Good ground clearance. Examples in India: Bolero Pik-Up, Bolero Camper Maxx Maxi Truck, 207 DI,
Hatchback
Sedan / Notchback
Much like hatchback Large luggage area extended till the roof Examples in India: Indigo Marina, Adventure
3 Wheelers
Generally employed as rickshaws or goods carriers Separate area for driver with a comparatively larger area for passengers or goods Examples in India: Alfa, Champion & Ape
Basic Terminologies
Lets look at some common automotive terms:
Ground Clearance
Distance between the ground and lowest portion of the bottom of a vehicle
Can also be measured at other points on the vehicle. Avoids scraping the bottom of the vehicle body on rough roads and terrain.
Tread
Front Tread
Rear Tread
Distance between the front or rear wheels measured from the tyres center point. A wider tread generally gives more stability.
Wheel Base
Wheel Base
Distance between the center of the front wheels and the center of the rear wheels.
A longer wheel base generally leads to more passenger space, and results in enhanced vehicle stability at high speeds
Turning Radius
Turning Radius
Smallest Radius in which car can turn. Lower turning radius improves the maneuverability of the car Definite advantage in city driving. It is usually measured from the center point of the outer most wheel (kerb to kerb)
Differences in Operations
Petrol Stroke 1 (intake) air & fuel mixture enters cylinder Stroke 2 (compression) air & fuel mixture is compressed Stroke 3 (power) spark plug fires, ignites fuel. Stroke 4 (exhaust) burnt gases are expelled from the engine Diesel Stroke 1 (intake) only air enters cylinder. Stroke 2 (compression) air is compressed to high extent, raising temperature. Stroke 3 (power) diesel is injected, high air temperature ignites diesel. Stroke 4 (exhaust) burnt gases are expelled from the engine.
BDC
Cylinder Block
TDC
Cylinder Bl ock
TDC
BDC
Cylinder Block
Cylinder Block
No. of Cylinders = 4
Cylinder Block
Cylinder Block
Cylinder Block
Cylinder Block
No. of Valves
Valves are provided in the engine to breathe (to take in air & fuel and to let out exhaust gases). We know that at least 2 valves are required in each cylinder of engine. One for intake and other one for exhaust.
No. of Valves
However it is possible to have more than 2 valves in each cylinder such as 3 or 4 In 3 valves cylinder 2 valves are for intake and 1 for exhaust. In 4 valves cylinder 2 valves are for intake and 2 for exhaust
Try to breathe through one nostril and then through both. Did you notice the difference. Yes it was hard to breathe through only one nostril. Similarly more number of valves helps engine to breathe easily
Camshaft Arrangements
Camshaft:
The part of engine which opens and closes the valves is called Camshaft. The layout of camshaft and valves in the engine is called camshaft arrangement. There are different types of Valve and Camshaft arrangement in engines depending on shape, size and use of engine.
Here, all inlet and exhaust valves are operated by one camshaft directly that is located above the cylinder block. This type of arrangements is superior to the older arrangement operating the valve through push rods.
These engines have two camshafts over the engine head. One to operate the intake valves and the other to operate the exhaust valves. This generally makes the operation move precise and thus it is easier for the car to give better performance & efficiency
Engine Performance
Engine performance is presented by various manufacturers using the following terms: Power - BHP/ PS Torque
BHP (Brake Horse Power) is unit of measuring engine power. Depends on its torque and engine speed (RPM). Engine Power = Torque X RPM The higher the BHP, the more powerful an engine is. Conversion BHP to Kw : - Multiply By 0.7457 Conversion Kw to BHP : - Multiply By 1.341
PS (Pferdestrke = Horse Strength) is a German term for Horse Power 1 PS = 0.9863 bhp In Indian Market all the manufacturers use unit of PS or Brake Horsepower to indicate engine power.
Torque
Torque Exerted on Bolt
Advantages & Benefits Faster pick up Lesser gear shifts Enhanced fuel economy Longer engine life Lesser maintenance costs
A higher figure indicates more power for a given weight. More power for a given weight leads to better pick up & better fuel economy (Keeping all other variables
constant**)
Diesel Engines
Differences in Operation
Based on the injection there are two main types of diesel engines today a) Direct Injection b) Indirect Injection
Direct Injection
In a direct injection diesel engine, fuel is injected directly into the cylinder.
Injector
Indirect Injection
Pre Combustion Chamber
Injector
Here diesel engine fuel is injected into a small pre-chamber which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow opening. The initial combustion takes place in this prechamber slowing the rate of combustion.
