GPRS Edge

Radio Resource Control Performance of the Mobile Data Service EGPRS
Der Fakult at f ur Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik der Rheinisch-Westf alischen Technischen Hochschule Aachen vorgelegte Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Ingenieurwissenschaften
von Diplom-Ingenieur Ulrich Fornefeld aus Braunschweig
256 Seiten mit 247 Abbildungen und 33 Tabellen
KURZFASSUNG
Mobilfunksysteme der dritten Generation wie sie zur Zeit installiert sind bieten erstmalig achendeckend Datendienste akzeptabler Bandbreite an. Die wesentlichen Einzelaspekte solcher Systeme sind in den Forschungsprojekten der letzten Jahre ausf uhrlich er ortert worden. Diese Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zum Verst andniss des Zusammenspiels der in heutigen Netzen des Enhanced Datarates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) Systems eingesetzten Funkmittelverwaltungs-Algorithmen. Hierbei wird besonderes Augenmerk auf die Optimierung der Dienstg ute gelegt. Die Arbeit leistet Beitr age zur L osung einiger Probleme, die bisher ungekl art sind. Hierzu z ahlen Untersuchungen zur Systemleistung bei Anwendung der EDGE Ratenanpassung im Vergleich zum Incremental Redundancy (IR) genannten hybriden Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Verfahren. Es wird der Einsatz von Leistungsregelung diskutiert und deren Einsatzgebiete werden abgegrenzt. Der Einu von Frequenzsprungverfahren und Teillast-Betrieb (Fractional Loading) auf Paketdatendienste wird erstmalig untersucht. Ausserdem wird der Einu von Zellwechseln auf die Systemleistung untersucht. Ein wesentliches Kapitel befat sich mit der Simulationstechnik die f ur die aufgef uhrten Untersuchungen eigens entwickelt wurde. Spezielle Zielvorgaben wie MehrsystemSimulationen, gro achige Szenarien und m oglichst detailgetreue Modellierung auf fast allen OSI-Schichten pr agen die Anforderungen an das System. Den Kernpunkt in interferenzbegrenzten Systemen stellt hier die m oglichst exakte Modellierung der zeitaufgel osten Interferenzsituation dar. Den Simulationsszenarien und Auswerteverfahren wurde ein eigenes Kapitel gewidmet um das Vertrauen in die beschriebenen Optimierungsverfahren zu st arken. Es folgt eine ausf uhrliche Darstellung und Diskussion der Simulationsergebnisse wobei die Breite des Forschungsgebietes hier nur eine einf uhrende Untersuchung erlaubt. Die Arbeit schliet mit einem Ausblick auf weiterf uhrende Untersuchungsgebiete. Der in der Arbeit entwickelte EDGE Emulator wird unter einer Lesser GNU Public License (LGPL) als Quellcode verf ugbar gemacht, um die Erforschung des weltweit am meisten verbreiteten mobilen Datenfunksystems EDGE zu f ordern.
ABSTRACT
Third generation mobile radio networks as presently installed for the rst time present ubiquitous data services at acceptable bandwidth. The most important aspects of such systems have been analysed in research projects during the past couple of years. This thesis is a contribution to a deeper understanding of the interaction of the radio resource control algorithms in todays radio networks of the Enhanced Datarates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) system. Special emphasis has been put on the optimisation of the Quality of Service (QoS). The thesis contributes solutions to some hitherto unsolved problems, e. g. investigations on the system performance considering the application of the EDGE Link Adaptation (LA) in comparison to the hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) called Incremental Redundancy (IR). The deployment of power control is discussed and the limitations of operational scenarios for power control are shown. The inuence of Frequency Hopping (FH) and Fractional Loading (FL) on packet services is examined for the rst time. The inuence of cell reselections on the system performance is investigated. A central chapter deals with simulation technique developed for the mentioned investigations. Special goals like multi-system simulations, large area scenarios and modelling accuracy as detailed as possible on almost all Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) layers shape the requirements towards the system. The focus in interference-limited systems is set on the modelling of the time-resolved interference situation with highest possible accuracy. The simulation scenarios and the evaluation methods obtain an own chapter in order to increase trust in the described optimisation methods. Next follows an elaborated presentation and discussion of the simulation results. The broad research area covered by this thesis only allows an introductionary investigation. The thesis concludes with an outlook at proceeding research areas. The EDGE emulator developed within this work is made available as source code under the Lesser GNU Public License (LGPL) in order to sponsor research on EDGE, the most successful mobile radio network worldwide.
CONTENTS
Kurzfassung Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Contribution of this Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Fundamentals on EGPRS 2.1 System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.1 GPRS Session Management (SM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.2 GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.3 Sub-Network dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) 2.1.2 Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.1 Logical Link Control (LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.2 Radio Resource Control (RR) Sub Layer . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.3 Radio Link Control (RLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.4 Medium Access Control (MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Initial UL TBF establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 One Phase Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Two Phase Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 UL TBF Reestablishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 UL TBF (Re)Establishment during active Downlink (DL) Temporary Block Flow (TBF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6 Uplink Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 UL TBF start delay of scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8 UL TBF Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.9 DL TBF Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.10 DL TBF Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.11 Multistage Round Robin Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.12 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Basics of Radio Resource Control for Packet Data Services 3.1 Channel Allocation and Channel Assignment . . . . . . 3.1.1 Multi Slot Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1.1 UL Multi Frame Shifting . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Support of onDemand PDCH Concept . . . . . . 3.2 Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Frequency Hopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Fractional Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.3
3.4
Link Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Adaptation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1.1 Slow Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1.2 Fast Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Averaging and Preprocessing of Measurement Samples . . . . . 3.3.2.1 Averaging and Preprocessing for Power Control . . . 3.3.2.2 Averaging and Preprocessing for Link Adaptation . . 3.3.2.3 Filter Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.4 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.5 Measurement Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.1 DL power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.2 Uplink Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4.1 MCS Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4.1.1 Delay-optimised MCS selection . . . . . . . . 3.3.4.1.2 Throughput-optimised MCS selection . . . . 3.3.4.1.3 LA proposal from the standard . . . . . . . . 3.3.4.2 TBF start and end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4.3 Retransmission and Resegmentation . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Incremental Redundancy / Hybrid ARQ II and Soft Combining 3.3.5.1 Incremental Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5.2 Soft Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5.3 Combined EDGE IR/SC Approach . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5.4 Resegmentation and IR/SC combined . . . . . . . . . Mobility Management and Cell Reselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Mobility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1.1 GMM context management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1.2 Paging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Cell Selection/Reselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.1 Measurement and Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.2 Cell Selection Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.3 GPRS Cell Reselection Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.3.1 Signal Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.3.2 Power Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2.3.3 HCS Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Side Eects and their Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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33 33 33 33 33 34 35 38 38 39 42 43 45 48 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 54 54 55 55 56 56 56 56 57 59 59 60 61 63 64 65 66 68 68 69 72
4 The EGPRS Emulator 4.1 Software Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 ISO/OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 A Universal Emulation Environment . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Dynamic Creation and Deletion of Network Elements 4.1.4 Dynamic Creation and Deletion of Protocol Instances 4.1.5 Example: a GPRS Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.5.1 Structure of a Protocol Library . . . . . . . . 4.1.5.2 Usage of a Protocol Library . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.6 The Interface to the Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.7 Proof of Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.2
Protocol Emulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Core Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.1 Transport Control Protocol (TCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.1 Internet Protocol (IP) Version 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.2 GPRS Session Management (SM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.3 GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.4 Radio Resource (RR) Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4.1 Sub-Network dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) 4.2.4.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4.3 Radio Link Control (RLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4.4 Medium Access Control (MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Emulator Environment 5.1 Channel Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Activity Detection & CIR Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Erasure Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Measurement Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Channel Quality Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Modeling of Radio Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.1 Morphology Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.2 Cell Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.3 Path Loss Models based on Experimental Investigations . . 5.1.5.4 Test Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.4.1 A Geometrical Algorithm for Ecient Cut Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.5 Signal Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.5.1 Shadowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.5.2 Multi path propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5.6 Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Mobility and Trac Load Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Introduction to Trac Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Trac Density Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.1 Stochastic Trac Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.2 Deterministic Trac Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Session Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Models for User Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Estimation of Required Runtime for Stochatic Trac Load Generation 5.2.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle for Mobile Radio Network System Level Emulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Scenarios, Performance Indicators and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.1 Outdoor Micro Cell Scenario with random User Mobility . 5.3.1.2 Outdoor Micro Cell Scenario with directed User Mobility . 5.3.1.3 Indoor Pico Cell Scenario with directed User Mobility . . . 5.3.1.4 Two Mobiles in two Cells with directed User Mobility . . .
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5.3.2
Performance Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5.3.2.1 Distance dependent Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . 93
6 EGPRS Trac Performance Results 95 6.1 An Emulator Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6.2 Scenario 1: Reference Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.2.1 No Frequency Hopping, Cluster Size N = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.2.1.1 Link adaptation for streaming services? . . . . . . . . . . . 103 6.3 Scenario 2 - 5: Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading . . . . . . . . . . 104 6.3.1 Scenario 2: Base Band Frequency Hopping, Reuse (3/3) . . . . . . . 104 6.3.2 Scenario 3: Synthesiser Hopping, Reuse (3/3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6.3.3 Scenario 4: Synthesiser Hopping, Reuse (1/3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.3.4 Scenario 5: Synthesiser Hopping, Reuse (1/1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 6.4 Scenario 6: Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.4.1 Control Behaviour without Inuences of Fast Fading . . . . . . . . . 125 6.4.2 Control Behaviour under Fast Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.4.2.1 DL/UL Closed Loop, Signal Strength based Control . . . . 125 6.4.2.2 DL/UL Closed Loop, Quality based Control . . . . . . . . 126 6.4.2.3 DL/UL Open Loop, Signal Strength based Control . . . . . 127 6.4.2.4 UL Open Loop, Quality based Control . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.4.2.5 UL Open Loop, mixed Signal Strength / Quality based Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.5 Scenario 7 - 9: Link Adaptation and Incremental Redundancy . . . . . . . . 132 6.5.1 Scenario 7: Link Adaptation, Throughput-optimised . . . . . . . . . 132 6.5.2 Scenario 8: Link Adaptation, Delay-optimised . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.5.2.1 Discussion: Is there a Link Adaptation that optimises Latency? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.5.2.2 Emulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.5.3 Scenario 9: Link Adaptation Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.5.3.1 Link Adaptation Eciency without Inuences of Fast Fading144 6.5.3.2 Link Adaptation Eciency under Fast Fading . . . . . . . 144 6.5.3.3 Emulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.5.4 Incremental Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7 EGPRS to serve Micro- and Pico Cells 152 7.1 Scenario 10: Cell Reselection in Micro Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 7.2 Scenario 11: Local System Performance in an Indoor Pico Cell Scenario . . 154 8 Conclusions A Link Level Mapping A.1 Introduction to Link Level Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Channel Coding for Data Services . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2.1 Independent Mappings, independent Parameters A.2.1.1 GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2.1.2 EGPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2.2 Consecutive Mapping, independent Parameters . A.2.2.1 GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2.2.2 EGPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 162 . 162 . 163 . 163 . 163 . 165 . 167 . 167 . 167
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B Data Evaluation 170 B.1 Introduction to Data Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 B.1.1 Writing to the Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 B.2 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 C Link C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 Adaptation Strategies Selection of optimum MCS . . . . . . Throughput-optimised MCS Selection Delay-optimised MCS Selection . . . . Standards proposal for MCS Selection 174 174 174 176 178 180 180 183 184 185 187 187 189 190
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D Application Layer Protocols D.1 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) D.2 Post Oce Protocol (POP) Version 3 D.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) . . . . . D.4 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) . . . D.5 RTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.6 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.7 Audio Streaming . . . . . . . . . . . . D.8 Video Streaming . . . . . . . . . . . . E Reference Scenario E.1 Session Generation . . . . . . . . E.2 Application Layer . . . . . . . . . E.2.1 HTTP settings . . . . . . E.2.2 SMTP settings . . . . . . E.2.3 FTP settings . . . . . . . E.2.4 WAP settings . . . . . . . E.2.5 MMS settings . . . . . . . E.2.6 POP3 settings . . . . . . E.2.7 Email sizing . . . . . . . . E.2.8 Audio stream settings . . E.2.9 Video stream settings . . E.2.10 SIP settings . . . . . . . . E.2.11 Voice settings . . . . . . . E.3 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . E.3.1 Session Manager settings E.3.2 TCP settings . . . . . . . E.3.3 UDP settings . . . . . . . E.4 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . E.5 GPRS Control Plane . . . . . . . E.5.1 GPRS SM Protocol . . . E.5.2 GPRS GMM Protocol . . E.6 GPRS User Plane . . . . . . . . E.6.1 GPRS SNDCP Protocol . E.6.2 GPRS LLC Protocol . . . E.6.3 GPRS RLC Protocol . . . E.6.4 GPRS MAC Protocol . . E.7 GPRS RRC . . . . . . . . . . . . E.7.1 GPRS Channel Allocation
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Contents
E.8
E.9
E.10
E.11 E.12 E.13
E.7.2 GPRS PowerControl . . . GPRS.PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . E.8.1 GPRS Measurement . . . E.8.2 GPRS Coding . . . . . . E.8.3 GPRS Power Limits . . . E.8.4 GPRS LinkLevelInterface GSM RRC . . . . . . . . . . . . E.9.1 GSM Channel Allocation E.9.2 GSM Power Control . . . E.9.3 GSM Handover . . . . . . GSM PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . E.10.1 GSM Coding . . . . . . . E.10.2 GSM Measurement . . . . E.10.3 GSM Linklevelinterface . E.10.4 GSM Paging . . . . . . . E.10.5 PHY Antennas . . . . . . GSM BTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSM MSC . . . . . . . . . . . . Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.13.1 GPRS Structure . . . . . E.13.2 General GSM . . . . . . . E.13.3 General GPRS . . . . . . E.13.4 GPRS ChannelModel . .
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202 203 203 203 204 204 204 204 205 205 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 212 218 219 221 222 225 235 247
List of Figures List of Tables Glossary Nomenclature List of Abbreviations Bibliography Unpublished Work Curriculum Vitae
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Content 1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2 Contribution of this Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ince almost two decades, the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is in duty as the most successful mobile radio network worldwide. With more than 2 billion subscribers it defends market leadership uncontested. While GSM speech services - the initial development goal - have been well understood and optimised by the research community, the investigations on packet data services like General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced General Packet Radio Service (EGPRS) (the 2nd+ Generation (2+G)) got stuck at a certain point in time. Research and development power was withdrawn in order to support the rapid introduction of 3rd Generation (3G) services like Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). 3G services indeed show a slightly higher peak data rate than 2+G services like EGPRS. However, the spectrum eciency is considered to be remarkably lower for low and medium data rate services such as telephony [96] and so is the ability of making prot. In addition, the roll-out of 3G systems comes along with investment needs remarkably higher than for GSM systems. So, the additional technical benet is low while quick Return on Investment (ROI) is endangered. In fact, many network operators who introduced UMTS did not reach ROI at all after years. As UMTS did not full marketing expectations so far and due to the emerging Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) technology, the marketing gap for 3G services has almost closed. In addition, the 3G world is not homogenous. Concurrent systems such as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 2000 inhibit global usability of mobile devices. So, it is now time to concentrate on the GSM data services again, especially the packet data services. This thesis makes a contribution to close the still existent knowledge gap in this area and is therefore focussed on the EGPRS packet data service. EGPRS with a maximum gross data rate of 473 kbit/s provides sucient capacity for services demanding low and medium data rate. Even low quality video services or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services might be run via EGPRS service. Not recognised by the public, EDGE has been deployed by most UMTS operators in Europe to strengthen the capacity of their GPRS service that they oer in areas where an UMTS roll-out appeared to be too costly. Summed up with the operators serving the Americas, EDGE might be the dominating technique to provide mobile packet data services worldwide.
1.1
Objectives
As the GSM packet data services provide a reasonable option, it is time to start optimising their usage. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the means of optimisation, namely of the Radio Resource Control (RRC) algorithms is required. Proper handling of the radio resource is crucial for optimum system performance in an interference limited network such as EGPRS. Once the available means of RRC are well understood, the optimisation
1.2. Contribution of this Thesis
towards certain key performance indicators is the next step. To reach this goal, dierent control algorithm types are involved and the benets of each RRC algorithm are made transparent. The nal goal is to investigate and present the mutual inuence of RRC algorithms on each other.
1.2
Contribution of this Thesis
Since the standardisation of EDGE it is an open question whether Link Adaptation (LA) or Incremental Redundancy (IR) is the better choice to dynamically adapt to the radio channel conditions for reaching the optimum system performance. The main contribution of the thesis is to present the strengths and weaknesses of both techniques and to give a clear indication that LA is the preferable solution. A number of model based analyses exist that in some cases are in favour of either LA [64] or IR [57, 130, 136]. The reason for the diering results is the abstracted system representation chosen for modeling and evaluation. This thesis, therefore, has chosen to make use of a very detailed implementation of EGPRS in form of a stochastic event driven simulation that in fact is an emulation of EGPRS. It is established that LA contributes most part of the capacity increase possible from both, LA and IR. Other important contributions of the thesis are the clarication of the impact of Fractional Loading (FL) and Frequency Hopping (FH) to increase system capacity for packet based services. Further, it is shown how to apply Power Control (PC) to gain the maximum capacity of EGPRS. It is also shown how the mobility management must control cell allocation in typical urban and indoor scenarios to gain the maximum capacity.
1.3
Outline
As an introduction to the subject, an overview over the EGPRS standard is given in Chapter. 2. After a short functional description of the involved protocols, an in-depth description of Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) functionality is given. The central topic of the thesis is presented in Chapter. 3. The RRC algorithms are presented one by one using theoretical modelling and analyses. Channel allocation and channel assignment provide the basis for GPRS services that are based on the on demand assignment concept. The multi slot capability of the Mobile Station (MS) limits the assignment of radio resource capacity to communication links. Frequency hopping and fractional loading allow ne-tuning of the interference situation at the mobile receiver. Link optimisation comprises power control for mitigation of signal shadowing and link adaptation for the optimum transmission rate selection towards channel quality aimed at. Dierent adaptation strategies are presented. Incremental redundancy as an enhancement to link adaptation is presented nally. Mobility Management (MM) provision in GPRS is based on an extension of the GSM MM mechanism. The basis for this is the cell reselection, a replacement of the GSM handover. Side eects and their mitigation by the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) / Base Station System (BSS) are explained. One of the mayor contributions is the elaborated system level emulation environment presented in Chapter. 4. The exible software architecture is presented and discussed. The degree of emulation of protocol functions is chosen to be extremely detailed. Most protocols are being implemented as specied in the standard. The abstraction of the PHY and the channel model need detailed explanation which is being given next. Finally, the involved trac load models are introduced and environmental eects of system level
1. Introduction
emulation in general are discussed. This chapter also introduces the scenarios and the key performance indicators. The number of scenarios considered for study has been kept as low as possible in order to ease comparability of the results. The EGPRS trac performance results are presented and discussed in Chapter. 6. A reference scenario with only few RRC algorithms operational is introduced. The dierent means of control are then compared with the reference scenario. Finally, an indoor pico cell scenario with all RRC algorithms operational is investigated in Chapter. 7. Chapter. 8 concludes the investigations and provides an outlook on further prospective investigation.
CHAPTER 2
Fundamentals on EGPRS
Content 2.1 System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
he General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), an add-on to the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is investigated concerning RRC aspects within this thesis. As the system is complex, a basic understanding of the GSM/ GPRS architecture is required. The functions of the dierent protocols and their location in the GPRS Network Elements (NEs) is described in Section. 2.1. Apart from the Radio Resource Control (RRC) functionality described in Chapter. 3, there are basic functions the reader should understand before plunging deeper into the subject. A very brief description of the basic MAC and PHY functionality can be found in Section. 2.2. A reader experienced with EDGE details might wish to directly continue with Chapter. 3.
2.1
System Overview
GPRS has been standardised in 1998 as an enhancement to the well-established GSM standardised in 1991. GPRS is targeting at the introduction of a packet data service into the GSM network. The GSM Network Elements (NEs) are reused by GPRS, some are slightly enhanced and a couple of NEs have been added, Fig. 2.1.
SMS-GMSC SMS-IWMSC E MSC/VLR Gs Gd C HLR GR SMS Center
D Gr
A TE MT BSS PCU Gn SGSN Signalling Data and Signalling
Gc GGSN Gf EIR PDN TE
Um
Gb
SGSN
Gn
Gi
Gp
GGSN other PLMN
GPRS related Network Elements
Figure 2.1: GSM and GPRS network elements and respective reference points Basic enhancements to GSM can be found in the Base Station System (BSS) and Mobile Station (MS) supporting GPRS related PHY functions for channel coding like
2. Fundamentals on EGPRS
Forward Error Correction (FEC) with uniform error protection for data services. The following GPRS NEs have been added to the circuit-switched GSM network architecture to enable packet data services:
The Packet Control Unit (PCU) provides access to the air interface with basic Radio Link Control (RLC)/MAC functions. Routing packets through the core network is the main task of the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN). It also handles the mobility management and parts of the network management. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the gate to the Packet Data Network (PDN) that keeps track of the subscribed and activated services (Packet Data Protocol (PDP) contexts) and provides Internet Protocol (IP) masquerading. The GPRS Register (GR) located at the Home Location Register (HLR) keeps the GPRS subscriber data.
It is worth noting that the PCU might be located either at the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) or at the Base Station Controller (BSC) or at the SGSN, allowing a tradeo between packet delay and costs, Fig. 2.2.
Um CCU CCU BTS PCU Abis CCU CCU BTS BSC Site PCU GSN Site B BSC Site Gb GSN Site A
CCU CCU Key:
BTS
BSC Site
GSN Site PCU Gb C
Circuitswitching Function (16 or 64 kbit/s) Packetswitching Function
Figure 2.2: Alternate PCU positions Reference points for interfacing GSM and GPRS NEs are shown in Fig. 2.1, too. The NEs in the core network are linked by wire lines. In this thesis, the study focus is on the Um and Gb reference points. A protocol stack for the control plane and one for the user plane is required to provide GPRS services. Fig. 2.3 shows a combined view of both planes. The control plane comprises the reference points Um and Gb and the protocols Logical Link Control (LLC), GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) and Session Management (SM) above the relay scope as well as the protocols below. The user plane comprises the reference points Um , Gb and Gn and all protocols except GMM and SM. The PCU handles the RLC and the MAC protocol and is linked to both, the Coding Control Unit (CCU) of the BTS and the SGSN, Fig. 2.2. The Network Services (NS) protocol (frame relay) at Gb serves the Base Station System GPRS Protocol (BSSGP). On top of the BSSGP, the LLC serves for data transfer and the GMM handles mobility management related functions, Fig. 2.3. The Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) cares for compression and ow control. All the protocols at Gb from
2.1. System Overview
Higher Layer
IP / PPP SNDCP LLC SNDCP GTP LLC UDP IP L2 L1
IP / PPP GTP UDP IP L2 L1
SM GMM Relay
SM GMM
RLC MAC GSM RF
RLC BSSGP MAC GSM RF NS L1bis
BSSGP NS L1bis
Um
Gb
Gn
Gi
MS
BSS/PCU
Scope of GPRS
SGSN
GGSN
Core Network Protocols
Figure 2.3: GPRS protocol suite, user and control plane
NS up to SNDCP belong to layer 2. SM provides maintenance for PDP contexts by usage of a GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) data transfer service. The SGSN and the GGSN are connected via the Gn reference point where the Gateway Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) is served by User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The IP tunnels the user data through the GPRS core network. The counterparts of RLC/MAC, LLC, SNDCP, GMM and SM that are located in the SGSN or BSS / PCU can be found in the protocol stack of the MS. The services and protocols described in more detail in the following are the main subjects of study in this thesis and therefore need to be introduced. 2.1.1 Network Layer
As GPRS is a wireless extension to the Internet, the upper rim of the GPRS scope is limited by well-known protocols at the user plane like Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). 2.1.1.1 GPRS Session Management (SM)
The Session Management (SM) protocol is a part of the Connection Management (CM) sub layer as shown in Fig. 2.4. It is responsible for the handling of sessions, called Packet Data Protocol (PDP) contexts. Each MS might use up to 11 simultaneous PDP contexts. At the MS side, the activation, deactivation and re-negotiation of PDP contexts is triggered by Attention (AT) commands and requested via the SMREG Service Access Point (SAP). A PDP context activation requires the negotiation of QoS parameters [19]. In addition, an active GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) context must exist. A so-called unitdata service of the GMM protocol is used for message transfer between peer SM entities via the GMMSM SAP [20]. SM informs SNDCP about establishment and release of PDP contexts via the SNSM SAP so that SNDCP might set up appropriate protocol instances.
SNDCP
SNSM-SAP SMREG-SAP
CM Sublayer SM SM SM
PDP GMMSM-SAP
MM Sublayer
Figure 2.4: CM sub layer
2.1.1.2
GPRS Mobility Management (GMM)
The GMM protocol is used in the MM sublayer (Fig. 2.5) and keeps track of the GPRS Routing Area (RA) of each attached MS. This is done in a given GMM context. MainCM Sublayer
PDP GMMSM-SAP GMMREG-SAP
MM Sublayer GMM
GMM coord PD/TLLI MM coord
MM
PD
LLGMM-SAP
LLC Sublayer
GMMRR-SAP
RR-SAP
RR Sublayer
Figure 2.5: MM sub layer
taining a GMM context requires the following actions [19]:

Attach / Detach The MS must attach to the network in order to establish a GMM context using the GMM protocol for attaching and detaching. Routing Area Update The Network (NW) keeps track of the MS location by registering the RA of the MS. Update is required if the MS leaves the serving RA. Identication The network asks the MS to declare its identity. Identication is typically followed by the authentication procedure.
Authentication and Ciphering The MS must be authenticated by the network before activating any PDP context. A ciphering procedure might be invoked in order to negotiate the ciphering mode. Paging If the cell a MS has camped on is not known to the network, the MS has to be paged in order to (re)activate the GMM context.
The GSM MM sub layer that contains the GMM protocol is shown in Fig. 2.5. Attach / Detach functions are triggered via the GMMREG SAP (for registration) while implicit attaching happens if data is transferred via the GMMSM SAP [20]. The coordination between GMM and GSM MM allows combined procedures such as combined Location Area (LoA) / RA update. The GMM messages have highest LLC priority. 2.1.1.3 Sub-Network dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP)
The SNDCP sub layer, Fig. 2.6, serves as an adaptation layer between network layer user plane protocols such as IPv4 and the GPRS protocols. SNDCP basically provides the
Control Entity PDP or Relay
5
PDP or Relay
6
SNDCP users
15 NSAPI
SNDCP Sublayer SNDCP Management Entity SNDCP Entity
SNSM-SAP
UD3
UD5
UD9
UD11 SAPI
CM Sublayer
LLC Sublayer
Figure 2.6: SNDCP sub layer
following functions [35]:

Multiplexing of up to 11 PDP instances Compression / decompression of user data. Compression / decompression of protocol control information, e. g. Transport Control Protocol (TCP) headers. Segmentation of a network protocol data unit (N-PDU) into Logical Link Control Protocol Data Units (LL-PDUs) and re-assembly of LL-PDUs into an N-PDU.
For data compression, the ITU recommendations V.42bis [70] or V.44 [71] are used. Data compression is performed mostly on application layer, e. g. video streaming data is highly compressed. Therefore data compression has been skipped in the successor to SNDCP, namely the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) that is used instead of SNDCP from GPRS release 5 on. The TCP header compression uses one of the following approaches:
Request for Comment (RFC) 1144 [75] where header synchronisation is triggered by conclusion of the TCP action derived from the TCP segment content. RFC 2507 [15] that covers compression slow start and periodic header refresh for non-TCP packet streams allowing quick header resynchronisation after packet loss.
10
[15] allows compression of Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) streams (Compressed Real-time Transport Protocol (CRTP), [10]). Segmentation according to the QoS prole controls the packet delay, the maximum segment size refers to that of an Ethernet segment. 2.1.2 Data Link Layer
The GPRS data link layer [39] maintains a packet ow between MS and SGSN based on the Logical Link Control (LLC). The RLC/MAC protocols handle packet streams over the air interface. 2.1.2.1 Logical Link Control (LLC)
The Logical Link Control (LLC) protocol, Fig. 2.7 [38] acts as an interface providing a reliable, location-decoupled link for the packet-stream. This is achieved by the following
Figure 2.7: LLC sub layer functions:

Provision of a highly reliable logical link between MS and SGSN. Decoupling from underlying radio interfaces in order to allow introduction of alternative GPRS radio solutions. Support of variable-length information frames. Support of QoS provisioning by ow control and optional Backward Error Correction (BEC) for user data, prioritisation and intentional frame dropping. Multiplexing of several packet streams over the same physical resource. Ciphering of the packet stream (optional). Provision of user identity condentiality.
11
Four groups of SAPs are distinguished. The service user GMM is served with highest priority at the LLGMM SAP. User plane related data exchanged via LL SAPs is handled according to the QoS eld of the requesting service primitive. The Short Message Service (SMS) might be either routed via LLCor via circuit-switched GSM network service. LLC oers a generic, transparent data exchange service to the Tunnelling of Messages (TOM) service user. The acknowledged LLC service is based on a High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) derivate using piggy-backing of S-Frames. It is worth noting that all GSM / GPRS ciphering algorithms have been cracked, therefore since 1999 data condentiality is not provided any longer. 2.1.2.2 Radio Resource Control (RR) Sub Layer
The basic GPRS enhancement to the GSM Radio Resource (RR) sub layer, Fig. 2.8 is the introduction of Packet Data Channels (PDCHs). Two important instances can be distin-
Figure 2.8: RR sub layer guished: The RR management of PDCHs realises the dynamic availability of channels for GPRS, called the onDemand concept. Thereby, a GSM Trafc Channel (TCH) temporarily may be assigned as PDCH. The RLC / MAC protocol processes data transmission over PDCHs. The RR sub layer provides services to both, the MM and the LLC sub layer utilising services of the GSM Data Link Layer (DLL) and the physical link layer. The MAC protocol multiplexes the packet streams onto the available PDCHs. Reliable transmission and BEC - a task of the RLC protocol - is optional, an unreliable transmission is also available. 2.1.2.3 Radio Link Control (RLC)
The RLC provides data transmission services over the air interface between the MS and the PCU. In particular, the RLC protocol [43] takes care of the following tasks:
Provision of an (un)acknowledged data transfer service to the RR management entity.
12
Segmentation of upper layer Protocol Data Units (PDUs) into RLC data blocks and corresponding reassembly. BEC for selective retransmission of erroneous radio blocks in acknowledged mode. A Hybrid ARQ type 2 using Incremental Redundancy (IR) might be applied for EGPRS. Preservation of transmission order of higher layer PDUs in acknowledged mode. Provision of link adaptation for varying channel quality.
A functional block diagram of the RLC protocol is shown in Fig. 2.9. RLC relies on
RR Management
RLCData-SAP
RLC
Radio Priority 1
Reassembly
RLC Data
Segmentation Acknowledgement Unit

V_S V_A RLC Data
Receive Buffer
V_R
Send Buffer
RLC Header Assembly
+ RLC Header
MACData-SAP
MAC
Figure 2.9: RLC protocol
services provided by the MAC protocol like setup and maintenance of Temporary Block Flow (TBF). During TBF setup, a radio priority is negotiated. Blocks with radio priority other than the negotiated one might be transmitted but a re-negotiation - the TBF reestablishment - is required. For the normal operation, a head-of-queue scheduling serves the RLC entry queues. Segmentation is done according to the GPRS Coding Scheme (CS) or EGPRS Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) suggested by the Link Adaptation (LA) algorithm. To serve the acknowledged mode, RLC data blocks are stored in a send/receive buer for retransmissions resp. generation of an acknowledge bitmap. The RLC header containing, e. g. , a Block Sequence Number (BSN) is prepended in front of the RLC data block. If in acknowledged mode, the RLC might apply either resegmentation, e.g., splitting of radio blocks or (for EGPRS) Incremental Redundancy (IR) in order to cope with varying channel conditions. Up to three Puncturing Schemes (PSs) per MCS are available in order to increase redundancy. Acknowledgements are transmitted regardless of the RLC mode, be it acknowledged or unacknowledged. Acknowledgements are required in order to transfer channel quality reports on the Uplink (UL) and link adaptation / power control commands on the DL.
13
2.1.2.4
Medium Access Control (MAC)
The functions of the MAC protocol, Fig. 2.10 are closely coupled with those of the RLC protocol. The interface between both - the MACData SAP - is implementation-dependent
RLC
MACData-SAP
MAC UL TBF Maintenance Entity DL TBF Maintenance

MAC Data
MAC Data
Control Message Handler MAC Header Assembly Control Message Scheduler UL Scheduler Channel Management DL Scheduler
+ MAC Header
PH-SAP
PDCH
PHY
Figure 2.10: MAC protocol, NW side
and not standardised, so the gure shows an example solution. The MAC protocol must cover at least the following basic tasks:
Stochastic multiplexing of several users on a PDCH. Provision of a multiple PDCH access to a single user. Packet Broadcast Control Channel (PBCCH) information generation on the NW side. The information varies dynamically with changing GPRS load and channel availability. Random access on the MS side, in collaboration with the PHY. Contention resolution after a random access. Maintenance of a packetised connection, the Temporary Block Flow (TBF) for UL and DL. Dynamic allocation/release of PDCHs if commanded by the RR management, according to the onDemand concept. Capacity scheduling between users according to the negotiated QoS proles. Support of the PC algorithm by generation and transmission of measurement reports, e.g. the Channel Quality Report. Paging of MS in case of mobile-terminated TBF setup.
Two MAC states are to be distinguished. If a TBF is established, the GPRS MAC protocol is in Packet Transfer Mode (PTM), otherwise it is in Packet Idle Mode (PIM) and listens to the assigned control channels. If present, PBCCH and Packet Common Control Channel (PCCCH) are used as control channels, otherwise Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) and Common Control Channel (CCCH) substitute the packet-oriented channels. In PTM, common control information and broadcast control information must be included in the Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH) of the TBF by the PCU
14
as the MS might be unable to simultaneously listen to the assigned Packet Data Trac Channels (PDTCHs) and to the control channels. The MAC data or control block together with the MAC header form the radio block, the basic logical transmission unit of GPRS, Fig. 2.11. The MAC functions are further described in Section. 2.2.
Radio Block EGPRS RLC/MAC Block for Data Transfer Combined RLC Data Block 1 RLC Data Block 2 RLC/MAC Header (optional) (BSN, TFI, CPS...) Block Check Sequence (BCS)
Radio Block RLC/MAC Block for Control Message Transfer MAC Header RLC/MAC Control Block Block Check Sequence (BCS)
Figure 2.11: RLC/MAC Block for data transfer and control message transfer
2.1.3
Physical Layer
The PHY layer, Fig. 2.12 executes tasks directly linked with the radio transmission. This
RR Management
MPH-SAP
MAC
PH-SAP
PDCH
PHY Quality Measurement Level Measurement Power Control Cell Reselection Decoding Deinterleaving Demodulation TRX Coding Interleaving Modulation
Figure 2.12: PHY layer, MS side includes the following functions:

Provision of a data transmission service. Forward Error Correction (FEC) by channel coding and interleaving. Random access capability for the MS. Acquisition of the BCCH information by the MS. Synchronisation and channel estimation. Measurement of the signal level and channel quality. Power Control Cell Reselection Frequency Hopping
2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer
15
The Transmitter / Receiver (TRX) organises the physical channel as a Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) system with Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) / Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) [40]. It also controls the frequency hopping sequence [41]. The TRX might operate in dierent frequency bands available for GSM [36]. The user data is channel-coded and interleaved according [37]. Measurements for Power Control, Link Adaptation and Cell Reselection are collected [44] which are transferred to the RR management via the MPH SAP. Direct forwarding of measurements to the PC as shown in Fig. 2.12 is done for open loop control only, for closed loop control, the measurements from the opposite link are involved. Synchronisation is performed by the TRX on an quarter-symbol time basis [42]. Note that the crypto-unit for GPRS is located in the LLC protocol. Further details of the PHY layer are provided in Section. 2.2.
2.2
Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer
The MAC protocol [43] maintains the Temporary Block Flows (TBFs) for UL and DL packet data transmission. This comprises the establishment, reestablishment and release of such ows, an appropriate scheduling strategy that incorporates fairness between different users and the transmission of the Packet System Information (PSI) on PBCCH. This section puts the focus on a detailed understanding of the basic functions for TBF maintenance and scheduling. Further information can be obtained from [65] and [66]. 2.2.1 Initial UL TBF establishment
Sessions might be established mobile originated or NW originated. Starting with the easier case, the mobile originated session establishment, all important MAC functions necessary to understand the later chapters can be explained. For the NW originated session establishment, additional paging might occur which is not treated within this thesis. For the initial establishment of an UL TBF, an access procedure is initiated starting with a random access on the Random Access Channel (RACH), Fig. 2.13. The random access
LLC PDU MS 1 PCU MS 2
R > Access_Persist? RACH false R > Access_Persist? true PaChaReq(Rand_Ref) PaUplAss (Rand_Ref) PaChaReq(Rand_Ref)
PaUplAss (Rand_Ref)
Figure 2.13: Contention on RACH is executed in close collaboration with the PHY layer. In order to consider the priority of the TBF to be established in the random access, the access persistency is introduced. The MS draws a random number R [1..16]. In case R is larger than the Access Persistency broadcasted on BCCH for the priority to be established, the access is allowed, otherwise the access is denied and the MS will back o and retry the access. Access retries are
16
executed after a random number of TDMA frames drawn from a window of size [S, S + TxInt], Fig. 2.14. As the Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH) might collapse under
Figure 2.14: GPRS PRACH access repetition heavy load, the PCU is given a means of control for the PRACH load by parameters S and TxInt. It broadcasts the current values for S and TxInt frequently on the PBCCH for each persistency class. If the access is allowed, the MS will send a Packet Channel Request (PaChaReq) containing a random reference number Rand Ref. The PCU will answer this request with a Packet Uplink Assignment (PaUplAss) message containing the same value for Rand Ref and the UL TDMA frame number where the PaChaReq was received. This allows a TBF establishment without prior knowledge of the identity of the participant. In rare cases, it might occur that a second mobile sends a PaChaReq in the same TDMA frame which gets lost due to a fading hole. As the range for Rand Ref is limited to 5 - 8 bit, both mobiles might have chosen the same random number. In this case, the PaUplAss is valid for both and the contention has to be resolved in a contention phase. There are several ways to establish an UL TBF. The type of establishment is provided in the PaChaReq message. Tab. 2.1 lists the available types. type short access one phase access two phase access cell update MM procedure usage RLC mode ACKed and <= 8 radio blocks CS 1 / MCS 1 to be transmitted RLC mode ACKed and > 8 radio blocks CS 1 / MCS 1 to be transmitted RLC mode unACKed or RLC mode ACKed and > 8 radio blocks CS 1 / MCS 1 to be transmitted cell update procedure other GMM procedures Table 2.1: Access types
2.2.2
One Phase Access
In RLC acknowledged mode, especially for short data transfers a one phase access is used according to Fig. 2.15. The assignment of resources is decided solely on the information obtained in the PaChaReq message. E.g. multi slot allocation is not possible as the multi slot class of the MS is not knows to the NW. On expiry of the access timer T3168 an abnormal release is triggered.
17
MS LLC PDU ti3168
PCU PaChaReq (one phase)
WaitAssign ContRes
PaUplAss (dynamic) ContRes
ti3166 N3104 = 1 N3104 = 2
PaData (TLLI) PaData (TLLI) PaUplAckNack (TLLI) End of contention TBF Est. resolution
End of contention resolution TBF Est.
PaData LLC PDU
Figure 2.15: UL TBF establishment, one phase access
For the one phase access, the contention resolution phase spans over the data transfer. As it is not clear that the right MS is addressed, the Temporary Logical Link Identier (TLLI) must be included in every radio block. This reduces the payload by 4 byte. The PCU will answer only to the TLLI it intended to address in the PaUplAss. For the PCU, the contention resolution ends on reception of the rst Packet Data (PaData) with the expected TLLI. For the MS it ends on reception of the rst Packet Uplink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge (PaUplAckNack). Especially for large packets and window sizes, the rst PaUplAckNack might be send very late, limiting the UL payload size for a long time. Therefore a counter has been introduced forcing an initial PaUplAckNack message after the Nth received PaData. Especially for high trac load, N = 1 is a serious selection. In a contention situation, the MS that was not addressed by the PCU will retry the access if timer T3166 expires or if counter N3104 reaches the broadcasted maximum value N3104max. 2.2.3 Two Phase Access
If the TBF establishment shall be based on detailed information about the MS, a two phase access is used, Fig. 2.16. Two phase access is mandatory if a multi slot allocation is required or if the unacknowledged RLC mode shall be set. The additional overhead at TBF start is compensated by probably better TBF performance if the data lls more than 8 radio blocks using CS 1. On reception of the PaChaReq, the PCU allocates a single radio block on the UL determined by the TBF starting time. In that block, the MS sends a Packet Resource Request (PaResReq) message containing additional information e. g. the multi slot class of the MS. Based on these information, the PCU will send a second PaUplAss containing the nal resources for the TBF in a dynamic allocation. In case two phase access is used, the contention resolution takes place during the establishment. A TLLI is included in the PaResReq, the PCU will include the addressed TLLI in the second PaUplAss. The contention resolution is supervised by timer T3168, no extra timer is required. In the two-phase access, no bandwidth for payload is wasted as the TLLI is not included in PaData radio blocks.
18
MS LLC PDU ti3168 WaitAssign TBF starting time ContRes End of contention resolution TBF Est. PaData PaData PaUplAckNack PaData
PCU PaChaReq (two phase) PaUplAss (single block) TBF starting time + transfer time End of contention resolution
PaResReq (TLLI) PaUplAss (dynamic, TLLI)
TBF Est.
LLC PDU
Figure 2.16: UL TBF establishment, two phase access
2.2.4
UL TBF Reestablishment
If an UL TBF is already established and a PDU with dierent QoS requirements arrives from the higher layer, a change in TBF performance is required. In case changes for crucial parameters like the RLC mode or TBF mode are demanded, the old TBF has to be closed and a new TBF is established as described above. However, for changes for minor parameters such as radio priority or peak throughput, a reestablishment might be sucient, Fig. 2.17. During UL TBF reestablishment, only the second part of a two phase
MS TBF Est. LLC PDU ti3168 PaResReq WaitAssign TBF Est. PaData PaData PaUplAckNack PaData LLC PDU PaUplAss (dynamic) PCU TBF Est.
Figure 2.17: UL TBF reestablishment access is performed. The old TBF is continued during the reestablishment until the starting time contained in the PaUplAss is reached. PDUs with diering radio priority might already be sent while the old TBF is still valid. The main advantage of the reestablishment
19
procedure is the avoidance of the random access and the contention phase thus providing a quick reaction to changed QoS requirements while saving channel capacity on the PRACH. 2.2.5 UL TBF (Re)Establishment during active DL TBF
For the same reason, avoidance of random access and contention phase, a dierent way of UL TBF establishment is used if a DL TBF is already established, Fig. 2.18. On
MS PaData(supp.poll) PCU
LLC PDU
RRBP PaDowAckNack(ChanReqDesc)
ti3168
PaUplAss (dynamic) TBF Est.
TBF Est. PaData PaData PaUplAckNack PaData LLC PDU
Figure 2.18: UL TBF establishment, DL established
reception of a PDU from higher layer, the MS waits for the next poll for a Packet Downlink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge (PaDowAckNack). It appends a Channel Request Description (CRQ) Information Element (IE) to the PaDowAckNack, specifying the required QoS parameters. The PCU answers by sending a PaUplAss including the assigned resources. No contention phase occurs in this case. This establishment type, in conjunction with a delayed TBF release, is specially suited for interactive trac such as client-server architectures where UL and DL TBF activity alternates, Fig. 2.19.
TCP
LLC
LLC ACK GRR_Data_req(DATA)
GRR_Data_ind RLC
GRR_Data_req(ACK)
Figure 2.19: Response to GRR Data ind
20
2.2.6
Uplink Scheduling
Fig. 2.20 shows the four types of allocation the PCU has to execute for the UL TBF. The
1, RACH, PRACH_BLKS = 3 R 2. RRBP R R R R R RadioBlocks
default occupied: RRBP, next free RB send default = 3 RB send FBI PaDowAss PDA FBI R R Poll R R Poll R
R RadioBlocks
3. Single / Multiple Block Allocation default occupied: starting time send longer starting time default = 0, send PaUplAss next RB PaUplAss FBI PDA R SB R Poll R R Poll R SB R RadioBlocks 4. Dynamic Allocation FBI PDA R D SB R P D R D D D D D R P D R SB D R USF: RadioBlocks
F 0 R F R 1 F 2 3 4 5 6 F R 0 F R 1 F F = free, 7 R = Rand RadioBlocks
Figure 2.20: MAC scheduling process for UL order of the scheduling types gives the priority of the scheduling events. In the rst step, the radio blocks for the PRACH are allocated. In the example, three radio blocks per 52-multi frame are reserved for the PRACH. Next, the supplementary polling is scheduled. It is used for the acknowledgement of control messages such as Packet Downlink Assignment (PaDowAss) or nal PaUplAckNack. The default distance for the Relative Reserved Block Period (RRBP) is three radio blocks in the scheduler model, it is enhanced up to six blocks if the scheduler does not nd a free radio block before. Please note that the scheduling process is continuous over time, so the mentioned priority is given for a certain radio block by the timing; no pre-scheduling is done further than six radio blocks. In the third step the single block allocation (GPRS) or multiple block allocation (EGPRS) is scheduled. It is used for polling the MS to send a PaResReq as an answer to an PaUplAss. As the default starting time for this allocation is set to 0 (next radio block), the priority is lower because the supplementary polling that starts further in the future (3 radio blocks) is already scheduled. In the fourth step, all radio blocks that are hitherto free are scheduled for dynamic allocation with an appropriate scheduling strategy. For the UL, this might be a nonexhaustive round-robin scheduler with depth one or the multistage round robin scheduler described below. For a non-exhaustive round-robin scheduler, the last line in Fig. 2.20 shows the assigned Uplink State Flag (USF) values in case that the PDCH carries a PRACH, addressed with the USF value 7 = Free and six TBFs are allocated with the USF values 0 - 6.
21
As the polling takes precedence over the the dynamic allocation, the USF value scheduled for radio blocks containing an answer to a poll, are not available for dynamic allocation. The PCU sets a random USF value denoted as Rand. Any value might be used, but the following limitation occurs: 2.2.7 UL TBF start delay of scheduling
If a MS receives a PaUplAss, it will switch to the assigned PDCHs after the starting time. A change of the TRX might be necessary to reach the assigned PDCHs, so the MS did not decode any information from that PDCH in advance, Fig. 2.21. From the moment
PaUplAss foreign (starting time) S/P bit dynamic alloc. RRBP starting time foreign poll
t nopolling time switch to new PDCH(s)
Figure 2.21: UL TBF start at MS of switching, the MS will notice all foreign polls and will not send on the assigned radio blocks even if it receives the USF value assigned to the PDCH. However, foreign polls that were commanded on the new PDCH before the starting time cannot be recognised by the MS. Collisions will occur if the PCU schedules the newly assigned USF value. To avoid this, the PCU in the model introduces a delayed start of the scheduling. The USF value for the newly assigned TBF on a PDCH will not be polled until all old priority polls have passed. The Rand value will therfore not contain an USF value of such a new TBF. 2.2.8 UL TBF Release
For the release of the UL TBF, a countdown procedure has been dened. It allows the PCU to optimise the scheduling by providing the number of outstanding blocks. As the procedure cannot be stopped if once initiated, it is often considered as a hindrance in respect to exible scheduling. In this work the procedure has therefore been minimised by setting BS CV MAX to 1. This means, for all but the nal UL radio block, the transferred Countdown Value (CV) is 1, for the last block it is 0. The release procedure is shown in Fig. 2.22. Upon sending a PaData with CV = 0, the MS sets timer T3182. If the PCU receives a PaData with CV = 0, it will send a PaUplAckNack. In case all data blocks have been received, the Final Ack bit is set. On reception of a PaUplAckNack with the Final Ack bit set, the MS will schedule a Packet Control Acknowledge (PaCtrlAck) for the RRBP addressed in the message. If this is sent, the MS closes the TBF, repeated PaUplAckNacks will be answered if heard. Applications often introduce short delays that cause frequent, unnecessary TBF releases and establishments. A well-known example is the TCP delayed ACK (200 ms) Fig. 2.19 or the interframe duration in packet streams such as in VoIP sessions [110]. The TBF release for both TBFs might therefore be delayed for a short period of time. Extensive delay blocks resources at the PCU, especially the sparse address space for USFs and Temporary Flow Identitys (TFIs) gets quickly exhausted. The delay is therefore limited by the standard to 5s, reasonable values found in simulations by the author are 300 ms DL TBF end delay and 1s UL TBF end delay.
22
MS PaData(CV = 0)
PCU
LLC PDU WaitRelease ti3182 PaUplAckNack(FinalAck) N3103 = 0 RRBP + Transfer Time PaCtrlAck Resource Release start PaUplAckNack(FinalAck) Empty RRBP N3103 = 1 RRBP + Transfer Time PaCtrlAck start Resource Release
RRBP
RRBP
Figure 2.22: UL TBF release
2.2.9
DL TBF Establishment
For a mobile-originated session, it is assumed that an UL TBF is established or is recently closed if a DL TBF establishment is requested. Paging is therefore not required. The establishment procedure is shown in Fig. 2.23. On reception of a higher layer PDU, the
MS PaDowAss PCU LLC PDU TBF suspended TBF est. PaDowAckNack RRBP PaData TBF est.
Figure 2.23: DL TBF establishment PCU send a PaDowAss message. In case of reestablishment, the old TBF is suspended. The MS schedules a PaDowAckNack for the RRBP provided in the PaDowAss. This is not mandatory according to the standard but it helps retransmitting lost assignments. On reception of the PaDowAss, the PCU starts transmitting PaData. 2.2.10 DL TBF Release
Trac is asymmetric in most applications with higher load on the DL TBF. A quick release of the DL resources is eligible in order to minimise blocking. This requires an acknowledged TBF end. The release procedure is shown in Fig. 2.24. The PCU transmits the last radio block with the Final Block Indicator (FBI) bit set. The MS checks for the completeness of the received packets and schedules a PaDowAckNack in the included
23
MS LLC PDU ti3192 PaData(FBI, S/P)
PCU
ti3191 RRBP PaDowAckNack(FinalAck)
ti3193 Resource Release start start Resource Release
Figure 2.24: DL TBF release
RRBP. The FinalAck bit shows that this is the last PaDowAckNack message for the TBF. The release is protected with the timer T3191 on the PCU side. In order to allow retransmissions of the radio blocks necessary for DL TBF release, both sides keep the resources for a predened time (T3192 on the MS side and T3193 on the PCU side). The length of the protection timers (0.0 1.5 s) is a tradeo between delay caused by the timers and delay caused by a TBF release failure due to packet damages. In the latter case, the global watchdog T3180DL nished the connection after 5 s. 2.2.11 Multistage Round Robin Scheduling
For the UL, no examination of the RLC queue and send buer can be done by the PCU via the air interface. The scheduler is blind for the UL scheduling requirements. Therefore, if priority scheduling shall be supported a sophisticated strategy is required that must solve the following problems:
A remarkable prioritisation shall take place according to the QoS requirements. A hard prioritisation serving always the highest priority rst is not feasible. Each mobile with an active TBF must be polled frequently in order to obtain measurement results and to satisfy the radio link watch dogs T3180DL/UL The mobiles having no user data to transmit will spam the radio interface with Packet Uplink Dummy Control (PaUplDummyCtrl) radio blocks. This is a waste of bandwidth and should be reduced.
In order to meet these requirements, the multistage round robin scheduling has been developed, Fig. 2.25. It belongs to the class of weighted fair queueing schedulers with special extensions for GPRS. For each radio priority, one round robin scheduler is used. All schedulers are polled during one multistage cycle in random order. Each time a scheduler is polled, it is allowed to send one radio block. The total number of polls of one scheduler in one multistage cycle XP 1 sets the bandwidth portion assigned to the corresponding priority class P. XP 1 is larger for higher priorities. For the following investigations, the number of scheduled radio blocks per multistage cycle has been set to X = {X0 , ..., X3 } = {4, 3, 2, 1}. One possible resulting radio block stream is shown in Fig. 2.25. Each scheduler distributes the assigned radio blocks to the registered mobiles according to the well-known round robin strategy. Only those mobiles with an active UL TBF of the corresponding UL radio priority are registered in the scheduler. Each registered mobile is allowed to
24
TLLI 4 TLLI 3
TLLI 1
Priority 0 (high)
fast rotation TLLI 2
X0
X0 XP 1
i XP 1
TLLI N TLLI N 3 TLLI N 1 slow rotation TLLI N 2 P1 (Iow)
idle flag set / not set
Figure 2.25: Multistage round robin scheduling
send radio blocks according to the round robin depth z = 1. If Xi radio blocks have been scheduled, or if all registered mobiles have been polled to send the maximum number of blocks z or if no further mobile is allowed to send, the next lower priority will be served. A mobile is not allowed to send if
the UL TBF has no PDCH assigned on the scheduled time slot or the last poll was answered with a PaUplDummyCtrl message. This shows that the mobile has no UL data to transmit. In this case, the idle ag is set when the message arrives at the PCU (TLLI 2 and TLLI N - 1 in the gure). The scheduler skips the entry of the corresponding mobile in the next multistage cycle an resets the ag.
The latter behaviour reduces the bandwidth scheduled to idle mobiles by a factor of two. It might be further reduced by replacing the ag with a countdown mechanism allowing higher reduction factors. The DL is scheduled in a similar way. A three-layer approach is applied. In the rst multistage round, DL TBFs having only PEN ACK blocks in the send buer are not allowed to send. Only if no sending instance can be determined in the rst round, the second round is started allowing also PEN ACK radio blocks. If still no sender is found, a Packet Downlink Dummy Control (PaDowDummyCtrl) message is sent. 2.2.12 Modulation
Two modulation types are dened for an EDGE system, Fig. 2.26. The Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK), a binary modulation, was already introduced for GSM services. An octal modulation 8-Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) is added with EDGE [58] in order to allow high throughput in good receiving conditions [103]. Mapping of bits to symbols is done according to Gray [63]. For erroneous swapping of neighbouring states in case of bad channel quality, the mapping guarantees to produce not more than one erroneous bit.
25
Figure 2.26: EGPRS modulation
CHAPTER 3
Basics of Radio Resource Control for Packet Data Services

