CHAPTER 1

More than half of the worlds population is at

level will rise, resulting in environmental changes that affect the worlds biota.
The universe originated some 15 billion years

risk from various natural disasters. The more we understand how these phenomena work, the better prepared we can be to lessen their destructive effects and minimize loss of life.
Earth can be viewed as a system

of interconnected components that interact and affect each other, resulting in a dynamically changing planet.
Humans are part of the Earth system, and our

ago in what is popularly called the Big Bang. The evidence for the Big Bang is that the universe is expanding and has a pervasive background radiation of 2.7 K above absolute zero (absolute zero equals _273oC; 2.7 K _ _270.3oC).

activities can produce changes that have potentially wide-ranging consequences.

Geology is the study of Earth. It is divided into

two broad areasphysical geology (the study of Earth materials) and historical geology (the study of the origin and evolution of Earth and life). Geology pervades the human experience in ways most people are not even aware of, such as in art, music, and literature. Geology has also played an important role in the history and culture of humankind.
Geology affects all of us as it relates to natural

Our solar system began with the condensation and collapse of interstellar matter in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy. The collapse formed a counterclockwiserotating disk in which a rotating cloud of gases and particles swirled around an embryonic Sun. This material eventually condensed into larger bodies and formed the nine planets of our solar system.
The planets are classified as either terrestrial

(Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), which are small and composed of rocky and metallic elements that condense at high temperatures, or Jovian (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), which have small rocky cores compared to their overall size and are composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and methane, which condense at low temperatures.
When Earth formed, it was probably cool and

disasters, our economic well-being, politics,

Most scientists would argue that the greatest

environmental problem facing the world today is overpopulation. This is because a way must be found to feed, clothe, and house the worlds increasing population with a minimal negative effect on the environment.
Carbon dioxide is a by-product of respiration

of generally uniform composition and density throughout. As a result of meteorite impacts, gravitational compression, and heat from radioactive decay, the temperature of Earth increased, which caused its various elements and compounds to form a series of concentric layers of differing composition and density, resulting in a differentiated planet.
This differentiation not only led to the formation

and the burning of organic materials, and it is constantly being recycled as part of the global carbon cycle. As such, carbon dioxide is an important climate regulator.
The greenhouse effect is the phenomenon in

of a crust and continents but also contributed to the eventual formation of Earths oceans and atmosphere.
Earth is a dynamic planet that has changed

which carbon dioxide and other gases allow sunlight to pass through them in the atmosphere but trap the heat reflected back from Earths surface, thus increasing the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere.
Global warming is an increase in the

continuously during its 4.6-billion-year history.

Earth is differentiated into three concentric

layers: core, mantle, and crust.

The core occupies about 16% of Earths

temperature of the atmosphere over time due to the greenhouse effect. As a consequence, global weather patterns will shift and mean sea

volume, has a calculated density of 1013 g/cm3, is composed largely of iron with some nickel, and is divided into a small solid portion

surrounded by an apparently liquid larger portion. The mantle surrounds the core, occupies about 83% of Earths volume, has a density of 3.35.7 g/cm3, and is composed largely of peridotite. It is divided into a solid lower portion, followed by a plastically behaving asthenosphere, and overlain by a solid upper portion.
Earths outermost layer is its crust. It is

Metamorphic rocks result from the alteration

of other rocks, typically beneath Earths surface, by heat, pressure, and the chemical activity of fluids.
The rock cycle relates the three rock groups

to each other; to Earths surficial processes such as weathering, transportation, and deposition; and to its internal processes such as magma generation and metamorphism.
Plate tectonics is the mechanism that drives

divided into thick continental crust that has an average density of 2.7 g/cm3 and contains considerable silicon and aluminum, and thin oceanic crust that has a density of 3.0 g/cm3 and is composed of basalt and gabbro.
The scientific method is a logical, orderly

the rock cycle and recycles the three rock groups between Earths interior and its surface.
Time is one aspect that sets geology apart

approach that involves gathering data, formulating and testing hypotheses, and proposing theories.
A hypothesis (tentative explanation) is a

from most other sciences, and an appreciation of the immensity of geologic time is crucial to understanding the evolution of Earth and its biota.
The geologic time scale subdivides geologic

provisional explanation for observations that is subject to repeated testing.

A theory is a coherent explanation for natural

time into intervals of various duration, with names and numerical age dates in years assigned to each interval.
The principle of uniformitarianism states that

phenomena that is supported by a large body of objective evidence.

Plate tectonic theory holds that the Earths

lithosphere is divided into rigid plates that move over the asthenosphere and diverge, converge, and slide past each other.
Plate movement results in volcanic activity,

present day processes have operated throughout geologic time. It is one of the cornerstones of geology because it provides us with the basis for interpreting the past and predicting possible future events.

earthquakes, and mountain building. It also affects the formation and distribution of natural resources and influences the distribution and evolution of Earths biota.
A rock is an aggregate of minerals. There are three major groups of rocks, each

characterized by its mode of formation.

