Chapter 12.

8 EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
C HRISTOPHER J. B ISE 12.8.1 THE ROLE OF MAINTENANCE IN MINING
Perhaps no other aspect of a modern mine has changed so dramatically during the past several decades as the emphasis placed on proper equipment maintenance. This has been brought about by the increased awareness that improved equipment availability is the key to insuring an optimum return on mine investment. Although the outward appearance of the types of equipment currently used in both surface and underground mines appears to have changed very little during this time period, the nature of the equipment can best be described as larger, more costly, and more complex than any of its predecessors. Innovations, such as on-board diagnostics and computer control, have enhanced equipment capabilities, but have also required greater diligence and knowledge on the part of maintenance workers. Thus, the strategy of operating equipment until a breakdown occurs has given way to preventive, predictive, and scheduled maintenance. The role of maintenance in mining is to provide the lowest possible cost to a mine in terms of maintenance labor and material, and production loss resulting from the maintenance program. Obviously, maintenance provides a service function and its goals must match those of the entire organization. Fig. 12.8.1 reflects this concept and emphasizes the fact that increased maintenance beyond a certain point may ultimately increase the overall mine cost. In fact, the success of a maintenance program is highly dependent upon the commitment of top management and how well the maintenance department coordinates with other departments. Although the fundamental concepts of maintenance organization and application differ little from those of other industrial settings, there is a uniqueness to mine maintenance. For example, mines are constantly expanding as the mineral is being extracted; thus, equipment locations are continually changing. This dynamic environment, unlike a factory where the equipment is used in a fixed location for long periods of time, adds to the complexity of the service. Further, mines are hazardous environments, and repairs often must take place in areas that may be inadequately illuminated, of limited clearance, and have the potential for strata instabilities or gas ignitions; the typical maintenance worker in a factory rarely has to contend with all of these considerations. Proper maintenance of mining machinery involves judiciously combining the management of people, equipment, and resources with methods for anticipating problems before they occur. Therefore, the following segments are organized with this concept in mind.

12.8.2 DEFINITIONS
The definitions presented below refer to terms commonly used in mine equipment maintenance (Tomlingson, 1985): Area maintenance is a type of maintenance in which the front-line supervisor is responsible for all maintenance within a given geographical area. Backlog is the total number of estimated employee-hours of work required to complete all identified and planned but incomplete work. The backlog is often used as an index to deter-

Fig. 12.8.1. Goal of the mine maintenance organization. (Modified from Herbaty, 1983. By permission from Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ.)

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mine how well the maintenance department is keeping up with the work being generated or to establish the proper size and composition of the work force. The maintenance work-order system is a means of communicating maintenance requirements and planning, scheduling, and controlling information. The formal document for controlling planned and scheduled work is the maintenance work order (MWO), while the informal document for requesting unscheduled or emergency work is the maintenance work request (MWR). Overhaul is a restorative maintenance action that is taken before equipment has reached a failed state. Preventive maintenance (PM) is any action taken to prolong the life of equipment and to avoid premature failures. Preventive maintenance includes equipment inspection, lubrication, adjustment, and cleaning. Predictive maintenance (on-condition maintenance) is a special type of preventive maintenance that involves non-destructive testing techniques intended to predict wear rate, state of deterioration, or imminent equipment failure. Repair is a restorative maintenance action that is taken after equipment has reached a failed state. Table 12.8.1. Criticality Determination.