Content 3.1 Channel Allocation and Channel Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Link Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Incremental Redundancy / Hybrid ARQ II and Soft Combining 3.4 Mobility Management and Cell Reselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 30 33 42 48 51 52
or an interference-limited network, the appropriate Radio Resource Control (RRC) is the key to success. The most essential control methods are introduced within this chapter, starting with channel allocation and channel assignment that have to share the radio resource between dedicated and packet-oriented services, Section. 3.1. Frequency hopping provides a spreading technique for equalising interference and signal fading. The method and its inuence on packet-data services are introduced in Section. 3.2. Two methods are commonly used to adapt the radio link to the distance between transmitter and receiver: Power control aims to keep the receive signal at an acceptable quality for a certain gross data rate, Section. 3.3.3. The second method adapts the gross data rate to the present channel quality. It is represented by Link Adaptation, Section. 3.3.4 and Incremental Redundancy Section. 3.3.5. Mobility is supported by maintaining track of the MS in a GMM context and by connecting the MS to the most suitable cell. In GPRS networks, this is achieved mobile-controlled by Cell Selections / Reselections Section. 3.4 or network-controlled by cell change notication commands (not discussed here).
3.1
Channel Allocation and Channel Assignment
The GSM organises the physical resource in a TDMA frame comprising 8 Time Slots (TSs). The frequency division duplex is explained later in the frequency hopping section, for now a logical TRX is referred to as the determining unit. A logical channel resource therefore consists of a TS, a logical TRX, a link direction (up or down) and the frequency parameters explained below. As the frequency spectrum is limited, the available frequency channels have to be reused in distant cells. An area where every frequency channel is used once and only once is called a cluster. The number of cells the cluster comprises is called cluster size. The rst TRX carries control channels such as BCCH. Although not mandatory, the TRX are typically grouped into two layers. All BCCH TRX in a cluster form the BCCH layer, typically using a large cluster size. Frequency hopping is not applied. All other TRX form the hopping layer using a small cluster size and frequency hopping. Fig. 3.1 shows typical channel allocation strategies for a cluster size n = 3.
Radio channels might be allocated permanently to one cell in a cluster (Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)) resulting in channel groups a, b and c. The strategy provides
3.1. Channel Allocation and Channel Assignment
27
FCA
A a c C b B A
DCA
B ac b C A
HCA
B a0 c0 C b0 a1c b1 1
Figure 3.1: Channel allocation strategies
minimum co-channel interference but the behaviour for non-uniform trac distribution throughout a cluster (hot spots) is not optimum. Channels from the channel pool may be allocated to a cell on request (Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)). Allocation exibility is then maximised. Since with DCA there is no permanent allocation of channels to a cell anymore, the co-channel interference might be high in adjacent cells. Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA) is a combination of FCA and DCA where some channels are allocated permanently and some are allocated on request , e. g. , to serve a hot spot. It is worth noting that frequency reuse is often given as a reuse pattern denoted (Number of cells per cluster / Number of frequency groups per cluster), e. g. (3/3) for FCA and HCA in Fig. 3.1. Channel assignment can be done randomly or by preselection. For the GSM voice calls, two selection criteria are used in order to minimise the interference level: First, the best time slots with the lowest number of allocated logical channel resources are searched (best scoring), Fig. 3.2.
optimum 3 X X X X TRX 2 X X X X X X Hopping 1 X X X X X X Layer 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TS
Figure 3.2: Channel assignment example in a GSM cell An X denotes a GSM TCH resource occupied by a CS service. Next, from the best TSs, one is selected randomly. A sequential selection would result in higher interference on low TS numbers as BTSs are assumed synchronised. If FH is applied, the selection of the TRX does not inuence performance. Scoring might be performed considering idle channel interference. However, own investigations have veried the statement of Mouly/Poutet [88]: There is no reasonable eect from interference-aware channel selection for a system under low load or full load but there is an increased Carrier to Interference Ratio (CIR) of 1.5 dB for medium load. The GPRS is an add-on to a GSM network. Usually, GPRS gives precedence to GSM services interrupting service to its own users when required. With the onDemand concept, Fig. 3.3, logical channels are being allocated dynamically to the GPRS by means of PDCHs that are carried by GSM TCH resources. Permanently allocated PDCHs, containing e. g. the PBCCH are denoted as P while onDemand PDCH are denoted O. It is worth noting that typically - contrary to Fig. 3.3 the BCCH layer is used to provide PDCHs since the cluster size for such channels is much larger than for the other channels, resulting in low interference. Investigations on optimum channel assignment when hopping across multiple frequency channels using TRXs in the
28
3. Basics of Radio Resource Control for Packet Data Services
TRX
3 X X 2 X X X X 1 P POOO 0 1 2 3 4 TS
X X X X Hand X over 5 6 7
Figure 3.3: TCH handover in order to free onDemand PDCH
hopping layer will follow in Section. 6.3. All PDCHs assigned to a MS must use the same TRX. So, it is benecial to group all available PDCHs in line in the TDMA frame of a given radio channel. In order to maintain a basic GPRS service, at least one xed PDCH must always be allocated whilest onDemand PDCHs can be allocated exibly within the TDMA frame. If some other channel hinders consecutive PDCH TS assignment, an intra cell Handover (HO) is performed as shown in Fig. 3.3. A TCH resource allocated to the PCU as PDCH might be assigned to one or several GPRS users. Several connections can be multiplexed to a given PDCH in any sequential order. This is called stochastic multiplexing. 3.1.1 Multi Slot Capabilities
Throughput of a service scales with the number of PDCHs assigned to a TBF. Timing requirements, specied for the multi-slot class of the MS limit the degrees of freedom of assignment for the PCU, Fig. 3.4. The maximum number of PDCHs assigned to a single
Used Timeslot TTA = Transceiver Turnaround
Timeslot DL 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 UL Meas. TRX Rx
7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11
TTA TTA Ttb Tx Tra
Rx ...
Figure 3.4: Limitations of multi-slot assignment MS (UL, DL) is (8, 8). Two MS types are distinguished: type one is half-duplex and cannot receive and transmit at the same time (one TRX) while type two can do so using 2 TRX and full duplex transmission. Type one is commonly used due to terminal costs. It requires a timing cycle with four phases per TDMA frame, carried by a TRX, Fig. 3.4.

Rx Time slots occupied for DL data transfer Ttb Time to get ready to transmit ( = Transceiver Turn-around (TTA)). Tx Time slots occupied for UL data transfer. Tra Time to get ready to receive. This comprises a TTA, Neighbour Cell (NC) measurements and tuning to the receive carrier.
For MS type one, not more than 6 PDCHs are assigned simultaneously, typically (1, 5), see [40]. Obviously, the PDCH used for a MS are not freely selectable. Further limitations result from the PCU serving multiple MSs of dierent multi slot classes each one demanding its own timing. In addition, the Rx and Tx time slots must not be spread for MS type one but must be located in a window of size Rxmax resp. T xmax .
3.1. Channel Allocation and Channel Assignment
29
Multi slot operation has an inuence on the RLC operation. The large window size in EGPRS mode has to be adapted according to the number of available PDCHs, Fig. 3.5. Dependent on the type of service, a certain variation in window size is allowed.
Figure 3.5: EGPRS window size over PDCH allocation [40]
3.1.1.1
UL Multi Frame Shifting
The multi slot limitations might be released by an approach known as multi-frame shifting, Fig. 3.6. It allows to assign to a TBF up to 7 PDCHs (1,6). The shift is reached by a
Tta (Meas. + Tx ready) Timeslot DL 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 UL 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 Trb (Rx ready) Used Timeslot Shifted Position
7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 Original Position Shift Meas

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Figure 3.6: UL multi frame shifting
constant Timing Advance (TA) oset. It creates a gap suciently large for NC measurements and TTA time even for 7 PDCHs allocated. Shifting reduces the maximum allowed cell radius Rmax according to the required time shift tgap , the symbol duration tSym and the TA oset T Aof f s (number of symbols): Rmax = 35 km T Aof f s 544m tgap T Aof f s = ; T Aof f s,max = 64 tSym
30
In practice, cell radius limitation from frame shifting is not a severe restriction since most cells are small, nowadays, and shifting can be applied per cell. 3.1.2 Support of onDemand PDCH Concept
PDCHs are allocated to the GPRS on demand if not required for GSM services. In case a GSM connection is requested, a PDCH might be withdrawn. Then, the PCU must inform all MSs about this event. Two information procedures are available.
Acknowledged PDCH cancellation information is sent individually to each MS that runs an active TBF in form of a PaUplAss, PaDowAss or Packet Timeslot Recongure (PaTsRecong) message on the PDCH to be cancelled. An acknowledgement for these messages must be received from each MS. Interference between GPRS and GSM is avoided and there is a certain point in time where the channel switches to GSM operation. Immediate PDCH cancellation does not wait for acknowledgement. It is typically used if an urgent GSM handover must be accepted by the serving cell. Then, a Packet PDCH Release (PaPDCHRel) message is broadcast. As the message might be lost, some MSs might continue using this PDCH causing high interference with the GSM system for several seconds.
3.2
3.2.1
Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading

Frequency Hopping
GSM might operate in dierent frequency bands between 400 and 2100 MHz. It is an FDD system using a duplex distance of 45 to 90 MHz, depending on the frequency band. FDMA splits each frequency band into equally spaced radio channels. The channel spacing is 200 kHz. With FCA each cell is allocated a xed amount of radio channels, the Cell Allocation (CA), Fig. 3.7. The CA is dependent on the cluster size, here n = 4. The channels are
124 123 122 121
1 3 2 4 MA BCCH CA HS
MAI MAIO (start)
5 4 3 2 1 ARFCN Frequency Band
Figure 3.7: Frequency channel arrangement for frequency hopping addressed by frequency indices, the Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers (ARFCNs). The allocation must be planned taking frequency reuse by other cells into account resulting in co-channel interference. The target CIR value at full load for the worst case is [60]:
3.2. Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading
31
1 DR CIR 6 R R D q
(q 1) ( 3 n 1) = = 6 6
cell radius distance between co-channel BTS path loss exponent, typically 3..5 co-channel interference reduction factor q = D / R
Adjacent channel interference, resulting from transmit power on channels with adjacent ARFCNs, further limits the CIR. From the CA, the mobile station is allocated a logical TRX that comprises of a set of radio channels from the CA, the Mobile Allocation (MA). Further, the MS needs to know how and if to perform frequency hopping. The mobile is allocated a starting index into the MA, the Mobile Allocation Index Oset (MAIO). The MAIO points to the rst radio channel to be used. This index is used to initialise the Hopping Sequence (HS). The HS is a pseudo-random sequence of indices pointing into the MA. The current index is the Mobile Allocation Index (MAI). In order to break correlation between the cells, each cell uses a HS dierent from the co-channel cells. The cell specic sequence is broadcast via BCCH as Hopping Sequence Number (HSN). If the size of the MA is one, no frequency hopping is performed, else, the MAI changes once per TDMA frame according to the HS. Fig. 3.8 shows an example HS. The MA
Frequency Channel 4 MS 1 3 MS 2 2 1 0 MS 2 1 2 MS 1 MS 1 MS 2 MS 1 3 4 MS 2 MS 1 MS 2 MS 1 MS 2 Interferer HS 1 3 2 4 MAIO Assignment MS 3 MS 4 free free Interferer
HS 1 3 2 4 Step Number
5 Frame Step Number Number
Figure 3.8: Hopping sequence of size four is stridden with a random HS (left). MS 1 uses MAIO 0 and directly follows the HS using frequency channel 4 during the rst TDMA frame, as the initial MAI points to the rst step in the sequence. The MS using MAIO n uses the M AI n = (M AI 0 + n) mod M Asize. On the right hand side, the HS of an interfering cell is displayed. For simplicity, the interferer is assumed to perform cyclic hopping, so the rst interfering MS 3 using MAIO 0 starts transmission at the frequency channel 4 thus interfering with MS 1. The second interfering MS 4 starts with frequency channel 3. The centre gure shows the interference over time, counted in Frame Numbers (FNs). For MS 2, the interference in frame 0 results from MS 4, in frame 1 from a free channel (no interference, noise only) and in frame 2 from MS 3 etc. Note that there is no hopping collision inside a cell and therefore no intracell-interference. Cyclic and random hopping have dierent advantages. On the one hand, if all cells perform cyclic hopping, then the interferer does not change. So only frequency diversity is achieved while potential benets from interferer diversity cannot be exploited unless dierent MA sizes are involved - which complicates Radio Frequency (RF) planning. On the other hand, cyclic hopping performs superior for frequency diversity as the probability to consecutively stay in a fading hole for more than a TDMA frame within the interleaving
32
depth is smaller. As a rule of thumb, cyclic hopping is the best choice for reuse patterns larger than (3/3). Two FH setups are to distinguish:
If the number of radio channels involved in the HS (the size of the MA) is equal to the number of TRXs, each TRX transmits on a xed logical channel (called virtual TRX) and the mapping between virtual and physical TRX is hopping. This is called Base Band (BB) FH, fast tuning of the physical TRX is not required. If more radio channels than available TRXs shall be involved in the HS, the physical TRX has to be tuned to the actual frequency each TDMA frame. This is called Synthesizer Frequency Hopping (SFH), it allows more exible assignments of MAs. Wideband coupling devices are required.
The MA size inuences the diversity gain. Larger MAs provide higher diversity gain. The size is normally limited by the number of available frequency channels. If the MA size shall be further increased, all frequencies on a site are put in a common pool and the MAIOs are spread among the sectors (MAIO management). This requires synchronised TDMA frames and usage of the same HSN among the sectors. 3.2.2 Fractional Loading
The availability of synthesiser hopping allows a ne-grained control for the interference. If some of the resources are intentionally left unoccupied, the interference level is reduced to noise in the free resources. The fraction of free resources controls the average CIR. This is called Fractional Loading (FL). FL allows to decrease the interference in a controlled way so that very tight reuse patterns become feasible. The following details are worth explaining, since they are implemented in the emulator and the results are substantially dependent on them. FL is dened as the fraction of available TRX (NT RX ) and the size of the MA list (Nf req in M A list ). FL = NT RX Nf req
in M A list
FL determines the maximum interference contribution of a frequency channel. The average contribution, denoted as frequency load Lf req is typically lower. Lf req = F L LBHO with LBHO = busy hour TS occupation [%]. Normalising towards the Frequency Allocation Reuse (FAR) F AR = Nf req Nf req
T OT
in M A list
we obtain the Eective Frequency Load (EFL): EF L = Lf req ERL BH = S F AR Nf req T OT TT RX
S with ERL BH = oered Erlang in busy hour and TT RX = 8 in GSM systems. The EFL determines the total interference contribution over time. The COST 231 report [128] deduces optimum reuse 1/3 for sectorised antennas and 3/3 for omnidirectional ones at an EFL of 8 %. Other sources [104] state that 1/3 is optimum for regular cluster shape only while 1/1 is optimum for irregular cells. In the examples shown in Fig. 3.8, the FL is 50 %.
3.3. Link Optimisation
33
3.3
Link Optimisation
During TBF operation the link quality changes continuously. In order to maintain a constant service quality, GPRS applies three methods to adapt its operation in order to optimise throughput and / or delay. The goal of a constant QoS support is targeted with power control keeping the channel quality on a level high enough to operate a certain MCS. Adapting the user data rate to the channel quality is performed by the second and third method, link adaptation and incremental redundancy. An optimised solution might combine both, link adaptation and incremental redundancy. All power control commands and channel coding commands are issued by the PCU, so an information pool is required at the network side. Measurements to characterise the DL can only be generated by the MS, so the information has to be transferred to the network. 3.3.1 Adaptation Strategies
There are two strategies in both, power control and link adaptation, namely slow adaptation and fast adaptation. 3.3.1.1 Slow Adaptation
There are three basic eects that inuence the link quality: path loss owing to distance, shadowing and multi path propagation. Slow adaptation aims to compensate for signal attenuation owing to distance and shadowing eect. The decisions are aiming to t an average channel condition, averaging out fast fading eects. In most cases, the decisions do not t the channel conditions, in fading holes, burst errors occur and in fading peaks, the channel capacity is not fully utilised and the power used is too high. As the average channel quality is changing only in terms of about 100 ms, a slow control loop is sucient. 3.3.1.2 Fast Adaptation
Fast channel quality uctuations can be avoided by adapting to the channel situation very quickly, adapting to fading peaks and holes. Channel capacity loss due to bit errors and sub-optimum MCS usage can be compensated completely, but control trac increases. As the fading duration is in the order of 10 ms for user terminal speed in between 3 and 30 km/h, the control loop must have an appropriate frequency. The control interval possible to achieve in GPRS has been found to be in between 500 and 2000 ms, so fast adaptation cannot be realised. 3.3.2 Averaging and Preprocessing of Measurement Samples
Power Control (PC) and Link Adaptation (LA) are performed by observing the receive quality. If changes are observed, the power resp. the MCS is adapted. As the receive quality changes due to multi-path propagation and the resulting fast signal fading, a single measured value of the receive quality is worth nothing. Averaging must be performed by low-pass ltering. The averaging must consider the unsteady packet stream in a session resulting in infrequent measurement events using a digital lter. The most general linear lter takes a sequence x k of input samples and produces a sequence y n of output samples according to the following equation [68] [102]:
M N
yn =
k=0
[c k x nk ] +
j =1
[dj y nj ]
(3.1)
34
Here the (M + 1) xed coecients c k and the N xed coecients d j dene the lter response. The lter output depends on the current and M previous input values, and on its own N previous values. If N =0, then the lter is called non-recursive or Finite Impulse Response (FIR). If N = 0, then it is called Innite Impulse Response (IIR) connoting that such lters are capable of having innitely long impulse response. The performance of IIR lters might be superior to that of non-recursive lters with the same total number of coecients but IIR lters are not always stable. If the coecients d j are chosen unluckily, back coupling of exponentially-growing amplitude might occur. Stable lters require a characteristic polynomial that fulls in the frequency domain:
N
j =1
d j z N j = 0 for |z | 1
(3.2)
3.3.2.1
Averaging and Preprocessing for Power Control
For power control, the observation is based on two dierent performance measures, the signal strength (carrier) and the CIR (quality). Carrier The averaged signal strength is derived from the input samples SSblock,n . One input sample is the arithmetic average over the four signal strength measurements of a radio block. The following lters are applied for both, UL and DL signal strength where FF is the forgetting factor and Cblock,n is the normalised carrier measurement for the nth radio block, averaged over the four TDMA frames: Cn = F F Cblock,n + (1 F F ) Cn1 For the uplink, the new sample for Cblock,n is directly retrieved from the receive signal strength SSblock,n , averaged over the four TDMA frames. Cblock,n = SSblock,n As the downlink samples are used for dierent purposes (see below), a normalisation to the transmission power on BCCH results in measurements independent of the DL transmission power. Only the path loss inuences the input samples. Cblock,n = SSblock,n + P b where Pb is the actual power reduction relative to the BCCH transmission power. Quality For the CIR measurement, the interference level on idle frames is measured per PDCH and two measurements per 52-Multi frame (excluding Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) frames) are averaged to one sample SSCH,n . The average interference level CH,n is obtained according to CH,n = F F SSCH,n + (1 F F ) CH,n Note that the Forgetting Factor (FF) might be dierent for carrier and quality averaging.
35
3.3.2.2
Averaging and Preprocessing for Link Adaptation
For link adaptation, the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is focussed as the quality indicator. Quality In order to dierentiate fading holes from bad overall receive conditions, not only the average BER over one radio block is reported but also the Coecient of Variation (CV) of the BER. Both measurements are required to estimate the channel quality accurately, Fig. 3.9.
P
Rx
s2
average
Figure 3.9: Interpretation of CoV measurement The four quality measurement samples of a radio block are averaged. The average of the quality measurement is equal for signals s1 and s2. Nevertheless, as s2 suers from a fading hole during the measurement, the channel quality for s2 is higher. This can be deduced from the higher CV of the measurement over the radio block [140]. For the quality measurements, two dierent mappings for the channel quality report are being used, one for GPRS and the other for EGPRS. GPRS Quality Mapping The average raw BER is reported as parameter RX QUAL, the resolution is 8 steps. The CV of the signal strength is reported as parameter SIGN VAR (8 steps). RX QUAL The BER samples are taken from all received Normal Bursts (NBs) before channel decoding, as shown in Fig. 3.10. SIGN VAR SIGN VAR is the average over all measured block variances BL VAR during the last reporting period (since the last channel quality report). BL V AR n is the variance of the received signal level of each correctly received radio block and is calculated as follows: BL V AR n = 1 j1
4
[SS k SS block,n ] 2
k=1
(3.3)
where
36
NC_REPORTING_PERIOD INTER ACK/NACK TIME Radio Block Period

0
BER
TDMAFrame
480 ms
RX_QUAL
Arithmetical Averaging
RX_QUAL
Figure 3.10: Averaging of RX QU AL

SS k is the received signal level burst k within the radio block. SS block,n is the mean of the received signal level of the j NBs that compose the radio block. j is the number of burst in the radio block, (4).
NC_REPORTING_PERIOD INTER ACK/NACK TIME Radio Block Period 0 SSn TDMAFrame 480 ms
BL_VARn
SIGN_VAR
SIGN_VAR
Figure 3.11: Averaging of the SIGN V AR In Fig. 3.11 the averaging process of SIGN V AR is shown. First the variance of each radio block is calculated and at the end of the reporting period the arithmetic average of the block variance is calculated and put into the Channel Quality Report (CQR). The measurements are averaged over all assigned PDCHs. The reliability of the channel quality report increases with increasing reporting interval, it is not measured or considered in the adaptation process. If the CQR is included in a PaResReq message, no new measurement period is started and the actual SIGN V AR is transfered to the BTS. This ensures a valid SIGN V AR. EGPRS Quality Mapping The average raw BER of a radio block is reported as parameter MEAN BEP, the resolution is 32 steps. The CV of the raw BER is reported as parameter CV BEP (8 steps). This ne-grained resolution is required as EGPRS addresses a wider link adaptation range than GPRS. The measurements are done per assigned PDCH, denoted as
37
Timeslot Number (TN). As a running average is performed and the reliability is considered in the measurements, an actual, valid measurement can always be obtained during a running TBF. Let xn be the ag that shows a radio block arrival in block n addressed to this MS, so xn = 1 if a block arrives, xn = 0 else. From this information, we obtain the reliability Rn of the channel quality measurement for the observed PDCH.
Rn = (1 F F ) Rn1 + F F xn
R1 = 0
(3.4)
This reliability weight is used to determine the average BER and the CV of the BER on TN n. xn ) M EAN BEP T Nn1 + Rn xn FF M EAN BEPblock,n Rn xn ) CV BEP T Nn1 + Rn xn CV BEPblock,n FF Rn
M EAN BEP T Nn = (1 F F
(3.5)
CV BEP T Nn = (1 F F
(3.6)
In Fig. 3.12 the averaging process of M EAN BEP n is shown for one TS. First the arithmetic average of the BER is accumulated to the M EAN BEP block , which is ltered as described above. At the end of the reporting period the average is taken over all allocated TSs as shown in Eq. (3.8). The CV CV BEP n is calculated in the same way.
NC_REPORTING_PERIOD INTER ACK/NACK TIME Radio Block Period 0 BER TDMAFrame 480 ms
MEAN_BEP
block
MEAN_BEP_TN x
Running Average Filtering
MEAN_BEPn
MEAN_BEP_TN x
Figure 3.12: Averaging of M EAN BEP n
This is not only a low-pass lter but a dynamic sample and hold device. The reported value is the average over all assigned j PDCHs, weighted by the reliability of the measurements for the specic PDCH.
38
M EAN BEPn =
Rn M EAN BEP T Nn
j Rn (j ) (j ) (j )
(j )
(j )
(3.7)
CV BEPn =
Rn CV BEP T Nn
j Rn (j )
(3.8)
This averaging is done twice, separate for those blocks received with GMSK modulation and for those received with 8PSK modulation. For the UL, the PCU performs the same measurement and averaging. 3.3.2.3 Filter Weights
The Forgetting Factor (FF) determines the weight of a new sample against the old samples. The involved FF depends on protocol state and measured physical parameter. Tab. 3.1 shows the ve forgetting factors used in the averaging processes. FF a (Carrier) b (Carrier) c (Carrier) d (Interf.) e (BER) state PIM PTM, BCCH meas. PTM, PDTCH meas. any PTM range steady state: 0.001 .. 0.2 0.00017 .. 1.0 0.00008 .. 0.5 steady stade: 0.00001 .. 1.0 0.03 .. 1.0 reasonable value 0.2 0.088 0.044 0.5 0.2
Table 3.1: Forgetting factors for measurement averaging The forgetting factors are derived from the averaging periods T AVG W (a), T AVG T (b, c), N AVG I (d) and BEP PERIOD (e). Stable mode of operation has been found for T AVG T/W = 5 .. 10. For T AVG T/W = 0, the fading is not averaged out, for T AVG T/W > 10, overshooting increases the control error severely. For N AVG I, 2 .. 6 are stable choices and for BEP PERIOD, 5 - 12 are reasonable values. Note that in PTM, measurements are made on the PDCH carrying PACCH only, so the number of assigned PDCHs has no inuence on the averaging performance. 3.3.2.4 Preprocessing
Measurement reporting via the air interface has to be economical. This requires quantisation and truncation of the measurement samples together with an integer mapping. The RRC algorithms are limited in control capabilities by theses constraints. The averaged signal level C is mapped to the the C VALUE according to Tab. 3.2 and the averaged CIR = C CH is mapped to the I LEVEL according to Tab. 3.3. The measured BER value is mapped to RX QU AL as known from GSM and shown in Tab. 3.4. The range for the M EAN BEP is 0 to 31, for the CV BEP it is 0 to 7. The mapping of the M EAN BEP is dierent for the modulation type, GMSK or 8PSK. Tab. 3.5 shows an extract of the mapping, where the ltered linear M EAN BEP is calculated to a logarithmic scale. The entire table is shown in [44]. The mapping table for the coecient of variation of the channel quality is equal for both modulation types and shown in Tab. 3.6.
39
Carrier (dBm) <= -110 -109 -108 -107 ... -48 >= -47
C Value 0 1 2 3 ... 62 63
CIR (dB) <0 0 .. 1.99 2 .. 3.99 4 .. 5.99 ... 26 .. 27.99 >= 28
I Level 0 1 2 3 ... 14 15
Table 3.2: Mapping of carrier strength to C VALUE RX QU AL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table 3.3: Mapping of CIR to I Level
BER 0 % to 0.2 % 0.2 % to 0.4 % 0.4 % to 0.8 % 0.8 % to 1.6 % 1.6 % to 3.2 % 3.2 % to 6.5 % 6.4 % to 12.8 % greater than 12.8 %
Table 3.4: Mapping table of BER to RX QU AL