Igneous rocks result from the cooling and

crystallization of magma or the accumulation and consolidation of volcanic ejecta such as ash.
Sedimentary rocks form at Earths surface

from the consolidation of rock fragments, precipitation of mineral matter from solution, or compaction of plant or animal remains.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY

1.1 Introduction _ What do natural disasters have to do with geology? Geology is an integral part of our lives, and natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, landslides, and floods are geologic phenomena that affect everyone. The more we understand how these phenomena work, the better prepared we can be to minimize their destructive effects and lessen the loss of life. _ What is a system? A system is a combination of related parts, components, or subsystems that interact in an organized fashion. Earth can be viewed as a complex system whose principal subsystems are the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, mantle, and core. The interaction of these subsystems has resulted in a dynamically changing planet in which matter and energy are continuously recycled into different forms. 1.2 Geology in Our Everyday Lives _ What is geology and what do geologists do? Geology, the study of Earth, is divided into two broad areas physical geology (the study of Earth materials) and historical geology (the study of the origin and evolution of Earth). Geologists engage in a variety of occupations, such as exploration for mineral and energy resources, to solve various environmental problems. _ How does geology relate to the human experience? Geology pervades our everyday lives, with references to it in the arts (Asher Brown Durands painting Kindred Spirits), music (Ferde Grofs Grand Canyon Suite), and literature (Percy B. Shelleys poem Ozymandias). Earths surface features, or topography (such as mountain ranges and rivers), are a result of the interplay among its various subsystems and have dictated military tactics as well as political boundaries. _ How does geology affect our everyday lives? Geology affects all of us when natural disasters occur. Our economic and political well-being depends, in part, on the distribution and concentration of natural resources. And government plays an increasingly important role in environmental issues related to geology. 1.3 Global Geologic and Environmental Issues Facing Humankind _ What is considered the greatest environmental problem facing the world today?

Most scientists would argue that overpopulation is the greatest problem facing the world today. Increasingly large numbers of people must be fed, housed, and clothed, with a minimal impact on the environment. _ How is the greenhouse effect related to global warming? The greenhouse effect is the retention of heat in the atmosphere, which results in an increase in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, thus producing global warming. 1.4 Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earths Place in Them _ How did the universe begin? The universe began with a Big Bang approximately 15 billion years ago. Evidence for the Big Bang is that the universe is expanding and that the entire universe has a pervasive background radiation of 2.7 K above absolute zero (2.7 K _ _270.3oC), which is thought to be the faint afterglow of the Big Bang. _ What is our solar system composed of, and what is its origin and history? Our solar system consists of the Sun, 9 planets, 101 known moons, asteroids, comets, meteorites, and interplanetary dust and gases. It formed from a rotating cloud of interstellar matter that condensed, collapsed under the influence of gravity, and flattened into a rotating disk from which the Sun, planets, and moons formed. _ How did Earth form? Earth formed from a swirling eddy of nebular material 4.6 billion years ago, accreting as a solid body and soon thereafter differentiating into a layered planet during a period of internal heating. 1.5 Earth as a Dynamic and Evolving Planet _ Why is Earth a dynamic planet? Earth has continuously changed during its 4.6-billion-year existence as a result of the interactions between its various subsystems and cycles. _ What are Earths three concentric layers, and what are their characteristics? Earths three concentric layers are the core, mantle, and crust. The core consists of a small, solid inner region and a larger, seemingly liquid, outer portion, both of which are thought to be composed of iron and a small amount of nickel. The mantle, composed largely of peridotite, surrounds the core and is divided into a solid lower mantle, an asthenosphere that behaves plastically and flows slowly, and a solid upper mantle. The outermost layer, the crust, is divided into thick continental crust and thin oceanic crust.

1.6 Geology and the Formulation of Theories _ What is a theory? A theory is a testable explanation for some natural phenomenon that has a large body of supporting evidence. It is arrived at through the scientific method, which involves gathering and analysing facts, formulating hypotheses to explain the phenomenon, testing the hypotheses, and finally proposing a theory. 1.7 Plate Tectonic Theory _ What is plate tectonic theory? Plate tectonic theory states that the lithosphere is divided into rigid plates that diverge, converge, or slide past each other as they move over the asthenosphere. _ Why is plate tectonic theory important in geology? Plate tectonic theory is a unifying explanation for many geologic features and events, and provides a framework for interpreting the composition, structure, and internal processes of Earth on a global scale. 1.8 The Rock Cycle _ What is a rock? A rock is an aggregate of minerals. _ What is the rock cycle? The rock cycle illustrates the interactions between Earths internal and external processes and how the three rock groups are interrelated. _ What are the characteristics of each of the three major rock groups? Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of magma or the consolidation of volcanic ejecta. Sedimentary rocks are typically formed by the consolidation of rock fragments, precipitation of mineral matter from solution, or compaction of plant or animal remains. Metamorphic rocks result from the alteration of other rocks, usually beneath Earths surface, by heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. _ How are the rock cycle and plate tectonics related? Plate movement is the driving mechanism of the rock cycle. Plate interaction determines, to some extent, which of the three rock groups will form. 1.9 Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism _ Why is it important to understand how geologic time differs from the human perspective of time? An appreciation of geologic time is essential to understanding Earths evolution. Earth goes through cycles of much longer duration than the

