Experiment No.

1
AIM :To study and measure various supply voltages of PC(ATX Power supply for PCs.) TOOLS/LIABILITIES/SOFTWARE USED: HARDWARE USED: SMPS , LMPS , Voltmeter. PRE CONDITION/INPUT: Measure voltage of various components through voltmeter POST CONDITION: Various supply voltages of PC successfully checked. THEORY: The pc power supply is mainly designed to convert AC from wall outlet and convert it into DC voltage needed by the system. However it must do this conversion efficiently and reliably, and must be able to shut down the system if it is over loaded, short circuits and over heats. When the PC power starts up, it must do it in proper sequence. When it shuts down it must prevent any voltage overshoot or fluctuations .it must check itself regularly,so that any detected failure can cause an immediate and safe shutdown.

FUNCTIONS OF POWER SUPPLY: 1. Convert AC into DC power ,to supply clean electric power to system. 2. To interact with motherboard to perform various other operations like CPU startup , shutdown ,voltage and temperature detection. 3. Supply control signals and clean power to each component.

TYPES OF POWER SUPPLY: 1. LMPS (Linear Mode Power Supply) 2. SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) 1. LMPS POWER SUPPLY:The term linear means straight.The linear supply essentially operates in a straight line from AC input to DC output.This type of supplies are transformer based and are less used in computers or peripherals.

The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and on variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linear regulator may be used to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and load. The regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators often provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and attached circuit from over current.

For example, a bench power supply used by circuit designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by an external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed output. Linear power supplies were the mainstay of power conversion until the late 1970s when the first commercial switch-mode became available. Now apart from very low power wall mount linear power supplies used for powering consumer items like cell phones and toys, switch-mode power supplies are dominant.

2. SMPS POWER SUPPLY: The SMPS is digital in nature and is used with most of the PCs. The name switching mode is given to them because they step down voltage essentially by switching the supply ON and OFF.

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (such as a personal computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage. The major drawback of the LMPS is the wastage of power in the form of heat.In SMPS instead of throwing this extra energy in form of heat,it was arranged to create a feed backloop.The feedback circuit senses the output voltage provided to the load and then switches the output voltage ON/OFF according to the requirement. This is done in order to maintain steady level of output.

In the case of the high load the voltage at the output drops,which is sensed by the switching circuit results in increased chopped DC duty cycle also known as long duty cycles.It increases the voltage at the secondary winding. In case of thesmall load the output voltage increases which is sensed by the switching circuit hence it decreasas the chopped dc cycles resulting in the decrease of the voltage provided by the secondary windings. Thus in both the cases the output voltage comes back to the designed value .the regulated output voltage is then fed to the load.

Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated, their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor. ATX POWER SUPPLY FOR PCS:

OUTPUT SUPPLY VOLTAGE LINE: +5 volt: (red color) for all electrical components. +12 volt: yellow color For spindal and steeper motors. -12 volt: blue color Used by some communication circuits(serial ports). -5 volts: white color Used only for backward copatipility with older ISA slots. +3.3 volts: orange color Used to provide power to motherboard. +5VSB: purple color Used to power stand by circuit such as PC ON circuit ,wake ON LAN and remote ring ON circuitry as well as intrusion detection circuit.

POWER SUPPLY CONTROL SIGNALS: 1) Powergood signal:-green color (output signal) Power good is the signal from power supply to motherboard to indicate that power supply is working properly and it tell the CPU circuitry to start the CPU running. 2) Power-ON :-green color (input signal) Power signal is from motherboard to power supply it tells when to turn off or on the input or power supply. 3) 3.3 sense: brown (input signal) This signal is used to sense the actual voltage of the 3.3 volt supply after it has reached the motherboard which allow the power supply to actively adjust the 3.3 volt output to compensate for line losses b/w the power supply and mother board. POWER SUPPLY CONNECTORS:

The connectors themselves come in two basic styles: 1. The large size, often called a Molex connector is keyed by virtue of the connector itself being D-shaped. It is used on most internal drives including HDD, CD/DVD, ZIP and other removable media drives and older FDD (5.25). 2. The smaller size typically called a mini-plug is use for the newer style of 3.5 FDDs. COMPARISON OF LMPS & SMPS:

Experiment No. 2
AIM: To Study Floppy Disk And its working. APPARATUS REQUIRED: floppy disk and floppy disk drive THEORY: FLOPPY DISK A floppy disk is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD). PARTS: Common Internal parts of floppy disk. 1. A hole that indicates a high-capacity disk. 2. The hub that engages with the drive motor. 3. A shutter that protects the surface when removed from the drive. 4. The plastic housing. 5. A polyester sheet reducing friction against the disk media as it rotates within the housing. 6. The magnetic coated plastic disk. 7. A schematic representation of one sector of data on the disk; the tracks and sectors are not visible on actual disks. INTERNAL STRUCTURE: The 5 14-inch disk has a large circular hole in the center for the drive's spindle and a small oval aperture in both sides of the plastic to allow the drive's heads to read and write data; the magnetic medium can be spun by rotating it from the middle hole. A small notch on the right of the disk identifies that it is writable, detected by a mechanical switch or phototransistor above it; if it is not present, the disk is read-only. Punch devices were sold to convert read-only disks to writable ones and enable writing on the unused

side of single sided disks; such modified disks became known as floppy disks. Fig.1. Floppy Disk

COMPONENTS Tape may be used over the notch to protect writable disks from unwanted writing. Oddly: this arrangement was the converse of the system used on 8 inch floppy discs where the notch had to be covered before the disc could be written to.

TYPES/SIZES: 8-inch floppy disk: The first floppy disk was 8 inches in diameter, and was protected by a flexible plastic jacket. IBM used this size as a way of loading microcode into mainframe processors, and the original 8 inch disk was not fieldwriteable. Rewriteable disks and drives became useful. Early microcomputers used for engineering, business, or word processing often used one or more 8 inch disk drives for removable storage; the O.S was developed for microcomputers with 8 inch drives. Fig.2. 8-inch Floppy Disk

5 14-inch floppy disk: The head gap of an 80-track high-density 5 14-inch drive is shorter than that of a 40-track double-density (360 kB) drive but can format, read and write 40-track disks well provided the controller supports double stepping or has a switch to do such a process. A blank 40track disk formatted and written on an 80-track drive can be taken to its native drive without problems, and a disk formatted on a 40-track drive can be used on an 80-track drive Fig.3. 51/4-inch Floppy Disk 3 12-inch floppy disk ("Microfloppy"): A 3 12-inch 2.88 MB floppy disk drive. This capacity was never common, but the more common 1.44 MB drives looked almost

identical.3 12-inch floppy disk were produced with a capacity of 720 KB, followed by what became the most common format, 1.44 MB. All disks had a rectangular hole which, if obstructed, write-enabled the disk. 1.44 MB disks had another hole which identified them as being of that capacity. Fig.4.31/2inch FD OPERATION: A spindle motor in the drive rotates the magnetic medium at a certain speed, while a stepper motor-operated mechanism moves the magnetic read/write head(s) along the surface of the disk. Both read and write operations require the media to be rotating and the head to contact the disk media, an action accomplished by a "disk load" solenoid. To write data, current is sent through a coil in the head as the media rotates. The head's magnetic field aligns the magnetic particles directly below the head on the media. When the current is reversed the particles align in the opposite direction encoding the data digitally. To read data, the magnetic particles in the media induce a tiny voltage in the head coil as they pass under it. This small signal is amplified and sent to the floppy disk controller, which converts the streams of pulses from the media into data, checks it for errors, and sends it to the host computer system.

FLOPPY DISK DRIVE A floppy disk drive is a hardware device that reads one of the first types of portable data storage media-floppy diskettes, also known as floppy disks. The floppy disk drive has many parts that are needed in order for it to work properly. Among the most important of these are the read and write heads. Fig.5. Floppy Disk Drive COMPONENTS The floppy disk drive consists of different parts. These parts interact with each other and perform the functions of reading and writing data on the floppy disk. It is important to know the different components of the floppy disk drive before servicing the drive, and to understand

the working of the floppy disk drive.

Fig.6. Floppy Disk Drive components

READ WRITE HEAD: The floppy disk drive has a read write head. It performs the work of reading and writing data on the floppy disk by converting the binary signals to electromagnetic signals. The double-sided floppy disk drive has two heads on both the sides of the floppy disk drive to read and write data on both sides of the floppy disk. The position of the read writes head on| both sides of the drive is such that they are not opposed to each other. This positioning prevents any interruption between the heads while writing data on the floppy disk. The floppy disk drive uses the same head to perform both reading and writing data on the floppy disk. The floppy disk head consists of two parts. The first part reads and writes head on the floppy disk. The second part is a set of two heads that erases the data from a track before the read write head writes the data on the track. HEAD ACTUATOR: The head actuator enables the read write head to access all the tracks on one side of the floppy The head actuator moves the read write head forward, from the center of the floppy outwards and backward to place the head over the required track. The head actuator is connected to a motor that moves the head forward and backward. This motor is the stepper motor. SPINDLE MOTOR: The spindle motor spins the floppy disk in the floppy disk drive. The spindle motor has a clamp that catches the floppy disk when the floppy disk enters the floppy disk drive. The spindle motor rotates at a speed of 300 rotations per minute.