M EAN BEP 0 1 2 3 : 15 16 17 : 29 30 31 log10 (actualBEP ), GMSK more than -0.60 -0.70 to -0.60 -0.80 to -0.70 -0.90 to -0.80 : -2.10 to -2.00 -2.20 to -2.10 -2.30 to -2.20 : -3.50 to -3.40 -3.60 to -3.50 less than -3.60 log10 (actualBEP ), 8-PSK more than -0.60 -0.64 to -0.60 -0.68 to -0.64 -0.72 to -0.68 : -1.20 to -1.16 -1.36 to -1.20 -1.52 to -1.36 : -3.44 to -3.28 -3.60 to -3.44 less than -3.60
Table 3.5: Mapping table for M EAN BEP
For CV = 0, Fig. 3.13 shows the mapping of the CIR to MEAN BEP for a typical receiver. 3.3.2.5 Measurement Reporting
Only the receiver knows about the location-dependent receive condition. As the PCU will decide the power level to be applied, the receiving MS will send the measurement results to the network in one of two message types, Fig. 3.14.
Slow reporting period via PACCH every NC REPORTING PERIOD. Fast In-band Reporting with every PaDowAckNack and PaResReq message
40
CV BEP CV CV CV CV CV CV CV CV BEP BEP BEP BEP BEP BEP BEP BEP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Range of actual CV 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 to to to to to to to to 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.25
Table 3.6: Mapping table for CV BEP
MEAN_BEP vs. CIR 30 25 MEAN_BEP 20 15 10 5 0 -20 -10 0 10 CIR [dB] 20 30 40 Modulation GMSK 8PSK
Figure 3.13: Mapping of CIR to MEAN BEP for a typical receiver
NC_REPORTING_PERIOD n * 480 ms
MS
Normal Power Control and Measurement Reporting Quality Estimator Fast Downlink Quality Report Fast Uplink Power Control Commands Uplink Power Adjustment INTER ACK/NACK TIME
BTS
Fast Quality Estimator and Power Control Functions Normal Power Control and Measurement Reporting Downlink Power Adjustment
BSC
Handover Link Adaptation
Power Control
Figure 3.14: Measurement and reporting cycle overview
The reporting period transmitted by the MS every n = 2 k SACCH multi-frames, k = [0,...,7], corresponding to 104 TDMA frames (480 ms) for k = 0, includes the Packet Measurement Report (PaMesRep) as dened in [44]. The fast in-band reporting is responsible to transmit the CQR used in (E)GPRS.
41
The Packet Measurement Report (NC) The PaMesRep is send at the end of every NC REPORTING PERIOD. The purpose of this message is to support network-controlled cell reselection. The report contains the signal strength measurements RX LEV , of the serving and of the six strongest neighbour cells. If ordered, the interference level INTERFERENCE SERVING CELL is included as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Packet Measurement Report (NC) RXLEV_SERVING_CELL NUMBER_OF_NC_ MEASUREMENTS FREQUENCY_N RXLEV_N
INTERFERENCE_ SERVING_CELL
BSIC_N
Figure 3.15: Packet measurement report (NC)
As an indicator of reliability of the measurement data, the number of radio blocks NUMBER OF NC MEASUREMENTS is included in the calculation and broadcast with the report as well. In addition to the PaMesRep an extended report, called Packet Enhanced Measurement Report (PaEnhMesRep) can be transmitted. This can happen, if a MS measures a best serving cell not known to the BTS. Here the MS indicates the unknown cell to the BTS by sending the BSIC Seen indicator via the PaEnhMesRep. The Channel Quality Report The Channel Quality Report (CQR) is send with every PaDowAckNack and PaResReq message. The logical structure diers for GPRS, Fig. 3.16 and for EGPRS Fig. 3.17.
Channel Quality Report EGPRS C_VALUE
Channel Quality Report GPRS C_VALUE RX_QUAL SIGN_VAR I_LEVEL_TNx TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
GMSK_MEAN_BEP GMSK_CV_BEP OR
8PSK_MEAN_BEP 8PSK_CV_BEP
GMSK_MEAN_BEP_TNx 8PSK_MEAN_BEP_TNx
TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I_LEVEL_TNx TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 3.16: GPRS CQR
Figure 3.17: EGPRS CQR
42
For GPRS the MS sends the values RX QU AL, C V ALU E and SIGN V AR to the PCU. If available, the idle interference measurements, separated for each TS, are added to the report. For EGPRS, the quality measures MEAN BEP and CV BEP are included. For the averaged measurements, either the measurements for GMSK or 8PSK modulated blocks are reported, depending on the modulation scheme received more often. Additionally the report can contain the average of MEAN BEP and/or the idle channel interference values for all TSs separately. The network will order idle channel measurement by setting the parameter LINK QUALITY MEASUREMENT MODE, see Tab. 3.7. LQ MEAS MODE 0 1 2 BEP per TS Those TSs that used the modulation scheme for which the most packets were received during the last reporting period Those TSs that used the modulation scheme for which the most packets were received during the last reporting period Idle Interference per TS 0-7 -
0 - 3 or 4 - 7 alternating
Table 3.7: Measurements reported per TS for dierent measurement modes For fast control algorithms, like the LA and the PC in EGPRS, the fast in-band reporting is essential in order to get the information about the interference situation as quick as possible. In most cases, the CQR is attached to the PaDowAckNack message. As this message is infrequent in nature (Dept. on the RLC window mechanism), the control delay is not xed. Measurements have shown an inter arrival time of 500 - 2000 ms, see Section. 6.2 3.3.3 Power Control
Power control is a profound means of compensation of path loss and shadowing eects. It aims to keep the interference generated to other cells to a minimum, Fig. 3.18.
Figure 3.18: Power control scenario While MS 1 and MS 2 have Line of Sight (LOS) connection to their serving BTS 1, MS 3 is time-wise shadowed from BTS 1 (Non Line of Sight, NLOS). The transmission power on link L3 has to be adapted continuously using power control.
43
3.3.3.1
DL power control
DL power control has been evaluated in [107]. In GPRS, every DL packet has two receivers: the rst one is the receiver of the packet content, the second one is the MS polled by the USF contained in the packet header. Both receivers must be able to receive the packet correctly. This is solved by a robust channel coding for the USF (code rate = 1 4 ) and a reduced DL power control range that must not exceed 10 dB. The absolute location of this very limited power control band is selected at TBF start by the PCU which selects the power reduction P 0 relative to the power on the BCCH frequency and transmits P 0 to the MS. The upper edge of the control band is then the power on the BCCH frequency reduced by P 0. While P0 is selected individually for each TBF (transmitted in the PaUplAss message), the packets transmitted on PCCCH use a xed power reduction Pb indicated on PBCCH. For PDTCH, the total power reduction Pb is the sum of P0 and the actual power reduction P R specied by the control algorithm. For DL power control, a closed control loop is involved, Fig. 3.19.
Figure 3.19: Power control loop In closed loop power control, measurements are performed at the receiver of each link Fig. 3.20. As the BTS decides about the power level involved, the MS sends its DL measurements in a channel quality report to the PCU.
Figure 3.20: DL closed loop control
Signal Strength based Control The control algorithm might target a predened receive signal strength. This approach takes into account the dierent distances between the MSs and the BTS. As only one parameter is involved in the control decision, the algorithm shows stable behaviour and small averaging periods can be selected. Fig. 3.21 shows the DL closed loop signal strength based power control. The C V ALU E measurements collected by the MS represent the DL receive signal strength relative to the full Tx power used on BCCH. This value is transferred to the
44
Figure 3.21: DL closed loop signal strength based PC
PCU in every PaDowAckNack message. The BTS output power is adapted according to the reference receive signal strength. The PaDowAckNack message is a very irregular message. Own measurements have shown natural inter arrival times of 0.5 - 2.0 seconds on a link in average conditions. It might be useful to increase the transmit frequency of this message in order to reach higher control accuracy. This control overhead, however, reduces the system capacity. The normalised carrier strength C V ALU E = Crx + P 0 + P R represents the received signal strength normalised to BCCH power, increased by P 0 = reduction PBCCH PP DT CHmax and by P R = current power reduction value. Quality based Control The control algorithm is based on the CIR in this case. Both, the distance MS - BTS as well as the interference strength of the channel are considered. CIR based control might be expected superior to signal strength based control. However, two disadvantages occur. First, the two strength parameters signal and interference are often uncorrelated (especially with frequency hopping). This results in unstable behaviour of the algorithm, requiring longer averaging intervals to reach stability. Second, MSs in co-channel cells might enter a common control loop leading to resonance or maximum power allocated. A combination with the signal strength based control algorithm is therefore used mostly in order to stabilise the CIR based algorithm. Fig. 3.22 shows the DL closed loop quality based power control algorithm.
Figure 3.22: DL closed loop quality based PC A second parameter I LEV EL contains the CIR measurements of the DL relative to the C V ALU E . Together with the C V ALU E , the interference level ch can be estimated. The control performance is adjusted by the reference power level PRef and the slope w . Use of the I LEV EL mapping relative to the BCCH power as specied in the standard is problematic. If a large P 0 is selected (up to 30 dB is possible), the real control range
45
might be one additional CIR range (up to 20 - 30 dB) below P0. In this case, the I LEV EL should be capable of addressing a CIR range of 50 - 60 dB. As the address range is 28 dB only, this will not work. The I LEV EL is therefore mapped relative to P 0 within this thesis. The parameters w and PRef are not very intuitive. The following equations help to set these parameters according to the desired power and CIR limits, Fig. 3.23.
Figure 3.23: Setting the operating point for quality based PC Maximum and minimum output Tx power level are determined for the desired minimum / maximum CIR value.
Pmax = PRef + w (Pmax CIRmin ) Pmin = PRef + w (Pmax CIRmax ) Pmax = PBCCH P 0 Rctrl = control range Solving for w and PRef yields Pmin Pmax CIRmin CIRmax Pmin Pmax = Pmax (Pmax CIRmin ) CIRmin CIRmax Pmin = Pmax Rctrl
(3.9) (3.10) (3.11) (3.12)
w = PRef
(3.13) (3.14)
Substituting the control range Rctrl = Pmax Pmin Rctrl CIRmin CIRmax Rctrl = Pmax + (Pmax CIRmin ) CIRmin CIRmax
w = PRef
(3.15) (3.16)
Typical values are: w = 0.66, PRef = 20.6 for closed loop control. 3.3.3.2 Uplink Power Control
The PCU commands the UL power with every PaUplAckNack message sent on DL. For the UL, we distinguish between two modes of operation. For proper control the closed loop approach is used similar to the DL PC. However, for the rst radio blocks to be sent, the measurements available for a closed loop control might be insucient. In this case, the open loop control might be a good
46
starting point until a sucient number of samples has been collected. Then, the control instance will switch to closed loop control. SDL GPRS Simulator (SGPRSim) does this when the rst PaUplAckNack with valid PC coecients is transmitted. Together with the signal strength based and quality based control facilities, this results in the 4 modes of PC operation for the UL shown in Tab. 3.8. Measurement signal strength signal quality open loop Section. 3.3.3.2 Section. 3.3.3.2 closed loop Section. 3.3.3.2 Section. 3.3.3.2
Table 3.8: Modes of PC operation Fig. 3.24 shows the closed loop control loop.
Figure 3.24: UL closed loop control Open loop control involves no measurement of the own link, Fig. 3.25. As a prerequisite, equal path loss is assumed for both, UL and DL. The new power value for the own link is derived from the measurement of the opposite link and the commanded power values.
Figure 3.25: UL open loop control The MS sets its output power according to: PCH = min(0 CH (C + 48), P M AX ) is a continuous selector between open loop control (= 1) and closed loop control (= 0). For closed loop control, the network will send appropriate CH values. For open loop control, PCH is determined by the normalised DL receive power C. In this case the network might take inuence e. g. for additional quality based control by setting CH accordingly. PMAX is the maximum sending power allowed in the cell. 0 and 48 are used for scaling purposes only.
47
Closed Loop Signal Strength based Power Control The closed loop approach allows an accurate control even in multi path propagation environments where the path loss is dierent in both link directions. It is worth noting that the link is controlled by the measurements of the opposite side. Fig. 3.26 shows the UL Closed loop signal strength based power control algorithm.
Figure 3.26: UL closed loop signal strength based PC
Closed Loop Quality based Power Control Quality based PC involves the interference measured at the receiver that is typically derived from the BER. This allows the mitigation of dierences in link budgets of the same cell but simultaneously introduces danger of instability. Fig. 3.27 shows the UL closed loop quality based power control.
Figure 3.27: UL closed loop quality based PC
Open Loop Signal Strength based Power Control Signal strength based PC does not dierentiate signal from interference strength. This might be a disadvantage or a benet, depending on the situation. Generally, interference problems shall not be handled using power control as this might lead to maximum applied power and maximum interference. Fig. 3.28 shows the UL open loop signal strength based PC. As the calculation of the received signal strength is mapped to the BCCH power in rough steps, proper control cannot be reached with this approach. Open Loop Quality based Power Control Fig. 3.29 shows the UL open loop quality based PC. In order to increase stability as described for the DL, a mixture of signal strength based and quality based control has been found to be helpful with w = 0.8 and PRef = 90.
48
Figure 3.28: UL open loop signal strength based PC
Figure 3.29: UL open loop quality based PC
3.3.4
Link Adaptation
Whilst Power Control (PC) aims at using the minimum required power level and channel quality for a given modulation and codec, Link Adaptation (LA) adapts the modulation and codec to the channel quality. In EDGE networks, link adaptation is available for both, speech [55] and data. 3.3.4.1 MCS Selection
LA is performed by the PCU using an operator-dened algorithm. A quality based control is proposed by ETSI involving the average Bit Error Ratio (BER) (parameter MEAN BEP) and the CV of the BER (parameter CV BEP) in the decision process. For the UL, these measurements are collected by the network while the DL measurements, collected by the MS are transferred to the network in a Channel Quality Report (CQR). The DL CQR arrives in the RLC Entity of the RLC/MAC protocol stack with every PaDowAckNack and PaResReq message and triggers the DL adaptation. The UL adaptation is updated whenever a new control command in a PaUplAckNack message is sent. The optimum MCS is selected from a two-dimensional look-up table considering the average BER and the CV of the BER. For conversational and streaming services, a delay-optimised MCS selection is used while interactive and background trac are served by the throughput-optimised MCS selection. 3.3.4.1.1 Delay-optimised MCS selection
In order to minimise packet delay, two goals have to be reached. The MCS should be high as a high throughput helps reducing delay and the retransmission rate must be low as retransmission introduces extra delay. A typical approach chosen is a LA switching characteristic based on a Block Error Probability (BLEP) limit. In the investigations
49
presented in Section. 6.5.2, the BLEP limit is 10 %. From the TU50 FH and TU3 noFH link level mapping, see App. A, the switching points in Tab. 3.9 are derived.
MCS change 9-8 8-7 7-6 6-5 5-3 3-2 2-1
CIR [dB] 29 25 20 16 12 11 9
MEAN BEP (for CV BEP = 0) 26 - 25 23 - 22 19 - 18 16 - 15 12 - 11 10 - 9 8-7
Table 3.9: MCS thresholds for delay-optimised LA
Note that MCS 4 never is an optimum choice and that it is therefore not considered. The complete mapping tables for all LA strategies can be found in App. C. 3.3.4.1.2 Throughput-optimised MCS selection
For throughput optimisation, the retransmission rate is not important. The only goal is to keep the BLEP lower than the channel capacity loss resulting from an LA downgrade. This criterion determines the switching points. The BLEP is typically chosen higher than for delay-optimised LA. The switching points in Tab. 3.10 have been determined as a compromise from the TU50 FH and TU3 noFH link level mapping printed in App. A.
MCS change 9-8 8-7 7-6 6-5 5-3 3-2 2-1
CIR [dB] 26 21 16 13 (10) 7 4
MEAN BEP (for CV BEP = 0) 24 - 23 19 - 20 17 - 16 13 - 12 9-8 6-7 4-3
Table 3.10: MCS thresholds for throughput-optimised LA
Again, MCS 4 never is an optimum choice. Also, MCS 3 is not optimum but is used as a concession to delay performance. 3.3.4.1.3 LA proposal from the standard
The proposal of switching points for 8PSK modulation [43] as shown in Tab. 3.11 is very conservative and does not show a convincing performance in any way. The results are therefore not printed here. As the MEAN BEP over CIR mapping diers only slightly, there is hardly left room for the usage of the GMSK modulation.
50
MCS change 9-8 8-7 7-6 6-5 5-3 3-2 2-1
MEAN BEP (for CV BEP = 0) 28 - 29 23 - 22 16 - 15 11 - 10 0 (8PSK) - 4 (GMSK) 3-2 0-1
Table 3.11: Standards proposal for MCS thresholds
3.3.4.2
TBF start and end
As the rst measurement is not very reliable (typically it is based on the measurement of the assignment message only), it is considered, but the selection of the optimum MCS is limited to 3. The last radio block in a TBF might be partially lled. If the amount of user data would t into a block coded with a more robust MCS than the optimum one, the more robust MCS is used. 3.3.4.3 Retransmission and Resegmentation
If a radio block has to be retransmitted, the channel conditions did not meet the expectations, the chosen MCS was not robust enough. In this case it is very likely that also the link adaptation algorithm will recognise the changed channel quality and will propose a more robust MCS to be applied. As the Block Error Probability (BLEP) is typically small (< 20 %), only few blocks require retransmission. Retransmission with an arbitrary MCS would require realignment of radio block borders in the following part of the RLC transmission buer. As this is not eective, a retransmission must apply an MCS of the same MCS family, Fig. 3.30.
Figure 3.30: EGPRS MCS families Three families (A to C) have been specied in order to keep the radio block alignment
51
constant in the transmission buer. Within one family, the amount of user data in a radio block has a common denominator, the size of the smallest radio block of the family. MCS 7 - 9 carry 2 RLC data blocks with separate Block Sequence Numbers (BSNs) so retransmissions with MCS 5 - 6 can be done without reorganisation of the RLC buer. For MCS 8 however, some padding bits have to be added. Further downgrading from MCS 4 - 6 down to MCS 1 - 3 requires the introduction of articial block sequence numbering. A split bit is introduced into the radio block header indicating the rst or second half of a former radio block. This is called resegmentation. 3.3.5 Incremental Redundancy / Hybrid ARQ II and Soft Combining
For uctuating or permanently bad receiving conditions, cumulative decoding of all received (re)transmissions provides a performance gain. In EDGE systems, Incremental Redundancy (IR) and Soft Combining (SC) are commonly used for this purpose. While IR lowers the code rate, SC articially increases the CIR seen by the decoder. 3.3.5.1 Incremental Redundancy
For the class of punctured convolutional codes, the punctured bits might be changed from one retransmission to the next until the whole original codeword is transmitted. E.g. the code rate for MCS 8 changes from approx. r1 = 1 to r2 = 1/3 after two retransmissions. Pure IR does not provide further improvements for three or more retransmissions. The 1 receive buer size required for IR is r r2 -fold compared to SC. 3.3.5.2 Soft Combining
It is possible to combine the receiver soft output, e. g. the Log-likelihood Ratio (LLR), from several (re)transmissions of a radio block. Soft combining might be performed on symbol level or on bit level. Each symbol/bit contributes, weighted by its quality, to the combined symbol/bit. Soft Combining allows the transmission under very bad receive conditions at the cost of high packet delay due to retransmissions. SC is applicable if the raw BER is below 50% i. e. if there is any information left in the noise [11]. Bit combining requires buer size increasing with increased modulation order. For symbol combining, the buer size is constant for all types of modulation and smaller than for bit combining. From literature there is no clear picture available about the performance relation between both techniques, bit combining and symbol combining. 3.3.5.3 Combined EDGE IR/SC Approach
The most promising approach is a combination of both, IR and SC. Fig. 3.31 shows the start of send vector x and receive vectors y for the three PSs specied in the standard for MCS8 retransmission. X shows the code vector of this example which is then punctured (P) and transmitted in four instances N = 1 .. 4, assuming that this is necessary here. Obviously, due to the bad channel quality, a soft decision without further treatment would provide only little chance of a successful decoding of any of the four instances. At the third bit, it can be observed that SC already starts during the nal IR retransmission (PS3), so there is no need to apply both technologies sequentially. The soft information is normalised in the gure, range [0.0 .. 1.0]. The LLRs might be calculated iteratively, as proposed in [137], or the weighting in the trellis diagram might be modied according to [80]. The simplest
52
x=
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 N = 1, r = 1 N = 2, r = 1/2 N = 3, r = 1/3 N = 4, r = 1/3
PS1 0.8 p 0.6 p p 0.6 0.9 p p p 0.6 ... PS2 p 0.2 p p 0.4 p p p 0.3 p p PS3 p p 0.2 0.4 p p p 0.8 p 0.6 p ... ...
PS1 0.7 p 0.6 p p 0.1 0.4 p p p 0.1 ...
Figure 3.31: Combined EDGE IR and SC approach
weighting method is a selection of the symbol with the highest LLR, the so-called code combining by Chase [11]. The problem with both techniques - symbol or bit combining - under very bad channel conditions is to nd out the number of retransmissions required. Especially for SC, an innite number of retransmissions might be required. A Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) sum provides a good decision criterion and helps to reduce false acceptance decisions remarkably. However, there is no guarantee for correct reception, so residual errors must be treated elsewhere at the receiver. 3.3.5.4 Resegmentation and IR/SC combined
IR combined with SC requires that retransmitted data provides coded bits from the same code vector (possibly including other puncturing schemes) as the initial one. During retransmissions, bit orders must be kept. To achieve this, resegmentation has to be disabled. As resegmentation is commanded to the MS during TBF setup, the MS gets a hint whether the PCU uses IR or not. IR works without matching the optimum coding scheme, so the lacking adaptation from the highest down to the lowest MCS of a family does not raise any problems.
3.4
Mobility Management and Cell Reselection
In order to allow user mobility, two basic requirements have to be met: First, the position of the MS must be known to the network up to a certain extend of accuracy. This information is provided by the mobility management protocols. Second, the connection shall be served by the optimum BTS. This is called cell selection and Cell Reselection (CR). 3.4.1 Mobility Management
The task of mobility management is to keep track of the MS location in order to allow mobile-terminated connection establishment. Once a GPRS MS is attached (Fig. 3.32), a GMM context is maintained keeping track of the MS location until it is detached. 3.4.1.1 GMM context management
Concerning the reporting frequency of the MS location, competing aspects have to be considered. Immediate connection establishment requires knowledge of the optimum serving BTS by the network. As the optimum BTS can only be determined by the MS, this introduces high signalling load between MS and BTS and therefore high battery consumption of the MS, even without active connection. To avoid this, the signalling load has been chosen to be adaptable. Three GMM states have been introduced [19], on the one hand
3.4. Mobility Management and Cell Reselection
53
Figure 3.32: Normal attach procedure
allowing dierent accuracy of location knowledge and related signalling load but on the other hand introducing dierent PDP context establishment delay.
Idle state The MS is not GPRS attached and no GMM context exists. The location of the MS is not known to the network and a mobile-terminated connection cannot be established. Ready state If the MS attaches to the network, the GMM state transits to ready. A GMM context exists and the ready timer (T3314, typically 44s) is set active whenever new data arrives at the network. During the activity phase of T3314, the ready state is kept. In ready state, the MS location is tracked on cell basis by the cell update procedure. A mobile-terminated connection can be established immediately. Standby state In standby state, a GMM context exists, but the ready timer has expired. The MS location is tracked on Location Area (LoA) / RA basis only and paging is required before a mobile-terminated connection can be established.
Fig. 3.33 shows the transition between the GMM states ready and standby.
Figure 3.33: Behaviour of GMM for cell updates in the dierent GMM States
54
3.4.1.2
Paging
The goal of paging is the establishment of the ready state for mobile-terminated connection establishment. Paging is performed in a restricted area, the LoA for GSM is normally larger than the RA for GPRS, Fig. 3.34.
0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 1111111111 0000000000 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111
RA 1
RA 2 LoA 1
0000000000 1111111111 1111111111 0000000000 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 00000000001111111111 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 00000000001111111111 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 00000000001111111111 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 00000000001111111111 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 00000000001111111111 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111
0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 1111111111 0000000000 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111 0000000000 1111111111
LoA 2
RA 2
RA 1
Figure 3.34: Deployment of location area and routing area
This LoA/ RA design takes into account the higher signalling load caused by GPRS paging as paging for GPRS occurs more frequently. LoA/RA design is an optimisation between signalling load for LoA/RA updates and signalling load for paging. E.g. Cowling [14] found LoA sizes between 15 and 49 cells in metropolitan cities and showed by means of system level simulation that the optimum size is 24 cells. This can be assumed as a lower bound. RAs are never larger than the overlaying LoA but might be as small as a single cell. The dierence between cell update and routing area update is shown in Fig. 3.35.
Cell Selection Switch On RA 1 Cell 3 RA 3 Cell 4 RA 2 Cell 1 RA 3 Cell 5 RA 2 Cell 6 RA 2 Cell 7 RA 1 Cell 2 Cell Reselection Ready: Cell Upd., RA Upd. Standby: RA Upd. Cell Reselection Ready: Cell Update Standby: -
Figure 3.35: Dierence cell update / routing area update
3.4.2
Cell Selection/Reselection
Cell selection / reselection is based on measurements of the average receive signal strength of the BCCH carrier of the surrounding BTSs. CR is performed if the MS is not in GMM idle state.
55
3.4.2.1
Measurement and Preprocessing
During TSs not allocated to the MS, the MS performs neighbour cell measurements. For cell selection, measurements span over all known and allowed frequency channels, for CR or during a GSM connection, only a subset of channels is measured. The subset consists of the neighbour cells of the BTS the MS has camped on, a list of cells, the BCCH Allocation (BA), is broadcast on the BCCH for this purpose. As the BTSs send continuously with constant, maximum Tx power on their BCCH frequency channel, the average Rx signal on that channel will be the strongest signal received from a neighbour cell anytime. So the MS simply has to measure Rx signal strength of all frequency channels, process a suitable averaging and sort the results by Rx signal strength. The channel with the strongest Rx signal will contain the BCCH of the best serving BTS. The BCCH then has to be decoded in order to check the Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) and to nd out whether the cell is allowed in the contract and whether it is barred. In order to mitigate multi path propagation eects, several measurements are averaged with an IIR lter. In PIM, sample distance is between 1s and 4s per BCCH carrier, in PTM, at least one sample per TDMA frame is collected and the sample distance is dependent on the length of the BA list. The samples of a carrier are averaged in a running average process, Fig. 3.36. The
Figure 3.36: Cell reselection: averaging process for RLA P
output Receive Level Average - Packet-switched (RLA P) is the average over a period of max(5s, 5 consecutive paging blocks) (PIM) or 5s (PTM). 3.4.2.2 Cell Selection Algorithm
Cells are rated by the path loss criterion C1 with the optimum cell providing highest C1. A selectable cell must have C1 > 0. If no cell fulls this criterion, the MS is out of coverage area. C 1 = A max(B, 0) where (3.17)
A = RLA C RXLEV ACCESS M IN B = M S T XP W R M AX CCH P The Receive Level Average - Circuit-switched (RLA C) is calculated similar to the RLA P. RXLEV ACCESS MIN sets the minimum signal strength required to enter the cell. B determines the gap between maximum MS power P and maximum allowed sending power in the current cell on control channels. In case there is a positive gap, C has to be reduced accordingly as the MS signal cannot be as strong as suggested by MS TXPWR MAX CCH.
56
3.4.2.3
GPRS Cell Reselection Algorithm
If a new carrier sample is present but at least every second, the MS calculates a new RLA P value and checks for CR. Two criteria might cause a CR: 3.4.2.3.1 Signal Strength
If the signal strength criterion of the serving cell C1 falls below 0, CR is forced. C1 is slightly dierent for GPRS CR than for cell selection: C 1 = A max(B, 0) where (3.18)
A = RLA P GP RS RXLEV ACCESS M IN B = GP RS M S T XP W R M AX CCH P 3.4.2.3.2 Power Budget
If the power budget criterion C32(n) > C32(s) is fullled for any neighbouring cell, a CR takes place to the cell with the highest power budget criterion C32. C32 equals C1 for the serving cell (s), for the neighbour cells (n) a reselection hysteresis as well as a back handover prevention might be applied. C 32(s) = C 1(s) C 32(n) = C 1(n) + GP RS RESELECT OF F SET (n) T O(n) (1 L(n)) The reselection hysteresis GPRS RESELECT OFFSET allows to avoid of ping pong CRs. As a CR in PTM requires the establishment of a new connection, including BCCH / PBCCH acquisition, TBF establishment and eventually LLC retransmissions, the connection interruption might last up to 10s. Contrary to a GSM handover [77], a GPRS CR is not at all seamless! In order to compensate for the interruption, it is possible to set the reselection hysteresis even to negative values. T O(n) = GP RS T EM P ORARY OF F SET (n) H (GP RS P EN ALT Y T IM E (n) T (n)) P RIORIT Y CLASS (s) = P RIORIT Y CLASS (n) P RIORIT Y CLASS (s) = P RIORIT Y CLASS (n) x<0 x0 (3.20) L(n) = 0; = 1; H (x) = 0; = 1; (3.19)
In a Hierarchical Cell Structure (HCS) if the serving cell has a dierent priority class than the neighbour cell (L(n) = 1), no back-reselection prevention takes place as these are speed-sensitive and therefore time-critical. For all neighbour cells with the same priority class however, back-reselection prevention is activated by TO(n) applying a penalty GPRS TEMPORARY OFFSET(n) for a specic time GPRS PENALTY TIME(n) after the last CR from this cell to the serving cell. 3.4.2.3.3 HCS Support
In hot spots with high trac density, the cell size is typically small (< 500m). If MSs pass a hot spot with high velocity, frequent CRs will lower performance. To avoid this,
57
a Hierarchical Cell Structure (HCS) is applied consisting of at least two cell layers. The lower layer consists of the small pico cells carrying trac of the slow moving users. The higher layer contains large umbrella cells to serve the fast moving users. Additionally, it might be used for overow trac from the pico cells. A suitable mechanism estimates the velocity of the MS and selects a layer. The GPRS Hierarchical Cell Structure (HCS) support aims at keeping the MS in the correct layer. Two checkpoints are responsible for this, Fig. 3.37.
1. HCS-prioritized Cell
Calculation of C31 for all N-Cells C31 >= 0 C31 >= 0 C31 < C31 >= 0
0
2. No HCS-prioritized Cell
Calculation of C31 for all N-Cells C31 < C31 <
0
C31 < C31 <