human perspective of time, and thus we must adjust our concept of time to incorporate the fact that Earth is more than 20,000 times as old as the human species. _ What is the principle of uniformitarianism, and why is it important in geology? This principle holds that the laws of nature have been constant through time and that the same processes operating today have operated in the past, though at different rates. Therefore, to understand and interpret geologic events from evidence preserved in rocks, geologists must first understand present-day processes and their results.

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

Asthenosphere - surrounds the lower mantle.

It has the same composition as the lower mantle but behaves plastically and flows slowly.
Jovian planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and

Neptuneso named because they resemble Jupiter (the Roman god was also named Jove),all have small rocky cores compared to their overall size, and are composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and methane, which condense at low temperatures.
Rock - is an aggregate of minerals. Big Bang - is a model for the evolution of

the universe in which a dense, hot state was followed by expansion, cooling, and a less dense state.
Lithosphere is constituted by the solid upper

mantle and the overlying crust which is broken into numerous individual pieces called plates.
Rock cycle - provides a way of viewing the

interrelationships between internal and external processes.

Earths

Core - consists of a small, solid inner

region and a larger, apparently liquid, outer portion. Both are thought to consist largely of iron and a small amount of nickel.

Mantle - surrounds the core and comprises

about 83% of Earths volume. It is composed largely of peridotite, a dark, dense igneous rock containing abundant iron and magnesium.

Scientific method - is an orderly, logical

approach that involves gathering and analysing facts or data about the problem under consideration.
Crust - Earths outermost layer.

Plate tectonic theory - the lithosphere is composed of rigid plates that diverge, converge, or slide sideways past one another as they move over the asthenosphere Terrestrial planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth,

Continental crust - is thick (2090 km), has an average density of 2.7 g/cm 3, and contains considerable silicon and aluminum. Oceanic crust - is thin (510 km), denser than continental crust (3.0 g/cm 3), and is composed of the dark igneous rock basalt and gabbro. results from the alteration of other rocks, usually beneath the surface, by heat, pressure, and the chemical activity of fluids.
Metamorphic rock Sedimentary rock - forms in one of three

and Mars are all small and composed of rock and metallic elements that condensed at the high temperatures of the inner nebula.
Igneous rock - result when magma crystallizes

or volcanic ejecta such as ash accumulate and consolidate.

Principle of uniformitarianism - forms a cornerstone of geology. It is a fundamental tenet of geology. This principle states that the laws of nature have remained unchanged through time and thus, that the processes observed today have also operated in the past, though possibly at different rates. Theory - It is arrived at through the scientific method, which involves: -gathering and analyzing facts -formulating hypotheses to explain the phenomenon -testing the hypotheses -and finally proposing a theory.

ways: consolidation of rock fragments, precipitation of mineral matter from solution, or compaction of plant or animal remains
Geologic time scale - subdivides geologic time

into a hierarchy of increasingly shorter time intervals.

Mineral - are naturally occurring, inorganic,

crystalline solids that have physical and chemical properties.

Solar nebula theory -

definite

involves

the

condensation and collapse of interstellar material in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Geology - is defined as the study of Earth,

but now it must also include the study of the planets and moons in our solar system.
moves over the asthenosphere, partially as a result of underlying convection cells. Plate System - is a combination of related parts

that interact in an organized fashion.

Hypothesis is a tentative explanation.

CHAPTER 2
Plate tectonic theory is the unifying theory of

same plants occupying tropical, moderate, and polar environments.

Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism

geology. It affects all of us because it explains where and why such natural disasters as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami occur as well as the formation and distribution of many economically valuable natural resources.
The idea that continents have moved in the

in ancient rocks recording the direction and intensity of Earths magnetic field at the time of the rocks formation.
Earths magnetic field is not constant. Being

past is not new and probably goes back to the first maps, in which one could see that the east coast of South America looks like it fits into the west coast of Africa.
The continental drift hypothesis was first

strongest at the poles and weakest at the equator, Earths magnetic field is thought to result from the different rotation speeds of the outer core and mantle. Earths magnetic poles closely coincide with its geographic poles.
The Curie point is the temperature at which

articulated by Alfred Wegener in 1912. He proposed that a single supercontinent, Pangaea, consisting of a northern landmass (later named Laurasia) and a southern landmass (previously named Gondwana), broke apart into what would become Earths current continents, which then moved across Earths surface to their present locations.

