This study examines stereotyping of Arab Muslims in the New York Times for the past

forty years. Theorists suggest that stereotyping of a minority group effects the public\'s
opinion of that group. Other communication media theorists say that only under extreme
conditions will the negative stereotypes reflect the publics\' opinions of the portrayed
minority group. The parallel theory between propaganda and stereotyping by the mass
media is examined. Theorists including Thomson, (1977) & Myers, (1992), related to
mass media effects strongly agree claiming that repetitive and non-contradictive images
in the media are an effective form of propaganda. The research samples are random
article reviews of the New York Times for the past forty years. Using every fifth year and
2 random numbers ranging from 1 to 12 is used to select an article search date. Islam was
the search term. The Gudykunst & Kim( ? ) method of analyzing a stereotype is used to
evaluate the 8 New York Times articles. The results indicate 95% of the articles were
\"vague,\" labeling entire group rather than individual. Out of the total 100%, 70% of the
article used unfavorable trait characteristic labeling.

Has the New York Times negatively stereotyped Arab Muslims for the past forty years?
The goal of this research project is to reveal the negative stereotypes directed towards
Arab Muslims in the New York Times. The critical focus of the research is the
consistency of the negative stereotypes. The underlying focus is what theoretical and
historical effects result from the negative stereotypes.

WHAT IS STEREOTYPING?

The operational definition is \"an idea, expression, lacking in originality or inventiveness.

A simplified and standardized conception or image of a person or group held in common
by members of a group.\" (Dictionary). Theorist\'s Gudykunst & Kim claims the word
stereotype originated from an author named Walter Lippman. In this study, the
independent variable is the New York Times and the dependent variable is the Islamic
religious group.

WHO IS A MUSLIM?

\"And seek assistance through patience and prayer, and most surely it is a hard thing
except for the humble ones\" (Holy Qur\'an 2:45). To announce you are a Muslim, you
have to follow the five pillars of Islam that are:

1. Pray five times a day.

2. Fast during the month of Ramadan.

3. Make a pilgrimage to Mecca.

4. Pay homage to the poor and.

5. Believe that there is only one God.

and Mohammed is the prophet of God.

Otherwise one is untruthful if one calls him or her self a Muslim.

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING STEREOTYPING OF MUSLIMS IN

THE New York Times FOR THE PAST FORTY YEARS?

New York Times is accepted world wide as the number 1 international news paper Atef,
(1994). Consistency of negative stereotyping for 40 years is believed by media theorists
to be a key factor in shaping public opinion. Prophet Mohammed says \"The pen is
mightier than the sword \". Is the media a significantly a dangerous weapon to 8 million
Muslims in America, 48 Muslim nation\'s worldwide, 1 billion Muslims on Earth, and the
fastest growing religion. More humans have died because of their religion than any other
cause of death. Torah, Bible, and the Holy Koran are the sacred books of these religions.

With the Disney and ABC Cap city and Warner and CBS and other mergers, the media is
becoming more consolidated. The significance of negative stereotyping is outlined by
Thomson, (1977) who reveals the results of negative stereotyping as Polarization,
Trivialization, Tension, and Depoliticisation. Single owners have more control over what
one watches and reads.

LITERATURE REVIEW OF JOURNAL ARTICLES ON STEREOTYPING

Many communication theorists have studied stereotyping in the different facets of the
mass media concerning minority groups. Theorist Zillman\'s study on stereotyping
examines the desensitization effect of negative stereotyping in a rape case. Zillman\'s
(1982) study: The impact of heavy pornography viewing on the juror\'s decision
concluded that the consistent viewing of pornography desensitized the jurors regarding an
assaulted victim. Concerning what previous theorists have hypothesized equates to the
media shaping individualism more than the non-actor role models. When the traits
depicted in media message are repeated and not contradicted, negative stereotyping is
very effective.

Theorists such as Kahn, (1992) & Fisher, (1989) agree on the extent of effects of negative
stereotyping.

Fisher\'s theory takes into effect in many different situations including maximum-security
prisons. A study by Glenn Fisher, \"Mass Media Effects on Sex Role Attitudes of
Incarcerated Men,\" examines the conscious state of mind of prisoners in reflection to
media messages.

The benefit of this research would reassure society that the prisoners are well adjusted to
return to society. The foundation of the research is that these incarcerated men are
disconnected from the outside world except for the mass media. This is a very interesting
situation because of the fact that it is a controlled environment with minimum outside
variables to interfere with prisoner\'s perceptions of the mass media\'s portrayals.
Fisher, (1989) intend to record the opinions and attitudes of the prisoners concerning
stereotypical beliefs towards women. Because these men have been imprisoned for over 4
years, this makes them very good subjects. The prisoners are dependent on the mass
media as a current description of the society. This study quizzes their traditional sex role
attitudes, to see if they have kept up to current times through to the media.