0
C31 < 0
Comparison of priority for Berechnung der C32 N-Cells with C31 >= 0 P1 P0 P0
Comparison of priority for for all N-Cells P0 P0 P0 P0 P0
Cell with largest
Own Cell
Cell with largest
C32_n
C32_s
C32_n
Figure 3.37: Cell reselection decision based on C31/C32 criterion and PRIORITY CLASS First, the signal strength is checked against the threshold HCS THR. This allows to restrict layer changes by applying a high threshold. The signal strength threshold criterion C31 determines the subset of neighbour cells available for CR after this test. C 31(s) = RLA P (s) HCS T HR(s) C 31(n) = RLA P (n) HCS T HR(n) T O(n) L(n) If any C31 > 0, the cells with C31 > 0 only are considered in the further ranking process. If all C31 <= 0, all cells are considered. Next, the remaining cells are checked for their PRIORITY CLASS(n). This parameter is applied separately for each cell transition s n in order to route the trac. Only those cells with the highest PRIORITY CLASS(n) of those cells left after the rst step take place in the further selection process. Last, the strongest cell is selected by the C32 criterion as described above. 3.4.3 Side Eects and their Mitigation (3.21)
The MS ushes all RLC/MAC buers during a connection reestablishment. The MS LLC and TCP instance will eventually retransmit packets which will reactivate the connections of the respective protocols. The PCUs RLC/ MAC instance however does not recognise connection loss until the corresponding timers expire. This might last several seconds (up to 5) and even then it is not guaranteed that the PCU drops the connection but might
58
also try to reestablish it. To circumvent useless retransmissions on a connection that no longer exists, the SGSN observes incoming LLC segments for their cell Identier (Id). If the cell Id changes, it sends an NM FlushLL req to the BSC ordering the dropping of the connection at the old BTS. Optionally, non-acknowledged packets might be transferred to the new BTS / connection by the BSC, e. g. in an intra-BSC CR.
CHAPTER 4
The EGPRS Emulator

Content 4.1 Software Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.2 Protocol Emulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
here are many system level simulation based studies on GPRS and some on EGPRS [46, 57, 64, 84, 85, 125, 126] already available. The main problem with that work is that it is not transparent what of the standardized functions is being implemented to what detail, limiting the condence into the results presented, substantially. Therefore, this thesis is based on an emulation approach: The protocols and services for EGPRS specied in the standard [19, 35, 38, 43] are being implemented in very detail, so that they can be claimed to represent the functions studied on the best level of representation, possible. To provide full transparency on how the functions are being implemented, the emulator source code is made available under LGPL, see www.comnets.rwth-aachen.de/ EDGE-Emulator.html. This work that is intended to provide a description of the emulator and its use is available from www.comnets.rwth-aachen.de/Suche_nach.Download. 0.html Simulation based research always is a compromise between model accuracy, software performance issues and available manpower. This chapter shows that a modular software architecture based on the idea of divide and conquer allows high model accuracy and acceptable software performance even with a stochastic, event-driven emulation requiring only moderate manpower eort. Section. 4.1 introduces the software architecture. Section. 4.2 annotates aspects of the emulator accuracy.
4.1
Software Architecture
Some eort has been put on the creation of a reusable software architecture allowing to investigate dierent mobile radio systems under comparable environmental situations. Competing design goals had to be matched.
Flexibility The dynamic assembly of network elements is one of the main goals. In addition, addressing should allow splitting and recombining. Multiple connectivity must allow heterogenous network support. Reusability The focus of investigations in this work is on the DLL. Protocols at other layers shall be present in a single version in a software pool. This also allows comparison of results with work published by colleagues. Reliability The more eyes look at the common code the more errors are tracked and removed. This guarantees high software quality. Accuracy Simplications and abstractions for layers out of scope that cause modelling errors are not required. This addresses especially the trac generation and the channel model.
60
4. The EGPRS Emulator
Sharing of Responsibility for Implementation in Parallel Research interests are diversied over the protocol layers. For each protocol, one responsible person is sucient in order to provide full maintenance. Work can be focused on the own research interests while relying on the work of others in other protocol layers. Computing Performance Optimisations concerning run time eciency and memory usage are preserved for further projects. This allows the investigation of huge scenarios. Reduction of Number of Toolboxs For protocol emulation and system level emulation, only one tool is required. Ease of Maintenance Small and independent software modules allow small compile time and short time-to-market. Team work with clear responsibilities is possible. Well-dened interfaces allow module tests and systematic testing.
The emulator structure introduced below provides a framework for the usage of protocol libraries together with a exible interconnection mechanism. It is possible to dene the involved protocols per network element, keeping the crucial environmental protocols unchanged while changing the protocols under investigation. The architecture is closely aligned to the International Standards Organisation (ISO) / Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. 4.1.1 ISO/OSI Reference Model
Most network architectures follow the ISO reference model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), Fig. 4.1.
System A
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Layer5 protocol
System B
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Layer 7 Layer 6 Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1
Switching node
Network Data Link Physical
Logical communication between same layer entities Real communication between layers Information flow between systems
Figure 4.1: The ISO / OSI reference model
The information ow is divided into seven well-dened layers [6]. A layer is characterised by services it oers to the higher layer and by layer protocol functions it uses to
4.1. Software Architecture
61
(N+1) - Layer
Offers Service
(N+1) - PDU
Service Primitives SAP N
SAP N (N) - PCI (N-1) - PDU
(N) - Layer
(N) - PDU Requests Service Service Primitives SAP N -1
SAP N - 1 (N-1) - SDU
(N-1) - Layer
(a) Communication between Layers
(b) Data Encapsulation
Figure 4.2: The ISO / OSI inter layer communication model
provide the services. The inter-layer communication dened by the reference model is based on service primitives as shown in Fig. 4.2. Each layer except the top one oers services to the next higher layer. Services are provided at the Service Access Point (SAP) based on a layer protocol for passing information between the peer entities of the respective layer of the communicating systems. To achieve this, an entity uses the services of the underlying layer. Therefore, each entity communicates directly only with the entity immediately above it or below it. The higher layer is referred to as the service user and the lower layer as the service provider. Each layer carries out precisely dened functions, and each function has been stipulated in line with internationally standardised protocols. The boundary lines between the individual layers have been established to minimise the information ow over the interfaces. Each higher layer represents a new level of abstraction from the layers below it. Since the GPRS/EDGE protocol stack does not follow all aspects of the reference model, this is also reected in the emulation environment. The structures for the exchange of service primitives follow the OSI model but the layer model is not too restrictive as it is sometimes vulnerated by standardised protocol stacks. In the literature, often the services of a layer and the related protocols are used synonymously. We follow this approach and, in the following, do not dierentiate between services and related protocols of a layer. 4.1.2 A Universal Emulation Environment
A proposal for a system architecture supporting the OSI model in most aspects is shown in Fig. 4.3. It is based on stochastic event-driven emulation. The framework allows the denition of network elements. A network element type is represented by a specic set of protocols. The protocols are connected by SAPs. The framework has no knowledge about the protocol internal functions. The only knowledge is the communication capability of the SAPs in terms of service primitives and primitive parameters (Interface Data Units (IDUs)). Protocol functions are provided by external protocol libraries that are loaded and unloaded dynamically by the emulation environment during emulation execution. The
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Partner Instance 1 e.g. 3 MS Layer 7
Relay (no own traffic load) e. g. GPRS BTS
Partner Instance 2 e. g. Core Network
Traffic Generators 1 container per layer might be unused forwarder protocol instance Forwarder UDP
Layer 6
unused
Emulation Control Evaluation User Interface
Layer 5
unused
Layer 4
TCP IP External Protocol Libraries
unused
Layer 3
unused
Relay
BSSGP
Layer 2
EDGE EDGE IEEE 802.11 Reconfigurable Errorfree Core Network OR Channel Model Channel Model provided by Simulation Environment
Layer 1
Figure 4.3: Emulator architecture according to ISO / OSI reference model
emulation environment also has built-in libraries for common environmental models such as trac generators and channel models. Sophisticated methods of data evaluation are provided as described in App. B. SAP and Connection Endpoint (CEP) The framework uses the model of Half SAPs (HSAPs) for the interconnection of layers and related protocols, Fig. 4.4. Each protocol is supplemented by at least one HSAP for
(N) protocol O (N) protocol O SAP_UPPER_O SAP_LOWER_P1 SAP_LOWER_P2
SAP_UPPER_O SAP_LOWER_P
(N 1) protocol P a)
(N 1) protocol P1 (N 1) protocol P2 b)
Figure 4.4: The model of half SAPs the communication with a higher or lower sublayer. To establish a working SAP, the framework has to connect at least two HSAPs of neighbouring sublayers with identical service sets.
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In case a) the (N - 1) HSAP upper part (SAP UPPER O) included to the (N)-layer protocol O is connected to the (N - 1) HSAP lower part (SAP LOWER P) included to the (N - 1)-layer protocol P. To allow heterogenous networks, it is possible to connect, e. g. two lower layer HSAPs with one higher layer HSAP as illustrated in case b). The HSAP SAP UPPER O is connected to the HSAPs SAP LOWER P1 and SAP LOWER P2 of the (N - 1)-layer protocols P1 and P2 simultaneously. Once a connection is established, it is addressable via a Connection Endpoint (CEP). One SAP might provide several CEPs. A CEP is served by a protocol instance. The addressing is done via Connection Endpoint Identiers (CEPIs) Dierent protocol instances need not be of the same type. CEPIs are valid at one layer border only, CEPIs are not globally valid which enables the functions splitting and recombining or, more generally spoken, a m:n relation between higher layer and lower layer connections of a protocol instance. Protocol libraries A protocol set consists of one or more protocol types stored in an independent software library. In Fig. 4.4, each protocol might be stored in a separate library. The software contained in one library is not dependent on the software in other libraries but on that of the framework. The library approach fulls many of the requirements such as exibility, test and maintenance issues as well as clear responsibilities. Note that a library border is not bound to the OSI layer borders. 4.1.3 Dynamic Creation and Deletion of Network Elements
A protocol set is capable of creating / deleting protocol instances and of connecting to other protocols. The task of the framework is to create network element instances by commanding the creation / deletion of protocol instances and by connecting those instances properly to their neighbours. Note that this happens prior to protocol entity creation, so this step only represents the architecture of a network element. In Fig. 4.5 the state after emulation start is shown. International Telecommunication
myLibrary1
SDL System Environment SDL Process Environment
myLibrary2
Figure 4.5: The SDL environment represented by a system and a process Union (ITU) recommendation Z100 [73] demands an environment outside the specied Specication and Description Language (SDL) systems. The environment shall behave in an SDL-conformant way. This is modelled by an environment system containing a single environment process. Each library sets up its own environment process.
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The NE creation, Fig. 4.6 is triggered separately for each library that contains protocol types required for the new NE. For each required protocol, an SDL system is created and
myLibrary1 SDL System Environment SDL Process Environment SDL System syMyLibrary1
SDL Process Manager NE ID sInit(NE ID)
NE ID Protocol ID
myLibrary2
SDL System syMyLibrary2 SDL Process Manager NE ID
Figure 4.6: Setup of a NE
addressing by a NE Id is established. A manager process is instantiated in order to handle the protocol instances later. Next, the required SAPs are assembled. For this purpose, the neighbouring environment process is registered at the own environment process referred to by the NE Id. The registered protocol of the lower or higher layer is assigned a protocol Id in order to distinguish between multiple protocols. Now, signals may be sent along these paths (see arrows). Splitting and recombining or heterogenous networks require the setup of multiple (N-1) connections by a (N) entity. This is trivial in case the entities are of the same kind, an appropriate number of (N-1) entities is created and the trac is routed according. Fig. 4.6. For a heterogenous network, dierent (N-1) protocol types serve the (N) entity. For this reason, multiple protocol types are registered and addressed via protocol Ids, Fig. 4.7. In this way, multiple protocol instances in dierent libraries might be utilised in parallel. Deletion of NEs is done exactly the opposite way as described for the creation. Each layer might be loaded with one or several protocol libraries. Each library contains the instance of one or more protocols. One or several such protocols form a layer. The structure of the network element can also be changed, dynamically, during the emulation run. A layer might be unused, e. g. , for a relay as shown in Fig. 4.3. In case the layer is not of interest for an investigation, a simple forwarder might be inserted. 4.1.4 Dynamic Creation and Deletion of Protocol Instances
The protocol instances might be created and deleted dynamically during the emulation execution. An SDL process modelling the SAP manages the availability of protocol instances for each protocol type. In addition, a protocol type is not xed to a specic OSI layer. These two aspects together enable recongurability. The protocol conguration
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myLibrary1 SDL System Environment SDL Process Environment SDL System syMyLibrary1 SDL Process Manager NE ID 7 SDL Process Entity Protocol ID 1/2
NE ID 7 Protocol ID 1 Protocol ID 2
myLibrary2 SDL System syMyLibrary2 NE ID 7 Protocol ID 1
myLibrary3 SDL System Environment SDL Process Environment SDL System Environment SDL Process Environment SDL System syMyLibrary3 NE ID 7 Protocol ID 2
Figure 4.7: Parallel usage of dierent protocol types / libraries
might change from instance to instance. This is achieved by parameterisation during instance creation. Ease of parameter handling is achieved by introduction of NE types using parameter templates and by renement of the templates for each NE. 4.1.5 Example: a GPRS Protocol Stack
With the principles of NE management in mind, the functions required to build a (sub)layer shall be investigated. As an example, the assembly of a basic GPRS protocol stack is explained in this section. The following libraries have been developed (see Fig. 4.8):

SLoadGeneratorLib STransportLib SNetworkLib SGPRSim SGPRSLib SGOOSE MIHlib (IEEE 802.21 implementation)
In addition, the SWARPlib (containing an IEEE 802.11 emulator) has been adopted from the SDL Wireless Application Radio Protocol (SWARP) simulator and interfaces have been implemented to be able to use it. All emulator implementations closely follow the GSM / GPRS standard if applicable, with derivations as noted in Section. 4.2. Smooth abstractions are required for the channel model, contained in the SDL Generic Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (SGOOSE) library [51] [50] as described in Section. 5.1. For the trac load generation representing the user, appropriate models are involved in the SLoadGeneratorLib library as described in Section. 5.2. The transport layer protocols TCP and UDP are contained in the library STransportLib. The library SNetworkLib provides the IPv4 protocol. The GPRS protocols have been splitted into two libraries. The control plane protocols SM and GMM are contained in the SGPRSLib library while the user plane protocols are contained in the SGPRSim library.
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SLoadGeneratorLib
Session Generator POP3 Client SIP Client
External Sessions Voice Requestor Video Client Audio Client
HTTP Client
FTP Client
HTTP FTP POP3 SIP Voice Video Audio Server Server Server Server Responder Server Server STransportLib Session Controller Session Management GPRS Mobility Management LLC BSSGP RLC MAC PHY LL SGOOSE RR SGPRSLib
TCP
UDP
SNetworkLib
IPv4 SNDCP
SGPRSim
NM
Measurement Environmental Model
Figure 4.8: Set of libraries used in the investigations
The software code consists of a hybrid structure of two well-known computing languages. The protocols are specied in SDL [73] [72] using the SDL Development Tool (SDT) provided by Telelogic [129]. The emulation environment and performance-critical parts of the software are specied in C++ [123] [78] following the SDL Performance Evaluation Tool (SPEET) [116] programming guidelines [119]. The SDL specication is transformed into executable C++ code using the code generator SDL2SPEETCL [118] [92]. The ++ class library SDL Performance Evaluation Tool Class Library (SPEETCL) [120] [52] C provides basic functionality for stochastic, event-driven emulations such as random number generators [106], event processing and distribution functions. 4.1.5.1 Structure of a Protocol Library
The SGPRSim library, Fig. 4.9, serves as an example implementation to explain the required architectural maintenance functions. The library is used by the emulation environment named the calling system (shown later in Fig. 4.10). The library shall be completely independent of the calling system, it might be used by any SPEET-conformant emulation environment, especially by legacy, standalone emulator versions. Also, it shall be completely independent from other libraries. Four basic parts can be distinguished: 1. The singleton [59] SGPRSim sets up the other objects. It serves as an interface. For the library modules it provides access to the global instances Scheduler, Parameter interface, Random number generator and to the local Parameter integrity checker. For the emulation environment it allows global access to the library modules. installNE() creates a new set of SDL systems for a new network elements. A library might support more than one NE type. installSnConnection() installs a connection at
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SGPRSim Protocol Library SGPRSim

getEnvSysPtr() getEnvPrsPtr() startUp() shutDown() installNE() installSnConnection() deinstallNE() deinstallSnConnection() PhyLLGprsMs getSGPRSimMs() getSGPRSimBs() getPhyLL(NE) getPhyLL(NE) SDL Package SDL System PhyLLGprsBs has a
SGPRSimPrsEnv PSDLEnvironment
SNDCP LLC RR RLC MAC SNDCP LLC RR RLC MAC
sdl2speetcl manually written instances manually written singletons Protocol Data
SGPRSimMs
SGPRSimBs
Figure 4.9: Example: SGPRSim protocol library structure
the SN SAP as described above. The deinstall methods delete a NE / connection. 2. Layer 2 and 3 of the protocol stack are specied in SDL and translated to SPEET++ classes by means of SDL2SPEETCL . In order to increase exibilconformant C ity, the protocols are specied as dierent SDL systems that do not have connections, e. g. , channels inside the SDL specication. The class PSDLEnvironment, a member of the SPEETCL, instantiates the classes of the translated SDL systems. 3. The logical connections between the systems are provided by the environment process represented by the class SGPRSimPrsEnv. All signals exchanged between protocols are routed via the environment process. For protocol types contained within one library, this is a library-specic design decision that increases exibility. The connections might also be specied inside one global SDL system. SGPRSimPrsEnv also stores the information about connected HSAPs. 4. For the physical layer, performance reasons might demand a quicker access to services than the one explained above. Therefore, an additional, system-specic interface is foreseen. The GSM/GPRS system uses the two singletons SGPRSimMs and SGPRSimBs containing the interface classes PhyLLGprsMs and PhyLLGprsBs. The classes include a simple stand-alone channel model. In order to use a sophisticated channel model such as SGOOSE , polymorphism is used and PhyLLGprsMs and PhyLLGprsBs are overloaded by the channel library. As this breaks independence of the libraries, the derived classes might be excluded from the compilation if required. Also, it must be considered that the physical layer might be contained partly in the SDL specication. For a stand-alone version in one large library, the SDL specication might even contain the whole physical layer, including the switch between the channel model library and the stand-alone version as realized in the SWARP (IEEE 802.11 protocol stack) [93].
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4.1.5.2
Usage of a Protocol Library
The library usage can be seen in Fig. 4.10

Emulation Environment SNetworkLib Library SGPRSim SNWLibPrsEnv SGPRSim Library SGPRSim
getEnvSysPtr() getEnvPrsPtr() evSN_Data.req (SDL Sys. ID) sSN_Data.req (NE ID, Prot. ID)
PSDLEnvironment
IPv4 sdl2speetcl manually written instances manually written singletons Protocol Data has a
SGPRSimPrsEnv
PSDLEnvironment SGPRSimMs
PhyLLGprsMs eventHandler case PHY.req send data case PHY.ind destroy packet (random process)
SimConfig
startUp() provide PhyLL type shutDown()
SGPRSimBs
PhyLLGprsBs eventHandler case PHY.ind destroy packet (random process) case PHY.req send data
startUp() installNE() installSnConnection() deinstallNE() deinstallSnConnection() shutDown() getSGPRSimMs() getSGPRSimBs()
inherits SDL Package SDL System
SGOOSE Library SGOOSE

PhyLLGprsMsSgoose PhyLLGprsBsSgoose
Figure 4.10: Usage of example protocol library The setup of the emulation is done by the class SimCong. It calls startUp() and shutDown() of the SGPRSim class. Once the emulation is started, SimCong creates NEs by calling installNE and connections via the SN SAP by calling installSnConnection(). Looking a bit closer at the service primitive SN Data req, it is visible that the sender needs the NE Id and protocol Id for addressing. SNWLibPrsEnv determines the receiving environment process entity (here SGPRSimPrsEnv and forwards the signal. The receiving entity maps the NE Id and protocol Id to the SDL system Id and the signal is sent to the SDL system. Further, the SDL system maps the CEP Id to the SDL Process Id (PId). startUp() accepts two parameters determining the type of the PhyLLGprsMs and PhyLLGprsBs class (stand-alone or - in this case - SGOOSE ). SimCong writes the basic objects into the SGPRSim singleton: scheduler, parameter interface and random number generator. PhyLLGprsMsSgoose and PhyLLGprsBsSgoose overload the interface to the physical layer PhyLLGprsMs and PhyLLGprsBs. The basic functionality (delay on the air interface and destruction of packets) is kept, but the destruction of packets is based on SGOOSE measurements now. Please note that the PDUs on the physical layer are not routed via SGOOSE except for these two classes. Nevertheless, if required, information about PDUs is accessible in the SGOOSE channel model.
4.1.6
The Interface to the Physical Layer
There is only a very limited number of interactions necessary between SGOOSE and the protocol stack. For the physical layer, the GSM scenario provides the following basic
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ideas: SGOOSE operates on physical sessions and physical transmission cycles. Def. 1 A physical session is the time during which two partner instances use the same logical channel resources. Sessions are handled separately for each link direction. To provide an example, for GPRS a physical session is the duration a TBF is active. For a GSM voice call it is the duration the mobile stays in one cell and performs one call. The UL and DL session are not present simultaneously for GPRS but for GSM voice calls. During the physical session, the partner instances might transmit or might not transmit on the assigned channel(s). Def. 2 A physical transmission cycle is the time during which transmission power is present on at least one of the logical channel resources, consecutively. During a transmission cycle, the interference calculation takes place for the involved channels. Outside, other calculations might take place, e. g. , of idle channel interference or carrier sensing. To clarify the availability of channels, two more denitions are required. A physical channel has to be established at a central station before it can be used. A central station is the container for channel resources. This is normally done at emulation start, might also be done anytime and is not considered in detail here. Def. 3 A physical channel is allocated at a central station if the mode of the referencing logical channel is set from idle to some logical channel type. An allocated channel is aware of its multi-frame structure, frequency hopping parameters, maximum transmit power and other physical parameters. It is not aware of the partner instances of the transmission (in fact, there might be none present). Def. 4 A physical channel is assigned to a mobile station if a physical session is started. The assignment sets the parameters of the logical channel, e. g. initial transmission power, partner instances of the transmission, measurement containers. The assignment also adds the channel to the interference calculation. Is there any dierence between Def. 3 and Def. 4 ? In some systems, it is. In GPRS, resources are available on demand. A channel is allocated for PDCH at the channel allocation instance in the BSC and this is indicated to the RLC / MAC, but the RLC/MAC might not assign the channel immediately to a mobile station. In GSM voice calls, allocation and assignment happen at the same time. This reference model allows to control SGOOSE with a very limited set of commands. We will now have a closer look at the physical layer interface. Both classes consist of an event handler and a set of methods for RRC handling. The methods in the base classes are declared virtual, Fig. 4.11. All control information in the context of physical transmission cycles is critical to runtime performance. Therefore it is handled in the overloaded event handler itself. Especially, the control of the channel activity detection and the destruction of packets belong to the critical tasks. Most other commands are handled via methods. The method that returns the Id of the current BTS, getBtsId(), might serve as an example. In the base class PhyLLGprsMs, it is declared virtual and returns a xed Id that is set at emulation start. This allows to run an emulation but it does not support handover / cell reselection. In the derived version, the SGOOSE class Mobile is asked for the Id. This class also handles the handover, which is then of course supported.
4.1.7
Proof of Concept
Apart from beauty of concept, an engineer is interested in eciency of the working process. The following design goals are met:
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SGPRSim Library SGPRSimMs