iron bearing minerals gain their magnetism and align themselves with Earths magnetic field.
Polar wandering is the apparent movement of

the magnetic poles through time. The best explanation for such apparent movement is that the magnetic poles have remained near their present polar locations and the continents have moved.
According to the theory of seafloor spreading,

The evidence for continental drift is impressive. It includes the fact that the continents show a close fit along the continental slope at a depth of about 2000 m.
Furthermore, several major mountain ranges

that currently end at the coastline form a continuous range when the present-day continents are assembled into a single landmass.

seafloor separates at oceanic ridges where new crust is formed by upwelling magma generated by thermal convection cells within the mantle. As the magma cools, the newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge. Earths magnetic field reversed during the past.

has

periodically

Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are nearly identical on the five Gondwana continents, suggesting that these continents were joined together during this time interval.
Glacial deposits and striations indicate that

Magnetic anomalies in oceanic crust, which

are parallel to and symmetric around oceanic ridges, match the pattern of magnetic reversals seen in continental lava flows, thus confirming that new oceanic crust is forming along oceanic ridges and moving the seafloor laterally away from them.
Cores of deep-sea sediments also confirm the

massive glaciers covered large areas of the Gondwana continents during the Late Paleozoic Era. Placing these continents together with South Africa located at the South Pole shows that the glaciers moved in a radial pattern from a thick central area toward their periphery, as would be expected in such a configuration.
The distribution of plant and animal fossils also

theory of seafloor spreading in that the sediments directly overlying the oceanic crust get older with increasing distance from oceanic ridges, and the sediments become thicker moving away from the ridge.
The main tenets of plate tectonic theory are

provides strong evidence for continental drift because it is hard to imagine land animals being able to swim across the Atlantic Ocean and the

that the rigid lithosphere consists of numerous variable-sized pieces called plates. These plates move over the hotter and weaker semiplastic asthenosphere as a result of some type of

heattransfer system within the asthenosphere. Plates separate, mostly at oceanic ridges, and collide, usually at oceanic trenches, where they are subducted back into the mantle.
Plate tectonics is considered a unifying

Hot spots are locations where stationary

columns of magma from the mantle (mantle plumes) have risen to the surface and formed volcanoes.
Because the mantle plumes apparently remain

theory of geology because it explains how many geologic features, processes, and events are interrelated.
In the supercontinent cycle, all or most of

stationary while plates move over them, the trail of hot spots, marked by extinct and progressively older volcanoes, records the direction and rate of plate movement.
One technique used to calculate the average

Earths landmasses come together to form a supercontinent, such as Pangaea, then break up, producing ocean basins, and then re-form in a cycle spanning about 500 million years.
The three major types of plate boundaries are

divergent, convergent, and transform.

Divergent plate boundaries occur where

rate of plate movement is to divide the distance from an oceanic ridge axis to any magnetic anomaly by the age of that anomaly. The average rate of movement during the past can also be calculated by dividing the distance between anomalies by the amount of time elapsed between anomalies.
The relative motion of one plate with respect to

plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming. They are characterized by thinning and fracturing of the crust, formation of rift valleys, intrusion of magma, and shallow depth earthquakes.
Zones of ancient continental rifting can be

recognized by faults, dikes, sills, lava flows, and thick sedimentary sequences, whereas pillow lavas and associated deep-sea sediments are evidence of ancient spreading ridges.
Convergent plate boundaries occur where

another can be derived from magnetic reversals and satellite laser ranging techniques. Hot spots are evidence for absolute motion because they provide an apparently fixed reference point from which the rate and direction of plate movement can be measured.
Plates are thought to move by some type of

two plates collide, and the leading edge of one plate is subducted beneath the margin of the other plate. They are characterized by metamorphism, mountain building, volcanic and earthquake activity, and the formation of various mineral deposits. Three types of convergent plate boundaries: oceanicoceanic: two oceanic plates converge. oceaniccontinental: an oceanic plate is subducted beneath the continental plate. continentalcontinental: an interior mountain belt is formed.
Intensely deformed rocks, andesite lavas, and

thermal convection system. In one model, thermal convection cells are restricted to the asthenosphere, and in the second model, the entire mantle is involved. Both models have problems associated with heat transfer and the source of heat.
Some geologists think that, in addition to

thermal convection, plate movement is primarily gravity driven, by either slab-pull or ridgepush. In slab-pull, the subducting, cold, dense lithosphere pulls the rest of the plate along as it descends into Earths interior. In ridge-push, gravity pushes the lithosphere away from the higher spreading ridges and toward the subduction trenches.
The origin and distribution of many natural

ophiolites are all evidence of ancient subduction zones, marking former convergent plate boundaries.
Transform plate boundaries occur along

resources are related to the interaction between plates. Many metallic ores form as a result of igneous and hydrothermal activity related to the formation of magma along divergent and convergent plate boundaries.