CIRCUIT BOARD The circuit board connects all the parts of the floppy disk drive together. It consists of the circuits that send the data signals to the different parts of the floppy disk drive. The function used to runthe floppy disk drive is built into the circuit board. It controls the speed of the motors and manages the positions of the read write head over the required track FDD CANTROLLER The floppy Disk Drive (FDD) controller forms the interface between the floppy disk drive and the system. It is a card that controls the floppy disk drive. The FDD controller is affixed on the motherboard. POWER SUPPLY:- D.C. power to the 2 internal FDD is supplied via a single 4 pin converter The electronic ckt. present in the drive need +5V and motor need +12 V. CABLE: the internal FDDs are connected to the FD controller board through a 34 pin flat cable. the signal cable for the internal FDDs has a significant partial twist in it. In case of two FDDs if a FDD is connected after the twist it acts as A drive and if is connected before the twist it act as B drive. In case of single FDD the drive will act as A drive whether it is connected before or after the twist.

FLOPPY DISK CONTROLLER: The FDC can support up to 4 disk drives. The FDC is connected to the system bus &DMA controller. The FDC has the capacity to support different sector format. It can handle FDD of different speed TROUBLESHOOTING: Bad floppy diskette:

Verify that the floppy diskette that you are attempting to read from is not write protected or bad. Verify that the diskette is not write protected by sliding the tab into the position not allowing light to shine through it. If you do not have a tab place tape over this hole. Because of the technology of floppy diskette drives, it is likely for a floppy diskettes to easily become bad. Verify that other floppy diskettes are not exhibiting the same issue. Not setup in CMOS: Verify that the floppy drive is properly setup in CMOS Setup. If the floppy drive is not setup properly you may experience read / write errors or the floppy may not work at all. Most computers need to have the floppy setup as a 3.5, 1.44MB. Confliction with other hardware: If you have recently physically installed any new hardware such as a tape drive or other backup medium, temporarily disconnect that new hardware to ensure that it is not the cause of your floppy drive not working.

Not connected properly: a. Bad drivers: If you are not able to read or write to a floppy diskette from Windows, verify that the computer is not exhibiting floppy drivers issues by testing the floppy drive from MS-DOS. b. Bad hardware: If you continue to experience issues after following the above steps it is likely that hardware with in the computer is bad. Replace the following hardware in the computer in the below order.

Experiment No. 3
AIM OF EXPERIMENT :TO MAKE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MOTHERBOARDS: 386, 486, P1, P2, P3. HARDWARE USED: VARIOUS MOTHERBOARDS. THEORY: The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset. The motherboard is the primary component of the entire system. In addition to hardware the motherboard also contains some software .The system ROM actually contains three small but very critical programs these are post, the BIOS and the setup program. This device provides, even the C.P.U is enabled to function. In addition to hardware the motherboard also contain some software. The following is the picture of motherboard:

The important constituent components of an ATX Motherboard are given below: 1. Mouse and keyboard 2. USB 3. Parallel port 4. CPU Chip 5. RAM slots 6. Floppy Controller 7. IDE controller 8. PCI slot 9. ISA slot 10. CMOS Battery 11. AGP Slot 12. CPU 13. Power supply plug in

1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board port connected directly to the motherboard. The oldest, but still quite common type, is a special DIN, and most PCs until recently retained this style connector. The AT-style keyboard connector is quickly disappearing, being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard connector. You can use an AT-style keyboard with a PS/2-style socket (or the other way around) by using a converter. Although the AT connector is unique in PCs, the PS/2-style miniDIN is also used in more modern PCs for the mouse. Fortunately, most PCs that use the miniDIN for both the keyboard and mouse clearly mark each mini-DIN socket as to its correct use. Some keyboards have a USB connection, but these are fairly rare compared to the PS/2 connection keyboards. 2. USB (Universal serial bus): USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find USB

versions of many different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even printers. A USB connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable. USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular on PCs. First, USB devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting your system. 3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the motherboard through a direct connection or through a dangle. 4. CPU Chip: The central processing unit, also called the microprocessorperforms all the calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and sizes. Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink. The cooling device (such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU with a fan permanently attached. 5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in many different ways. The most current package is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module). 6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to control the floppy drive. 7. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as network servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable,which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE controlleris responsible for controlling the hard drive. 8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus. 9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards. The memory address bus is to 32 bits .The bus speed is 8.33 MHZ and the bandwidth is 16 bits. 10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways: the obsolete external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery. 11. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single

connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also probably have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot 12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power. 13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary electrical power to make the pc operate. The power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power. The power supply connector has 20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.

386 MOTHERBOARD:

FEATURES OF 386 M.B.

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE: 1. Microprocessor 2. Clock speed 3. Bus type 4. Bus width 5. Interrupt level 6. Sharable 7. DMA channels 8. DMA burst mode support

80386 15,16,20,25 MHz MCA 32-bit 16-bit yes 15 yes

9. Upgradable processor complex MEMORY: 1. Standard on sys board 2. Max on system board 3. Max total memory 4. Memory speed and type 5. System board memory socket type 6. number of memory module socket 7. Paged memory logic 8. Memory cache controller 9. Cache memory speed and type STANDARD FEATURES: 1. ROM size 2. ROM shadowing 3. Optimal math co-processor 4. Co-processor speed 5. Standard graphics 6. Video RAM 7. Max. No. of ports 8. Mouse supported 9. Parallel ports DISK STORAGE: 1. Standard FDD 2. HDD included 3. Automatic heat parking 4. Expansion slots SECURITY FEATURES: 1. Lock covers 2. KBD password 3. Power on password PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Height 2. Width 3. Depth 4. Weight ENVIRONMENT SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Power supply output 2. Temperature operating range

yes

4MB 6MB, 8MB 16 MB 80ns dynamic RAM 36 bit SIMM 3 yes yes 25 ns static RAM

128KB yes 80387DX 16,20,25 MHz VGA 256 KB 8 1 1

1.2, 1.44MB yes, IDE controller yes yes

yes yes yes

5.5 14.2 16.5 21 lbs

132 watt 16-90 degree

3. Max operating altitude

7000 ft.

486 Motherboard

FEATURES OF 486 M.B.: SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE: 1. Microprocessor 2. Clock speed 3. Bus type 4. Bus width 5. Interrupt level MEMORY: 1. Standard on sys board 2. Max on system board 3. Max total memory 4. Memory speed and type 5. System board memory socket type 6. number of memory module socket 7. Paged memory logic 8. Memory cache controller

80486 25 MHz MCA, ISA 32-bit 16-bit

2MB 8MB 16 MB 80ns dynamic RAM 36 bit SIMM 4 yes yes

STANDARD FEATURES: 1. ROM size 2. ROM shadowing 3. Optimal math co-processor 4. Co-processor speed 5. Standard graphics 6. Video RAM 7. Max. No. of ports 8. Mouse supported 9. Parallel ports DISK STORAGE: 1. Standard FDD 2. HDD included

128KB yes Built-in 25 MHz VGA 256 KB 5 1 1 1.2, 1.44MB yes, IO controller

SECURITY FEATURES: 1. Lock covers 2. KBD password 3. Power on password PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Height 2. Width 3. Depth 4. Weight

yes yes yes

5.5 14.2 16.5 21 lbs

ENVIRONMENT SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Power supply output 2. Temperature operating range 3. Max operating altitude

132 watt 16-90 degree 7000 ft.

Pentium 1 Motherboard

FEATURES OF PENTIUM-I M.B.:

Support Intel Pentium/P-MMX,AMD K5/K6-2/K6-3 and many more WAKEUP-LINK interface header supporting Intel wake-on-LAN supports modems ring on on board crystal 3-d audio chip 1 line out,1 line in,1 mic in,2 CD in,1 game port two DIMM slots supporting up to 512 MB memory capacity 4 PCI slots,2 ISA slots 2 USB ports,1 PS2 mouse port,1 IrDA port 1 FDD port, 1 LPT port, 2 COM ports Dual IDE channels supporting 4 ultra DMA 33 IDE devices dual AT/ATX power supply interface slim baby AT Flash BIOS full S/W configurable

Pentium 2 Motherboard

FEATURES OF PENTIUM-II M.B.: SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE: 1. Microprocessor 2. Clock speed PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Height 2. Width and length 3. Depth 4. Weight

PII 366,300,266,233 MHz

21/2 220*240 mm 4 layers, 0.05 18 ounces

ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIFICATIONS: Required airflow Temp. Operating range Max operating altitude MEMORY SUPPORT: Three DIMM slots for DRAM Max installed memory Cache BIOS: 1. AWARD system BIOS 2.128*8 flash ROM 3. Supports plug and play, ACIP, DMI and green functions

50 linear feet per min across 10-40 degree C 0 to 10000 feet

168 pin memory modules 256 MB 512KB pipelined built in

HARDWARE MONITORING: When CPU is over heated the system BIOS will tell board to give a series of beeping alarm and slow down CPU speed

EXPANSION SLOTS: AGP slots PCI slots ISA slots

32 bit*1 32 bit*3 16 bit*3

ON BOARD FLASH ROM: Provides P&P functions for automatic CPU and board config.