The survey then compares the results to the male population\'s opinion on pre
incarceration sex role attitudes. The results would prove Fisher\'s, (1989) hypothesis,
\"The amount of media consumption did have a significant effect on sex role attitudes\"
(p.192). The results showed that the general population\'s opinion towards the survey: \"A
working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with children as a
mother who does not work\"(p.200). General population males scored significantly less.
The incarcerated men seemed to have more current modern attitudes towards women in
the work force Fisher, (1989). This is because the media are portraying women as
doctors, engineers, and less and less as house spouses. \"The media is not a mindless
distraction but a tool to keep pace with the evolving social world outside the prison
walls\" (p.201). In conclusion, Fisher feels that the mass media does have an effect on
opinions of the imprisoned subjects.

This brings up an interesting research paper entitled \"Does Being Male Help?\" An
Investigation of Candidate Gender Coverage on Evaluations of US Senate Candidates\"
by Kim Fridkin Kahn, (1992). This research examines the media\'s influence on the
voter\'s opinion by systematically covering female candidates differently.

The mass media is expressing their sex role attitudes towards

Females in news coverage and it boils down to stereotyping. Kahn, (1992) attempts to
prove this issue in her research paper. First, a survey is taken to show the lack of women
presently in high ranking political offices Kahn, (1992). \"Of the 25 women who ran for
the US Senate between 1984 and 1990, only two succeeded\" (p. 498). With over 300
Senate chairs, 2 is a very low. The difference is extreme so this is the drive that leads
Kahn to do her experiment. Kahn went though great extremes to prove her point. Kahn\'s
theory is consistent with the significance of negative stereotyping. Negative stereotyping
is one form of propaganda, which effects politics.

Negative stereotyping in the New York Times is hypothetically used to instill hate and
desensitization in people young and old. Negative stereotyping is as equally a serious
issue when it is used against people as a result of their religious beliefs.

LITERATURE REVIEW OF THEORISTS ON MUSLIM STEREOTYPING

Shaakeem\'s (1985) \"Portrayal of the Middle East\" will be used as support for the
hypotheses of negative stereotypes of Arab Muslims in the New York Times. Lamb
(1985) also stated that in \"lifestyle, traditions, and beliefs, the Arabs are different and
any time an ethnic group is different that group tends to be stereotyped\" (p.522). The
New York Times does not make direct offenses to the targeted group. Instead they
carefully choose words and subtly generalize radical individuals into a selected group. An
example of negative stereotyping of Arab Muslims is Shaaheen, (1985) \"TV Guide use
of language, when the Palestinians were attacked, they were labeled as \"targets\"
suggesting that military areas were being hit. When Israelis were attacked the reporter
referred to it as \"the state of Israel\" a civilian area (p.293). The negative stereotyping
aspect of propaganda is pronounced even more when negative stereotype of a
monotheistic religion is exclusively attached to the faith of the Arab Muslims. Tim
McVay is not labeled as an American Christian terrorist, representing the entire faith of
Christianity. Serbian leaders are not labeled as Serbian Christian terrorists. The rabbi who
went on a shooting spree inside a Muslim masque was not labeled as an Israeli Jewish
terrorist. An example of negative stereotyping occurs when three individuals blow up a
building and are labeled as Arab Muslim terrorists, or Islamic fundamentalists.

The Western world is afraid of the growth of Islam because of the difference in culture,
anti-democratic infrastructure and treatment of women Atef Al Gamri, (1994). In a study
by Shaleen, (1985) he observes how even the Webster Dictionary is participating
negatively stereotyping. \"Definition of an Arab in the 1947 Edition of Webster\'s new
International Dictionary definition is: One of the oldest and purist of people and with the
Jews constitute the best modern representative of the Semitic Race. Then the
comparisons to today\'s dictionary use of slang for Arab: \"Vagabond\", \"Peddler\",
\"Bum\", \"Derelict.\" From Merrian Webster Thesaurus\" (p.165).