Difference
Direct
In Direct
Injectors
ENGINE
FUEL PUMP
Accelerometer
Diesel engines are infamous for unwanted noise, black emissions, and low performance & responsiveness CRDe takes care of all these issues.
Operation # Fuel Injection Pump mechanically meters the fuel quantity to be injected in the cylinder # Timing of fuel injection (& hence the quantity) is controlled mechanically by the FIP as per the engine RPM # The ECU (like a MPFI Petrol engine) operates the solenoid valve injector # Fuel quantity and injection timing is controlled electronically, as such is independent of engine RPM # The CRDI operates with electronically controlled injection timing and quantity and at high pressure throughout the injection process (the high pressure common rail helps maintain the high pressure)
Advantage CRDe
Higher Fuel Economy Low Emissions Low Engine Noise High Power High Torque
Petrol Engines
Petrol Engines
Carburetors:
A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel before it is supplied to the intake manifold. It is a mechanical device which used to depend on the speed and pressure of the air passing through it. This device had its limitations which led to fuel injection becoming the preferred method of automotive fuel delivery.
Petrol Engines
Limitations of Carburetors:
In a carburetor the ratio of air & fuel in the injected mixture has to be preset. So the mixture is either fixed as lean or rich.
So it was primarily due to the stricter emission norms and the ever increasing quest for engine power a better solution for this problem was required.
To ensure that a correct proportion of air and fuel is supplied to the engine in all conditions. Earlier, performed by the carburettor Now computerized system calculates the required air-fuel ratios. Resulted in improved performance, fuel efficiency & lower emissions. Controlled by a computer called Engine Control Module (ECM)
Petrol Engines
The new device that replaced the carburetors was the fuel injection system that primarily comprised of : An Electronic Control Module (ECM) A fuel injector A fuel pump This kind of a fuel injection setup is called Single Point Fuel Injection (SPFI) OR Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
Video
Petrol Engines
Disadvantages of SPFI: Since the injection setup was feeding fuel to all the cylinders on every cycle hence they were not economical and caused a lot of pollution.
So, with the increasing need for refined engines and even stricter emission norms coming in, the injection technology moved a step up. Latest in the injection technology is the: Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)
Petrol Engines
In MPFi (Multi Port Fuel Injection) system, there is an electronic fuel injector for each cylinder.
These injectors spray fuel into the cylinders.
Petrol Engines
With the advanced microprocessor technology coming in, the ECMs became more powerful and a more precise fuel injection timing was attained. There are different injection timings that are used in different driving conditions: Simultaneous Group Sequential Sequential Injection Injection Injection
Video
Video
Advantage: Efficient distribution and combustion of fuel. Benefit: Cleaner Emissions Better Fuel Economy
Transmission System
Transmission (Gearbox)
Transmission:
To vary the engine torque as per the driving needs and transfer it to wheels.
Lower gear (1st, 2nd etc) for more torque (turning force) & less speed. For example at starting, climbing etc
Higher gears for more speed but less torque like highway driving Two types of transmissions are used in cars. Manual Transmissions
Automatic Transmissions
Gear Ratios
The gear ratio can be determined by counting the teeth on both gears.
Gear Ratios
Example : - If driving gear = 20 teeth and driven gear = 40 teeth, the gear ratio is 2 to 1. The driven gear makes one revolution for every two revolutions of the drive gear. In an overdrive gear (Usually 5th) the ratio is such that the output shaft rotates faster then the input shaft.
Example : Gear 1st gear 2nd gear 3rd gear 4th gear 5th gear Reverse Ratio 2.97:1 2.07:1 1.43:1 1.00:1 0.84:1 3.28:1
Manual Transmissions
Manual Transmissions Advantages: Cheaper to manufacture than A/T Economical on fuel Easy to maintain Lighter than A/T units Benefits: Lower vehicle cost
Fuel efficient
Lower maintenance cost
Manual Transmissions
Automatic Transmissions
In automatic transmission, the gearbox changes gear ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, thus freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually.
Automatic Transmissions
Operation Modes : D Drive P Park N Neutral R Reverse 2 Lock in 2nd Gear L Lock in 1st Gear
It has an H-gate for the gearshift. In normal operation, the gearbox is just like an automatic, putting it in 'D' for Drive and just letting it go about its business. It has a H-gate with a + & sign which allows the driver to manually shift gears.
Automatic Transmissions
Advantages:
No Clutch Pedal Automatic shifting of gears Smooth power transmission Benefits: Smoother drive
Note: For more tips on fuel efficiency please refer to fuel efficiency tips given to customer at the time delivery in booklet.
Front Wheel Drive Here the drive train channels the power of the engine to the Front Wheels.