Pentium 3 Motherboard

FEATRURES OF PENTIUM III M.B.: SLOT-1 PROCESSOR SUPPORT 1. P-3 support for 450,550 MHz clock rates 2. P-2 support 233 MHz to 450 MHz clock rates 3. Support for 66,100 MHz 4. All processors config. By CPU plug and play. SOCKET 370 PROCESSOR SUPPORT: 1. The PPGA celeron provides P-2 performance with integrated level 1and level 2 caches. 2. Supports 66 MHz FSB system bus. All celerons are automatically config. Using firmware MEMORY SUPPORT: 1. Three DIMM slots for SDRAM 168 pin memory modules 2. Support 66 MHz memory bus and 100 MHz memory bus. 3. Max installed memory can be 3*256 MB. EXPANSION SLOTS: 1. One 32 bit PCI slots 2. One 8/16 bit ISA slots

ON BOARD IDE CHANNEL: 1. Primary and secondary IDE and PCI channels 2. Support for PIO modes 3. Support for bus mastering and ultra DMA 33/6 modes POWER SUPPLY AND POWER MANAGEMENT: 1. Dual connector for either an AT/ATX power supply. 1. Support for green PC std, suspends which keyboard on/off BUILT-IN GRAPHIC SYSTEM 1. Supports high resolution up to 1600*1200 pixels ON BOARD I/O PORTS: 1. FDD port 1MB/s transfer rate 2. One serial ports with 16550 compatible fast UART 3. One parallel port with support for ECP and EPP 4. Two USB ports 5. One PS/2 ports One infrared port HARDWARE MONITORING: Build in hardware monitoring for CPU temp. And fan speed

Experiment No. 4
AIM: To study, replace and install the hard disk.

Fig. 1 HARD DISK A hard disk drive is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. The hard disk drive in your system is the "data center" of the PC. It is here that all of your programs and data are stored between the occasions that you use the computer. HARD DISK FEATURES: Areal Density: Densities in the lab are now exceeding 35 Gbits/in2, and modern disks are now packing as much as 20 GB of data onto a single 3.5" platter Capacity: Hard disk capacity continues to not only increase, but increase at an accelerating rate. From 10 MB in 1981, we are now well over 10 GB in 2000 and will probably hit 100 GB within a year for consumer drives Spindle Speed: 7200 RPM spindles are now standard on mainstream IDE/ATA drives. A 15,000 RPM SCSI drive was announced by Seagate in early 2000. Form Factor: Desktop and server drives are likely to transition to the 2.5" form factor as well. The primary reasons for this "shrinking trend" include the enhanced rigidity of smaller platters, reduction of mass to enable faster spin speeds, and improved reliability due to enhanced ease of manufacturing.

Performance: Both positioningandtransferperformance factors are improving. The speed with which data can be pulled from the disk is increasing more rapidly than positioning performance is improving, suggesting that over the next few years addressing seektime and latency will be the areas of greatest value to hard disk engineers.

DESCRIPTION: HDD systems consist of a hard disk drive, a disk controller, jumpers, and a cable. On some PC's the controller is a separate expansion board that interfaces the system through an expansion slot. Power is supplied by direct cabling to the power supply. Hard disks are measured by their capacity, that is, how many megabytes it can store. Older drives hold up to 20 - 500 MB. Newer models hold 1 - 6 gigabyte (GB) and more. The best drives are physically small, spin fast, have fast seek times, have large buffers, and a long warranty.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE: . 2 INTERNAL STRUCTURE PHYSICAL COMPONENTS: 1.DISK PLATTERS: The platter is divided into Tracks and Sectors and is read by Zone Recording or Clusters. TRACKS: Platters are organized into specific structures to enable the organized storage and retrieval of data. Each platter is broken into seFig 3 Tracks veral thousand tracks.

SECTORS: Each track is further broken down into sectors. A sector is normally the smallest individually-addressable unit of information stored on a hard disk, and in most cases holds 512 bytes of information. BLOCK MODE: More than one sector can be transferred on each interrupt notification. Newer drives allow you to transfer as many as 16 or 32 sectors at a time. These sectors are known as CLUSTERS 2. HEADS Each platter is accessed for read and write operations using two read/write heads, one mounted on the top of the platter and another on the bottom. These heads are mounted onto arms that allow them to be moved from the outer tracks of the hard drive to the inner tracks and back again. The arms are controlled using a device called an actuator that positions the arms to the appropriate track on the disk.

3. Head Actuator The actuator is the device used to position the headarms to different tracks on the surface of the platter (actually, to different cylinders, since all head arms are moved as a synchronous unit, so each arm moves to the same track number of its respective surface. 4. Spindle Motor The spindle motor, also sometimes called the spindle shaft, is responsible for turning the hard disk platters, allowing the harddrive to operate.

Fig. 5 HDD Parts

Fig. 6 Internal components

5.Hard Disk Connector Several different connectors and jumpers are used to configure the hard disk and connect it to the rest of the system like power connector, data interface connector, etc.

6.Head Sliders Each hard disk head is therefore mounted to a special device called a head slider or just slider for short. The function of the slider is to physically support the head and hold it in the correct position relative to the platter as the head floats over its surface. 7.Head Arms The head arms are thin pieces of metal, usually triangular in shape onto which the headsliders (carrying the read/write heads) are mounted. 8. Hard Disk Logic Board All modern hard disks are made with an intelligent circuit board integrated into the hard disk unit. INSTALLATION: 1. Find Pin 1 On Drive:Take a close look at the drive and determine which end of the interface connector is pin 1. There should be some sort of a marking near pin 1 to indicate it, which may be a small number "1", a dot, an arrow, a square around the pin where it connects to the circuit board, or some other indication 2. Install Mounting Kit, If Necessary:Virtually all modern cases have internal 3.5" drive bays meant specifically for hard drives. However, if you are installing into an older case or one that has its internal 3.5" bays full, you will need to use a mounting or adapter kit. There are two common ways of mounting a hard disk drive into the system case: Direct Mount: The simplest and most common mounting method is the direct mount, where the drive slides into the bay and mounts directly to the drive bay walls.

Mounting Box: Some cases, especially desktops, use a removable metal box into which the drive is mounted. The procedure here is similar to that for direct mount, above, except that you have to remove the box first and insert the drive into it, then remount the box. Double-Check Installation: Make sure the drive has been fitted properly into the case and that there is no interference with other components. In particular, make sure that the logic board on the bottom of the drive is not touching anything. Ensure that it is not loose in the case. Remove and replace internal hard disk: Turn off your computer, disconnect the power, and remove your computers cover. If you have a mobile PC, check the information from the manufacturer to find out if there is a panel you can remove to access the hard disk. Unplug all cables connected to the hard disk, and then remove the hard disk. Pay attention to which cables you unplug, since you will plug the same cables into the new hard disk. If there are any screws holding in the hard disk, you will need a small screwdriver to unscrew them. Many hard disks slide in and out of the case on rails. If you have questions, check the information that came with your computer. Insert the new hard disk and connect it to the same cables in the same places as the hard disk you removed. One cable connects the disk to the computers power supply, and the other cable connects the disk to the computers motherboard.

TROUBLESHOOTING: There is various troubleshooting instruction as follows: 1.There may be some type of electrical connection problem Make sure the cable connections are correct. Check the 4-wire connector that carries power and makes sure it is properly plugged in. 2.There may be some problems in the cables and they might be having a small tab in the center of the connector's edge. 3.If all the cables are connected properly, and power is applied, you should be able to hear and feel the drive spinning. 4.A typical hard drive has a small amount of vibration and a slight whine

5.The hard drive has failed electronically. This will be indicated by an error message during the computer boot cycle.

Experiment No. 5
AIM:To study the Compact Disk Drive APPARATUS REQUIRED: Compact disk drive THEORY: In a few short years, the Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) drive has gone from pricey luxury to inexpensive necessity on the modern PC. The CD-ROM has opened up new computing vistas that were never possible before, due to its high capacity and broad applicability. In many ways, the CD-ROM has replaced the floppy disk drive, but in many ways it has allowed us to use our computers in ways that we never used them before. In fact, the "multimedia revolution" was largely a result of the availability of cheap CD-ROM drives. How CD's Work? CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc - Read Only Memory. This disk is like a "super" floppy disk that can hold lots of information. One CD-ROM can hold the same amount of data as 500 floppy disks. Information is permanently recorded onto it. Computer games and other programs are considered to be CD-ROMs.

Like gramophone records, the information on optical discs is recorded on a spiral track. However, with a CD the laser starts reading the disc from the inside ring and ends up on the

outside. When play back starts, a laser beam shines on the ridges and lands on the data membrane layer. During playback, the number of revolutions of the disc decreases from 500 to 200 rpm (revolutions per minute) to maintain a constant scanning speed. The disc data is converted into electrical pulses (the bit stream) by reflections of the laser beam from a photoelectric cell. When the laser beam strikes "land", the beam is reflected onto a photoelectric cell. When it strikes a "ridge", the photocell will receive only a weak reflection. Thus the photoelectrical cell receives series of light pulses corresponding to the ridges and lands in the disc. These light pulses are the foundation of binary 'digital' data. A simple substitution for the weak signal "0" and the in-focus signal "1" results in a pure digital playback without alteration, every time, without failure or degradation. In music playback, a D/A-Converter (digital to analogue converter; DAC) converts the series of pulses (binary coding) from a decimal code to a waveform, which can then be processed for amplification. The longer the decimal code, the better the sound. Current standard CD audio is 44,100 pulses per second and 16 bit (decimal places) in digital word length. Thus a 24 bit system sounds all that much better, in fact DVD audio is set to allow 24 bit AND pulse at 97,000 times per second! A recent step in CD technology is called the Mini Disc. It is half the size of a regular CD and can hold the same amount of information.

