All Text, Graphics, Animations, Video, and Commentary on this website was created by, and is the intellectual

property of m4040@m4040.com. All i!hts eser"ed. #nauthori$ed reproduction is punishable by up to a %&00,000 fine or & years imprisonment for a first offense, and up to
a $1,000,000 fine or up to 10 years imprisonment for subsequent offenses under the 'i!ital (illenium Copyri!ht Act )'(CA*. e+uests for use of this material should be forwarded to m4040@m4040.com. Why did I add this disclaimer? SEE WHY
ADVANCED NAVIGATION
!" #$%&$%' "ap (eadin) and *and +a,i)ation
CHAPTER 9 - LAND NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
-ompasses are the primary na,i)ation tools to use .hen mo,in) in an
outdoor .orld .here there is no other .ay to find directions Soldiers should
be thorou)hly familiar .ith the compass and its uses /art 0ne of this
manual discussed the techniques of map readin) 1o complement these
techniques, a mastery of field mo,ement techniques is essential 1his chapter
describes the lensatic compass and its uses, and some of the field e2pedient
methods used to find directions .hen compasses are not a,ailable
9-1. TYPES OF COMPASSES
1he lensatic compass is the most common and simplest instrument for measurin) direction
It is discussed in detail in para)raph 3$% 1he artillery "% compass is a special$purpose
instrument desi)ned for accuracy4 it .ill be discussed in 5ppendi2 6 1he .rist7poc8et
compass is a small ma)netic compass that can be attached to a .rist.atch band It contains
a north$see8in) arro. and a dial in de)rees 5 protractor can be used to determine a9imuths
.hen a compass is not a,ailable Ho.e,er, it should be noted that .hen usin) the protractor
on a map, only )rid a9imuths are obtained
9-2. LENSATIC COMPASS
1he lensatic compass :!i)ure 3$1; consists of three ma<or parts= the co,er, the base, and the
lens
Figure 9-1. Le!"#i$ $%&'"!!.
a -o,er 1he compass co,er protects the floatin) dial It contains the si)htin) .ire
:front si)ht; and t.o luminous si)htin) slots or dots used for ni)ht na,i)ation
b >ase 1he body of the compass contains the follo.in) mo,able parts=
:1; 1he floatin) dial is mounted on a pi,ot so it can rotate freely .hen the compass is
held le,el /rinted on the dial in luminous fi)ures are an arro. and the letters E and W 1he
arro. al.ays points to ma)netic north and the letters fall at east :E; 30? and .est :W; %@0?
on the dial 1here are t.o scales4 the outer scale denotes mils and the inner scale :normally
in red; denotes de)rees
:%; Encasin) the floatin) dial is a )lass containin) a fi2ed blac8 inde2 line
:#; 1he be9el rin) is a ratchet de,ice that clic8s .hen turned It contains 1%0 clic8s .hen
rotated fully4 each clic8 is equal to #? 5 short luminous line that is used in con<unction .ith
the north$see8in) arro. durin) na,i)ation is contained in the )lass face of the be9el rin)
:A; 1he thumb loop is attached to the base of the compass
c *ens 1he lens is used to read the dial, and it contains the rear$si)ht slot used in
con<unction .ith the front for si)htin) on ob<ects 1he rear si)ht also ser,es as a loc8 and
clamps the dial .hen closed for its protection 1he rear si)ht must be opened more than A&?