fractures in the seafloor, called transform faults, where plates slide laterally past each other.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY

2.1 Introduction _ Why should you know about plate tectonics? Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether in relation to the destruction caused by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, or politically and economically due to the formation and distribution of valuable natural resources. Furthermore, plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology, tying together many seemingly unrelated geologic phenomena and illustrating why Earth is a dynamic planet of interacting subsystems and cycles. 2.2 Continental Drift _ What were some early ideas about Earths past geography? The idea that continents have moved in the past is not new and probably goes back to the first maps, in which one could see that the east coast of South America looks like it fits into the west coast of Africa. _ What is the continental drift hypothesis and who proposed it? Alfred Wegener originally proposed the continental drift hypothesis in 1912. He postulated that all landmasses were originally united into a supercontinent he named Pangaea. Pangaea consisted of a northern landmass called Laurasia and a southern landmass called Gondwana. As Pangaea broke up, the various continents moved to their present-day locations. 2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift _ What is the evidence for continental drift? Wegener and others amassed a large amount of evidence in support of continental drift. There is a close fit between continents off the coasts at a depth of about 2000 m. Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are nearly identical on all the Gondwana continents, and the trend of several major mountain ranges produces a continuous mountain range when the continents are positioned next to each other as they were during the formation of Pangaea. Glacial tills and striations on the bedrock beneath the till provide evidence of glaciation at the same time on all the Gondwana continents, with South Africa located at the South Pole. Lastly, the distribution of fossil plants (Glossopteris flora) and animals (the nonmarine reptile Mesosaurus in particular) provides convincing evidence that the southern continents were united during the Late Paleozoic Era

_ What is paleomagnetism? Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism in ancient rocks recording the direction and intensity of Earths magnetic field at the time of the rocks formation. _ What is the Curie point and why is it important? The Curie point is the temperature at which iron-bearing minerals gain their magnetism. It is important because as long as the rock is not subsequently heated above the Curie point, it will preserve that remanent magnetism. _ How can the apparent wandering of the magnetic poles be best explained? The best explanation for polar wandering, which is the apparent movement of the magnetic poles through time, is that the magnetic poles have remained near their present locations at the geographic north and south poles and the continents have moved. When the continents are fitted together, the paleomagnetic data point to only one magnetic pole. 2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading _ What evidence is there that Earths magnetic field has reversed in the past? Earths present magnetic field is considered normal, that is, with the north and south magnetic poles located approximately at the north and south geographic poles. At various times in the geologic past, Earths magnetic field has completely reversed. The existence of such magnetic reversals was discovered by dating and determining the orientation of the remanent magnetism in continental lava flows. _ What is the theory of seafloor spreading, and how does it validate continental drift? Harry Hess proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in 1962. He suggested that the seafloor separates at oceanic ridges, where new crust is formed by upwelling magma. As the magma cools, the newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge. Thus continents and oceanic crust move together, negating the need to explain how continents could plow through oceanic crust. _ How was the theory of seafloor spreading confirmed? Seafloor spreading was confirmed by the discovery of magnetic anomalies in the ocean crust that were both parallel to and symmetric around the ocean ridges. The pattern of oceanic magnetic anomalies matched the pattern of magnetic reversals already known from continental lava flows. Further evidence confirming seafloor spreading came from the Deep Sea Drilling Project and the age and thickness of the sediments overlying the oceanic crust.

. 2.4 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering

2.6 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory _ What are the main tenets of plate tectonic theory? According to plate tectonic theory, the rigid lithosphere, composed of oceanic and continental crust as well as the underlying upper mantle, is divided into different-sized plates. The lithosphere overlies the asthenosphere, and through some type of heat-transfer system within the asthenosphere, moves the plates. As the plates move over the asthenosphere, they separate mostly at oceanic ridges and collide and are subducted into Earths interior at oceanic trenches. _ Why is plate tectonics a unifying theory of geology? The theory ties together many seemingly unrelated features and events and shows how they are interrelated. Furthermore, it illustrates the dynamic interactions between Earths various subsystems and cycles. _ What is the supercontinent cycle? The hypothesis put forth by J. Tuzo Wilson in the early 1970s posits a large-scale global cycle in which a supercontinent fragments to form various ocean basins that widen and then close, thus reassembling another supercontinent. 2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries _ What are the three types of plate boundaries? The three major types of plate boundaries are divergent, convergent, and transform. _ What are divergent boundaries? Divergent boundaries, also called spreading ridges, occur where plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming. Whereas most divergent boundaries occur along the crests of oceanic ridges, they are also present under continents during the early stages of continental breakup. _ What features in the geologic record indicate ancient rifting? Characteristic features of ancient continental rifting include faulting, dikes, sills, lava flows, and thick sedimentary sequences within rift valleys. Pillow lavas and associated deep-sea sediments are evidence of ancient spreading ridges. _ What are convergent boundaries? Convergent boundaries are places where two plates collide, and the leading edge of one plate is subducted beneath the margin of the other plate. There are three types of convergent boundaries. Oceanicoceanic boundaries are where two oceanic plates collide, with one plate subducted beneath the other and a volcanic island arc forming on the nonsubducted plate, parallel to the oceanic trench

