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OCR Physics B

By Oliver Turner
(The Night Before the Exam)
Finished at 23:47
Scientific Process
• Ask A Question • Publish Results
• Suggest an • Lab Write-Ups
• Peer Review
Answer
• Make New
• Make A Predictions
Prediction • Carry Out new
• Carry Out a Tests
Test
• If all evidence in
the world supports
• Evidence to – “Scientific Fact”
Evidence
• Evidence comes from
CONTROLLED LAB
EXPERIMENTS
• MEANINGFUL CONCLUSIONS
• Must keep everything else
constant, except for one
variable
Basics of Waves
• Used in Medical
Imaging – X-rays /
Ultrasound
• Communications
• A wave transfers
energy from a PROOF:
source •Wave Power
Generates Electricity
• Reflected- Hits a •Gamma rays Cause
boundary, bounces Ionisation
back
• Refracted- Changes
direction in different
Terms Used with Waves
• Frequency = •Transverse (Light,
1/Time Period Slinky Up/Down)
•Oscillates 90
• Hz = S-1 degrees to wave
• Velocity = movement
Frequncy x
•Longitudinal (Sound,
Wavelength Slinky Push/Pull)
• (Speed) = •Oscillates in the
(1/Time) x same direction as
(Distance) wave movement
Polarisation
• TV Signals are
• Oscillates in one direction. polarised.
• Electromagnetic Waves can • Rotate TV Aerial
be Polarised to the same plane
• Only happens to transverse as oscillation of
wave
waves
• PROOVES if a wave is
transverse
• Reflected LIGHT is
polarised (After it bounces
off a material)
• Polarising filters polarise
light (Only let through
oscillations in certain
directions)
• THEREFORE POLAROID
Refraction
• Refraction because of ΔS
– Why?
• “Pivot Effect” as waves
slow down in a denser
medium
• Slow down = Decrease
v(velocity)
• v=fλ
• Decrease in v causes
Decrease in λ
• n=c/v
• n = refractive index
• c = speed of light
Lens Makers Formula
• 1/Radius = Curvature (of Wave)
• Radius from lens to image = v
• Radius from object to lens = u
• SO:
• Curvature at object = 1/u
• Curvature at image = 1/v Radiu
• What’s the difference? s
• 1/f – The curvature ADDED by
the lens

• 1/V = 1/U + 1/F


• Curvature after = Curvature Before +
Curvature Added
Image Distance, Object
Distance and Focal Length
• Object distance = u
• Think ubject
• Image distance = v
• Think vimage
• Focal length is distance from lens to focal point
(f)
Image formed on
Wall
• F = V when image formed at Focal Length

u v

f
Bits/Bytes
• 1 Bit = A choice of 0 or 1
• 0 and 1’s code computers for
ON/OFF switches
• 2n= Number of alternative code
• When n is number of bits
• Each new bit doubles the number
of options (adds one more choice
of ON/OFF)
• Number of Bits = Log2(N)
• N=Number of alternative codes
• 8 Bits = 1 Byte 1000Bytes =
Images
• Stored in Binary
Numbers (Codes of 0’s +
1’s)
• Each pixel is represented
by one number
• 256 colours = log2256 =
8
• So black = 00000000
White = 11111111 etc
• Colour Pictures are much
up of 3 numbers
Editing Images
• Add a value to each pixel
Increases Brightness (+1)
• Multiplying Increase
Contrast (x2)
• Map Colours to a certain
number to add False Colour
• Replace pixels with median of
neighbours to Reduce Noise
• Laplace Rule Finds Edges
(multiply pixel by 4, and take
away the numbers to N,S,W,E
of pixel)
• Everything except edges
Sampling
• Analogue – Analogue > Digital:
Continuous Take the values of an
• Digital – Discrete analogue signal at regular
(Limited by time intervals
number of “levels” To the NEAREST digital
= 2n (Slide 10) “level”/value
Turn the value into a binary
number
• Digital signals are
resistant to noise
• Because they only WILL LOSE SOME
take certain INFORMATION
values, they can (But its still pretty close to
be
Quality and Noiseg rate =e2yxou get
a m plin , or els
m s n cy
im u qu e
• Quality depends on: Min est fre
High ses”
a
2. Number of levels “ali