to allo. the dial to float freely
NOTE( When opened, the strai)hted)e on the left side of the compass has a coordinate
scale4 the scale is 1=&0,000 in ne.er compasses
)ARNING( Some older compasses .ill ha,e a 1=%&,000 scale 1his scale can be used
.ith a 1=&0,000$scale map, but the ,alues read must be hal,ed -hec8 the
scale
9-*. COMPASS HANDLING
-ompasses are delicate instruments and should be cared for accordin)ly
a Inspection 5 detailed inspection is required .hen first obtainin) and usin) a
compass 0ne of the most important parts to chec8 is the floatin) dial, .hich contains the
ma)netic needle 1he user must also ma8e sure the si)htin) .ire is strai)ht, the )lass and
crystal parts are not bro8en, the numbers on the dial are readable, and most important, that
the dial does not stic8
b Effects of "etal and Electricity "etal ob<ects and electrical sources can affect the
performance of a compass Ho.e,er, nonma)netic metals and alloys do not affect compass
readin)s 1he follo.in) separation distances are su))ested to ensure proper functionin) of
a compass=
Hi)h$tension po.er lines && meters
!ield )un, truc8, or tan8 1B meters
1ele)raph or telephone .ires and barbed .ire 10 meters
"achine )un% meters
Steel helmet or rifle17% meter
c 5ccuracy 5 compass in )ood .or8in) condition is ,ery accurate Ho.e,er, a
compass has to be chec8ed periodically on a 8no.n line of direction, such as a sur,eyed
a9imuth usin) a declination station -ompasses .ith more than #? C ,ariation should not be
used
d /rotection If tra,elin) .ith the compass unfolded, ma8e sure the rear si)ht is fully
folded do.n onto the be9el rin) 1his .ill loc8 the floatin) dial and pre,ent ,ibration, as
.ell as protect the crystal and rear si)ht from dama)e
9-+. USING A COMPASS
"a)netic a9imuths are determined .ith the use of ma)netic instruments, such as lensatic and
"% compasses 1he techniques employed .hen usin) the lensatic compass are as follo.s=
a Dsin) the -enterhold 1echnique !irst, open the compass to its fullest so that the
co,er forms a strai)hted)e .ith the base "o,e the lens :rear si)ht; to the rearmost position,
allo.in) the dial to float freely +e2t, place your thumb throu)h the thumb loop, form a
steady base .ith your third and fourth fin)ers, and e2tend your inde2 fin)er alon) the side
of the compass /lace the thumb of the other hand bet.een the lens :rear si)ht; and the be9el
rin)4 e2tend the inde2 fin)er alon) the remainin) side of the compass, and the remainin)
fin)ers around the fin)ers of the other hand /ull your elbo.s firmly into your sides4 this .ill
place the compass bet.een your chin and your belt 1o measure an a9imuth, simply turn
your entire body to.ard the ob<ect, pointin) the compass co,er directly at the ob<ect 0nce
you are pointin) at the ob<ect, loo8 do.n and read the a9imuth from beneath the fi2ed blac8
inde2 line :!i)ure 3$%; 1his preferred method offers the follo.in) ad,anta)es o,er the
si)htin) technique=
:1; It is faster and easier to use
:%; It can be used under all conditions of ,isibility
:#; It can be used .hen na,i)atin) o,er any type of terrain
:A; It can be used .ithout puttin) do.n the rifle4 ho.e,er, the rifle must be slun) .ell
bac8 o,er either shoulder
:&; It can be used .ithout remo,in) eye)lasses
Figure 9-2. Ce#er,%-. #e$,i/ue.
b Dsin) the -ompass$to$-hee8 1echnique !old the co,er of the compass containin)
the si)htin) .ire to a ,ertical position4 then fold the rear si)ht sli)htly for.ard *oo8
throu)h the rear$si)ht slot and ali)n the front$si)ht hairline .ith the desired ob<ect in the
distance 1hen )lance do.n at the dial throu)h the eye lens to read the a9imuth :!i)ure 3$#;
NOTE( 1he compass$to$chee8 technique is used almost e2clusi,ely for si)htin), and it
is the best technique for this purpose
Figure 9-*. C%&'"!!-#%-$,ee0 #e$,i/ue.
c /resettin) a -ompass and !ollo.in) an 59imuth 5lthou)h different models of
the lensatic compass ,ary some.hat in the details of their use, the principles are the same
:1; Eurin) dayli)ht hours or .ith a li)ht source=
:a; Hold the compass le,el in the palm of the hand
:b; (otate it until the desired a9imuth falls under the fi2ed blac8 inde2 line :for e2ample,
#%0?;, maintainin) the a9imuth as prescribed :!i)ure 3$A;
:c; 1urn the be9el rin) until the luminous line is ali)ned .ith the north$see8in) arro.
0nce the ali)nment is obtained, the compass is preset
:d; 1o follo. an a9imuth, assume the centerhold technique and turn your body until the
north$see8in) arro. is ali)ned .ith the luminous line 1hen proceed for.ard in the direction
of the front co,erFs si)htin) .ire, .hich is ali)ned .ith the fi2ed blac8 inde2 line that
contains the desired a9imuth
Figure 9-+. C%&'"!! 're!e# "# *21 .egree!.