where subduction is taking place. The volcanoes result from rising magma produced by the partial melting of the subducting plate. An oceanic continental boundary is where an oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, with the denser oceanic plate being subducted under the continental plate. Just as with an oceanicoceanic boundary, a chain of volcanoes forms on the nonsubducted plate. A continentalcontinental boundary occurs when two continents approach each other and the ocean floor separating them is eventually subducted, resulting in a collision between the two continents. When the two continents collide, they are welded together to form an interior mountain chain along a zone marking the former site of subduction. _ How can ancient subduction zones be recognized in the geologic record? Intensely deformed rocks, andesite lavas, and ophiolites are all evidence of ancient subduction zones, marking former convergent plate boundaries. _ What are transform boundaries? These are boundaries along which plates slide laterally past each other along transform faults, which change one type of motion between plates into another type of motion. 2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate Feature _ What are hot spots and what do they tell us about plate movement? A hot spot is the location on Earths surface where a stationary column of magma, originating deep within the mantle, has slowly risen to the surface and formed a volcano. Because mantle plumes apparently remain stationary within the mantle while plates move over them, the resulting hot spots leave a trail of extinct and progressively older volcanoes that record the movement of the plate. 2.9 Plate Movement and Motion _ How can the rate and direction of plate movement be determined? The average rate of plate movement is most commonly determined by dividing the distance from an oceanic ridge axis to any magnetic anomaly in the crust of the seafloor by the age of that anomaly. Because magnetic anomalies are parallel and symmetric with respect to spreading ridges, the relative direction of movement of a plate is perpendicular to the spreading ridge. Satellitelaser ranging techniques are also used to determine the rate of movement and relative motion of one plate with respect to another. Hot spots enable geologists to determine absolute motion because they provide an apparently fixed reference point from which the rate and direction of plate movement can be measured.

2.10 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics _ What drives plates? Most geologists agree that some type of convective heat system is the basic process responsible for plate motion. _ How do thermal convection cells move plates? Two models involving thermal convection cells have been proposed to explain plate movement. In one model, thermal cells are restricted to the asthenosphere, whereas in the second model, the entire mantle is involved. Problems with both models involve the source of heat for the convection cells and how heat is transferred from the outer core to the mantle. _ Can plate movement be gravity driven? Although they accept that some type of thermal convection system is involved in driving plate movement, some geologists think a gravity-driven mechanism such as slab-pull or ridgepush plays a major role. Both mechanisms still depend on thermal differences within Earth, but slab-pull involves pulling the plate behind a subducting cold slab of lithosphere, and ridge-push involves gravity pushing the oceanic lithosphere away from the higher spreading ridges and toward the subduction trenches. 2.11 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources _ How does plate tectonic theory relate to the origin and distribution of natural resources? The formation of many natural resources results from the interaction between plates, and economically valuable concentrations of such deposits are found associated with current and ancient plate boundaries. _ What is the relationship between plate boundaries and various metallic mineral deposits? Many metallic mineral deposits are related to igneous and associated hydrothermal activity, so it is not surprising that a close relationship exists between plate boundaries and the occurrence of these valuable deposits. Many of the worlds major metallic ore deposits are associated with convergent plate boundaries. Divergent plate boundaries also yield valuable ore deposits.

Continental drift - all landmasses were

originally united in a single supercontinent that he named Pangaea. two plates collide and the leading edge of one plate is subducted beneath the margin of the other plate and eventually is incorporated into the asthenosphere.
Convergent plate boundary Curie point - The temperature at which iron-

bearing minerals gain their magnetization

Divergent plate boundary - or spreading ridges

occur where plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming.
Glossopteris flora - is characterized by the

seed fern Glossopteris as well as by many other distinctive and easily identifiable plants.
or Gondwanaland, is a supercontinent composed of the aforementioned southern continents. Gondwana Hot spot - are locations where stationary

columns of magma from the mantle (mantle plumes) have risen to the surface and formed volcanoes.
Laurasia northern landmass supercontinent, Pangaea. Magnetic anomaly of the single

average field.

strength

deviations from the of Earths magnetic

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

plate boundary - an interior mountain belt is formed consisting of deformed sediments and sedimentary rocks, igneous intrusions, metamorphic rocks, and fragments of oceanic crust. Continentalcontinental

Magnetic reversal - Earths present magnetic field is considered normal, that is, with the north and south magnetic poles located approximately at the north and south geographic poles. At various times in the geologic past, Earths magnetic field has completely reversed. The existence of such magnetic reversals was discovered by dating and determining the orientation of the remanent magnetism in continental lava flows. Oceaniccontinental plate boundary - an oceanic

plate is plate.

subducted beneath the continental

Oceanicoceanic plate boundary - two oceanic

plates converge.