TYPES OF CDS: "Bridge" CDs The term bridge CD is used to refer to disks that use extensions or derivations of the CD-ROM Extended Architecture format. These extended formats are described in the "white book" specification. The reason for the term "bridge" is that these disks are designed to work both in CD-ROMs that support CD-ROM XA, and also in CD-Interactive hardware, thus "bridging" the two types of CD hardware. . CD-Interactive (CD-I) In 1986, Philips and Sony again joined forces to create the CD-Interactive or CD-I format. This concept was quite ambitious, with the goal to develop both a format and a special new type of hardware to use it. In some ways this was the first serious attempt at what we now call "multimedia", with authors creating disks including text, graphics, audio, video, and computer

programs, and hardware sold to handle all of these and connect to a television screen for output. Video CD (VCD) Support for a special CD format for the storing of compressed video information is defined as part of the "white book" specification. Through the use of MPEG compression it is possible to store 74 minutes of full-motion video in the same space that uncompressed "red book" audio uses! This format is called video CD or sometimes VCD Playing video CDs requires either a video CD player or a CD-ROM drive that is video CD compatible. Photo CD Developed in the early 90s by Kodak and Philips (who seems to have its hand in everything CDrelated), photo CD is an implementation of CD-ROM extended architecture designed to hold photographic images. They technically use mode 2 form 1 of the CD-ROM XA architecture. Photo CDs are defined in the "orange book" specification. When you send in film for processing to photo CD, the film is first developed normally. The developed and printed pictures are then scanned and converted to digital form, encoded into the photo CD format, and written to the CD. Writing the photos to the CD is done using a process that is basically the same as how CD-R works: a laser burns the information into the tracks of the CD. CD CAPACITY: A standard CD has a capacity of about 74 minutes of standard CD audio music. There are extended CDs that can actually exceed this limit and pack more than 80 minutes on a disk, but these are non-standard. Regular CD-ROM media hold about 650 MB of data, but the actual storage capacity depends on the particular CD format used. CD DRIVE-BASIC DESIGN: A schematic of an optical three-beam pick-up of a CD drive is shown in the next figure along with the laser beam route through the system. The laser beam from the laser diode passes through the diffraction grating to produce two secondary beams needed to maintain correct tracking of the disk. Then, the beam passes polarizing prism (beam splitter) and only the vertical polarized light passes. The light beam is then converged into a parallel beam (by the collimator) and passes through the 1/4-wave plate where the beam polarization plane is rotated by 45 degrees. The beam is then focused onto the disk surface by a lens and a servo-controlled mechanism called 2-axis device. Polarization plane

of the reflected beam is rotated by another 45 degrees turning its initial vertical polarization into a horizontal. After a few more reflections, all beams reach six photo detectors: 4 main spot detectors and 2 side spot detectors enabling read-out of the pit information from the disk

CD DRIVE COMPONENTS: The CD drive has the job of finding and reading the data stored as bumps on the CD. Considering how small the bumps are, the CD drive is an exceptionally precise piece of equipment. The drive consists of three fundamental components:

A drive motor spins the disc. This drive motor is precisely controlled to rotate between 200 and 500 rpm depending on which track is being read. A laser and a lens system focus in on and read the bumps.

A tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly so that the laser's beam can follow the spiral track. The tracking system has to be able to move the laser at micron resolutions.

OPERATIONS OF CD Writing CDs In response to this demand, electronics manufacturers introduced an alternative sort of CD that could be encoded in a few easy steps. CD-recordable discs, or CD-Rs, don't have any bumps or flat areas at all. Instead, they have a smooth reflective metal layer, which rests on top of a layer of photosensitive dye. When the disc is blank, the dye is translucent: Light can shine through and reflect off the metal surface. But when you heat the dye layer with concentrated light of a particular frequency and intensity, the dye turns opaque: It darkens to the point that light can't pass through. Reading CDs The conventional CDs store digital data as a pattern of bumps and flat areas, arranged in a long spiral track. The CD fabrication machine uses a high-powered laser to etch the bump pattern into photoresist material coated onto a glass plate. Through an elaborate imprinting process, this pattern is pressed onto acrylic discs. The discs are then coated with aluminum (or another metal) to create the readable reflective surface. Finally, the disc is coated with a transparent plastic layer that protects the reflective metal from nicks, scratches and debris.

INSTALLATION

REMOVE 1. First of all, you need to shut off your computer. 2. Unplug the power cord and other cords from your computer and find a sturdy flat surface on which to work on. 3. Unscrew all screws from the back of your computer except the power supply screws. 4. Open your computer up by taking the side panel off, or sliding the cover off. 5. Now before touching anything inside, it is a good idea to hook up to an anti-static wrist strap. 6. Find the CD-Rom drive, it should be about 1.5 inch thick 5 inches wide, and 6 inches long. Unplug all plugs from the back of the cd-rom drive; there should be an IDE (wide) plug, a CD plug (small) and a power plug (medium). 7. Once you find the CD-Rom drive, find the screws holding it onto the chassis. Unscrew those screws on both sides of the cd-rom drive. Be careful not to unscrew any screws holding the CDD 8. Now, you just have to remove the cd-rom drive, carefully by sliding it either forward or backward. Check the jumpers on your new cd-rom before moving to the next step. A typical cdrom drive should be set on slave if it is using the same IDE cable on the same cable. 9. Now that you've removed the cd-rom drive the next step is to install your new CD-ROM drive. To do this, simply slide the cd-rom drive in from the front of the computer, controls facing forward. Plug all the plugs back into the cd-rom and screw everything back into place.

TROUBLESHOOTING There are several factors that can cause problems with CD-ROM drives. a) The cabling is not properly connected 1) The power connector has to be plugged in. 2) The IDE data cable has to be properly connected. This cable is normally connected to the IDE primary or secondary motherboard connector and can have either one or two plugs on the end. The cable has to be inserted on the drive connector so that the colored edge is on the same side as pin 1 on the drive connector. b) BIOS settings might be incorrect

On some newer computers, the BIOS have to be changed to tell the computer that a new device has been added. There are two distinct places that might need to be changed. 1) If the drive is installed on a secondary IDE controller, then you will need to go into the BIOS and find the entry that enables the secondary IDE controller. 2) On some systems the drive type (which is normally the place where the drive parameters are entered) has to be set to the "Auto" selection. On both of the above entries, after the change you will need to exit the BIOS and Save the changes, then allow the computer to reboot. c) Software The quickest way to check for hardware conflicts is to look in the open the device manager and look for yellow exclamation points in front of the device names. When connected to a computer running Windows 95, IDE CD-ROM drives are detected automatically. After the computer is turned on and a window is loaded, you should see briefly a message that a new device was installed. The drive will be given the next available drive letter. If the drive does not seem to be detected then should check the device settings to see if there is a problem. Double Click the "My computer" on the desktop, the My Computer window will be displayed Double Click the "Control Panel" icon, the Control panel window will be displayed Double click the "System" icon; the System window will be displayed. Click on the "Device Manager" tab on the top of the screen, the System Properties window will be displayed If there are any problems with the drive a Yellow Exclamation point will be shown in front of the "+CD ROM" entry on the device manager window. Click on the + sign in front of the "+CD ROM". This will open the CD-ROM section and show you the drive name that window has detected. Click on the name so it is highlighted (blue) and press the properties button on the bottom of the screen. The CD ROM properties window will be displayed. There are at a minimum 2 tabs on the top of the screen. The General and the Settings.

When the General tab is pressed the "Device status" will be shown in the middle of the screen. This should normally say "This device is working properly". When the Settings tab is pressed, you will see specific information for that drive. The assigned drive number is located here. If for some reason the computer chose a drive name that is already in use by another device or if you want the drive to have a different drive letter you change it on this screen by setting the "reserve drive letters" of "Start drive " and "End drive" to the new drive letter you want Most of the problems are caused by improper Master/Slave settings or not having the IDE controller in the BIOS enabled.

Experiment No. 6
AIM: To study keyboard and its functions. THEORY: In computing, a keyboard is a typewriter-style keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Despite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touch screen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the keyboard remains the most commonly used and most versatile device used for direct (human) input into computers. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software KEY TYPES: A computer keyboard comprises character keys for typing, modifier keys for altering the functions of other keys, navigation keys for moving the text cursor on the screen, function keys and system command keys such as and for special actions, and often a numeric keypad to facilitate calculations.