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12.8.3 PRODUCTIVITY CONTROL IN MINE EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

To develop an effective mine maintenance organization, the five critical management tasks of proper planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling should be woven into the overall strategy. According to Herbaty (1983), the following 11 steps should be followed to build an effective maintenance system: 1. Establish goals and objectives, policies and procedures, 2. Establish permissible variance from these guidelines. 3. Measure performance to establish guidelines. 4. Compare performance measurement feedback information to guidelines. 5. Isolate and identify deviations beyond tolerances. 6. Determine basic causes for deviations. 7. Determine corrective action. 8. Plan method of implementing corrective action. 9. Schedule plan for implementing corrective action. 10. Implement corrective action. 11. Follow up to ensure completion of corrective action and to prevent overswing. It should be obvious from this list that a problem identification and performance measurement system should be an integral part of the maintenance program. To initiate proper planning and problem identification, a list of all equipment to be maintained should be assembled. The list should then be reviewed to isolate those items that are critical to the overall operation if downtime is encountered. This is an application of the Pareto Principle that implies that a small percentage, say 20%, of the total units are responsible for a large percentage, say 80%, of the production losses should downtime occur. Table 12.8.1 is a typical application; notice that the first five of the 1000 items account for 77% of the mines annual maintenance costs. Further, the next five items contribute only 3% additionally to the cumulative cost, and the remaining 990 items contribute the remaining 20%. Therefore, a mine maintenance program that focuses initially on the first five critical items should result in substantial savings in annual maintenance costs. After the problem areas have been identified, the next step is to evaluate equipment performance to avoid costly, unscheduled

downtime. The mining industry has been moving away from breakdown and unscheduled maintenance toward scheduled maintenance by determining optimum inspection, overhaul, repair, and replacement intervals. For example, many preventive maintenance programs have been abandoned prematurely because no definitive scheme was established for the best frequency of inspection or exactly which units must be inspected. Thus it becomes important to develop some quantitative procedures for improving the performance of the maintenance program since uncertainty is inherent in many aspects of maintenance planning. Before an attempt is made to analyze failure data, the maintenance organization must assure that its study objectives are identical to that of the overall organization. For example, conflicts may arise when the companys objective is to maximize profit per unit time while the maintenance organization strives to maximize reliability; there can be many instances where those two concepts are not compatible. Probability density functions are used to describe failure characteristics of equipment. This can become complicated since the failure characteristics of different types of equipment are not the same, and the failure characteristics of identical types of equipment operating under different conditions may also vary. Once gathered, however, the equipment downtime information can be examined by methods of statistical quality control (Grant and Leavenworth, 1980). Jardine (1973) offers numerous examples of mathematical models designed to aid in decisionmaking regarding the inspection, maintenance, replacement, and reliability of mining equipment. As an example of replacement analysis, a simplified yet highly efficient approach developed at Oklahoma State University combines a monthly equipment record with a worksheet and can be used to determine average annual total costs for equipment such as haulage trucks (Figs. 12.8.2 and 12.8.3). To use the technique, monthly records are kept for each piece of equipment, and totals are determined for annual costs and miles driven or hours used. To use the worksheet, an average annual mileage is recorded for Item C. Columns E and F list the total annual operating and maintenance costs, and the miles driven or hours operated, respectively. Column G is a proportion determined by dividing the mileage indicated at Item C by the value shown in

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Fig. 12.8.2. Monthly equipment record for replacement analysis. (After Tatum, 1987. Reprinted from Equipment Management, 1987 by Irving-Cloud Publishing Co.)

Fig. 12.8.4. Establishment of a preventive maintenance program. (After Tomlingson, 1985a. By permission.)

umn J indicates the average annual operating and maintenance costs, determined by dividing the values in Column I by the corresponding years in Column D. Column K indicates the average annual capital cost by dividing the purchase price B by the corresponding years in Column D. Finally, the average annual total cost is the summation of the values shown in columns J and K, and a maintenance manager should consider replacement when the values in Column L start to increase.