Rear Wheel Drive Here the drive train channels the power of the engine to the Rear Wheels.
Four Wheel Drive Here the drive train channels the power of the engine to both the front & rear differential and Wheels.
Full Time Four Wheel Drive Here the drive train channels the power to both
the front & rear differential and wheels all the the
time. Or in other words driver has no option to drive the vehicle in 2 Wheel Drive Mode.
Differential
Transmits power to the wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds. When turning a cars inside wheels travel a shorter distance than the outside wheels. The differential is a device that splits the engine torque two ways, allowing each wheel to spin at a different speed.
Front Wheel Drive Rear Wheel Drive All Wheel Drive
Differential - Working
To Right Wheel To Left Wheel
Input torque is applied to the If the left side gear encounters ring gear resistance, the planet gear rotates about the left side gear, Which turns the entire carrier, in turn applying extra rotation to providing torque to both side the right side gear. gears , which in turn may drive the left and right wheels. Blue Ring Gear & Carrier If the resistance at both wheels is Red (Right) Side Gear equal, the planet gear does not Yellow (Left) Side Gear rotate, and both wheels turn at Green Planet gear the same rate.
Consider a situation where the right tire looses traction. It will start spinning and because of the design of the ordinary differential the left wheel will be at a stand still. LSD is a modified type of differential gear arrangement that allows for some difference in rotational velocity of the output shafts, but does not allow the difference in speed to increase beyond a preset amount. Torque sensitive (geared or clutch-based) and speed sensitive (viscous/pump and clutch pack) are commonly used on passenger cars.
Braking System
There are two types of braking system Drum type Disc Type
The frictional materials are fixed to either brake pads or brake shoes, depending on the type of system.
Drum Brakes: This type of brakes have a round shape of revolving drum attached to the wheels and two brake shoes that expand within the round drum when you apply the brakes. The friction between shoes and the drum causes the vehicle to slow or stop. Brake Drums are usually used in rear wheels.
CALIPER PAD
DISC
Steering System
Steering Systems
The steering system enables the driver to effect directional control of the vehicle. Rack & Pinion steering system. Most passenger cars use rack and pinion system.
The power steering system is powered from the engine via a drive belt and a pump. Therefore, it is important to remember the Power assistance is available to steering, only when the engine is running.
Here the rack movement is assisted by a motor powered by electric current. The Power assistance is available to steering, only when the ignition is ON.
Lighter steering feel. Environmentally friendly as no use of hydraulic oil. Marginal improvement in fuel efficiency as the engine power required to run the hydraulic pump is saved. Application limited to smaller passenger vehicles
Gives a continuos feedback from the road unlike EPS Does not need to be cut off at high speeds (Unlike EPS) as the speed of the motor depends on engine RPM.
Suspension System
Coil Spring
Coil springs are the most commonly used springs. As the name suggests the spring is made of a spring steel rod by giving it a shape of a coil.
MacPherson Struts
The strut will usually carry both the coil spring on which the body is suspended and the shock absorber, which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted within the strut.
Advantages It allows for more width in the engine bay, which is useful for smaller cars.
Left and right wheels are connected together with the help of a solid link
Movement of one wheel also affects the other wheel
Hence the ride and handling of the vehicle is not very good.
Has a higher load capability Preferred on heavier and utility vehicles.
Independent Suspension
Multi-Link Suspension
Multi link suspension has 3 or more links (control arms, rods etc) to connect each wheel with the vehicle body.
Due to a higher number of linkages the suspension behaves better and thus gives a better ride and handling.
Scorpio is equipped with multi link rear suspension.
Tyre Size
1 7 5 /7 0 R 1 3
Tyres size is usually identified by a code that looks like the number alongside. The significance of these numbers is as below: 1. Tyre width in mm 2. Aspect Ratio (Height/Width) 3. R for radial tyre 4. Rim Diameter in Inches.
Aspect Ratio
1
2
Example 1 : Tire height => (.75 X 235 = 176.25 mm) Example 2 : Tire height => (.45 X 295 = 132.75 mm)
The smaller the aspect ratio, the wider the tire in relation to its height.
When a car goes around a turn lateral forces are generated and the tire must resist these forces.
Tires with a lower profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so they resist cornering forces better.
Tubeless Tyre
Tubeless Tyre
Q. What are the benefits of tubeless tyres? Tubeless tyres are tyres wherein there is no tube, the air is held between the tyre and the rim. The advantages of this are:Incase of a puncture, the air does not rapidly escape through the valve hole as the valve is fitted to the rim, the air if at all only escapes slowly. The chances of a blow out are also minimal.