3. Time from one sample to the next


• Higher the resolution (more values)
the more closely it matches the
original 2n (Slide 10)
• IF TOO MANY LEVELS, noise is
• Maximum bits = log2(Total Variation/Noise
Variation)

• b = log2(VT/VN)
• Variation can be measured in volts
Digital Signals > Analogue
Signals
1. Sent, Received, Reproduced
easily
– They take a limited number of values
2. Resistant to the effects of Noise
– Analogue signals are negatively
effected by noise
3. Store different kinds of information
in the same way
– Can be stored as a string of bits
4. Easy to Process using computers
Signal Spectra / Bandwidth
• Signals made up of • Carrier frequencies
lots of frequencies have to be different to
• Bandwidth is the avoid interference
range of • Bandwidth determines
frequencies e.g how different they
have to be
• Maximum f – • Gaps are left between
Minimum f = say 105.8, and 106.2
Bandwidth
• Larger Bandwidth >
• Carrier wave is Larger the gap has to
mixed with signal be to stop
when signal is sent overlapping
• Carrier wave is • Number of stations =
separated from the Range of frequencies /
Rate of Transmission
Proof:
• Rate of transmission
(bits per second) = R=S/t x B/S samples second
• Samples per second x x bits sample
RS=SB/t multiply both sides
Bits per sample by S
R=B/t divide by S again
• Samples per second
must be twice the
highest frequency (to
ensure all the frequencies are transmitted
accurately, none are lost)

• Bits per sample must


be high enough so
close match original
but not too high so it
is affected by noise
Charge and Current
• Sensors sense things we cant / don’t
want to detect
• A change in input will change the
current.
• This gives a reading

• ΔQ=I Δt
• I = ΔQ/t
• Coulomb is the UNIT of charge
• Amount of charge that passes in 1
second with current of 1 Amp
Potential Difference and
Power
• V=W/Q • W=Pt
• W = work done in • P=IV
Joules
• 1V = 1JC-1 • W=IVt
• P = Wt
• I=Q/t
• P = IV > (V=P/I)

• V=Wt/Q/t
• V=W/Q
Resistance / Conductance
• R=V/I • G=1/R
I
• P=IV • R=1/G
• V=IR
• P=I2R
• V=IR
V
• I/V graph shows • V=I/G
resistance as • P=I2/G
gradient
• Shallow curve = R
is high.
• High voltage
needed for a
Filament Lamps and

Thermistors 3
Filament Lamp I/V graph is curved (V=-I ) style
• Starts steep gets shallow
• Resistance increases!
• This is because Temp increases as current flows
• Resistivity/Temp graph of a Thermistor is like a
(1/x) graph. (I/V graph is like I=V3)
• Therefore resistance decreases with
temperature.
• This is because increase Temp allows more
electrons to escape atoms
• More charge carriers - Higher Current - Lower
Resistance R=V/I
• Sensitivity = Change in Dependant(y)/ Change
E.m.f and Internal/External
R
• ε= electromotive force e.m.f
• Its not a force its a voltage
• Its the voltage when there is no internal resistance.
(Which is the resistance of the battery)
• ε=V+v ε=I(R+r)
• V= ε-v V= ε-Ir
• Normally want LOW internal resistance so less energy
is lost as heat.
• High Voltage power supplies want HIGH internal
resistance because I=V/R so small current flows, less
danger of if short circuited.
• Graph of V/I gradient = -r
• V intercept = ε
• V= -rI+ ε is the equation of the line
Resistance and Potential
Dividers
• Series R=R1+R2+R3.... • Potentiometers
• Parallel G= G1+G2+G3.... :
• G=1/R R=1/G • Move a slider
• Vout=(R1/R=R1+R2+R3.... down a
)Vs resistor, to
• Voltage is split up across split it in 2
resistors in the ratio of
their resistances. • Vary the
• Transistors are like voltage output
switches that are turned continuously
on when voltage is high.
• You can use transistors • Useful in CD
to make sensor circuits
Hooke’s Law &
Plastic/elastic
• F=ke • Plastic
• e is the extension of a • Permanent
wire Stretch
• F is the force on the • Atoms move
position relative
wire to one another
• k is the stiffness • Dont’ return to
• Elastic positions
• Return to original shape • Metals this
• Atoms pulled apart happens when
• Move small distances stretch beyond
• Return to equilibrium
distance
• In metals this happens as
long as Hooke’s law is
Young Modulus
• Stress = F/A
• Strain = e/l = Δl/l l is length e is extension = Δl (change in
length)

