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Acid Sulphate Soil
Acid sulphate soils are typically viewed as soil types that contain metal sulfides which canoxidize to generate acidity upon exposure to atmosphere and moisture. Acid sulphate soils arewidely distributed around the world and can cause severe agricultural, engineering andenvironmental problems if they are not properly managed.Acid sulphate soils are naturally occurring soils, sediments or organic substrates (e.g. peat) thatare formed under waterlogged conditions. These soils contain iron sulfide minerals(predominantly as the mineral pyrite) or their oxidation products. In an undisturbed statebelow the water table, acid sulphate soils are benign. However if the soils are drained,excavated or exposed to air by a lowering of the water table, the sulfides will react with oxygento form sulfuric acid.Release of this sulfuric acid from the soil can in turn release iron, aluminum, and other heavymetals (particularly arsenic) within the soil. Once mobilized in this way, the acid and metals cancreate a variety of adverse impacts: killing vegetation, seeping into and acidifying groundwaterand water bodies, killing fish and other aquatic organisms, and degrading concrete and steelstructures to the point of failure.The soils and sediments which are most prone to becoming acid sulphate soils are those whichformed within the last 10,000 years, after the last major sea level rise. When the sea level roseand inundated the land, sulphate in the seawater mixed with land sediments containing ironoxides and organic matter. Under these anaerobic conditions, lithotrophic bacteria such as
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
form iron sulfides (pyrite). Up to a point, warmer temperatures aremore favorable conditions for these bacteria, creating a greater potential for formation of ironsulfides. Tropical waterlogged environments, such as mangrove swamps or estuaries, maycontain higher levels of pyrite than those formed in more temperate climates.The pyrite is stable until it is exposed to air, at which point the pyrite oxidizes and producessulfuric acid. The impacts of acid sulphate soil leachate may persist over a long time, and/orpeak seasonally (after dry periods with the first rains). In some areas of Australia, acid sulphatesoils that drained 100 years ago are still releasing acid.
Geographical distribution
Acid sulphate soils represent a considerable land area in Asia (18-20 million hectares), mainly inCambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam.
Acid sulphate soils are widespreadaround coastal regions, and are also locally associated with freshwater wetlands and salinesulphate-rich groundwater in some agricultural areas. In Australia, coastal acid sulphate soilsoccupy an estimated 40,000 km
2
, underlying coastal estuaries and floodplains near where themajority of the Australian population lives. Acid sulphate soil disturbance is often associatedwith dredging, excavation dewatering activities during canal, housing and marinadevelopments.
 
Acid sulphate soils in the Mekong delta cover 1.6 million hectares, of which 400,000 ha arelocated in the Plain of Reeds. Due to the presence of pyrite that yields acid when oxidized, allacid sulphate soils are (potentially) strongly acidic. Reclamation of the 150,000 ha of severelyacid sulphates soils still uncultivated in 1990 became a national priority and now attracts localfarmers and migrants. However, these soils present important agronomic problems andfarmers urgently need advice to reclaim them. However, the development of recommendationand the cultivation of acid sulphate soils on a large scale are made difficult by their very highvariability.
Broadening the Definition
Traditionally, the use of the term “acid sulphate soil” was confined to coastal soils evolved fromsulfidic estuarine and marine sediments. In recent years, inland soils that contain metal sulfidesare increasingly referred to as acid sulphate soils. Inland ASS’ are especially widespread in minesites that are associated with sulfide-containing geological formations. There are also manyareas of inland acid sulphate soils that have been made by highway and other constructionactivities, including the deposition of dredged materials from shipping channels at upland sitesetc.Acid rock drainage (ARD) or acid mine drainage (AMD) has attracted substantial managementand research efforts from mining industry and scientific communities. Both, AMD and ARDshare similar mineralogical and geochemical properties and they can be treated using similarcontrol measures and remediation technologies. It is expected that a gathering of researchersand industry practitioners in both of these areas will be to the benefit of each other by allowinginformation exchanges between the two parties.Housing, marina, infrastructure and farming developments frequently disturb soils andsediments, sometimes with dramatic consequences. Acid Sulphate Soils occur naturally in bothcoastal (tidal) and inland or upland (freshwater) settings. Left undisturbed, these soils areharmless, but when excavated or drained, the sulfides within the soil react with the oxygen inthe air, forming sulfuric acid. This acid, together with associated toxic elements (heavy metalsand other contaminants), can kill plants and animals, contaminate drinking water and food suchas oysters, and corrode concrete and steel. Land managers need to be able to identify thoseareas where development is either best avoided, or is going to need some special treatment.
 
Impacts of Acid Sulphate Soil
Disturbing potential acid sulphate soils can have a destructive effect on plant and fish life, andon coastal ecosystems. Flushing of acidic leachate to groundwater and surface waters can causea number of impacts, including:
 
Ecological damage to aquatic and riparian ecosystems through fish kills, increased fishdisease outbreaks, dominance of acid-tolerant species, precipitation of iron, etc.
 
 
Effects on estuarine fisheries and aquaculture projects (increased disease, loss of spawning area, etc).
 
Contamination of groundwater with arsenic, aluminum and other heavy metals.
 
Reduction in agricultural productivity through metal contamination of soils(predominantly by aluminum).
 
Damage to infrastructure through the corrosion of concrete and steel pipes, bridges andother sub-surface assets.
Agricultural impacts
 
Potentially acid sulphate soils (also called cat-clays) are often not cultivated or, if they are,planted under rice, so that the soil can be kept wet preventing oxidation. Subsurface drainageof these soils is normally not advisable.When cultivated, acid sulphate soils cannot be kept wet continuously because of climatic dryspells and shortages of irrigation water, surface drainage may help to remove the acidic andtoxic chemicals (formed in the dry spells) during rainy periods. In the long run surface drainagecan help to reclaim acid sulphate soils. The indigenous population of Guinea Bissau has thusmanaged to develop the soils, but it has taken them many years of careful management andtoil.In an article on cautious land drainage the author describes the successful application of subsurface drainage in acid sulphate soils in coastal polders of Kerala state, India. Also in theSunderbans, West Bengal, India, acid sulphate soils have been taken in agricultural use.A study in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, in a per-humid climate, has shown that the acidsulphate soils with a widely spaced subsurface drainage system have yielded promising resultsfor the cultivation of upland (sic!) rice, pea nut and soy bean. The local population, of old, hadalready settled in this area and were able to produce a variety of crops (including tree fruits),using hand-dug drains running from the river into the land until reaching the back swamps. Thecrop yields were modest, but provided enough income to make a decent living.Reclaimed cat-clays have a well developed soil structure, they are well permeable, but infertiledue to the leaching that has occurred.In the second half of the 20th century, in many parts of the world, waterlogged and potentiallyacid sulphate soils have been drained aggressively to make them productive for agriculture. Theresults were disastrous. The soils are unproductive, the lands look barren and the water is veryclear, devoid of silt and life. The soils can be colorful, though.
Discussion
There is quite a bit of material published about acid sulphate soils in Vietnam and, there haseven been a conference on the problem held in Vietnam. There is no doubt that the problem is
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