:%; Eurin) limited ,isibility, an a9imuth may be set on the compass by the clic8 method
(emember that the be9el rin) contains #? inter,als :clic8s;
:a; (otate the be9el rin) until the luminous line is o,er the fi2ed blac8 inde2 line
:b; !ind the desired a9imuth and di,ide it by three 1he result is the number of clic8s that
you ha,e to rotate the be9el rin)
:c; -ount the desired number of clic8s If the desired a9imuth is smaller than 1B0?, the
number of clic8s on the be9el rin) should be counted in a countercloc8.ise direction !or
e2ample, the desired a9imuth is &1? Eesired a9imuth is &1?G # H 1@ clic8s
countercloc8.ise If the desired a9imuth is lar)er than 1B0?, subtract the number of de)rees
from #'0? and di,ide by # to obtain the number of clic8s -ount them in a cloc8.ise
direction !or e2ample, the desired a9imuth is ##0?4 #'0?$##0? H #0 G# H 10 clic8s
cloc8.ise
:d; With the compass preset as described abo,e, assume a centerhold technique and
rotate your body until the north$see8in) arro. is ali)ned .ith the luminous line on the be9el
1hen proceed for.ard in the direction of the front co,erFs luminous dots, .hich are ali)ned
.ith the fi2ed blac8 inde2 line containin) the a9imuth
:e; When the compass is to be used in dar8ness, an initial a9imuth should be set .hile
li)ht is still a,ailable, if possible With the initial a9imuth as a base, any other a9imuth that
is a multiple of three can be established throu)h the use of the clic8in) feature of the be9el
rin)
NOTE( Sometimes the desired a9imuth is not e2actly di,isible by three, causin) an option
of roundin) up or roundin) do.n If the a9imuth is rounded up, this causes an
increase in the ,alue of the a9imuth, and the ob<ect is to be found on the left If
the a9imuth is rounded do.n, this causes a decrease in the ,alue of the a9imuth,
and the ob<ect is to be found on the ri)ht
d >ypassin) an 0bstacle 1o bypass enemy positions or obstacles and still stay
oriented, detour around the obstacle by mo,in) at ri)ht an)les for specified distances
:1; !or e2ample, .hile mo,in) on an a9imuth of 30? chan)e your a9imuth to 1B0? and
tra,el for 100 meters -han)e your a9imuth to 30?and tra,el for 1&0 meters -han)e your
a9imuth to #'0?and tra,el for 100 meters 1hen, chan)e your a9imuth to 30?and you are bac8
on your ori)inal a9imuth line :!i)ure 3$&;
Figure 9-2. 34'"!!ig " %5!#"$-e.
:%; >ypassin) an une2pected obstacle at ni)ht is a fairly simple matter 1o ma8e a 30?
turn to the ri)ht, hold the compass in the centerhold technique4 turn until the center of the
luminous letter E is under the luminous line :do not mo,e the be9el rin); 1o ma8e a 30? turn
to the left, turn until the center of the luminous letter W is under the luminous line 1his does
not require chan)in) the compass settin) :be9el rin);, and it ensures accurate 30? turns
e 0ffset 5 deliberate offset is a planned ma)netic de,iation to the ri)ht or left of an
a9imuth to an ob<ecti,e Dse it .hen the ob<ecti,e is located alon) or in the ,icinity of a
linear feature such as a road or stream >ecause of errors in the compass or in map readin),
the linear feature may be reached .ithout 8no.in) .hether the ob<ecti,e lies to the ri)ht or
left 5 deliberate offset by a 8no.n number of de)rees in a 8no.n direction compensates
for possible errors and ensures that upon reachin) the linear feature, the user 8no.s .hether
to )o ri)ht or left to reach the ob<ecti,e 1en de)rees is an adequate offset for most tactical
uses Each de)ree offset mo,es the course about 1B meters to the ri)ht or left for each
1,000 meters tra,eled !or e2ample, in !i)ure 3$', the number of de)rees offset is 10 If the
distance tra,eled to I2I in 1,000 meters, then I2I is located about 1B0 meters to the ri)ht of
the ob<ecti,e
Figure 9-6. De-i5er"#e %77!e# #% #,e %58e$#i9e.
9-2. FIELD-E:PEDIENT METHODS
When a compass is not a,ailable, different techniques should be used to determine the four
cardinal directions
a Shado.$1ip "ethod
:1; 1his simple and accurate method of findin) direction by the sun consists of four basic
steps :!i)ure 3$@;
Figure 9-;. De#er&iig .ire$#i%! ". #i&e 54 !,".%<.