PhyLLGprsMs getBtsId() return pd_btsId; eventHandler case PHY.req send data case PHY.ind destroy packet (random process)
SGPRSimBs
PhyLLGprsBs
manually written instances manually written singletons
eventHandler case PHY.ind destroy packet (random process) case PHY.req send data
inherits
PhyLLGprsMsSgoose getBtsId() return Mobile::...; eventHandler case PHY.req send data case PHY.ind destroy packet (measurements)
PhyLLGprsBsSgoose
eventHandler case PHY.ind destroy packet (measurements) case PHY.req send data
Figure 4.11: PHY interfaces to example protocol library
Flexibility, Reusability: The coupling of the GPRS protocol stack and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 protocol stack together with the implementation of a new conformance provision layer conforming IEEE 802.21 was done within one diploma thesis [147] [133]. Accuracy: Simplications and abstractions for layers out of scope that cause modelling errors are not required. This addresses especially the trac generation and the channel model. Sharing of Responsibility for Implementation in Parallel: Several diploma theses contributed to implement both, the IEEE 802.11 protocol stack [143] [146] [151] as well as the GPRS protocol stack [145] [150]. Merging of the implemented parts with the IEEE 802.21 library MIHlib showed no problems. Computing Performance: The computing performance has been tested using a memory consumption test and a computation time test [152]. Fig. 4.12 a) shows the static memory consumption without any carried trac for a variable number of MSs and dependent on the number of BTSs in the scenario. This can be considered as the best case. All NEs have been initialised at the emulation start, dynamic initialisation further lowers the memory consumption but was not investigated here. No interdependency between BTS / MS allocation is visible for the static case. Memory consumption is proportional to the number of active sessions Nactive which is itself proportional to the number of MSs # of M S and the session activity ratio of a single MS: Nactive = # of M S The memory consumption without active sessions ( = 0), caused by the emulator envi-
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Memory Consumption after Initialization 1200 1000 Memory [MByte] 800 600 400 200 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1000 MS # of BTS 1 7 19 37 61
Memory [MByte]
Memory Consumption after 60s (alpha = 0.20) 1200 # of BTS 1 1000 7 19 800 37 61 600 400 200 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1000 MS
a) Static memory consumption
b) Dynamic memory consumption, = 0.2
Figure 4.12: Memory consumption of the emulator environment I
ronment itself (environmental modelling, Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC), SGSN and library structures) is around 50 M B , that of a MS around 0.2 M B and a BTS without active sessions consumes 1.3 M B . The memory consumption increases with increased Nactive . Fig. 4.12 b) and Fig. 4.13 show the memory consumption for dierent values. It is worth noting that the gures are
Memory Consumption after 60s (alpha = 0.40) 1200 # of BTS 1 1000 7 19 800 37 61 600 400 200 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1000 MS Memory Consumption after 60s (alpha = 0.56) 1200 # of BTS 1 1000 7 19 800 37 61 600 400 200 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1000 MS
Memory [MByte]
a) Dynamic memory consumption, = 0.4
b) Dynamic memory consumption, = 0.56 Figure 4.13: Memory consumption of the emulator environment II
only snapshots taken after 60 s. The bursty session arrival / duration process as described in Section. 5.2.2.1 leads to memory consumption increasing slightly non-linear with the number of MSs. The dynamic memory consumption is around 0.3 M B per session, mainly caused by the large retransmission buers of the EGPRS RLC instance (0.176 M B ). The design goal was to allow emulation of a scenario containing 1000 EGPRS MSs at a Sun Grid Engine (SGE) cluster (max. memory consumption: 600 MB). For the extremely high activity ratio in Fig. 4.13 b), the memory limit is reached for 800 MS. For normal activity ratios, Fig. 4.13 a) and Fig. 4.12 b), the goal is reached for all scenarios up to 61 BTSs and for up to 1600 MSs (Fig. 4.12 b)). It is worth noting that the addressing capability of a GPRS TRX allows 32 parallel sessions only. This limits the memory consumption for
Memory [MByte]
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tests with few BTS but many MS. The address limits, counted in maximum number of MSs served in parallel, are displayed in Tab. 4.1. number of BTSs max. number of MSs 1 32 7 224 19 608 37 1184 61 1952
Table 4.1: Limits of GPRS addressing In these scenarios, emulations with many MS have an under-proportional, lower memory consumption than expected, as visible in Fig. 4.13. The runtime evaluation has been performed using a single BTS scenario. Additional BTSs add linearly to the computational load. The performance is dependent on the carried trac. Fig. 4.14 shows the number of processed sessions per real-time hour over the number of MSs per cell.
1800 1600 Sessions / real time hour 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 10 20 30 40 MS / cell 50 60 single cell
Figure 4.14: Computational eort For a single MS, the clock is the limiting factor leading to 735 sessions / real-time hour. For higher load up to 32 simultaneously allocated TFIs (25 - 30 MS), performance is almost constant at 1330 sessions / real-time hour. When going to the limits and bejond the GPRS address capabilities, the performance is reduced, e. g. , for 60 MS to 500 sessions / real-time hour. 4.1.8 Conclusion
Protocol emulations and system level emulations were performed with the present tool. It is proven to be suitable for both. The essential design goals of the concept are met. The man power consumption for the implementation of the mentioned GPRS protocol stack was around 3 man years.
4.2. Protocol Emulation
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4.2
Protocol Emulation
The emulation environment introduced above represents a protocol emulator. The implemented GPRS/EDGE models follow the standard in full detail. However, some abstractions were required as described below [139]. The standard species interfaces and protocol functions that must be implemented so that multi-vendor originated equipment is interoperable. All the other functions irrelevant for interoperability of equipment but required to implement a running system can contribute a lot to optimise the system performance. Those functions are not specied but left open for manufacturer specic implementation. The GPRS/EDGE protocol emulation is implemented completely conformant to the standard. The functions left open for proprietary implementation by manufactures have been implemented based on published work and based on own ideas. In the following, the dierences to the standard as well as the non-standardised algorithms are described. Modelling of the user behaviour and of the channel conditions is described in Section. 5.2 and Section. 5.1. 4.2.1 Core Network
The core network is modeled delay-less and shows innite bandwidth and no transmission errors. This is the model of a perfect network. Delay of networks connected to the GGSN is not considered, instead a proxy is assumed at the GGSN. 4.2.2 4.2.2.1 Transport Layer Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
The implementation closely follows the reference implementation in Stevens [121] [135] [122]. The Transport Control Protocol (TCP) [100] avour involved is NewReno [49] which is commonly used and properly understood by researchers [94] [83] [9]. As GPRS represents a long, thin network, the proposals from RFC 2757 [87] and RFC 2488 [1] have been checked for suitability, path Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) discovery has been implemented. The proposal for a larger initial send window size from RFC 2581 [2] is not used. The implementation supports the whole address number space as specied in RFC 3232 [105]. 4.2.2.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) [97] model does not dier in any aspect from RFC 768. 4.2.3 4.2.3.1 Network Layer Internet Protocol (IP) Version 4
Following RFC 791 [98], fragmentation & reassembly have been modelled. Only basic Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) [99] support is provided in order to enable path MTU discovery. 4.2.3.2 GPRS Session Management (SM)
For the implementation of the SM protocol, PDP context modication is not modelled. For PDP context activation, the requested QoS prole is always accepted, Connection Admission Control (CAC) is not performed. For PDP context deactivation, a protection
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time is introduced in order to hinder overtaking of user data packets by control packets. The protection duration is roughly estimated from the PDP context activation duration. 4.2.3.3 GPRS Mobility Management (GMM)
Identication, tracking of RA and unitdata service for the SM layer are supported. Ciphering and authentication have been omitted as they do not contribute signicantly to system performance. 4.2.3.4 Radio Resource (RR) Management
The RR management handles the provision of available GSM TCHs for usage as PDCHs. It has been modeled conformant to the standard. 4.2.4 4.2.4.1 Data Link Layer Sub-Network dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP)
The SNDCP implementation follows the standard in detail. 4.2.4.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
The LLC implementation follows the standard in detail. Ciphering has been omitted since it is optional and has already been cracked. 4.2.4.3 Radio Link Control (RLC)
The RLC implementation follows the standard in detail. The acknowledged RLC mode (but not the non-acknowledged mode) has been implemented. It is assumed that the acknowledge bitmap always ts into one radio block, which is reasonable for almost all window sizes and almost all situations. A simplied countdown procedure with starting value 1 is used as the original procedure is considered a barrier to dynamic TBF management in literature [110]. Extended TBF operation has not been implemented since it is an option. The entry queue uses head-of-queue priority scheduling for the four dierent radio priorities. 4.2.4.4 Medium Access Control (MAC)
Timing Advance (TA) control is implemented abstractedly. Options in the standard have not been implemented, in particular packet ow contexts, network-controlled cell reselection and shifted USF operation. Head-of-queue priority scheduling might be outperformed by strategies like Adaptive Cross Layer Scheduling (ACL) [76], which, however, is very processor performance-consuming. All the other functions have been implemented in detail. 4.2.5 Physical Layer
The PHY has been abstracted in order to enable a system-level investigation in acceptable emulation run-time, say 2 days for a mid-size scenario. The coding / decoding process has not been modelled bit-by-bit. Instead, a suitable mapping for the decoder performance has been used as described in App. A. Synchronisation of MS and BTS is always assumed, but the TA value is calculated if required. All BTSs are assumed synchronised, too.
CHAPTER 5
Emulator Environment
Content 5.1 Channel Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.2 Mobility and Trac Load Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.3 Scenarios, Performance Indicators and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
efore presenting the results, one should spend a thought on the purpose of emulation and how an appropriate performance evaluation can be achieved. Smooth abstractions are required for the channel model as described in Section. 5.1. To specify the user behaviour, appropriate models have been developed as described in Section. 5.2. The environment components described in the following are part of the open source EDGE emulator, available from www.comnets.rwth-aachen.de/EDGE-Emulator.html. A careful emulation setup allows comparison of the results achieved with those from third sources. Scenarios, performance indicators and measurement techniques are given in Section. 5.3.
5.1
Channel Modelling
The channel model provides the current channel conditions with sucient accuracy for investigations on interference-limited systems, Fig. 5.1.
PDU PHY frequent interference calculation t PHY
Activity Detection
Erasure Detection Mapping CIR > BER, PER
Measurement Report Averaging
CIR Calculation
Radio Wave Propagation Sending Power Propagation Loss Shadowing Antenna Directivity Multipath Propagation
Figure 5.1: Channel model Channel modelling takes into account the whole environmental inuences to a receiver from a radio channel as well as the representation of processing by the physical layer like
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5. Emulator Environment
FEC, interference mitigation techniques, diversity reception or directed antennas selection. The location of the interface towards the bit-accurate protocol emulator is dependent on the investigated protocol. It is typically located above the coding / decoding process at layer 1.5 (the upper sublayer of layer 1) that is part of the emulator. The services provided by the lower sublayer of layer 1 to layer 1.5 are erasure detection of radio blocks / speech frames and provision of measurements reports. Much more details on channel modeling as used in this thesis can be found in [22, 128] 5.1.1 Activity Detection & CIR Calculation
The calculation of carrier and interference strength are based on activity detection of the competing transmitters of the MSs and BTSs as introduced in [53]. All active MSs and BTSs contribute to the interference of a given receiver (MS or BTS). The interference calculation is repeated suciently often, taking into account the distribution of packet sizes, packet inter-arrival times and the correlations of these processes. For GSM, one calculation per TS is sucient for synchronised BTSs. This allows the investigation of dynamic channel behaviour resulting from Frequency Hopping (FH), see [54]. Reductions in computational eort are reached by excluding interferers at far distance from the receivers considered. Calculation frequency might be selected freely. The details of carrier and interference strength calculation are described below, Section. 5.1.5. 5.1.2 Erasure Detection
Erasure detection determines whether a radio block / speech frame is received error free or damaged. In the original system, the modulation/ demodulation and the coding/decoding process determine whether a frame can be decoded error-free at a certain channel quality. As the channel quality changes for each symbol, a symbol-by-symbol investigation is required to gain exact results. This introduces a tremendous computational eort which cannot be included in a system-level emulation. A suitable model is required. Three types of models can be distinguished: 1. Random Erasure A predened percentage of frames is destroyed in a random manner. In order to reect the dierent robustness of the dierent coding schemes, the percentage shall be set per coding scheme and per logical channel. 2. Stateful Models This family is also based on a random process for frame erasure. However, the channel is always in a certain state, e. g. good or bad. For each state, the error probability and state transition probabilities are provided. Typical models are Gilbert Elliot (2-state), Fritchman (4-state) or multiple-state Markov Chains. 3. Models based on Channel Quality Calculation The models mentioned under 1 and 2 lack correlation of errors in consecutive frames. This correlation is normally present, caused by shadowing and multi path propagation. The length of the resulting error bursts is dependent on user velocity and on interference mitigation techniques. These inuences can be considered by models based on channel quality calculation. The channel quality might be calculated, measured in a live system or estimated. In the investigated scenarios, the emulator uses models based on channel quality calculation. 5.1.3 Measurement Reporting
The decisions of most RRC algorithms are based on information from the TRX. Typical triggers are average and variance of the receive signal strength, channel quality in terms
5.1. Channel Modelling
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of CIR or raw BER, estimated sender-receiver distance or higher layer information, e. g. packet delay, throughput etc. The physical layer therefore must report the current parameters to the higher protocol layers. Measurement reports are either generated frequently (active reporting) or are prepared and can be obtained by a protocol instance (passive reporting). As the measurements show high variance over time - mostly due to multi path propagation - an appropriate averaging window is applied in order to obtain meaningful triggers for decision making. The averaging is done by low-pass ltering the parameter under observation. The lter period in the emulator is adapted to the needs of the RRC algorithm, for long-term decisions such as hand over, the lter period is long, for LA and other shortterm decision, shorter lter periods are selected. Dierent strategies can be addressed by dierent lter periods as described in [55]. 5.1.4 Channel Quality Calculation
The most accurate of the mentioned erasure models (model 3) maps the symbol-by-symbol demodulation / decoding process to a burst-by-burst /frame-by-frame mapping. This process is called link-level mapping. The symbol-by-symbol information (e. g. length of fading holes) must be conserved in the channel quality calculation. This can be done by a set of mappings for dierent channel receive situations. Input parameters are user velocity, number of frequency hopping channels, terrain type (to compensate for dierent delay spreads) and applied modulation / coding scheme. Apart from the Packet Error Ratio (PER) or Frame Erasure Ratio (FER), the model also provides the residual Bit Error Ratio (rBER) and the raw BER. The present approach uses a 2-step mapping representing the demodulation process and the decoding process separately. It is worth noting that there are approaches that try to compensate for the dierent inuences by involving the standard derivation of a single parameter, typically of the CIR or BER [134] [91]. This will not work for a single measurement sample per burst/frame as the variance will be constant. A successful implementation of these ideas requires measurements of the signal strength variance or signal quality variance per symbol. This approach is not used in the emulator as the order of the computational eort is proportional to symbols transmitted, i. e. too high. For system level emulation the goal must be a calculation frequency per burst or per frame. 5.1.5 Modeling of Radio Wave Propagation
The CIR calculation is based on the analysis of the radio wave propagation over a radio path. A channel in a mobile radio network typically behaves like a loose contact. The behaviour is almost stochastic but can be predicted from a global perspective. In this section, wave propagation phenomena are presented and elaborated with respect to cell types and morphology types. Next, the favourite method for modeling radio wave propagation phenomena, based on semi-empirical models, in the emulator environment is explained concerning prediction of path loss, shadowing and multi path propagation. Finally, an overview over antenna characteristics that are typically used for system level emulation is provided. The models suit to make assumptions about the mean receive power assuming narrowband analysis The main output of the narrow-band analysis is the path loss dened as the ratio of the eective transmitted power to the received power, calibrating out system losses, amplier gains, and antenna gains [16]
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5.1.5.1
Morphology Types
Morphological Inuences Objects in the path of the radio wave lead to numerous inuences on the receive conditions [132], namely reection, diraction, transmission, scattering and guided waves, Fig. 5.2. A radio wave line without obstacles in the direct propagation
Reflection
Transmission Diffraction Scattering Guided Waves
Figure 5.2: Propagation phenomena direction is called Line of Sight (LOS). If obstacles are present it is called Non Line of Sight (NLOS). Diraction might provide signal coverage in NLOS areas. The eects of diraction decrease with increasing frequency. Diraction disappears and therefore might be neglected for frequencies above 5 GHz. Scattering represents a special type of reection at rough surfaces. In street canyons and tunnels as well as in corridors, guided waves might lead to low attenuation [128]. The presence and dominance of the aforementioned propagation phenomena diers from location to location. To achieve reproducibility, locations are classied into reference morphology types which consider the typical terrain properties. Rural Area Rural area is characterised by scarce population and open topography. Attenuation is mainly determined by the path loss, diraction and slight scattering. The LOS is the predominant propagation type. Variance in propagation conditions is low. Because of the great expansion of rural environments usually only the topography and the land use are considered in detail [60]. The topography is additionally divided into the Open-Area terrain - representing at land and desert - and the Quasi-Open-Area terrain representing the countryside [22]. For rural area, network coverage is the challenge while capacity is of minor importance. High user speed might occur. Delay spread has minor inuence as reections are scarce. Urban Area The urban area type addresses the vivid city centres. Characterised by high population density and low to average user speed, the problem focus is on capacity issues. To increase capacity, high attenuation is a must. Attenuation is dominated by shadowing, often rapidly changing from NLOS to LOS when entering a street canyon. Wave guiding along the street canyons might lead to over-ranging causing heavy interference. Wave propagation is only slightly inuenced by diraction around buildings as distances are typically too short to earn the benets. Heavy multi path propagation eects are present due to the many reections. Delay spread shows short delay and strong contributions from reections. Indoor Environment In places with very high population density - e. g. fairs, stations, airports, oce buildings - mobile radio networks must provide very high capacity at low (relative) user speed. Legal limitations and coverage issues limit the applicable transmission power. Attenuation is determined by reection and transmission caused by the internal structure of the building [149] which is either very high (concrete) or extremely
79
low (plaster, wood) [128]. Changing LOS and NLOS conditions are typical and multi path propagation is dominant. Variance of propagation conditions is extremely high. Receivers might be present within the Fresnel zone of the transmission antenna. Delay spread is of minor concern. 5.1.5.2 Cell Types
Literature denes typical cell types that are applicable for the reference morphologies [128], see Tab. 5.1.
Cell type macro (large cell) small macro Typical cell radius 1 km to 30 km 0.5 km to 3 km Typical position of base station antenna outdoor; mounted above maximum roof-top level, outdoor; mounted above medium roof-top level, heights of surrounding buildings are above or below base station antenna height outdoor; mounted below medium roof-top level (< 30m) indoor or outdoor (mounted below roof-top level)
micro pico / in-house
up to 1km up to 500m
Table 5.1: Denition of cell types Macro Cells Macro cells are best suited for the rural area. In order to provide coverage for a large area, the antenna must be mounted at sucient height above all surrounding obstacles, e. g. mountains or buildings. Over-ranging is of no concern as long as capacity is not the limiting factor. Small macro cells might be applied in suburban areas or villages with low user density. Their range is typically less than 3km. Micro Cells Micro cells are used in the urban area with a higher user density, i. e. city centres with high-rise buildings. To increase capacity, the radii of the cells are small and sectorisation is applied in order to mitigate interference. The variance in propagation conditions can only be handled by careful radio network planning. High user speed is critical for this cell size and can only be handled by applying Hierarchical Cell Structures (HCSs) in the urban area. Pico Cells The application of pico cells is targeted towards the indoor environment. Capacity requirements are high as well as shadowing eects both resulting in demand for high cell density. As high cell density is required, specially-tailored antennas limit the radiation angle. The slow user speed comes along with an increased request for bandwidth for oce applications. 5.1.5.3 Path Loss Models based on Experimental Investigations
This section introduces basic methods and models to examine the radio wave propagation which have been used for the emulations. Experimental investigations are based on realworld measurements of a carefully chosen and documented observation area. The number of measurement trials must be high enough to compensate for stochastic eects. The major disadvantages of experimental investigations are the impossibility of a broadband analysis as well as the high eort for the design of the experiments which usually are inuenced by various propagation phenomena. One more disadvantage is the exhaustive usage of manpower for the execution of the measurements. The investigations are divided into empirical and semi-empirical methods.
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Empirical Models Empirical methods are based on the statistical evaluation of a great number of measurements and the choice of a suitable approximation function for the measured values. Single propagation phenomena cannot be identied with this investigation method. Two of the most signicant empirical models are the Hata-Okumura-Model and the derived COST-Hata-Model. Empirical models are often enhanced by a LOS component assuming free-space propagation for users close to the base station, e. g. the dual slope model. Semi-empirical Models Semi-empirical models use an empirical approach like, e. g. Hata-Okumura, enhanced by correction factors. Those compensate for morphological and topographical issues based on the user location. Typical compensation identiers are orientation towards the next street, number of walls crossed etc. Although the topography is included up to a limited extend, the variegated possibilities of a ray-optical or eld theoretical solution cannot be achieved. A common semi-empirical model is the COST-Walsch-Ikegami model which is used in urban environments, where the Hata-models nd no exertion. Also the Keenan-Motely multi wall model for indoor environments belongs to the group of semi-empirical models, Section. 5.1.5.4.
5.1.5.4
Test Environments
In order to make investigations on 3G systems comparable, 3GPP denes [22] three test environments for simulations based on semi-empirical models for radio wave propagation namely the Vehicular Test Environment, and the Indoor Oce Test Environment. The the Outdoor to Indoor and Pedestrian Test Environment and the mixed-cell pedestrian/vehicular environment are not used in the emulations. The test environments contain models of the mean path loss and of slow fading caused by shadowing eects. The path loss models belong to the empirical and semi-empirical models. Enhancements have been added in order to model fast fading caused by multi path propagation as described below. Vehicular Test Environment This model is applicable for test scenarios in urban and suburban areas where the buildings have almost uniform height. The path loss calculation is close to the idea of Okumura: L = 40 1 4 103 hb log10 (R) 18log10 (hb ) + 21log10 (f ) + 80 dB f = carrier frequency [M Hz ] R = distance between transmitter and receiver [km] where: hb = base station antenna height = above average rooftop level, range [0..50 m] (5.1)
Indoor Oce Test Environment An indoor environment is characterized by rapidly changing shadowing eects caused by structures of the building. For an accurate path loss model, each wall must be modeled in detail. The COST 231 Multi Wall Model (MWM)
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[128] calculates the attenuation dependent on the number of penetrated walls and oors.
I
L = LF S + LC +
i=1
kwi Lwi + kf
kf +2 kf +1
Lf
(5.2)
LF S LC kwi Lwi where: I kf b Lf
= = = = = = = =
free space loss between transmitter and receiver constant loss number of penetrated walls of type i loss of wall type i number of wall types number of penetrated oors empirical parameter (b = 0.46) loss between adjacent oors
For practical reasons, the number of wall types must be kept low (I = 2), Tab. 5.2. The loss factors LC , Lwi and Lf in Eq. (5.2) do not represent physical constants. Instead,
Loss category Lf Description Typical oor structures (i. e. oces) - hollow pot tiles - reinforced concrete - thickness typical < 30cm Light internal walls - plaster-board - large number of holes (e. g. windows) Internal walls - concrete, brick - minimum number of holes Factor (dB) 18.3
Lw1
3.4
Lw2
6.9
Table 5.2: Attenuation for dierent structural elements they have been obtained by comparison with measured path loss data. So LC , Lwi and Lf implicitly include the eect of furniture as well as the eects of wave guiding. 5.1.5.4.1 A Geometrical Algorithm for Ecient Cut Calculation
A most performance-critical task in calculating Eq. (5.2) is the retrieval of the number of walls penetrated by the wave [141]. The direct comparison of the propagation line towards all walls is therefore not possible. Instead, a graphical cut algorithm [115] performs much better, Fig. 5.3. This algorithm is based on a decomposition of the scenario into equidistant rectangular tiles. For each tile a data structure is instantiated that contains all the walls which geometrically touch the tile. As this is done only once, it does not deteriorate performance. For an intersection calculation, the sum of those walls contained in the tiles that enclose the connection line of sender and receiver has to be considered as intersecting candidates. The number of intersection checks is then reduced from the total number of walls to the number of candidates. The eciency of the algorithm depends on the wall density and on the tile size. The Fig. 5.4 shows a scenario (a) leading to short runtime. This situation is called pattern convenient, it is present for most indoor maps while scenario (b) will normally not occur. Runtime checks with the SGOOSE environment models show a performance gain factor of 10000 relative to the direct comparison, a calculation is only 7 times slower than that of a pure empirical model.
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Sender checked tiles
Receiver
Figure 5.3: Assignment of walls to tiles
Figure 5.4: Convenient (a) and inconvenient (b) scenarios
5.1.5.5
Signal Fading
Signal attenuation is caused by two more phenomena. While shadowing caused by obstacles is present in every mobile radio network, the eects of fast fading, caused by additive and subtractive superposition of multiple propagation paths disappear for frequencies above 10 GHz. Fading is quasi-xed to a location, so the duration the user suers from a fading hole depends on the user speed. 5.1.5.5.1 Shadowing
Shadowing is caused by obstacles in the propagation path. The receive signal strength typically follows a log-normal distribution in the linear domain. The standard deviation varies with the environment type [22] acc. Tab. 5.3 Type StDev [dB] Indoor 12 Outdoor to Indoor o: 10 i: 12 Vehicular 10
Table 5.3: Standard deviation for selected environment types While the eect - also known as slow fading - is already contained in semi-empirical models, in pure empirical models a compensation must be added. As shadowing is locationcorrelated, this is done by employing a directional map in the channel model.
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5.1.5.5.2
Multi path propagation
Reection of the emitted radio wave leads to superposition of reected and non-reected signal portions. Superposition might be additive or subtractive leading to signal maxima or fading holes. The distance between consecutive fading holes is typically /2. As reectors such as cars might be moving, the fading pattern is not strictly constant over time. A snapshot view however shows high local correlation. Modelling this correlation is done by stepping through a sample pattern with samples derived either from a measurement or from analytical models, Fig. 5.5. A typical analytical model is the two-ray model. The depth
-70 Downlink C, 3 km/h -75
-80
-85
-90 dBm -95 -100 -105 -110 -115 0 200 400 Burst 600 800 1000
Figure 5.5: Sample fading pattern, v = 3 km/h of a fading hole depends on the radio frequency. Reection coecients become smaller for higher frequencies and so the LOS component suers less with increasing frequency. It is worth noting that shadow fading is location-bound and fast fading shows high correlation over time. In no circumstances can these phenomena be modelled accurately by employing a random variable. 5.1.5.6 Antennas
For the emulation of mobile radio networks, basically three antenna types are applied frequently. Isotropic radiators are an idealistic assumption. The antenna gain Go is isotropic (constant over the solid angle), directivity is not observed. In reality, such elements do not exist. Directional antennas such as sector antennas are used in sectorised cells, in indoor environment and along motor-ways and railway tracks. The gain Gd depends on the radiation angle, it is measured relatively to an isotropic antenna, unit [dBi]. The highest gain is measured at the major lobe. The directivity is characterised by the Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) which denotes the angle around the major lobe at which the maximum gain is lowered by 3 dBi [4]. The HPBW is typically selected smaller than the sector angle, e. g. for a threefold sectorisation (sector angle = 120 degree), a sector antenna with 90 degree opening angle will be selected [22]. Another characterisation of the directivity is the First Null Beam Width (FNBW) where the side lobes meet the major lobe and the directivity is extremely low. We can distinguish between three eld regions.
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Close to the antenna, the reactive near-eld is found. In this region (R < 0.62 D3 /), = wavelength and D = largest dimension of antenna, the reactive eld predominates. Next the radiating near eld, or Fresnel zone is found (R < 2 D2 /) where radiation predominates. Here, the angular eld distribution is dependent on the distance from the antenna. Last (R 2 D2 /) the far eld or Fraunhofer region is found. The angular eld distribution in this area is almost independent from the distance from the antenna.
The far eld of directional antennas is often described by a horizontal and a vertical radiation pattern, Fig. 5.6. The pattern shape is obtained as a cut at the xy plane (z =
90 120 30 40 60 120 30 90 40 60
150
20
30
150
20
30
10
10
180
180
210
330
210
330
240 270
300
240 270
300
Figure 5.6: 2D antenna pattern, (l) horizontal and (r) vertical shape 0) resp. xz plane (y = 0) assumed that the main lobe is directed towards x. A more accurate description contains the antenna pattern in all three dimensions, Fig. 5.7 (a). The depicted antenna shows a HPBW of 90 degree. The side lobes are clearly
Figure 5.7: 3D antenna pattern (l) and error of 2D mapping (r) visible. However, 3D patterns are seldom found in literature. Experiments obtaining 3D patterns by means of interpolation from 2D patterns (Fig. 5.6) showed remarkable errors. Fig. 5.7 (b) shows the error plot for the mentioned antenna, dierences rise up to 50 dB, especially in the backward radiation area. This method cannot be recommended.
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85
Omnidirectional antennas are often very cheap to produce. Omnidirectional antennas have constant directivity within one plane but changing directivity over the remaining angle. A good example is a lambda/2 radiator. Omnidirectional antennas are a special type of directional antennas. Omnidirectional antennas are used in the emulator at the BTS for non-sectorised cells and at the MS.
5.2
Mobility and Trac Load Generation
The model for the user behaviour inuences the system performance remarkably. The type of service used as well as the frequency of service usage must be chosen carefully. Some emphasis is put on this subject as
The user changes his/her behaviour with available bandwidth. Higher layer applications and application layer protocols change much more rapidly and frequently than the remaining protocol stack. Aspects like transmission costs inuence the user behaviour severely.
Simple, reproducible models are required to represent trac load and distribution of load in the service area. 5.2.1 Introduction to Trac Generation
The mentioned facts show that trac generation is alway an approximation to reality. Approximations should be documented exactly in order to allow reproduction and comparison of investigations made. Trac generation consists of two parts: Trac density generation determines location and type of a starting session. Session generation sets the amount of data to be transmitted and the messages sequence. 5.2.2 Trac Density Generation
The positioning of the users together with the session creation process provide the trac density present in a certain area. Two basic types of generation can be distinguished, stochastic and deterministic trac generation. 5.2.2.1 Stochastic Trac Generation
A stochastic trac generator is based on a pseudo-random process. Session arrival, session duration and sometimes the message sequence is derived from a stochastic process [3, 17, 18, 95, 126]. Large scenarios can be investigated easily and with statistically reliable results using this approach. We consider two processes: 1. The session inter arrival time follows a negative-exponential distribution and a FIFO queue saves overlapping session requests. This model is easy to recapitulate by analytical verication. 2. After a session end, a session gap with negative-exponentially distributed duration is introduced. The next session starts immediately after the gap. This model is more close to reality. 5.2.2.2 Deterministic Trac Generation
Deterministic trac generation is based on the external provision of session arrivals, session durations and MS positioning, e. g. by le. This approach allows session creation by non-random processes and thereby enables the examination of real-life situations and the
86
verication of the implemented protocols with measurements performed in real systems. Very special scenarios can be studied and the protocol behaviour can be made transparent for these. Typically, this approach is used for scenarios of small to medium size. 5.2.3 Session Generation
The stochastic and deterministic trac generators support the application layer protocols shown in Fig. 5.8. The session generation process for each protocol together with the
Load Generator SLGLib (SDL)
HTTP FTP POP3 Video Audio SIP Voice RTP
Figure 5.8: Application layer protocols of SLGlib
protocol functionality is given in App. D. Session generators are contained in a separate software library. First, the implementation eort is lower compared to maintaining separate load generators for each protocol stack. Second, when comparing dierent mobile radio network air interfaces, the comparison is only meaningful if the oered load is equal. As trac generators provide an abstraction of the real sources, comparison can only be achieved when using the same generators. Third, investigations on vertical handovers can only be performed if the load generator is not part of another protocol library. 5.2.4 Models for User Mobility
The stochastic approach for trac generation requires a built-in positioning model for the MSs. The next models have been implemented to represent user mobility. Brownian Molecular Movement In an ideal gas, a molecule moves straight until a crash with a second molecule happens, Fig. 5.9. The crash gives the molecule a new
12 10 8
y [km]
6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x [km]
Figure 5.9: Brownian molecular movement
direction, the angle between the old and new direction is arbitrary. The average distance between two crashes is called free-space distance. Between two crashes, the molecule velocity remains constant. A very similar behaviour can be observed at pedestrians in a pedestrian zone moving from shop to shop.
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Directed Mobility on Road Maps The trajectories of real-life movement are considered. MSs travel on routes, e. g. , roads at a speed dened for the route, Fig. 5.10. At session start, the MSs are distributed uniformly over the routes of the map, so high
12 10 8
y [km]
6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x [km]
Figure 5.10: Moving on a road map route density is correlated with high user density. User density is further controlled by the probabilities for turning left or right or go ahead at road crossings. 5.2.5 Estimation of Required Runtime for Stochatic Trac Load Generation
The statistical reliability of the emulation results dependends on the process that has the longest repetition period and on its correlation. In our case, this is the process of session generation. As we model mean intersession gaps smaller than the mean session duration, the latter one produces the longest random variables. The Limited Relative Error (LRE) algorithm [112] is perfectly suited to determine the number of required sessions per trac type during a running emulation to reach a predetermined results accuracy. The LRE algorithm dynamically splits the x-axis of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) into unequal intervals in a way that the intervals on the y-axis are equidistant. The resolution of the session duration graph is set to roughly one second per interval. The maximum relative error has always been set to 5 % and the rst and last interval size to 0.5% weight. In this way, the last 0.5% weight of the heavy tail are compressed to a single interval which appears quite rough for the investigation of heavy-tailed distributions. In order to speed-up emulation runs, a simple core network model has been used below the network layer where all packets are delayed by 0.2 s, no packet drop occurs and the bandwidth is unlimited. The settings result in a low variation of the session duration representing a best case scenario. In Tab. 5.4 the requirements per service type are shown. The File Transfer Protocol Service Type FTP HTTP 1.0 HTTP 1.1, early closing POP3 Audio stream (MP3) Video stream Voice call Number of Sessions 2105800 105600 180000 78400 34000 25400 120000 Number of Intervals 5000 800 800 50 800 800 800 Session Duration (s) 5 - 12000 2 - 1580 2 - 920 4 - 24 7 - 700 8 - 950 6 - 690
Table 5.4: Number of sessions needed to achieve a 5 % relative error
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(FTP) service appears not to be handable by the emulator since the number of sessions needed to be emulated is too high, Fig. D.9. Due to run time limitations of the simulation cluster, the GPRS emulator cannot process more than 100000 FTP sessions per emulation. It is worth noting that, when emulating a trac mix, each service type must be represented by a sucient number of samples as given in Tab. 5.4. With the help of Fig. 4.14, the required runtime can be calculated for a given number of users in the cell under investigation. 5.2.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle for Mobile Radio Network System Level Emulations
Two excluding goals are typically addressed when investigating mobile users. A performance indicator, e. g. user throughput Z shall be measured as precisely as possible. In addition it shall be assigned a user location as precise as possible in order to draw the performance indicator over the location. The performance indicator under observation gets more precise with increasing measurement duration while the location resolution behaves the opposite way as the user moves with speed v . The maximum joint accuracy is basically determined by the user speed, see the example in Fig. 5.11.
Data
v t0 s, t t1
Figure 5.11: Location uncertainty in system level emulations The marked area represents the duration for data collection of one measurement sample. The resulting location uncertainty s is not smaller than s v t The uncertainty of the performance indicator under observation results from the limited amount of data Data transferred during t: Data = Z t Setting these (un)equations equal for t: Data s v Z and so s v Data Z The right side is the lower limit for the joint accuracy in a throughput evaluation. Example: Assumed the desired location resolution is s = 100 m, the throughput is
5.3. Scenarios, Performance Indicators and Measurement
89
Z = 1000 byte/s and the velocity is v = 30 m/s. The the maximum amount of data considered in the throughput evaluation is Data 1000 byte/s 100 m = 3333 byte 30 m/s
Other performance indicators obey similar inequations. This observation is taken into account when collecting measurement data from the emulator in that the error in terms of location and performance indicator are being kept within similar ranges.
5.3
Scenarios, Performance Indicators and Measurement
Representative scenarios are described in Section. 5.3.1. The performance indicators studied are explained in Section. 5.3.2. The chapter concludes with an introduction to data evaluation with respect to the cell area in Section. 5.3.2.1. 5.3.1 Scenarios
The introduced RRC algorithms have strengths and weaknesses in dierent environments. To give a proper overview, the following representative environments have been selected. The settings for the protocol parameters follow those in App. E unless otherwise stated. 5.3.1.1 Outdoor Micro Cell Scenario with random User Mobility
This scenario represents an urban pedestrian zone and is based on the vehicular test environment, Section. 5.1.5.4. The cell size (R = 500m) is selected for carrying heavy trac, supported by a default reuse factor of N = 3 and 1 GPRS/EDGE capable TRX per cell. The TRX might be located in the BCCH layer or in the hopping layer. An omnidirectional antenna is used as default, Fig. 5.12. It is exchanged by a sector antenna with a
D R
Figure 5.12: Outdoor micro cell scenario, N = 3 threefold sectorisation if required. Trac is generated by a stochastic arrival process. 10 GPRS/EDGE-capable MSs are located in each cell and GSM mobiles generating voice calls are added as required to vary the load. The session Interarrival Time (IAT) follows a neg.-exp. distribution with a mean IAT of 180 s. The trac mix for the GPRS/EDGE MSs consists of the application types given in Tab. 5.5. The GSM MSs generate voice calls
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Session Type share [%]
HTTP 20
POP3 60
Audio Stream 10
Video Stream 10
Voice 0
Table 5.5: Trac mix for outdoor micro cell scenario
only with a mean IAT of 180 s. The mobility model is based on the Brownian molecular movement with average speed of 3 km/h, representing pedestrian movement. The vehicular propagation model from UMTS 30.03 [22] is suitable for this type of environment. The LOS border is set to 200m. Multi path propagation is modelled by a sample process obtained from measurements, see Section. 5.1.5.5. 5.3.1.2 Outdoor Micro Cell Scenario with directed User Mobility
This scenario is used to investigate the cell reselection process. Following the scenario in Section. 5.3.1.1, basically the patterns for user mobility and trac generation are changed, Fig. 5.13. A deterministic trac generation process is used. 20 users are located at the
x 2000 MS 1
MS 10
2000
MS 20 y
2000
2000
Figure 5.13: Outdoor micro cell scenario, directed movement right scenario border with inter user distance of 250 m. Each user starts one single FTP session downloading large les of 5 MB and moves straight to the left at a xed speed. The session continues during the whole movement which allows easy comparison of performance indicators. 5.3.1.3 Indoor Pico Cell Scenario with directed User Mobility
The challenge within this scenario is the rapid change in shadowing conditions. Users move along predened routes through the oces and aisles at low speed (v = 3 km/h, Fig. 5.14) on the oors of an oce building of size 100 x 100 m. Each wall has a penetration loss of 6.9 dB. The radio waves are assumed to penetrate the doors (width = 2m) without additive loss. The base stations are placed on the corridors at the positions marked with a cross. Frequency hopping is not applied. The BTSs in the upper right and lower left use the same frequency set while the other two BTSs use dierent frequency sets. Isotropic antennas are used. PC and LA are applied with BEP P ERIOD = 6.
91
Y [m] 100 90 70
50 30
X
10 15 30 50
70
85
100 X [m]
Figure 5.14: Indoor scenario
5.3.1.4
Two Mobiles in two Cells with directed User Mobility
Two cells are set up at a cluster size of N = 3 acc. Fig. 5.15. The cells are located at
I UL I DL
Figure 5.15: Scenario for power control tests, two cell (0,0) m and (2000, 2000) m respectively. Cell radius is approx. R = 950 m. In each cell, there is exactly one MS using one channel within the hopping layer for PDCH. MS 1 is located within the interfering cell at (2200, 2200) m. The probing MS 2 starts outside the planned cell radius of the probing cell at (1000, 600) m in order to be able to study border eects. The MSs are located 1 second after simulation start. Some time is given for camping on the cell and for GPRS attach. After 9 seconds, a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) session is started. The data recording starts after 10 seconds and so does the directed cell traversal of MS 2 in x direction. MS 2 is travelling at v = 20 m/s and reaches the initial MS - BTS distance at the opposite cell border after 110 seconds. The emulation run stops after 120 seconds. Frequency Hopping (FH) is not applied, and as both MSs are using the same channel, continuous interference occurs at least at the DL. Continuous interference is supported by applying a HTTP session with large packets. Inter
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packet gaps might force a TBF to end thus allowing the investigation of transient eects of the PC algorithms. Omnidirectional antennas are applied at both MSs and BTSs. 5.3.2 Performance Indicators
To understand the behaviour of the GPRS/EDGE service under trac load, Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) have been observed during emulation runs. Basically, the KPIs can be grouped into those representing user perception and those representing system performance. Some KPIs might belong to both groups, e. g. throughput. The following KPIs have been studied: Service Access Time and Application Response Time: A crucial performance parameter is the setup time of a packet switched service. Two measures are used here. The service access time represents the duration from the service request to the conrmation while the application response time, in addition, includes the download of the rst payload packet. The application response time is therefore heavily application-dependent. Delay: Delay is the end-to-end delay of the measuring entity / layer. It spans from the initial service request of the sender up to the reception of the last chunk of data by the receiver. Dn = t1 t0 (5.3)
Throughput: Throughput Z is the amount of data Sn sent / received during the nth transmission interval normalised to the transmission duration tn . Throughput from the user perspective needs to be calculated by weighting throughput over a longer period to end with a value that is independend of the channel condition and the scheduler / queue states. In this work, the amount of data S transferred in transmission interval n is used as an independent weight. Zn = = Z Sn tn
N n=1 Zn Sn n n=1 Sn
(5.4) (5.5)
Jitter: Jitter is the dierence of delay D of consecutive packets: Jn = Dn Dn1