Paleomagnetism - is the remanent magnetism

Minerals are essential constituents of rocks.

in ancient rocks recording the direction and intensity of Earths magnetic field at the time of the rocks formation.
Pangaea a single supercontinent where all

Many minerals are important natural resources or valued as gemstones.

Matter is composed of chemical elements,

landmasses were originally united.

Plates the rigid lithosphere, composed of

each of which consists of atoms with protons and neutrons in their nuclei and electrons orbiting the nuclei in electron shells.
The number of protons in an atoms nucleus

both oceanic and continental crust as well as the underlying upper mantle, consists of many variable-sized pieces
Plate tectonic theory - is the unifying theory

determines its atomic number. Its atomic mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
Ionic and covalent bonds form as electrons in

of geology. It affects all of us because it explains where and why such natural disasters as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami occur as well as the formation and distribution of many economically valuable natural resources.
Seafloor spreading seafloor separates at oceanic ridges, where new crust is formed by upwelling magma. As the magma cools, the newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge. Thus continents and oceanic crust move together, negating the need to explain how continents could plow through oceanic crust. Thermal convection cell - hot magma rises from

the outermost electron shells of atoms of different elements interact to form compounds. Most minerals are compounds. Metallic and van der Waals bonds are important in a few minerals.
Minerals are crystalline solids, meaning they

have an ordered internal arrangement of atoms. They are also naturally occurring and inorganic, and have a narrowly defined chemical composition and characteristic physical properties.
A minerals composition is indicated by a

the mantle, intrudes along frac tures defining oceanic ridges, and thus forms new crust. Cold crust is subducted back into the mantle at oceanic trenches, where it is heated and recycled, thus completing a thermal convection cell.
Transform fault - transform or change one

chemical formula, such as KAlSi3O8 for orthoclase. A few minerals including gold and silver are made up of a single element and are known as native elements.
Some minerals have a range of compositions

because one element can substitute for another if their atoms are about the same size and have the same electrical charge.
More than 3500 minerals are known but only a

type of motion between plates into another type of motion.

Transform plate boundary - this mostly occurs

few are very common. Most minerals are composed of silicon and oxygen and other chemical elements common in Earths crust.
The silica tetrahedron, consisting of one silicon

along fractures in the seafloor, known as transform faults, where plates slide laterally past each other roughly parallel to the direction of plate movement.

atom and four oxygen atoms, is the basic building block of all nonferromagnesian and ferromagnesian silicates, which are by far the most common minerals.

CHAPTER 3

Geologists also recognize several other mineral groups, including carbonates, oxides, halides, and sulfates, which are defined by their negatively charged ions or radicals.

 Although some physical properties of minerals

vary, especially color, others such as cleavage, density, luster, and hardness are remarkably constant and provide the necessary information for mineral identification.
Rock-forming minerals are essential for the

classification of rocks, whereas accessory minerals can be ignored in this endeavor. Silicates are the most common rock-forming minerals, but some carbonates are also abundant . Several processes such as cooling magma and lava, evaporation of seawater, the activities of organisms, metamorphism, and inorganic chemical processes account for the origin of minerals.
Concentrations of minerals and rocks of

_ What are the atomic number and atomic mass number of an atom? The number of protons in an atoms nucleus determines its atomic number, whereas an atoms atomic mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example, if an atom has 6 protons and 8 neutrons its atomic number and atomic mass numbers are 6 and 14, respectively. _ What types of chemical bonds are common in minerals, and how do they form? Ionic bonds form when ions with opposite electrical charges attract one another, whereas in covalent bonds atoms share electrons. In both cases the atoms attain a stable electron configuration with eight electrons in their outermost shell. 3.3 Explore the World of Minerals _ Why is it that not all mineral specimens show well-developed crystals but all are crystalline solids? As minerals form and grow, they may merge with one another to form a mosaic of interlocking crystalline solids that show no obvious crystals. Nevertheless, individual minerals within this mosaic have their atoms arranged in a specific threedimensional framework. _ How do native elements differ from other minerals? By definition native elements are made up of only one chemical element, such as gold (Ag) and diamond (C), whereas most minerals are composed of two of more chemical elements, such as quartz (SiO2) 3.4 Mineral Groups Recognized by Geologists _ Why are there so few common minerals? Even though there are 92 naturally occurring elements, only 8 of them are very common in Earths crust. And even among these 8, oxygen and silicon are by far the most common. As a result, most common minerals are made up of oxygen, silicon, and one or more other elements. _ What are the two basic types of silicate minerals, and how do they compare? Geologists recognize ferromagnesian silicates and nonferromagnesian silicates. The former are made up of iron, magnesium, or both combined with other elements. They tend to be dark, and they are denser than the latter, which lack iron and magnesium and tend to be light colored. _ What are carbonate minerals and in what kinds of rocks are they found? All carbonate minerals have the carbonate radical (CO3)_2 as in calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]. Carbonate minerals may be found in a

economic importance are characterized as metallic resources, non-metallic resources, and energy resources.
Reserves are that part of the resource base

that can be extracted profitably. The status of a resource versus a reserve depends on market price, labor costs, location, and developments in science and technology.