12.8.4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

As previously mentioned, preventive maintenance encompasses those activities that prolong the life of equipment and facilitate the avoidance of premature failures. It incorporates equipment inspection, lubrication, minor adjustments and cleaning, and non-destructive testing. Major maintenance activities, such as rebuilding and overhauling equipment, do not fall under the category of preventive maintenance. The purpose of a preventive maintenance program, therefore, is to keep equipment running effectively and avoid unnecessary downtime. In general, the success of a preventive maintenance program can be measured by (1) an increase in equipment operating time, (2) an increased capability to do more planned maintenance, (3) an increase in product output, and (4) a decrease in breakdown maintenance. The remainder of this discussion will focus on how to establish a preventive maintenance program and, once established, how to measure its success. Fig. 12.8.4 is a flowchart that indicates the important steps in organizing and operating a preventive maintenance program.

Fig. 12.8.3. Replacement analysis worksheet. (After Tatum, 1987. Reprinted from Equipment Management, 1987 by Irving-Cloud Publishing Co.)

Column F. Multiplying the value determined in Column G by the value recorded in Column E yields an adjusted operating and maintenance cost in Column H. Column I is the summation of the current and past values shown in Column H, while Col-

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Fig. 12.8.5. Effective range of a preventive maintenance program. (After Tomlingson, 1985a. by permission.)

At the heart of all successful PM programs is an effective inspection procedure; when inspections are the most prominent part of the PM program, it is often referred to as detection orientation. Fig. 12.8.5 indicates the relationship between equipment deterioration with time and cost and downtime. The goal of equipment inspection is to uncover and rectify any problems in the initial stages when they are simple to correct, such as minor adjustments for looseness or proper lubrication for heat dissipation. Left uncorrected, these conditions can deteriorate further into equipment failure and thus will be beyond the scope of preventive maintenance. To aid in this area, the Pareto Principle should be applied in an effort to focus on the critical pieces of equipment that must be inspected and to provide the inspectors with reasonable workloads. The efficient use of time is implied in the establishment of the shortest route to be followed by the PM inspector that will ensure that all fixed and mobile equipment will be reached without needless backtracking (Bise, 1989). Checklists are then prepared to assure that every piece of equipment that must be inspected receives proper attention; exception reporting is a form of PM inspection which lists only the deficiencies uncovered (Fig. 12.8.6). The final steps in organizing a PM program emphasizes time: (1) How long should an inspection take? (2) How often should the inspections be conducted? and (3) How many individuals are needed to operate the program. Obviously, workload sampling, time studies, and manufacturers recommended maintenance intervals can all contribute information to the completion of the final steps in organizing a PM program. One situation that can drastically affect the success of a detection-oriented PM program occurs when the inspector departs from his scheduled route to provide assistance for maintenance activities. When a PM inspector arrives at a section of a mine and finds a major piece of equipment down, it is human nature, if he formerly was a mechanic, to succumb to the tendency of aiding in the repair of the machine. However, this ultimately will put him behind schedule in his inspection route, with the result that other equipment that is scheduled for inspection later in the shift does not get the necessary attention as he tries to complete his round (Fig. 12.8.7).

Once the program is placed in operation, the results should be closely monitored to reveal if certain pieces of equipment should be inspected more often (for example, daily instead of weekly), additional sources of information should be included (for example, temperature in addition to pressure), or if the inspection routes should be modified. In fact, Fig. 12.8.4 implies that the program requires continuous reevaluation through its closed-loop design. There are several different approaches to measure the effectiveness of a preventive maintenance program, but the key to success is that it should be given the proper time. Tomlingson (1985a) has pointed out that many PM programs have been prematurely abolished because they were not given sufficient time to show improvements; in fact, obvious benefits may take two years to materialize. For example, Fig. 12.8.8 is a graph that relates the effect of time on PM-employee-hour usage. Notice that, at the start of the PM program, approximately 60% of the employee-hours are charged to unscheduled maintenance, and the balance is charged to emergency maintenance. As additional employee-hours are devoted to PM inspections, overall maintenance employee-hours are increased. Thus dismantling a PM program before it has a chance to contribute to the substitution of unscheduled and emergency work with scheduled work and, eventually, reducing overall employee-hours is very shortsighted. This situation must be understood and appreciated by top management if a PM program is ever going to succeed. To facilitate program evaluation, the following indices are recommended (Tomlingson, 1985a): 1. A reduction in the number of equipment failures. 2. More planned work is conducted. 3. A reduction in the number of emergency repairs. 4. A reduction in overtime. 5. An extension of equipment life. 6. Better utilization of manpower. 7. Less downtime and more production output. 8. A reduction in maintenance costs.