1) CHARACTER KEYS: The core section of a keyboard comprises character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and punctuation, an upper row for typing digits and special symbols, and the on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter. 2) MODIFIER KEYS: Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves but modify the functions of other keys. For example, the key can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the (control) and (alternate) keys trigger special operations when used in concert with other keys. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand, so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key. 3) DEAD KEY: A dead key is a special kind of a modifier key that, In some systems, there is no indication to the user that a dead key has been struck, so the key appears dead, but in some text-entry systems the diacritical mark is displayed along with an indication that the system is waiting for another keystroke: either the base character to be marked, an additional diacritical mark, or to produce the diacritical mark in isolation. 4) COMPOSE KEY: A Compose key can be characterized as a generic dead key that may in some systems be available instead of or in addition to the more specific dead keys. It allows access to a wide range of predefined extra characters by interpreting a whole sequence of keystrokes following it. KEYBOARD LAYOUT:

A keyboard layout is any specific mechanical, visual, or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key-meaning associations (respectively) of a computer, typewriter, or other typographic keyboard. Mechanical layout : The placements and keys of a keyboard. Mechanical layouts only address tangible differences among keyboards. When a key is pressed, the keyboard does not send a message such as the A-key is depressed but rather the left-most main key of the home row is depressed. (Technically, each key has an internal reference number, "raw keycodes", and these numbers are what is sent to the computer when a key is pressed or released.) The keyboard and the computer each have no information about what is marked on that key, and it could equally well be the letter A or the digit 9. Visual layout : The arrangement of the legends (labels, markings, engravings) that appear on the keys of a keyboard. The user of the computer is requested to identify the visual layout of the keyboard when installing the operating system. Visual layouts vary by language, country, and user preference, and the same mechanical layout can be produced with a number of different visual layouts. For example, the "ISO" keyboard layout is used throughout Europe, but typical French, German, and UK variants of mechanically identical keyboards appear different because they bear different legends on their keys. Functional layout : The arrangement of the key-meaning associations, determined in software, of all the keys of a keyboard. The functional layout of the keyboard refers to the mapping between the physical keys, such as the key, and software events, such as the letter "A" appearing on the screen. Usually the functional layout is set to match the visual layout of the keyboard being used, so that pressing a key will produce the expected result, corresponding to the legends on the keyboard. KEYBOAD TECHNOLOGY: There are many different types of computer keyboards, usually differentiated by the switch technology employed in their operation. The choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has been pressed) and travel (the distance needed to push the key to enter a character reliably can be different on other keyboards). 1) MEMBRANE KEYBOARD:

There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel membrane keyboards and fulltravel membrane keyboards: Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances like microwave ovens or photocopiers. Full-travel membrane-based keyboards are the most common computer keyboards today. 2) DOME SWITCH KEYBOARD: Dome-switch keyboards are a hybrid of flat-panel membrane and mechanical keyboards. The rubber dome switches, most commonly referred to as polydomes, are formed polyester domes where the inside bubble is coated in graphite. While polydomes are typically cheaper than metal domes, they lack the crisp snap of the metal domes, and usually have a lower life specification. Polydomes are considered very quiet, but purists tend to find them "mushy" because the collapsing dome does not provide as much positive response as metal domes.

Both are common switch technologies used in mass market keyboards today. Dome-switch keyboards are also called direct-switch keyboards. It still uses rubber domes, but a special plastic 'scissors' mechanism links the keycap to a plunger that depresses the rubber dome with a much shorter travel than the typical rubber dome keyboard. 3) MECHNICAL SWITCH KEYBOARD:

Mechanical-switch keyboards use real switches underneath every key. Depending on the construction of the switch, such keyboards have varying response and travel times. Notable keyboards utilizing this technology are the Apple Extended Keyboard (the original or the "II"), as well as its modern imitator, the Matias Tactile Pro. These two keyboards use ALPS switches. On PCs, the OmniKey series from Northgate Computers was popular, and the line is now carried by Creative Vision Technologies under the Avant brand.

4) ROLL-UP KEYBOARD: Some keyboards are designed out of flexible materials that can roll up in a moderately tight bundle. Normally the external materials are either silicone or polyurethane. It is important to note that although many manufacturers claim that the keyboards are foldable, they cannot be folded without damaging the membrane that holds the circuitry. Typically they are completely sealed in rubber, making them watertight like membrane keyboards.

Like membrane keyboards, they are reported to be very hard to get used to, as there is little tactile feedback, and silicone will tend to attract dirt, dust, and hair. 5) OPTICAL KEYBOARD:

An optical keyboard technology utilizes light-emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located at the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior, and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly a vertical beam and a horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly a horizontal beam). The mechanism of the optical keyboard is very simple a light beam is sent from the emitter to the receiving sensor, and the actuated key blocks, reflects, refracts or otherwise interacts with the beam, resulting in an identified key.

Experiment No. 7
Aim:To Study mouse and its operation. Apparatus Required:mouse-scroll and optical. MOUSE: Mouse is a computers peripheral device used along with the keyboard, which allows a user to indicate what function he wants that his computer to carry out by selecting from a list of commands presented as a menu. The first mouse system was introduced for IBM PCs in 1982. With the help of mouse, the user points at a menu selection by physically moving the input device, which causes a core on screen movement of the cursor. One more button at the top of the mouse enables the user to indicate that he can select a menu item. The mouse is small enough to fit under the pole of hand with the button under the fingertip. There is a cord connecting the device to its computer host trailing like a tail. The whole process of moving the mouse on the screen is termed as dragging the mouse. On the basis of the technique of use, a mouse can be classified as: 1. MECHANICAL MOUSE: The design is based on a small boll that is fixed at the bottom and rotated as the mouse is pushed along the surface. Switches inside the mouse detect the movement in four directions (i.e. cores to two axes of 2- D system) and relay the direction of balls rotation to the host computer. This mouse requires that the user move it across a surface. The parts of mechanical mouse can break, so care must be taken. 2. OPTICAL MOUSE: In this type of mouse, instead of rotating the ball, a light beam is used to detect movement across a specially designed mouse pad. The mouse uses two pairs of LEDs and photodiodes at its bottom. One pair is oriented at the right angles with the other. The matching mouse pad is coated with an overlapped pattern of blue and yellow grids. Each pair of LED and photodiode detects the motion in either direction across one axis of the grid.

On the basis of interface, the mouse can be classified as: 1.Serial Mouse: This mouse is interfaced via a serial port. it has a standard 9 or 25 pin plug at the end of its cable. This type of mouse draws its power from RTS line of the RS-232-C port. It processes the electrical signal received from the mouse and converts those signals to the serial port. 2. Bus mouse: These mouse are attached to the dedicated mouse adapter that plug into computer expansion slots. The mouse works identically as that of the serial mouse except that

it uses its own dedicated supply. Also, this type of mouse is not directly accessible by dos because OS does not know what I/O addresses the ports are assigned

Experiment No. 8
Aim: TO STUDY PRINTER ASSEMBLY AND ELEMENTARY FAULT DETECTION IN DMP AND LASER PRINTER Apparatus Required: Various printers THEORY : Laser Printer: The laser printer was invented at Xerox in 1969 by researcher Gary Stark weather, who had an improved printer working by 1971and incorporated into a fully functional networked printer system by about a year later. The prototype was built by modifying an existing xerographic copier. Stark weather disabled the imaging system and created a spinning drum with 8 mirrored sides, with a laser focused on the drum. Light from the laser would bounce off the spinning drum, sweeping across the page as it traveled through the copier. The hardware was completed in just a week or two, but the computer interface and software took almost 3 months to complete. The first commercial implementation of a laser printer was the IBM model 3800 in 1975, used for high-volume printing of documents such as invoices and mailing labels. How it works: Raster image processing:- Each horizontal strip of dots across the page is known as a raster line or scan line. Creating the image to be printed is done by a Raster Image Processor (RIP), typically built into the laser printer. The source material may be encoded in any number of special page description languages such as Adobe PostScript (PS, BR-Script), HP Printer Command Language (PCL), or Microsoft XML Page Specification (XPS), as well as unformatted text-only data. The RIP uses the page description language to generate a bitmap of the final page in the raster memory. A raster image processor (RIP) is a component used in a printing system which produces a raster image also known as a bitmap. The bitmap is then sent to a printing device for output. The input may be a page description in a high-level page description language such as PostScript, Portable Document Format, XPS or another bitmap of higher or lower resolution than the output device. In the latter case, the RIP applies either smoothing or interpolation algorithms to the input bitmap to generate the output bitmap. Raster image processing is the process and the means of turning vector digital information such as a PostScript file into a high-resolution raster image. Stages of RIP:-

1. Interpretation: This is the stage where the supported PDLs (Page description languages) are translated into a private internal representation of each page. Most RIPs process pages serially so the current machine state is only for the current page; i.e. one page at once. Once a page has been output the page state is discarded to ready it for the next page. 2. Rendering: A process through which the private internal representation is turned into a continuous tone bitmap. Note that in practical RIPs, interpretation and rendering are frequently done together. Simple languages were designed to work on minimal hardware so tend to "directly drive" the renderer. 3. Screening: In order to print, a continuous-tone bitmap is converted into a halftone (pattern of dots). Two screening methods or types are Amplitude Modulation (AM) screening and stochastic or Frequency Modulation (FM) screening. In AM screening, dot size varies depending on object densitytonal values; dots are placed in a fixed grid. In FM screening, dot size remains constant and dots are placed in random order to create darker or lighter areas of the image; dot placement is precisely controlled by sophisticated mathematical algorithms.