The United States must import many resources to maintain its industrial capacity. Canada is more selfreliant, but it too must import some commodities.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY

3.1 Introduction _ Why do geologists define ice as a mineral but not liquid water or water vapor? Ice is a mineral because it is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid, with characteristic physical properties and a specific chemical composition. Both liquid water and water vapour meet most of the criteria for a mineral except neither is a crystalline solid. _ Are amber and pearls minerals? Amber is considered a semiprecious stone, but it is not a mineral because it is organic and not crystalline. Pearls, although they grow in mollusks, are minerals because they are crystalline and meet the other criteria for minerals. 3.2 Matter, Atoms, Elements, and Bonding

number of rocks but they are found mostly in the sedimentary rocks limestone and dolostone. 3.5 Mineral Identification _ How does mineral luster differ from color? Luster is the quality and intensity of light reflected from a mineral and is characterized as metallic or nonmetallic. Color, in contrast, is a visual quality of minerals that results from the way they absorb or transmit light.

_ Why is crystal form of limited use in mineral identification? Crystal form is useful for the identification of minerals that typically show well-developed crystals. For many other minerals, however, the crystals grow in proximity to form a crystalline mass, in which case other mineral properties such as luster, hardness, and cleavage must be used for identification. _ What is mineral cleavage, and how is it used in mineral identification? Mineral cleavage refers to the breakage or splitting of mineral crystals along one or more smooth planes determined by atomic structure. When used with other mineral properties, cleavage can distinguish between minerals that otherwise look much the same. 3.6 The Significance of Rock-Forming Minerals _ How do rock-forming minerals differ from accessory minerals? Rock-forming minerals are common enough in rocks to be essential for naming and classifying rocks, whereas accessory minerals can be ignored in this endeavor because they are present in minor quantities.

Nucleus center of an atom Atomic Mass Number, which is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus Element is made up of atoms that all have the same properties Protons, a positive electrical charge Atomic Number, number of protons in its nucleus Ferromagnesian Silicates, are silicates that contain iron, magnesium, or both, as in olivine [(Fe,Mg)2SiO4] Reserve, part of the resource base that is known and can be recovered economically Bonding, Interactions among electrons around atoms can result in two or more atoms joining together Resource, a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material in or on Earths crust in such form and amount that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or potentially feasible Hardness is defined as a minerals resistance to abrasion and is controlled mostly by internal structure Carbonate Minerals, those containing the negatively charged carbonate radical (CO3)_2, include calcium carbonate (CaCO3), such as the minerals aragonite and calcite. Ion, electrical charge Rock, any solid aggregate of one or more minerals Cleavage, the property of breaking or splitting repeatedly along smooth, closely spaced planes Ionic Bond, the attractive force between the positively charged ion and the negatively charged ion Rock-forming Minerals are sufficiently common in rocks to be essential for rock identification and classification Compound, atoms of two or more elements bond, the resulting substance

3.7 The Origin of Minerals

_ What accounts for the origin of minerals from magma? As molten rock material known as magma (lava at the surface) cools, minerals begin to crystallize and grow, thus determining the composition of various igneous rocks. 3.8 Natural Resources and Reserves _ How does a resource differ from a reserve? A resource is any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance in rocks whose profitable extraction is potentially feasible. In contrast, a reserve is only that part of the resource base that can be extracted economically. _ What factors affect the status of a resource? Market price is the most obvious determinate of whether a commodity is classified as a resource or a reserve, but other factors are geographic location, labor costs, and developments in science and technology.

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

Atom - are the smallest units of matter that

retain the characteristics of a particular element.

Luster, is the quality and intensity of light reflected from a minerals surface Silica, a combination of silicon and oxygen Covalent Bonds, form between atoms when their electron shells overlap and they share electrons Mineral is a naturally occurring, crystalline solid, with a narrowly defined chemical composition, and distinctive physical properties Silica Tetrahedron, consisting of one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms Crystal is a geometric shape with planar faces corners, and straight edges Native Elements, are made up of a single chemical element Silicates, minerals that contain silica Crystalline Solids in which the constituent atoms are arranged in a regular, three-dimensional framework Neutrons, electrically neutral Specific Gravity, is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of pure water Density, in contrast, is a minerals mass (weight) per unit of volume expressed in grams per cubic centimeters Nonferromagnesian Silicates, lack iron and magnesium, are generally light colored, and are less dense than ferromagnesian silicates Electrons, negative electrical charge