The negative stereotypes are instilled in a younger generation as well. Jack Shaaheen,
(1985) gives examples of cartoon portrayals. Children are the most susceptible and the
largest group of media absorption. Children are exposed to this propaganda in the comic
book: \"Superman: romantic Shaykh {who is the equivalent of a Christian priest in the
Christian world} seduces Lois Lane. Then it\'s revealed that the Shaykh is a ruthless
killer of several spouses (Captive Princess 1965). GI Combat sets a bomb and many
Arabs are killed. The sergeant boasts \"The Vultures will feast on human Arab hyenas\"
God of Steel, (1980), (p.165). These negative stereotypes are up to 30 years old. The
children who read the comic books in the sixties have grown up with the consistent
message of a negative stereotyped group. This is one of the main element for propaganda
to be effective Garth & O\'Donnell, (1986). Negative Stereotyping is also effective when
the message is not contradicted. When the many voices of the mass media are in unison
concerning the negative stereotypes of Arab Muslims, then the portrayal is believed.
Shaakeen, (1985) continues to demonstrate the negative stereotypes from the many facets
of mass media including movies. This outlet alone gives the American mass media one
billion viewers, children and adults. Movies with big box office sellers such as Goldie
Hawn, Eddy Murphy, and Arnold Schwarzeneger to name a few, have been used to
stereotype the Muslim Arabs. In the film \"Protocol\", Goldie Hawn warns that the Arabs
threaten America\'s security. In the movie \"Best Defense\" starring Eddie Murphy,
Kuwaiti children throw stones at Eddie Murphy\'s tank. Murphy yells \"Okay you desert
rats, now you die!\" (p.165). Chuck Norris, and Arnold Schwarzeneger went from
fighting the Vietcong to fighting the \"Muslim terrorist groups\".

This content analyzed is a strong message. Propaganda and media effects theorists agree
that the amount of exposure can effect the viewer\'s attitudes. Myers (1992) claims that
just half an hour can effect the viewer. David Pearl, Chief of the National Institute of
Mental Health\'s Behavioral Science Research states \"Today\'s children are spending
twice as long in front of a television than a classroom.\" This study raises concerns
regarding the manipulating factors of media by elite group owners especially concerning
the content.

FUNCTIONS OF NEGITIVE STEREOTYPING

What are the benefits for stereotyping a billion humans world wide for the random acts of
a few individuals?

Negative stereotypes serve a function. Sandra Whitehead, (1987) an obvious example of

stereotype is the lazy, servile black sambo that served to justify slavery. The heavy media
coverage of the World Trade Center has practically stopped all foreigners from Arab
Muslim countries including: Egypt, Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia to obtain visas into the
land of power, America.

What is the underlying purpose of negative stereotypes? Ogawa, (1885) states that the
negative \"Jap\" stereotypes in 1924 was to arouse anti-Japanese emotions in the United
States. Shortly afterwards, mass genocide in Hiroshima took place. Hitler used similar
negative stereotypes as a portrayal of the Jews to justify concentration camps tortures and
genocide. The United States government Thomson, (1977) used propaganda to incite
anti-German emotion. The government paid to build a movie studio specifically to create
movies that would create hate towards the Germans. A short time afterwards, America
entered World War I. Similarly the mass genocide of the Bosnian Muslims by the Serbs
Christians has been active for over ten years. Present genocide of Hundreds of thousand
humans, including children in Russia, Palestine, India to name a few, while the Western
public\'s \"desensitized and depoliticalasized and polarized\" Thomas,(1977). Is the
reason behind negative stereotyping in the New York Times to justify allowing thousands
of people to be slaughtered? This seems to be the case throughout history. The negative
stereotypes and fears rooted as far up into the political infrastructure of America as the
President\'s Administration and the Vice Ex-President. Ex-Vise President Dan Qualye
warning the Arab Muslims are like Nazism in a previous speech. This form of subliminal
desensitization is a common practice as previously discussed. Today and at least for the
past forty years, the negative stereotypes are strongly focused on the Arab Muslims in the
New York Times. Negative Stereotyping based on fear of a growing Islamic movement
that\'s financially supported by the Arab countries? The hypothesis of an American
political fear of Islam\'s supported by a critique of articles in the May 1994, the World
Press Review. A summary of articles that provided information about the reasoning
behind the stereotypes. (March 94) New York Times described the rise of militant Islam
as a threat to world peace and security, similar to Nazism and Fascism in the 1930\'s and
Communism in the 1950\'s. A summary of why the West fears the steadily growing
Muslim nations. (In Central Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union, \"Mosques
spring up overnight like mushrooms\" Viva (1994). Islamic Fundamentalism is gaining
ground across the entire stretch from North Africa to South East Asia, changing the daily
lives of millions of people, \"frightening established governments and sending shock
waves to the west Viva (1994). The fear of a similar victory as in 1979 when the victory
of the Muslims in Iran changed an entire regions map.