Charging:Applying a negative charge to the photosensitive drum older printers, a corona wire positioned parallel to the drum, or in more recent printers, a primary charge roller, projects an electrostatic charge onto the photoreceptor (otherwise named the photo conductor unit), a revolving photosensitive drum or belt, which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge on its surface while it is in the dark. An AC bias is applied to the primary charge roller to remove any residual charges left by previous images. The roller will also apply a DC bias on the drum surface to ensure a uniform negative potential. Numerous patents describe the photosensitive drum coating as a silicon sandwich with a photo charging layer, a charge leakage barrier layer, as well as a surface layer. One version[specify] uses amorphous silicon containing hydrogen as the light receiving layer, Boron nitride as a charge leakage barrier layer, as well as a surface layer of doped silicon, notably silicon with oxygen or nitrogen which at sufficient concentration resembles machining silicon nitride Exposing:-

Laser neutralizing the negative charge on the photoreceptive drum to form an electrostatic image. The laser is aimed at a rotating polygonal mirror, which directs the laser beam through a system of lenses and mirrors onto the photoreceptor. The cylinder continues to rotate during the sweep and the angle of sweep compensates for this motion. The stream of rasterized data held in memory turns the laser on and off to form the dots on the cylinder. Lasers are used because they generate a narrow beam over great distances. The laser beam neutralizes (or reverses) the charge on the black parts of the image, leaving a static electric negative image on the photoreceptor surface to lift the toner particles. Fusing:Melting toner onto paper using heat and pressure. The paper passes through rollers in the fuser assembly where heat (up to 200 Celsius) and pressure bond the plastic powder to the paper. One roller is usually a hollow tube (heat roller) and the other is a rubber backing roller (pressure roller). A radiant heat lamp is suspended in the center of the hollow tube, and its infrared energy uniformly heats the roller from the inside. For proper bonding of the toner, the fuser roller must be uniformly hot. Some printers use a very thin flexible metal fuser roller, so there is less mass to be heated and the fuser can more quickly reach operating temperature. If paper moves through the fuser more slowly, there is more roller contact time for the toner to melt, and the fuser can operate at a lower temperature. Smaller, inexpensive laser printers typically print slowly, due to this energy-saving design, compared to large high speed printers where paper moves more rapidly through a high-temperature fuser with a very short contact time. Cleaning:Magnification of color laser printer output, showing individual toner particles comprising 4 dots of an image with a bluish back ground. When the print is complete, an electrically neutral soft plastic blade cleans any excess toner from the photoreceptor and deposits it into a waste reservoir, and a discharge lamp removes the remaining charge from the photoreceptor. Toner may occasionally be left on the photoreceptor when unexpected events such as a paper jam occur. The toner is on the photoconductor ready to apply, but the operation failed before it could be applied. The toner must be wiped off and the process restarted. DMP are the most popular types for use with PCs. They have a printer head that is pulled horizontally across the paper from left to right and back again using a rubber belt and electric motor. Each character is generated from an array on matrix of dots. The printer head consists of tiny pins that are operated electro magnetically. As head moves across the paper, the pins

move rapidly in and out under the control of the printer electrons. Characters are formed when the pins strike the ribbon, leaving dots on paper. The resolution and quality of DMP is determined by the number of pins in the printer head. Usually the head is of ninepins. Most of the printers have a lever that adjusts the distance of the printer head from the roller to accommodate different thickness of stationary. Another level controls the pinch rollers that allow the use of single sheet, non-sprocket fed paper. Price is obviously a major factor of contributing to the popularity of DMPs . PRINTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO VARIOUS TYPES: 1. IMPACT AND NON-IMPACT PRINTERS:: In an impact printer the character is formed by physical contact of print head against the ink ribbon onto the paper. In the non-impact printers, the character can be pulled at a time they are known as serial. 2.CHARACTER AND LINE PRINTERS: Printers, which print one character at a time, are called character printers and the printers, which print one line at a time, are called line printers. Printers have three major assemblies: Power supply Control mechanism Printing mechanism POWER SUPPLY: It consists of DC regulator for safety logic and a filter. The safety logic sheets of the power supply in abnormal condition prevent any damage to device.

CONTROL MECHANISM: This subassembly consists of one or more PCBs. the CE provides following circuits: Up address latch RAM and ROM Address decoder RESET logic Head driver CR and CF monitor drive Interface drive/receiver

The reset signal is generated either during power on or when init is recognized, received from PC. It is sent to various logic in the printer to perform the init sequence.

Moving the printer head to the home PCs Cleaning buffer Resetting the microprocessor Providing online/ready status

PRINTER MECHANISM: Function pattern causage assembly Printer head Paper fed mechanism Home rents 8 pocket on it Paper end session

LASER PRINTER: The main parts of the laser printer are: 1. Charging electrode 2. Cleaning rode 3. Photoreceptor drum 4. Toner 5. Rotating hexagonal mirror 6. Laser scanning unit Laser beam produced by the laser-scanning unit passed through the character generator box. The responsibility of the character generator box is allow or not to allow the laser beam to pass through according to the character. This beam is strike to the rotating hexagonal mirror, which deflect the beam towards the drum. Drum is already positively charged and the surface at which the beam strikes becomes negatively charged. Toner is also positively charged. The character that we want to print on the paper is obtained on the drum due to beam. The negatively charged portion of the drum attracts the positively charged toner particles, and the image is produced on the paper. Then this paper is passed through the heating section so that the image becomes permanent. Color laser printers Fuji Xerox color laser printer C1110BColor laser printers use colored toner (dry ink), typically cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). While monochrome printers only use one laser scanner assembly, color printers often have two or more scanner assemblies.

Color printing adds complexity to the printing process because very slight misalignments known as registration errors can occur between printing each color, causing unintended color fringing, blurring, or light/dark streaking along the edges of colored regions. To permit a high registration accuracy, some color laser printers use a large rotating belt called a "transfer belt". The transfer belt passes in front of all the toner cartridges and each of the toner layers are precisely applied to the belt. The combined layers are then applied to the paper in a uniform single step. Color printers usually have a higher cost per page production cost than monochrome printers.

Drum printer It is awide-format inkjet printer. The paper is taped onto a drum for precise alignment to the nozzles. An old line printer technology that used formed character images around a cylindrical drum as its printing mechanism. When the desired character for the selected position rotated around to the hammer line, the hammer hit the paper from behind and pushed it into the ribbon and onto the character.

Drum Printer Mechanism

The hammer pushes the paper into the type slug when it rotated around to the proper position. Such printer technologies seem ridiculous compared to the quiet, highspeed workings of today's laser printers.

An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print position on a line is on a continuously rotating drum behind an inked ribbon, with paper in front of the ribbon; identical characters are printed simultaneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signalcontrolled hammers. In a typical drum printer design, a fixed font character set is engraved onto the periphery of a number of print wheels, the number matching the number of columns (letters in a line) the printer could print. The wheels, joined to form a large drum (cylinder), spin at high speed and paper and an inked ribbon is stepped (moved) past the print position. As the desired character for each column passes the print position, a hammer strikes the paper from the rear and presses the paper against the ribbon and the drum, causing the desired character to be recorded on the continuous paper. Because the drum carrying the letterforms (characters) remains in constant motion, the strike-and-retreat action of the hammers had to be very fast. Typically, they were driven by voice coils mounted on the moving part of the hammer. Often the character sequences are staggered around the drum, shifting with each column. This obviates the situation whereby all of the hammers fire simultaneously when printing a line that consists of the same character in all columns, such as a complete line of dashes ("----").Lowercost printers did not use a hammer for each column. Instead, a hammer was provided for every other column and the entire hammer bank was arranged to shift left and right, driven by another voice coil. For this style of printer, two complete revolutions of the character drum were required with one revolution being used to print all the "odd" columns and another revolution being used to print all of the "even" columns. But in this way, only half (plus one) the number of hammers, magnets, and the associated channels of drive electronics were required. Band printer Band printers are a variation of chain printers, where a thin steel band is used instead of a chain, with the characters embossed on the band. Again, a selection of different bands was generally available with a different mix of characters so a character set best matched to the characters commonly printed could be chosen. Data products was a well known manufacturer of band printers, with their B300, B600, and B1000 range, the model number representing the lines per minute rate of the printer. (The B300 was effectively a B600 with only half the number of

hammersone per two character positions. The hammer bank moved back and forth one character position, requiring two goes to print all characters on each line.) The drum printer offers offset printing for the pharmaceutical and confectionary industries; in addition, it precisely centers the print on tablets, caplets, and capsules. A simplified operator interface has digital display for printer operating conditions. Electronic push-button controls are featured for setup, logo registration and operation. Servo motors with optical encoder feedback for speed and position provide accurate control of printing registration. The drum printer is designed for film- or sugar-coated tablets and caplets and for hard-shell gelatin capsules. Printing can be one- or two-sided, linear or radial, and no rectified or rectified. It can be in one or two colors. Change parts are designed to be easily removed for a quick change to a different product. Printing capabilities are as follows: 250,000 one- or two-sided tablets per hour; 150,000 one- or two-sided caplets per hour; and 150,000 linear or rotary capsules per hour

Inkjet An inkjet printer is any printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an image. If you ever look at a piece of paper that has come out of an inkjet printer, you know that:

The dots are extremely small (usually between 50 and 60 microns in diameter), so small that they are tinier than the diameter of a human hair (70 microns)! The dots are positioned very precisely, with resolutions of up to 1440x720 dots per inch (dpi). The dots can have different colors combined together to create photo-quality images.

In this article, you will learn about the various parts of an inkjet printer and how these parts work together to create an image. You will also learn about the ink cartridges and the special paper some inkjet printers use.

Inside Parts of a typical inkjet printer include: Print head assembly:

Print head - The core of an inkjet printer, the print head contains a series of nozzles that are used to spray drops of ink. Ink cartridges - Depending on the manufacturer and model of the printer, ink cartridges come in various combinations, such as separate black and color cartridges,

color and black in a single cartridge or even a cartridge for each ink color. The cartridges of some inkjet printers include the print head itself.

Print head stepper motor - A stepper motor moves the print head assembly (print head and ink cartridges) back and forth across the paper. Some printers have another stepper motor to park the print head assembly when the printer is not in use. Parking means that the print head assembly is restricted from accidentally moving, like a parking brake on a car. Belt - A belt is used to attach the print head assembly to the stepper motor. Stabilizer bar - The print head assembly uses a stabilizer bar to ensure that movement is precise and controlled.