12.8.5 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

As a specialized approach that strengthens a preventive maintenance program, predictive maintenance can facilitate earlier detection of equipment problems. Table 12.8.2 summarizes the differences between preventive and predictive maintenance insofar as actions dealing with diagnosis, detection, correction, and repair costs are concerned (Tomlingson, 1985a). It has been estimated that the use of this form of conditionbased maintenance can result in an average saving of 20% of direct maintenance costs (Nolden, 1987), but to accomplish this, the program must combine the following three tasks: (1) surveillance, the monitoring of machinery condition to detect incipient problems; (2) diagnosis, the isolation of the problem cause; and (3) remedy, the performance of the corrective action. Although the program appears to be quite similar to that for preventive maintenance, when a predictive-maintenance-program flowchart (Fig. 12.8.9) is compared to that for preventive maintenance (Fig. 12.8.4), an important difference is the task of developing machine baseline measurements. Without these measurements, it is impossible to establish the condition of machinery and to compare actual measurements to the standards established. As indicated in the following (Anon., 1985a), the benefits of an effective predictive maintenance program cannot be achieved without a measure of commitment as well as expense.

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Fig. 12.8.6. Example of a daily inspection route sheet. (Modified from Bise, 1989).

Table 12.8.2. Comparison of Preventive and Predictive Maintenance Techniques.

Actions Diagnosis and inspection Preventive Maintenance Uses repair history to predict equipment life Standard services of inspection, lubrication, etc., used to extend equipment life. Detection of abnormal conditions Correction of deficiencies Cost of repair Visual or tear-down inspections. Evaluation of history. Estimation of failure point. Component replacement. Periodic overhaul. Possible replacement of sound components. Possible overstocking of parts. Predictive Maintenance Uses diagnostic tools. Compares current operation to normal operating profile. Monitoring during operation. Automatic warning of failure. Spot replacement of unsound components. More accurate inventory. Fig. 12.8.7. Result of a departure from the detection orientation of a preventive maintenance program. (After Tomlingson, 1985a. By permission.)

Source: By permission from Tomlingson (1985a).

Costs of a Predictive Maintenance Program 1. In the beginning of the program, a significant amount of time must be spent in establishing which equipment to investigate, monitoring points, and acceptable limits. 2. Instrumentation must be selected and purchased. 3. The personnel taking the measurements must be trained. 4. The personnel evaluating the measurements must be trained. Benefits of a Predictive Maintenance Program 1. There should be an increase in the average time between overhauls.

2. There should be an elimination of unexpected breakdowns. 3. There should be an elimination of secondary damage to other equipment components. 4. There should be an elimination of component waste due to replacement of serviceable components. 5. An inventory reduction should result. 6. There should be a reduction in damage-insurance premiums. 7. There should be an increase in planned and scheduled maintenance. Even with all of the costs involved, it is felt that, in the long run, on-condition maintenance is an extremely beneficial technique to achieving zero unplanned downtime.

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Fig. 12.8.8. Relationship between time and employee use in a preventive maintenance program. (After Tomlingson, 1985a. By permission.)

Fig. 12.8.9. Essential steps in building a predictive maintenance program. (After Nolden, 1987. Reprinted from Plant Engineering, 1987 by Cahners Publishing Co.)

A wide variety of predictive maintenance diagnostic tools is used in the mining industry. The most significant techniques, which will be discussed in the following sections, are oil analysis, vibration analysis, shock-pulse analysis, ferrography, and thermography.

