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1. All metals are conductors of electricity; but copper is a metal; therefore copper is a conductor of electricity.
4. The building on the corner of Grand and Lindell must be a church. Why? Because it is a building having a steeple with a cross on it, and all such buildings are churches. 5. Every X is a Y; therefore, since every Y is a Z, every X must also be a Z.
Take note that there is no illicit process if the major or minor term is universal in the premises and particular in the conclusion. To go from a particular to a universal is forbidden, but to go from a universal to a particular is not permissible.
Rule 10. The actual real existence of a subject may not be asserted in the conclusion unless it has been asserted in the premises. The reason for this rule is the general principle that nothing may ever be asserted in the conclusion that has not been asserted implicitly in the premises. This rule takes us out of the domain of formal logic, which does not consider existence except incidentally. We mention it only as a practical aid to argumentation.
1. All animals are substances; but all frogs are animals; therefore all frogs are substances.
2. All cows are animals; but no horses are cows; therefore no horses are animals.
3. Murder is sinful; but abortion is murder; therefore abortion is sinful.