Paper feed assembly:

Paper tray/feeder - Most inkjet printers have a tray that you load the paper into. Some printers dispense with the standard tray for a feeder instead. The feeder typically snaps open at an angle on the back of the printer, allowing you to place paper in it. Feeders generally do not hold as much paper as a traditional paper tray. Rollers - A set of rollers pull the paper in from the tray or feeder and advance the paper when the print head assembly is ready for another pass. Paper feed stepper motor - these stepper motor powers the rollers to move the paper in the exact increment needed to ensure a continuous image is printed. Power supply - While earlier printers often had an external transformer, most printers sold today use a standard power supply that is incorporated into the printer itself. Control circuitry - A small but sophisticated amount of circuitry is built into the printer to control all the mechanical aspects of operation, as well as decode the information sent to the printer from the computer. Interface port(s) - The parallel port is still used by many printers, but most new printers use the USB. A few printers connect using a porter small computer system interface (SCSI) port. Thermal bubble - Used by manufacturers such as Canon and Hewlett, this method is commonly referred to as bubble jet. In a thermal inkjet printer, tiny resistors create heat, and this heat vaporizes ink to create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed out of a nozzle onto the paper. When the bubble "pops" (collapses), a vacuum is created. This pulls more ink into the print head from the cartridge. A typical bubble jet print head has 300 or 600 tiny nozzles, and all of them can fire a droplet simultaneously. Click the button to see how a thermal bubble inkjet printer works. Piezoelectric - Patented by Epson, this technology uses piezo crystals. A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir of each nozzle. The crystal receives a tiny

electric charge that causes it to vibrate. When the crystal vibrates inward, it forces a tiny amount of ink out of the nozzle. When it vibrates out, it pulls some more ink into the reservoir to replace the ink sprayed out.

Experiment No.9
AIM: - To observe and study various cables, connectors and ports used in computer communication. 1. USB Cables and Connectors You can use USB cables to connect most new devices to your computer including flash memory sticks, portable media players, internet modems and digital cameras. Computer accessories like mice, keyboards, webcams, portable hard-drives, microphones, printers, scanners and speakers can also be connected to the computer through USB ports. Additionally, USB cables are also used for charging a variety of gadgets including mobile phones or for transferring data from one computer to another.

2. Audio Cables and Connectors 2.1 3.5mm headphone jack The most common audio cable is the standard headphone jack, otherwise known as a TSR connector. It is available in several sizes, but the most common ones used with computers are the 3.5 mm or 1/8" mini audio jack. Fig.3.5 Headphone Jack Most speakers and microphones can connect to the computer with these audio cables. The microphone port on your computer is usually pink while the speaker port, where you insert the stereo audio cable, is colored green. 2.2 Digital Optical Audio For high-end audio, like when you want to connect the output of a DVD player or a set-top box to a Dolby home theater, you need the TOSLINK (or S/PDIF) connector. These are fiber optic cables and can therefore transmit pure digital audio through light. Some laptops and audio equipment have a mini-TOSLINK jack but you can use a converter to connect it to a standard TOSLINK (Toshiba Link) port.

Fig. 3. Digital Optical Audio

3. Video Cables 3.1 VGA One of the most common video connectors for computer monitors and high-definition TVs is the VGA cable. A standard VGA connector has 15-pins and other than connecting a computer to a monitor, you may also use a VGA cable to connect your laptop to a TV screen or a projector. Connectors 3.2 DVI Monitor Port If you have purchased a computer in the recent past, chances are that it uses DVI instead of VGA. The new breed of "thin" laptops use the smaller variants of DVI like the Mini-DVI and Micro-DVI.A DVI cable has 29 pins, though some connectors may have less pins depending on their configurationDVIs video signal is compatible with HDMI, so a simple converter can allow a DVI monitor to receive input from an HDMI cable. Fig. 5. DVI Monitor Port 3.3 S-Video S-Video cables, otherwise known as Separate Video or Super Video cables, carry analog video signals and are commonly used for connecting DVD players, camcorders, older video consoles to the television.Standard S-Video connectors are round in shape and may have anywhere between 4-9 pins. Fig. 6. S-Video Cable 4. Audio and Video Cables 4.1 RCA Connector Cables RCA connector cables are a bundle of 2-3 cables including Composite Video (colored yellow) and Stereo Audio cables (red for right channel and white or black for the left audio channel).Sometimes additional cables may be included, offering additional audio channels and/or component video

Fig. 4. VGA Cables and

instead of composite. Component video offers better picture than composite because the video signal is split in different signals while in the case of composite, everything is transferred through a single yellow plug. Fig.7. RCA Connector Cables 4.2 HDMI Cables HDMI is the new standard that provide both audio and video transmission through a single cable. HDMI support a maximum resolution of 40962160p (HD is only 19201200) with up to 8 channels of digital audio and are used for connecting Blu-Ray players to an HDTV.Standard HDMI cables can be up to 5 meters long, but higher quality ones can be up to 15 meters long, and the length can be further increased with amplifiers. .HDMI is backwards compatible with DVI so you can use a converter to watch video on a DVI device through the HDMI cable though you will have to use another cable for the audio. 4.3 DisplayPort http://img.labnol.org/di/2009/10/DisplayPort.pngA combined digital video and audio cable that is more commonly used in computers is DisplayPort and the smaller derivative Mini DisplayPort. Both support resolutions up to 2560 1600 60 Hz, and additionally support up to 8 channels of digital audio.StandardDisplayPort cables can be up to 3 meters long, but at a lower resolution cables can be up to 15 meters long. Fig. 8. Display Port DisplayPort connectors are available to connect VGA, DVI video, or HDMI video and audio with a DisplayPort cable or connection. Additionally, converters are available to convert Mini DisplayPort into standard DisplayPort. 5. Data Cables 5.1 Firewire IEEE 1394 Firewire, otherwise known as IEEE 1394, i.LINK, or Lynx, is a faster alternate to USB and is commonly used for connecting digital camcorders and external hard drives to a computer. It is also possible to ad-hoc network computers without a router over FireWire. Fig. 9Firewire IEEE 1394

5.2 eSATA Cables While SATA cables are used internally for connecting the hard drive to the computers motherboard, eSATA cables are designed for portable hard drives, and can transfer data faster than USB or FireWire.However, eSATA cable cannot transmit power, so unlike USB, you cannot power an external hard drive with eSATA. Fig.10 eSATA Cable Connector Computer Ports:Most connectors are polarized, permitting the cable to be plugged in only in the correct direction. The keyboard and mouse use "PS2" connectors. The PS2 connectors are color-coded. The purple connector is for the keyboard. The green connector is for the mouse. To plug in a keyboard or mouse cable, first match the cable to the connector. Rotate the cable until the connector keys match up. Then push the cable into the connector. Be sure not to force the connector because you will end up bending the pins.The parallel port, serial port, and video port all use "D" type connectors (DB25M, DB-9M and DB-15F respectively). These are called D connectors because of their shape, which permits the cables to be plugged in only one way. The serial port was originally used for the mouse and modem, but it was a real pain to configure those ports. The serial port is now obsolete. The parallel port is almost obsolete, although it is still required by some printers. Both of these ports have been replaced by the USB (Universal Serial Bus) port. A USB port is keyed so that a USB cable can be plugged in only one way. The audio jacks are the most confusing connectors on the back panel. Although the jacks are sometimes color-coded, the devices that plug into them rarely.The green jack (audio out) is where you plug in your left speaker.The right speaker plugs into a jack on the left speaker. The red jack is where you plug in your microphone. The center jack (audio in) is where you plug in audio from another device, such a CD player.

PS/2 Ports:-

The PS/2 Ports are simple, 6-pin, low-speed serial connections commonly dedicated to a keyboard and mouse. Although these ports may look identical at first glance, they are not interchangable, so you'll need to be extremely careful to attach the keyboard and mouse to their respective PS/2 port. If you elect to use a USB keyboard and mouse, you can typically disable the PS/2 ports in the system's CMOS setup and free the PS/2 system resources for other devices.

VGA Monitor Port:Video Graphics Array: used to connect the monitor to the computer. Some other value-add information to go here! VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. VGA, although now more advanced, has become the standard for desktop video, leaving both the MCGA and 8514 in the dust. VGA offers clean images at higher resolutions. The standard VGA can produce as many as 256 colors at a time from a palette of 262,144 colors. The original VGA, though, had to be at a 320x400 resolution to display this amount of color. At the standard 640x480 resolution, it was only capable of 16 colors at a time. Also, VGA extends into the monochrome world. It uses color summing to translate color graphics into graphics using 64 different shades of grey. This, in effect, simulates color on a monochrome monitor. VGA requires a VGA monitor, or one capable of accepting the analog output of a VGA card.

DB25 Parallel Port :The parallel port originally started out as aundirectional (output only) port running at about 150K/sec. and appeared as an interface card for the Apple. It migrated to the IBM PC unchanged except for a switch from the original 36-pin Amphenol connector, which it has retained through the years.Refers to processes that occur simultaneously.Printers and other devices are said to be either parallel or serial. Parallel means the device is capable of receiving more than one bit at a time (that is, it receives several bits in parallel). Most modern printers are parallel.

RJ45 Ethernet Port:A local-area network (LAN) architecture developed by Xerox Corporation in cooperation with DEC and Intel in 1976. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps. The Ethernet specification served as the basis for the IEEE 802.3 standard, which specifies the physical and lower software layers. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands. It is one of the most widely implemented LAN standards.