12.8.5.1 Oil Analysis

The purpose of crankcase or motor oil is to lubricate, cool, and keep engine parts clean; if the oil is not doing its job properly, damage due to excessive friction and heat may cause the machine to fail or become inefficient. Oil analysis is a method by which a sample of used oil is removed from the machinery and analyzed, through the use of several tests, to determine the condition of the particular piece of machinery.

Motor oil becomes contaminated in several ways (Anon., 1984). First, abrasives such as road dust and dirt, and metal particles from within the equipment can be picked up and transported by the oil. Also, various byproducts of combustion, such as water, acids, soot and carbon, other combustion residues, and dilution, can alter the effectiveness and stability of the oil. Finally, products of oil oxidation, such as varnish and resins, and oil thickening, may also result. In a typical oil analysis, the sample may be subjected to the following 11 tests and measurements in an effort to determine engine health (Nolden, 1987): 1. Viscosity. Viscosity is checked to see if excessive thinning or thickening has occurred in the oil when compared to the new product. Variations in viscosity can affect an oils ability to reduce metal-to-metal contact in the moving parts of the engine.

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Diesel engines Natural gas engines Gas turbines Steam turbines Air compressors Air conditioning compressors Gears and bearings Hydraulic systems

MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Table 12.8.3. Typical Oil Sampling Intervals.
monthly or 500 hr monthly or 500 hr monthly or 500 hr bimonthly monthly or 500 hr beginning, middle, and end of season bimonthly bimonthly

Source: Dunn, 1987. (Reprinted from Plant Engineering, 1985 by Cahners Publishing Co.)

2. Contamination by water and coolant. This form of contamination not only indicates leakage in the system, but can also lead to filter plugging, corrosion of component parts, and sludge formation. 3. Fuel dilution. Fuel dilution weakens the oils film strength, sealing ability, and detergency. 4. Solids content. As a general test, the presence of solids in a lubricating system can significantly increase the wear of moving parts. 5. Fuel soot. Since fuel soot consists of minute particles consisting mainly of soft unburned carbon, it is an indicator of fuel-burning inefficiency. 6. Oxidation. Oil oxidation can result in lacquer deposits, metal corrosion, and oil thickening. 7. Nitration. Nitration results from fuel combustion in engines, forming highly acidic products. 8. Total Acid Number. This is a measure of the amount of acid or acid-like material in oil. 9. Total Base Number. This is a measure of the ability of an oil to neutralize acidity. 10. Particle count. High particle counts may indicate abnormal wear or blockage of orifices. 11. Spectrographic analysis. This test permits a rapid measurement of several elements present in the lubricating oil. Changes over time, from sample to sample, can also indicate wear. It is important to note that the numbers recorded can vary depending on operating conditions, as well as the manufacturers and models involved (Anon., 1984). For example, the normal wear-metal levels (aluminum, copper, lead, chrome, tin, iron, and silica) can vary between similar engines manufactured by Caterpillar, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, General Motors, or Mack. Table 12.8.3 is an example of the typical oil sampling intervals for various pieces of equipment in normal use.

to be monitored. Vibration signals are then recorded from the accelerometers through the use of a portable tape recorder. At the completion of the survey, the tape recorder is taken to the office and then connected to a monitoring system; in this manner, the control program can be loaded into a computer. The system then breaks the gathered information down into a spectrum of levels at several frequencies (Anon., 1985a). Since the computers memory will contain the relevant reference spectrum that was taken when the equipment was considered to be in good condition, a simple comparison with the recently gathered spectrum can generate a warning list where faults are developing. The engineer then diagnoses the faults by checking which frequencies correspond to which machine parts. Where there is a significant increase of vibration, a trend analysis is necessary to predict when an unacceptable vibration level will be reached (Fig. 12.8.10). When this starts to occur, it is highly recommended that the interval between successive measurements be reduced (Anon., 1985).