• E=(Tensile)Stress/(Tensile)Strain
• E = F/A/Δl/l = F/A/e/l
• E = Fl/Ae

• Units are Nm-2


• Young Modulus works up to “limit of
proportionality”
• Used by engineers to see if materials can
Stress Strain Graph Labelled

B. Limit of
Proportionality - no
longer obeys Hooke’s
Law, but will stretch
elastically
C. Elastic Limit – No
more elastic
stretching after this
point. All plastic
deformation.
D. Yield Point - stretches
without extra load,
large amount of
plastic deformation
E. UTS (Ultimate Tensile
Stress)
Structures
Composites – Combine two materials to get a material with the
properties you want
• Crystalline • Ceramics • Polymers
• Regular • Giant Rigid • Molecular
Repeating Structure Chain made of
Crystalline • Crystalline or repeating
Structure Polycrystalline monomers
(grains of
• Usually form a crystalline • Man Made
crystalline lattice structure) atoms in • Covalently
• Electrons don’t each grain line up bonded so
need much in a different Strong
energy to escape direction
• Rotate about
atoms, form a • Can be
bonds making
sea of free Amorphous,
quicker it cools, them flexible
electrons
more like to be • Bonds
• Good conductors amorphous Between
• Tough • Ionic or Covalent Chains make
• Ions can move • Strong bonds polymers
Electron Microscopes
• Scanning electron microscopes:
• Don’t let you see the surface
• See an atom by atom image
• Estimate the size of atoms in a
material
• Only shows surface of a material
• To see arrangement you need X-Ray
Crystallography
Properties
• Brittle
– Break without deforming plastically
• Ductile
– Can be drawn into wires (changed shape), retains
strength
• Malleable
– Change shape but might lose strength
• Hard
– Resistant to abrasion, and indentation
• Stiff
– High resistance to bending and stretching (high YM)
• Tough
– Difficult to break, take a lot of energy to break
Electrical Properties
• Resistance depends on
• L – longer is more difficult to make a
current flow
• A – wider easier it is for electrons to
pass along it
• ρ – depends on material, structure may
be hard or easy for charge to flow, ρ
depends on environmental factors too
• R= ρl/A
• ρ=RA/l
Materials and Charge
Carriers
• Metals, charge • Semiconductors’,
carriers are charge carriers are
electrons. electrons.
• Charge carrier • Charge carrier
density is high density is low
• The temp is raised, • The temp is raised,
lattice structure more electrons are
vibrates and freed to conduct
electron • Lattice vibrates but
scattering occurs the effect is
so the electrons are overcome
slightly less free
to move • As temp increases
• As temp increase • Resistance
decreases RAPIDLY
Insulators – A perfect insulator will not have any charge carriers so will
not conduct at all
Superposition
• Constructive – Phasors Add
• Destructive – Phasors Subract
• In phase, interfere constructivly
• Coherant means same λ and f and
fixed phase difference
• Any point equal distance from both,
Constructive