USB Port:Universal Serial Bus: a protocol for transferring data to and from digital devices. Many digital cameras and memory card readers connect to the USB port on a computer. USB card readers are typically faster than cameras or readers that connect to the serial port, but slower than those that connect via FireWire an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, and keyboards. USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.

Firewire IEEE 1394 Port:A type of cabling technology for transferring data to and from digital devices at high speed. Some professional digital cameras and memory card readers connect to the computer over FireWire. FireWire card readers are typically faster than those that connect via USB. Also known as IEEE 1394, FireWire was invented by Apple Computer but is now commonly used with Windows-based PCs as well.

Modem RJ-11 Jack:Short for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector used primarily to connect telephone equipment in the United States. RJ-11 connectors are also used to connect some types of localarea networks (LANs), although RJ-45 connectors are more common.

Mini Audio Jack:Audio connectors are used to affix cables to other audio equipment, providing electronic signal transference and grounding protection. Connectors may be plugs, jacks, or combinations, and may have an integral switch. Plug type audio connectors are a plug, or male, connector includes pins that can be inserted into a socket. Jack type audio connectors are a jack, or female, connector consists of sockets that are aligned to mesh with a pin-type connector. Combination plug and jack connectors are also available. They may also have switches.

Experiment No. 10
Aim: TO STUDY THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CARDS i.e. DISPLAY CARD, SUPER IDE CARD LAN CARD ETC. HARDWARE USED: DISPLAY CARD, SUPER IDE CARD LAN CARD ETC. THEORY: SUPER IDE CARD: -Four to five years earlier this card was known as HFDC, which stands for hard disk, floppy disk controller. But now the technology has been changed therefore it is known as the super IDE card. This card is more powerful from the previous cards, which not only control the hard disk and floppy disk and also provides the facility one parallel port, serial port and one is game port. It is through this card only that we can use mouse or joy stick, jumper setting has got the main improvement in this card. DISPLAY CARD (VGA CARD): -

The full form of the VGA is video graphic card. The graphics card is the 16-bit card which as in itself RAM ranging from 256 KB to 1024 KB. The more RAM we use, clearer will be the display on the monitor. it can be fixed on any slot on motherboard, signal is send through 15 pins to monitor. This card has got all the capabilities and features among all the previous cards available like CGA HGA EGA etc. this card presents the display on a very high resolution through which the picture that ultimately arrives at the monitor is very clear. COLOR/GRAPHICS ADAPTER: CGA support color monitor and NTSC TV monitor with external RF modulator. The CGA board provides three video interfaces: 1. Composite video interfaces 2. Direct drive) TTL) interface FR modulator interface for linking a home TV via a external RF modulator CGA can operate in two modes: B/W and color. 16 foreground and 8 background colors are possible in the color mode in which blinking on a per character basis is also possible. In

between these modes these character attributes are also available, reverse video, blinking and intensity. The CGA board can support to alphanumeric modes and 2 graphics modes.

Experiment No. 11
AIM: To study various Microprocessors THEORY: A Microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computers CPU on a single integrated circuit or at most a few integrated circuits.It is a multipurpose programmable device that accepts digital data as input,processes it according to instruction stored in its memory and provides results as output.It is an example of sequential digital logic as it has internal memory. Various Microprocessors are: PENTIUM II :

The Pentium II microprocessor was largely based upon the microarchitecture of its predecessor, the Pentium Pro, but with some significant improvements. The Pentium II was basically a more consumer-oriented version of the Pentium Pro. It was cheaper to manufacture because of the separate, slower L2 cache memory. The improved 16bit performance and MMX support made it a better choice for consumer-level operating systems, such as Window 9x, and multimedia applications. Combined with the larger L1 cache and improved 16-bit performance, the slower and cheaper L2 cache's performance impact was reduced. General processor performance was increased while costs were cut.

Various Features are: o Introduced in mid 1997-early 1999 o Common Manufacturer: Intel o Max CPU Clock rate: 233Mhz-450MHz o Min. feature size: 0.35um-0.25um o Instruction set: IA-32,MMx o Predecessor: Pentium,Pentium pro o Successor: Pentium3 o L1 Cache: 32KB o L2 Cache: 512KB

PENTIUM III:

The Pentium III brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and mobile microprocessors based on the sixth-generation P6 microarchitecture introduced on February 26, 1999. The brand's initial processors were very similar to the earlier Pentium II-branded microprocessors. The most notable difference was the addition of the SSE instruction set (to accelerate floating point and parallel calculations), and the introduction of a controversial serial number embedded in the chip during the manufacturing process. Subsequently, it was the Pentium M microarchitecture of Pentium M branded CPUs, and not the NetBurst found in Pentium 4 processors, that formed the basis for Intel's energy-efficient Core microarchitecture of CPUs branded Core 2, Pentium Dual-Core, Celeron (Core), and Xeon. Various Features are: o Introduced in 1999-2003 o Common Manufacturer: Intel o Max CPU Clock rate: 400Mhz-1.4GHz o Min. feature size: 0.25um-0.13um o Instruction set: IA-32,MMx,SSE o Predecessor: Pentium II o Successor: Pentium4, XEON o L1 Cache: 32KB o L2 Cache: 512KB

PENTIUM IV:

Pentium 4 was a line of single-core desktop and laptop central processing units (CPUs). They had a 7th-generation x86 microarchitecture, called NetBurst, which was the company's first allnew design since the introduction of the P6 microarchitecture of the Pentium Pro CPUs in 1995. NetBurst differed from P6 (Pentium III, II, etc.) by featuring a very deep instruction pipeline to achieve very high clock speeds (up to 3.8 GHz) limited only by TDPs reaching up to 115 W in 3.4 GHz 3.8 GHz Prescott and Prescott 2M cores. At the launch of the Pentium 4, Intel stated NetBurst-based processors were expected to scale to 10 GHz (which should be achieved over several fabrication process generations). However, the NetBurst microarchitecture ultimately hit a frequency ceiling far below that expectation the fastest clocked NetBurst-based models reached a peak clock speed of 3.8 GHz.

Various Features are: o Introduced in 2000-2008 o Common Manufacturer: Intel o Max CPU Clock rate: 1.3Ghz-13.8GHz o Min. feature size: 180nm-65nm o Instruction set: IA-32,MMX,SSE,SSE2,SSE3 o Predecessor: Pentium III o Successor: Pentium D o L1 Cache: 32KB o L2 Cache: 512KB

CORE i3:

The Core i3 was intended to be the new low end of the performance processor line from Intel, following the retirement of the Core 2 brand. The first Core i3 processors were launched on January 7, 2010. The first Nehalem based Core i3 was Clarkdale-based, with an integrated GPU and two cores. The same processor is also available as Core i5 and Pentium, with slightly different configurations. According to motherboard manufacturer Supermicro, if a Core i3 processor is used with a server chipset platform such as Intel 3400/3420/3450, the CPU will support ECC with UDIMM. When asked, Intel confirmed that, although the Intel 5 series chipset supports non-ECC memory only with the Core i5 or i3 processors, using those processors on a motherboard with 3400 series chipsets it will support the ECC function of ECC memory.

Various features are: Sandy Bridge 32 nm process technology 2 physical cores/4 threads L1 cache: 32+32 Kb (per core) L2 cache: 256 Kb (per core) L3 cache: 3 MB Introduced in January, 2011

CORE i5:

The first Core i5 using the Nehalem microarchitecture was introduced on September 8, 2009, as a mainstream variant of the earlier Core i7, the Lynnfield core. Lynnfield Core i5 processors have an 8 MB L3 cache, a DMI bus running at 2.5 GT/s and support for dual-channel DDR3800/1066/1333 memory and have Hyper-threading disabled. The same processors with different sets of features (Hyper-Threading and other clock frequencies) enabled are sold as Core i7-8xx and Xeon 3400-series processors, which should not be confused with high-end Core i7-9xx and Xeon 3500-series processors based on Bloomfield. Various Features are: Sandy Bridge 32 nm process technology o 4 physical cores/4 threads (except for i5-2390T which has 2 physical cores/4 threads) o L1 cache: 32+32 Kb (per core) o L2 cache: 256 Kb (per core) o L3 cache: 6 MB o 995 million transistors o Introduced in January, 2011 o Variants ending in 'S' have a peak TDP of 65 W, others 95 W except where noted o Variants ending in 'K' have unlocked multipliers; others cannot be overclocked

CORE I7:

Intel Core i7 is an Intel brand name for several families of desktop and laptop 64-bit x86-64 processors using the Nehalem, Westmere, and Sandy Bridge microarchitectures. The Core i7 brand is targeted at the business and high-end consumer markets for both desktop and laptop computers, and is distinguished from the Core i3 (entry-level consumer), Core i5 (mainstream consumer), and Xeon (server and workstation) brands. Both the first and second generation of Intel Core i7 processors are rated as 5 stars in the Intel processor rating. The second generation of Intel core processors are based on the "Sandy Bridge" core and are set to be updated in January1 2012 with "Ivy Bridge". 1Footnote: It has not yet been launched, as of 2012-03-31. "Core i7" is a successor to the Intel Core 2 brand. Various Features are: o 4 physical cores o 256 KB L2 cache o 8 MB L3 cache o Front side bus replaced with QuickPath up to 6.4GT/s o Hyper-Threading is again included. This had previously been removed at the introduction of Core line o 781 million transistors o Intel Turbo Boost Technology