12.8.5.3 Shock-Pulse Analysis

In shock-pulse analysis, a hand-held shock-pulse analyzer measures lubrication and mechanical condition in ball and roller bearings and is equipped with a built-in microprocessor digital read-out which provides immediate assessment of overall conditions (Fig. 12.8.11) (Anon., 1985). It operates on the principle that damaged bearings and other mechanical components generate abnormal amounts of high-frequency energy from mechanical shock and friction. A special accelerometer mounted on the machinery being tested transmits a signal containing the shock signatures to the analyzer that is insensitive to normal vibrations and focuses solely on shock signals. Though offering similar results as vibration analysis, shockpulse testing of bearings is considered a simple, low-cost alternative requiring only two forms of input: (1) bearing bore diameter, and (2) rotational speed in rpm. Periodic inspection with the analyzer can aid in trend analysis, and its effective use can lead to timely identification of defective components and maintenance scheduling.

12.8.5.4 Ferrography
Also known as wear-particle analysis, ferrography is a technique developed in 1971 for separating particulates from liquid. An oil sample is drawn from the equipment to be analyzed and is caused to flow over a glass substrate in a strong magnetic field; in this manner, the particles are pulled to the glass. After the oil is washed away, the remaining particles on the substrate become what is referred to as a ferrogram that is analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. These particles range in size from 1 to 250 m and are viewed through a high-powered, bichromatic microscope (Anderson, 1983). In this manner, information on particle shapes, composition, sizes, and quantities can provide information on the types of wear within the piece of equipment. Under normal conditions, the ratio between large ( 5 m ) and small particles is fairly constant. When this ratio changes abnormally, or when particle shapes, composition, sizes, and quantities reflect different types of wear, such as rubbing, cutting, rolling fatigue, combined rolling and sliding, and severe sliding wear, impending failure may be indicated. Table 12.8.4 is an example of the particles identified in a wear particle analysis process and how their conditions are translated into possible machinery wear. The similarity between ferrography and oil analysis ends as soon as the oil sample is drawn; for example, the conventional spectrographic techniques associated with oil analysis which

12.8.5.2 Vibration Analysis

The underlying concept of vibration analysis is that every piece of machinery has a naturally correct vibration level (Nolden, 1987). A baseline reading is initially taken, and subsequent readings are taken at intervals and compared to the baseline value. As the equipment wears, there is a change in the vibration spectra due to the deterioration of gears and bearings, misalignment, or rotor unbalance; components that require attention, repair, or replacement can then be identified. It has been estimated that a properly conducted vibration analysis program can reduce beakdowns up to 60%, extend the operating life of equipment by 20%, improve the productivity of the maintenance staff by 20%, and reduce inventory requirements up to 20% (Dunn, 1987). To institute a vibration analysis program, piezoelectric accelerometers are mounted at strategic locations on the equipment

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Fig. 12.8.10. Monitoring machine vibration. (After Anon., 1985a. By permission from Bruel & Kjaer, Naerin, Denmark.)

12.8.6 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR MINE EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

With the vast and diverse amount of information required to conduct and evaluate a modern mine maintenance program, it should come as no surprise that an effective means of managing information, such as manpower utilization, inventory control, and equipment condition, is highly desirable. To do this, a computer-based management information system can be a valuable tool as long as it is designed to provide appropriate information (Thill, 1985). Tomlingson (1985b) has identified the two broad areas for application of maintenance information systems as decisionmaking and administrative. Of particular interest in mine maintenance are the following six areas: (1) control of labor, (2) minimization of backlog, (3) status of major maintenance work, (4) cost, (5) repair history, and (6) performance indices. According to a recent survey of equipment managers in the mining industry (Kuehn, 1986), only 38% use computers in their operations. Of these individuals, only 24% report that they use them for maintenance scheduling and monitoring, while 43% use them for general accounting and record keeping; 44% of the respondents who use computers indicate that they have spent more than $20,000 on software alone. The survey also indicated that the managers who have a computerized mine maintenance information system find that the most useful functions of their systems are in the areas of failure analysis, utilization reporting, equipment fault reports, budgeting, routine maintenance scheduling/reports, and work orders, while most cost savings can result from inventory/parts control and preventive maintenance. Clearly, the mining firms that have developed computerized maintenance management information systems have come to realize their vast potential. Fig. 12.8.12 highlights the considerations that should be made in the planning for and implementation of a computerized management information system for mine equipment mainte-