• Constructive = nλ
• Destructive = (n+1/2) λ
Standing Waves
• No energy transmitted
• Reflected back and forth
• Original and reflected waves reinforce each
other
• At “resonant frequencies” you get a
standing wave
• Resonant frequencies an exact number of
half wavelengths fits onto the string
• Fundamental Frequency:
• OPEN/OPEN = ½ λ
• CLOSED/CLOSE D= ½ λ
Measure speed of sound
• Closed/Open Tube filled
with water
• Tap tuning fork with known
frequency
• Until you find shortest
distance where a sound
resonates
• ¼λ
• V=f λ
• Do it.
Diffraction
• Spread out through a narrow gap
• Maximum spread when λ = gap
• If gap < λ most waves reflected
• Phasors add when there is a constant
phase difference
• At all other points, phasors point in
slightly different directions, and form a
smaller resultant
• Dark fringes occur where resultant
phasor = 0 becauses phasors add to
Two Source Interference
• Fringes form depending on
constructive or destructive
interference
• Fringe spacing X = Dλ/d
• D is distance slits to screen
• d is spacing between slit
• Work out wavelength of light with
this
• f=c/λ work out the frequency
• Evidence for wave nature of light
If anyone’s interested
its now 10:29pm
Diffraction Gratings
• Interference patters get sharper
when you diffract through more slits.
• So many beams all reinforcing the
pattern
• More accurate measurements can be
made
• nλ=dsinѳ
• White light through a diffraction
grating produces spectra
Photoelectric Effect
• Shine light of high f on metal, emits electrons
• Free electrons absorb energy
• Vibrate > Bonds Break > Electron Released
• Photoelectric effect - Photoelectrons are
released
• Conclusion 1: Below threshold f, no
photoelectrons are emitted
• Conclusion 2: Photoelectrons are emitted with
EK ranging from 0 to a maximum, max is not
affected by intensity but by f
• Conclusion 3: Number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is proportional to the
intensity
According to wave theory
• E proportional to intensity
• Energy would be spread evenly over
wave front
• Each free electron would get a bit
more energy from each wave
• Eventually get enough energy to
leave the material.
Quantum?
• A single packet of EM radiation is called a
Quanta
• Called packets of energy photon
• E=hf of a photon
• E=hc/λ using f=c/ λ
• Higher f more energy wave packet carries
• Photon acts like a particle and transfers all or
none of its energy
• Metal bombarded by photons
• If photon collides with electron electron gains
E=hf
• Before an electron can leave the surface it must
overcome the work function φ (energy to break
Electrons
• Electrons exist in discrete energy levels
• Move down energy levels by emitting a
photon
• Line spectra are produced as only
discrete values of E are given out,
different f
• Cool gases produce emission spectra
(opposite, discrete holes in continuous
spectra)
• Line spectra and emission spectra are
Sum Over Paths
• Phasors try every path
• Rotate, Phasors add
• Consider only shortest routes, as the
rest cancel
• Young’s slits: Phasors that travel
through a grating, take a longer trip
time, therefore phasors rotate a bit
more.
• Phasors rotate at same rate, same f
• Resultant Phasor 2= Probability =
Using Sum Over Paths
• Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
• Because paths near the quickest route
almost line up. Therefore largest QA +
Prob
• Long path phasors “curl up” and cancel
so QA is reduced
• Refraction
• Light takes all paths, path that takes
shortest time adds up to the largest QA
• Shortest time is when refraction occurs,
as one median is different speed to
Using Sum Over Paths
• Focus
• To make a lens that focuses well, all trip
times must add up to the same.
• Concave – no matter what part of the
mirror a photon hits, it will have the
same trip time (travelled same
distance, rotated same amount) when it
reaches the focal point
• Convex – Outer paths are longer, so
make quicker paths take the same time
by increasing the thickness of the
slower to travel through glass sections.
Electrons
• λ=h/mv
• Probability wave

• Diffraction patterns observed when accelerated


electrons in a vacuum interact with spaces in a
graphite crystal.

• As an electron hits a fluorescent screen, photons are


released, so you can see the diffraction pattern.

• Higher prob, brighter area on screen


• Electrons show quantum behaviour
• Only happens when gap is the same size as De Broglie
wavelength
Vectors and SUVAT
• Add tail to tail
• v=u+at
• s=(u+v)/2 x t
• s=ut+ ½at2
• v2=u2+2as

• g=-9.81m/s = a when
falling
ICT and Graphs
• Ultrasound Position
Detector
• Graph Drawing Software
• The main advantages:
• More Accurate Data
• Higher Sampling Rate
• Real Time Visualisation
Newton
• F=ma
• No resultant force, velocity will not
change (no acceleration
• Circular motion, velocity is constantly
changing as its a vector, even though
speed is constant. (If you plot it
against angle, form a sine or cosine
wave)

The time is now....


23:10
Work and Power and Energy
• Work = Force x • Conservation
Distance of energy:
• W = Fd • Cannot be
Created or
• P=Fv Destroyed
• P=W/t • Can be
transferred
• W=Fs • Total energy In
• P=Fs/t s is =Total energy
displacement Out
• Efficiency =
Useful Output/
Errors
• Every measurement has uncertainty
• Random Errors
– Cant get rid of them
– Cant keep everything exactly the same
each time
– Repeat measurements and average
– Higher Precision
• Systematic Errors
– Measuring a known value
– If there's a difference, use this to correct
the inaccuracy of they appuratus
Error Analysis
• Estimate values by averaging
• To get uncertainty look at the distance
from maximum and minimum to the
mean
• Error Bars show uncertainty on a graph
• Draw Maximum and Minimum gradient
curve

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