Tubeless Tyre
Tubeless Tyre
Q. What are the benefits of tubeless tyres? (Cont) The ride & handling is also marginally better. The mileage too increases slightly. And the only care one has to take is when changing a tyre or repairing, is the work should be done on a machine not a local hammer and awl job.
To cool the vehicle interior To reduce humidity Windows can remain closed which maintains the vehicles aerodynamics. This results in improved fuel economy and reduction of traffic noise and fumes. Avoids misting of glasses. Reduces driver fatigue.
The A/C system also acts as a filter for outside air. As air passes over the damp surface of the evaporator, large quantities of irritating particles are removed. Some systems also use a separate filter, these filters can some times filter out even the smallest pollen grains & dust.
Heating Systems
For cool climates cars also have a heating system. The heating system passes air over a heat exchanger heated by engine heat. To quickly dehumidify the interior of the car in cold and rainy weather the AC can be used along with the heater for smaller duration.
Use fresh air mode in AC switch on condition to clear FR windshield fogging from inside. Use defogger switch to clear RR windshield (if installed). Blower without AC should only be used with fresh air mode to avoid any fogging. Operate at first blower speed after initial cooling at high speed. Do not turn the air louvers towards window side.
FATC maintains cabin temperature at the selected level irrespective of outside weather conditions.
It does so by continuously monitoring inside & outside temperature and automatically making adjustments to the system components like the compressor, blower, vent selection etc.
Safety System
Active Safety Systems These systems avoid accidents and hence they function at all times during use of the vehicle. E.g. Vacuum Assisted (power) Brakes. Anti-Lock Brake (ABS) System. Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) System. Spoiler, Child Lock and Rear Window Demister etc. Passive Safety Systems These systems reduce the level of injury to the occupant and increase their safety in case of accident. E.g. Laminated Windshield Glass, Seat Belts, Side Impact Beams, Crumple Zones, Collapsible Steering Column, Head Restraints, Anti Submarine seats, Air Bags, Monocoque Body Structure etc.
Crumple Zones
The side impact bars are provided in the doors to reduce injuries during collisions into the side of the car.
Seat Belts
Seat belts protect the passengers from injury in the event of an accident. The Emergency Locking Retractor (ELR) mechanism in the seat belt locks the belt during a sudden stop or impact. At the Same time ELR mechanism allows the freedom of movement under normal conditions.
Safety
Pretensionor:
The idea of a pretensionor is to tighten up any slack in the belt webbing in the event of a crash. This force helps move the passenger into the optimum crash position in his or her seat.
Seatbelt pretensionors and force limiters work together to reduce the impact forces transferred to an occupant in a crash.
Safety
Generally, pretensionors are wired to the same central control processor that activates the car's air bags. The processor monitors mechanical or electronic motion sensors that respond to the sudden deceleration of an impact. When an impact is detected, the processor activates the pretensionor and then the air bag.
Safety
Air Bags: Airbags are credited with reducing numerous injuries and saving many lives during vehicle accidents.
Airbag Video
Safety
Single - DAB ACU
AIRBAG*
FIS
Single - PAB
ACU (Airbag Control Unit): Located in the area below the parking brake lever. G Force Sensor : Senses sudden deceleration and the G Forces acting on the vehicle. Ensures the airbags are opened only when required (G forces are above or equal to a threshold value).
DAB (Driver Airbag) module housed in the center of the steering wheel
PAB (Passenger Airbag) module is located in the passenger side crash pad. FIS (Front Impact Sensors) : Sends the signals to airbag to inflate in case of collision
ABS
Effective at even low speeds Anti Locking Brake System sensors mounted on the wheels continuous monitor wheel speed and the system modulates braking pressure to prevent wheel lock up.
With ABS
Without ABS
With wheel lock up prevented the car can come to a perfect controlled stop on all surface conditions with the driver always having steering control.
Video
LSPV :
* Load Sensitive Proportioning Valve Controls the amount of brake oil going to the rear wheels depending on the load on the vehicle.
* To prevent the rear wheels from locking, there by reducing the braking distance.
By Pass Valve :* Ensure supply of full amount of brake oil to the rear wheels irrespective of vehicle load, in the unlikely event of front brake circuit failure.
Head Restraints
Head restraints installed on top of the seat reduce the risk of neck injuries (whiplash injuries) in the case of a rear collision.
Designed to collapse
During a collision, one tube slide one into the other. Reduces the potential for injury to the drivers chest
Anti-Submarine Seats
Compared to a standard seat the anti-submarine seat has a raised lip at the front end. In a frontal collision, the lip restricts the person sliding underneath the seat belt.