Fig. 12.8.11. Shock-pulse detector. (After Anon., 1985b. By permission from SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia, PA.)

measure the concentration of metals in lubricants do not detect particles above 10 m (Harrington, 1987). Since it is felt that the larger particles are the first indicators of a problem due to wear, ferrography should be considered as a valuable addition to oil analysis rather than as a replacement for the latter technique.

12.8.5.5 Thermography
Thermography, or infrared inspection, is a technique to detect incipient failures through overheating. It was introduced to the United States in the mid-1960s and was primarily used by electrical utility companies. With the use of a hand-held scanner, a technician can sample many points on a daily basis. The detection of hot spots through closed covers is also possible. Because all objects radiate infrared energy proportional to their temperatures, the scanner can convert the emissions into a thermogram that shows the relative temperature differences within the machinery (Nolden, 1987). Since the image can be photographed or videotaped, a permanent record can be made for comparison with a baseline reading.

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Table 12.8.4. Particles Identified in the Wear Particle Analysis Process.
Particle Type Size Range Shape (length: thickness) Possible Sources

Wear particles Free metals Normal Severe Cutting Chunks Laminar Spheres Break-in Compounds Dark Metallo-Oxides Red Oxides Friction Polymers Corrosive Wear Nonferrous Metal

> 5:1 no regard to shape > 5:1 but < 30:1 loops, spirals < 5:1 > 30:1 spherical > 5:1 various various various various various

Rubbing wear, abrasive wear between surfaces of equal hardness Severe wear Abrasive wear Rolling contact fatigue, fretting Particles flattened by rolling contact Rolling contact fatigue, welding, grinding, combustion Break-in wear of new component(s) Lubricant starvation, high operating temperature Water in lube oil, rust, poor lubrication Overload on lubricant Acidic lube oil Nonferrous wearing components including babbitt bearings, bronze retainer cages, and plated surfaces Dirt, sand, dust, etc. Dirt, dust, pollen, insects Ash, oil residue Filter elements, oil rags, ash (glass fibers)

no minimum no minimum no minimum

Contaminants Nonmetallic Inorganic Nonmetallic Organic Nonmetallic Amorphous Fibers

Source: Maniscalco, 1987. (Reprinted from Power Transmission Design, 1987 by Penton Publishing.)

nance. First and foremost, the system must respond to welldefined needs of the organization (Nolden, 1985). The computer system should be designed so that it reveals trends in productivity, costs, and equipment availability. The next step, system design, provides many options based on needs and resources. Thill (1985) warns that the cost of the hardware may only represent a small portion of the overall cost of the program when software development/purchases, operator training, and security systems are included in the analysis. Because of this, it is often recommended that software evaluation should be conducted prior to hardware evaluation. Although inhouse writing of custom programs represents an ideal solution, it should be noted that it often represents a major investment of time and resources, whereas available software, based on a fieldtested and working system, may require a significant initial investment but could provide long-run savings (Bise, 1985). No matter which decision is made, continual evaluation of the effectiveness of the program is justified. With that in mind, Table 12.8.5 should be used as a guideline to measure the savings potential of a computer-based mine maintenance management system.