There is support concerning political involvement negatively stereotyping. \"For the West
particularly, the need for an [enemy] to replace the Soviet specter.\" Atef, (1994)
rationalize the reasons for the portrayals of Muslims as an economical benefit. (p.9) \"The
specter of an enemy incites national passions that support large defense budgets, high
quotas of arm\'s production and military intervention abroad\" Atef Al Ghamri (1994).

METHOD
Articles from the New York Times will be the data for the research project. 40 years of
New York Times newspapers is needed to conduct the research. The Western
Connecticut State University Mid-town library have the newspapers on microfiche. No
unforeseeable problems with the will of God can occur in obtaining the research data.
The limitations of reporting the data is minimal with exception to a(daily tri-religious
review for past 40 years), which would be an optimal research. The conductor of the
research will provide the data for the research. The population, which is being studied in
this research, are Muslims in the New York Times articles. The sample size for the
research is 40 years, ranging from 1956 to 1996. The systematic sample will be divided
by 5, every fifth year, one article will be analyzed. A random pick of two numbers
ranging from 1 to 12 will be chosen from a pile of numbered out of sight pieces of paper.
When the two pieces of papers are randomly for example: (2 and 4) then on February the
forth, 1956, an article from the New York Times concerning Muslims will be photo
copied from the micro fiche machine. The same process will be repeated until 40 years
are covered. The instrument which will be used to analyze if stereotypes exist in the
articles is a previously accepted list to reveal the existence of stereotypes by Gudykunst
and Kim( ? ). The archival method of research will be used to collect the data. The
independent variable is the New York Times and the dependant variable is Islam. Very
little can effect the validity of the research project except for personal bias. The bias will
be controlled by disconnecting prejudice from the researcher concerning the research

DATA ANALYSIS on Random Article Review Of The New York Times

On April 21, 1995,almost all the print media referred to the Middle East concerning the
Oklahoma Federal building bombing that\'s classified as worse than the World Trade
Center bombing. This comparison implied Middle Eastern involvement. When the
accused Tim McVay was detained, no reference\'s made concerning McVay\'s religious,
ethnic, or place of origin background. Mcvay\'s not labeled an American Christian
terrorist, nor was his name an issue or analyzed for Biblical significance. A

A non random article review shows New York Times article following the World Trade
Center bombing is loaded with negative stereotypes. The description used by the New
York Times on June 25 1993 section B:3:3 are as follows \"Muslim Extremists\", Violent
faction of militant Muslims\", \"Terrorist uses a Muslim name\", \"mysterious people\",
\"Radical Islamic Extremists\", \"fundamentalists\", \"Islamic Sect Linked to string of
crime in the United States\", \"Clinton Administration officials say arrest of Muslims
accused of plotting bomb.\" These quotations are but a few that reflect the biased labeling
that its political roots go as far as the President.

What can be done in the future to prevent other groups from being victimized by
propaganda. Examples are: Hitler and Jews, America and Germans and Japanese, etc...}
not to mention the negative stereotyping of women, blacks and Hispanics to name a few.
How can individuals and groups alike shield themselves against this war?

Education is the answer to the tumultuous but subtle stereotypes the media injects into the
minds of children and adults. Concerning the negative stereotypes toward Arab Muslims,
most Americans do not know about the Islamic beliefs and values. Therefore, when a
message is presented, the Americans do not have the fundamental tool to combat the
deception: knowledge. Modern Middle Eastern classes with a topic discussion of
propaganda and a criminal statistical comparison of United States and the Middle East
should be a standard curriculum for grade schools and for college students.

Humans are a creature of precaution, therefore, before information\'s accepted, it is in the

best interest of society to know what is being accepted as truth. (Garth & O\'Donnell,
1986) Claim many American biases are superficial, simply the residue of poisonous
entertainment. It may be helpful to know which shows, newspapers, and movies are
participants negatively stereotyping and prevent the children from viewing the
propaganda material. If so the children are conditioned (Thomson, 1977) in the effects of
media. (Shaheen 1985) Programs presented by PBS are the least biased if at all.

If history and theorists conclude propaganda is a tool to justify killing thousands of

people it\'s the tool of the devil. The minds of society are currently being worked on by
this tool as demonstrated. To leave children susceptible to this tool is being the devil\'s
advocate such as Hitler was. Mass media is commonly accepted as a very dangerous
weapon and it have been rightly proven so. The majority of the people do not recognize
these subtle vicious attacks, that\'s why they continue and that\'s why they are believed.

If all people are created equal, they should be portrayed as equal. Not one group labeled
evil and another group good, inferior and superior, ugly and beautiful, weak and strong.
The intention of this project is not to demonize the media, but to reveal the politically
overlooked biases and tactics of an internationally established media giant, the New York
Times.

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