MeasuringWordof Mouth
anecdotal vidence aveenabled he hypothesiso remainopularn spiteof itsserious hortcomings,nd ar-guehatnfluentialsdentified etrospectivelyreaccidentalroductsf circumstancehatareunlikely
orepeat.Finally,conclude y sketchingut somealternativepproachesoaccommodatingnfluencerocessesnmar-ketingcampaigns.
Introduction
Since hepublicationf KatzandLazarsfeld'seminalwork,Personalnfluence
1955),he studyofwhat theycalled pinioneaders-orinfluentialss hey havelsobecome nownMerton1968)-hasoccupiednmpor-tantplacenheiteraturesf the diffusionfnnovationsColeman,atz nd Menzel 966; ogers995;alente1995; urt1999), ommunicationsesearchWeimann994), nd marketing cienceMyersndRobertson 972;Chan nd Misra1990;oulter, eicknd Price 002; ernette004; anden Bulte ndJoshi 007).More ecently,
the dea hat nfluentialslayan ndispensableolen word-of-mouthmarketingasbecome onventional is-dom in the marketingommunityaswell.Gladwell2000),or example,laimshat"socialpidemics" redriven"byhe effortsof a handfulof exceptionaleople,"andKellernd Berry2003)laimhat"Onen en Americanstellsheother nine howto vote,where oeat,and what o buy."Theyconclude,n fact,hat"Fewmportanttrends eachhemainstreamwithoutpassinghroughhe Influentialsn the earlystages, nd helnfluentialscanstopa would-betrendnitstracks"Kelleranderry,2003,p21-22);ndhe market-researchirmBurson-Marsteller oncurs, laiminghat"Thear-reachingffectof thispowerfulgroupofmenandwomencanmakeor breaka brand,marshal rdissolve upport or businessndconsumerssues,ndprovidensightntoeventsashey unfold"Burson-Marsteller001).ll one needs odo,tseems,sofindhesendividualsnd nfluencethem. Asaresult,lnfluencersavebecome heholygrail'foroday'smarketers."Rand004).Unfortunately, sPeterDoddsandsuggestedn a recentaperWattsndDodds2007),hegrailanalogymaybe more apt than most marketerswould like o think.We argued, n fact, hat what we callhe"lnfluentialsHypothesis"-thata smallminorityofspecialndividuals ieldsisproportionatenfluence verhemajority-isnotsupportedby systematicmpirical vidence. or does t follow rom acceptedheoriesfnterpersonaln-fluenceor the diffusionofinnovations.urthermore, ith heuseof simulationmodels, e demonstratedhat
undermany circumstancesnfluentialsere ikelyohaveatmosta modest mpactonpublicopinionhange,relativeo ordinaryndividuals.Whennfluencer nformationspropagatediaword-of-mouth,econcluded,most ofwhatdifferentiatesuccessfulromunsuccessful iffusion,s relatedothestructuralropertiesf theword-of-mouthnetworkasawhole,nothepropertiesf asmallumberofspecialndividuals.Subsequently,riticshavesuggested hat our analysis ttacksstrawman(Creamer007)-acontrived er-sionof the influentials ypothesishat nobodyactually elieves.norder o addresshisconcern,willrestateourargumentandshow how, ar rombeingastrawman,ourproposedmodelof influenceropagationerelyformalizes ariouslaims hatadvocates fthenfluentialsypothesisavealreadymade nformally. heprob-lem, will argue, s notthat our analysisisinterpretshe ntended laimsf thehypothesis,uthat heclaimsthemselves rebased n acombination f unstated ssumptions,mbiguous nalogies,ndbiased amplingfevidencehattogetheryieldhe appearancefexplanatoryowerwithoutactuallyxplaining nythingt all.Once his mplicit heory s madeexplicit,t becomeslear hat henfluentialsypothesis-howeverlausibletsounds-does not necessarily,r even ypically,ollow romheheoriesf diffusionponwhich t simplicitly)based.
What s the"lnfluentialsHypothesis"?
WhatDoddsandIcalled heinfluentialsypothesisomprisesot one,buttwofundamentallaims boutnterpersonalnfluence:irst,hatsomepeoplearemorenfluentialhanothers;ndsecond,hatheseameeopleare mportant,not onlybecausehey nfluencemoreof theirpeersirectly, ut alsobecauseheyexert dis-proportionately reatndirectnfluence n the mucharger ommunity f whichboth heyand heirmmediateinfluenceesreapart.Gladwell2000,p.19-21),orexample. tarts utbyclaiminghat"...whate areeallysayingshatin agivenprocessr system omepeoplemattermore han others.." Acknowledging,owever,thatthis claim-the firstclaimof theinfluentialsypothesis-isnot,onthefaceoft,aparticularlyadical o-tion"hethengoesoclaimhat"Whent comes o epidemics,hough,hisdisproportionalityecomesven2Q2
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