S#e' 1. /lace a stic8 or branch into the )round at a le,el spot .here a distincti,e shado.
.ill be cast "ar8 the shado. tip .ith a stone, t.i), or other means 1his first shado. mar8
is al.ays the .est direction
S#e' 2. Wait 10 to 1& minutes until the shado. tip mo,es a fe. inches "ar8 the ne.
position of the shado. tip in the same .ay as the first
S#e' *. Era. a strai)ht line throu)h the t.o mar8s to obtain an appro2imate east$.est
line
S#e' +. Standin) .ith the first mar8 :.est; to your left, the other directions are simple4
north is to the front, east is to the ri)ht, and south is behind you
:%; 5 line dra.n perpendicular to the east$.est line at any point is the appro2imate
north$south line If you are uncertain .hich direction is east and .hich is .est, obser,e this
simple rule$$the first shado.$tip mar8 is al.ays in the .est direction, e,ery.here on earth
:#; 1he shado.$tip method can also be used as a shado. cloc8 to find the appro2imate
time of day :!i)ure 3$@ on pa)e 3$@;
:a; 1o find the time of day, mo,e the stic8 to the intersection of the east$.est line and
the north$south line, and set it ,ertically in the )round 1he .est part of the east$.est line
indicates 0'00 hours, and the east part is 1B00 hours, any.here on earth, because the basic
rule al.ays applies
:b; 1he north$south line no. becomes the noon line 1he shado. of the stic8 is an hour
hand in the shado. cloc8, and .ith it you can estimate the time usin) the noon line and the
' oFcloc8 line as your )uides Eependin) on your location and the season, the shado. may
mo,e either cloc8.ise or countercloc8.ise, but this does not alter your manner of readin)
the shado. cloc8
:c; 1he shado. cloc8 is not a timepiece in the ordinary sense It ma8es e,ery day 1%
unequal hours lon), and al.ays reads 0'00 hours at sunrise and 1B00 hours at sunset 1he
shado. cloc8 time is closest to con,entional cloc8 time at midday, but the spacin) of the
other hours compared to con,entional time ,aries some.hat .ith the locality and the date
Ho.e,er, it does pro,ide a satisfactory means of tellin) time in the absence of properly set
.atches
:d; 1he shado.$tip system is not intended for use in polar re)ions, .hich the Eepartment
of Eefense defines as bein) abo,e '0? latitude in either hemisphere Eistressed persons in
these areas are ad,ised to stay in one place so that search7rescue teams may easily find them
1he presence and location of all aircraft and )round parties in polar re)ions are reported to
and chec8ed re)ularly by )o,ernmental or other a)encies, and any need for help becomes
quic8ly 8no.n
5. )"#$, Me#,%..
:1; 5 .atch can be used to determine the appro2imate true north and true south In the
north temperate 9one only, the hour hand is pointed to.ard the sun 5 south line can be
found mid.ay bet.een the hour hand and 1%00 hours, standard time If on dayli)ht sa,in)
time, the north$south line is found bet.een the hour hand and 1#00 hours If there is any
doubt as to .hich end of the line is north, remember that the sun is in the east before noon
and in the .est after noon
:%; 1he .atch may also be used to determine direction in the south temperate 9one4
ho.e,er, the method is different 1he 1%00$hour dial is pointed to.ard the sun, and half.ay
bet.een 1%00 hours and the hour hand .ill be a north line If on dayli)ht sa,in) time, the
north line lies mid.ay bet.een the hour hand and 1#00 hours :!i)ure 3$B;
Figure 9-=. De#er&iig .ire$#i% 54 u!ig " <"#$,.