REFERENCES
Anon., 1984, Engineering Manual, Kendall Refining Company, Bradford, PA. Anon., 1985a, Machine-Health Monitoring, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark. Anon., 1985b, SKF Bearing Detector TMED 1 Handbook, SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia, PA. Anderson, D.P., 1983, Analysis of Gear Wear Through Ferrography, Equipment Management, Vol. 11, No. 7, July, pp. 2025. Bise, C.J., 1985, Use of Computers as Maintenance Tools, Proceedings 12th Conference on Training Resources Applied to Mining, University Park, PA.

Fig. 12.8.12. Steps to be taken in planning, implementing, and evaluating a computerized maintenance system. (After Nolden, 1985. Reprinted from Plant Engineering, 1985, by Cahners Publishing Co.)

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Table 12.8.5. Savings Potential with a Computer System.
Item Stores inventory Savings 20% in actual dollars. Justification Reduced inventory (storage costs are $0.20 to $0.30 on the dollar), parts availability (reduces expediting cost as well as additional downtime waiting for parts); less time required for writing requisitions and requisition hand delivery. Work schedules, parts availability, reduced travel to stores, automatic generation of work orders. All of the above plus automatically scheduled preventive and predictive maintenance. All of the above. All of the above. More time for technical and managerial people to manage their responsibilities.

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Maintenance labor

15% in increased productive time.

Equipment failure

10% in reduced labor and material needs plus savings from the reduced cost of downtime. 10% in labor and material. Intangible or future savings. Intangible.

Project costs Additional time for other activities Paperwork

Source: Nolden, 1985. (Reprinted from Plant Engineering, 1985 by Cahners Publishing Co.)

Bise, C.J., 1989, Automated Information Management for Mine Preventive Maintenance Programs, Proceedings 16th Conference on Training Resources Applied to Mining, University Park, PA. Dunn, R.L., 1987, Advanced Maintenance Technologies, Plant Engineering, Vol. 41, No. 12, Jun. 18, pp. 8087. Grant, E. L., and Leavenworth, R. S., 1980, Statistical Quality Control, McGraw-Hill, New York. Harrington, P., 1987, Wear-Particle Analysis: Maturing Tool for Predictive Maintenance, Power, Vol. 131, No. 7, July, pp. 2325. Herbaty, F., 1983, Cost-Effective Maintenance Management, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ. Jardine, A.K.S., 1973, Maintenance, Replacement, and Reliability, Pitman, London. Kuehn, S., 1986, Forum Report: Computers and Recordkeeping, Equipment Management, Vol. 14, No. 12, Dec., pp. 2530. Mandel, J., 1985, Forum Report: Equipment Disposal and Replacement, Equipment Management, Vol. 13, No. 4, Apr., pp. 4147. Maniscalco, M., 1987, Wear Particle Analysis Indicates Machinery Condition, Power Transmission Design, Vol. 29, No. 6, Jun., pp. 4348. Neale, M.J., and Woodley, B.J., 1975, Condition Monitoring Methods and Economics, Proceedings Symposium, Society of Environmental Engineers, London. Nelson, J., 1987, How to Assemble an Effective PM Program, Equipment Management, Vol. 15, No. 3, Mar., pp. 2025. Nolden, C., 1985, Maintenance and the Computer: Ensuring a Winning Combination, Plant Engineering, Vol. 39, No. 17, Aug. 22, pp. 34 40. Nolden, C., 1987, Predictive Maintenance, Plant Engineering, Vol. 41, No. 41, Feb. 28, pp. 3843. Rabchuk, J.E., 1983, Making the Computer Decision, Equipment Management, Vol. 11, No. 7, Jul., pp. 2631. Thill, M., 1985, Hardware, Software, Beware, Equipment Management, Vol. 13, No. 4, Apr., pp. 3235. Tatum, R., 1987, Replacement Analysis: Three Ways to Rub the Crystal Ball, Equipment Management, Vol. 15, No. 6, June, pp. 1619. Tomlingson, P.D., 1985a, Mine Maintenance Management, McGrawHill, New York. Tomlingson, P.D., 1985b, Maintenance Management Information Systems, Maclean Hunter, Chicago.