:#; 1he .atch method can be in error, especially in the lo.er latitudes, and may cause
circlin) 1o a,oid this, ma8e a shado. cloc8 and set your .atch to the time indicated 5fter
tra,elin) for an hour, ta8e another shado.$cloc8 readin) (eset your .atch if necessary
c Star "ethod
:1; *ess than '0 of appro2imately &,000 stars ,isible to the eye are used by na,i)ators
1he stars seen as .e loo8 up at the s8y at ni)ht are not e,enly scattered across the .hole s8y
Instead they are in )roups called constellations
:%; 1he constellations that .e see depends partly on .here .e are located on the earth,
the time of the year, and the time of the ni)ht 1he ni)ht chan)es .ith the seasons because
of the <ourney of the earth around the sun, and it also chan)es from hour to hour because the
turnin) of the earth ma8es some constellations seem to tra,el in a circle >ut there is one star
that is in almost e2actly the same place in the s8y all ni)ht lon) e,ery ni)ht It is the +orth
Star, also 8no.n as the /olar Star or /olaris
:#; 1he +orth Star is less than 1? off true north and does not mo,e from its place because
the a2is of the earth is pointed to.ard it 1he +orth Star is in the )roup of stars called the
*ittle Eipper It is the last star in the handle of the dipper 1here are t.o stars in the >i)
Eipper, .hich are a bi) help .hen tryin) to find the +orth Star 1hey are called the /ointers,
and an ima)inary line dra.n throu)h them fi,e times their distance points to the +orth Star
1here are many stars bri)hter than the +orth Star, but none is more important because of its
location Ho.e,er, the +orth Star can only be seen in the northern hemisphere so it cannot
ser,e as a )uide south of the equator 1he farther one )oes north, the hi)her the +orth Star
is in the s8y, and abo,e latitude @0?, it is too hi)h in the s8y to be useful :!i)ure 3$3;
Figure 9-9. De#er&iig .ire$#i% 54 #,e
N%r#, S#"r ". S%u#,er Cr%!!.
:A; Eependin) on the star selected for na,i)ation, a9imuth chec8s are necessary 5 star
near the north hori9on ser,es for about half an hour When mo,in) south, a9imuth chec8s
should be made e,ery 1& minutes When tra,elin) east or .est, the difficulty of stayin) on
a9imuth is caused more by the li8elihood of the star climbin) too hi)h in the s8y or losin)
itself behind the .estern hori9on than it is by the star chan)in) direction an)le When this
happens, it is necessary to chan)e to another )uide star 1he Southern -ross is the main
constellation used as a )uide south of the equator, and the abo,e )eneral directions for usin)
north and south stars are re,ersed When na,i)atin) usin) the stars as )uides, the user must
8no. the different constellation shapes and their locations throu)hout the .orld :!i)ure 3$10
and !i)ure 3$11 on pa)e 3$1%;
Figure 9-11. C%!#e--"#i%!> %r#,er ,e&i!',ere.
Figure 9-11. C%!#e--"#i%!> !%u#,er ,e&i!',ere.
9-6. GLO3AL POSITIONING SYSTEM
1he 6/S is a space$based, )lobal, all$.eather, continuously a,ailable, radio positionin)
na,i)ation system It is hi)hly accurate in determinin) position location deri,ed from si)nal
trian)ulation from a satellite constellation system It is capable of determinin) latitude,
lon)itude, and altitude of the indi,idual user It is bein) fielded in hand$held, manpac8,
,ehicular, aircraft, and .atercraft confi)urations 1he 6/S recei,es and processes data from
satellites on either a simultaneous or sequential basis It measures the ,elocity and ran)e
.ith respect to each satellite, processes the data in terms of an earth$centered, earth$fi2ed
coordinate system, and displays the information to the user in )eo)raphic or military )rid
coordinates
a 1he 6/S can pro,ide precise steerin) information, as .ell as position location 1he
recei,er can accept many chec8points entered in any coordinate system by the user and
con,ert them to the desired coordinate system 1he user then calls up the desired chec8point
and the recei,er .ill display direction and distance to the chec8point 1he 6/S does not
ha,e inherent drift, an impro,ement o,er the Inertial +a,i)ation System, and the recei,er
.ill automatically update its position 1he recei,er can also compute time to the ne2t
chec8point
b Specific uses for the 6/S are position location4 na,i)ation4 .eapon location4 tar)et
and sensor location4 coordination of firepo.er4 scout and screenin) operations4 combat
resupply4 location of obstacles, barriers, and )aps4 and communication support 1he 6/S
also has the potential to allo. units to train their soldiers and pro,ide the follo.in)=
J /erformance feedbac8
J Kno.led)e of routes ta8en by the soldier
J Kno.led)e of errors committed by the soldier
J -omparison of planned ,ersus e2ecuted routes
J Safety and control of lost and in<ured soldiers
:See 5ppendi2 L for more information on the 6/S;


RELATED PAGES