N
(5.6) (5.7)
= J
n=1 2
Jn 1 1N
N 2 Jn n=1
(J ) =
2 NJ
(5.8)
is 0 for unsaturated (non-overloaded) systems. From the variance The average jitter J of the jitter measurements 2 (J ), the perceived quality of a stream can be estimated. If 2 (J ) is small (e. g. below 30 ms2 ), even for the VoIP service a mitigation with a jitter buer will compensate for the delay variation. For larger 2 (J ), packet drops might occur if the jitter buer runs empty (Jn > 0 for many n). For unidirectional (non-interactive)
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data streams, the buer might contain a larger chunk of the streaming data resulting in higher delay. A sucient jitter buer design requires consideration of the edges of the jitter CDF, e. g. the 95% quantile. Loss Ratio: For unacknowledged services, packets might be dropped during transmission. This might happen by accident, e. g. , transmission errors on the radio path. Packets might also be dropped by purpose as an act of QoS guarantee. In that case, packets with already expired life time will not be transmitted at all, saving channel capacity. Retransmission Ratio: For acknowledged services, retransmissions are a clear indicator for congestion or high BLEP. In this work, the average number of retransmissions per packet is provided. 5.3.2.1 Distance dependent Performance Evaluation
As channel quality varies with the distance of an MS from its serving BTS, a graph showing the performance indicators versus distance is desirable. The distance is split into N intervals (bins) that collect the corresponding data, Fig. 5.16. The interval size should
r2 r 3
r1
...
rN = R
Figure 5.16: Unequal interval size of bins be chosen in a way that the carried trac is the same for all bins. Selecting equally sized areas of the concentric rings around the BTS results in equal trac for each bin. It is worth noting that this approach might lead to location inaccuracy for the inner bins, each one representing a large distance range. The total area of a circular cell with radius R is divided into N bins of area
2 2 An = (rn rn 1 ) =
R2 N
r0 = 0
The bin borders are marked by circles with radius rn = n R2 N
In the emulations, R = 500 m and N = 11 have been used. The corresponding radii are given in Tab. 5.6
94
N r [m]
1 150
2 213
3 261
4 301
5 337
6 369
7 398
8 426
9 452
10 476
11 500
Table 5.6: Radii for interval borders
CHAPTER 6
EGPRS Trac Performance Results

Content 6.1 An Emulator Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6.2 Scenario 1: Reference Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.3 Scenario 2 - 5: Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading . . . . . . . . . 104 6.4 Scenario 6: Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.5 Scenario 7 - 9: Link Adaptation and Incremental Redundancy . . . . . . 132
he complexity of the GSM/ EDGE system requires a step-by-step evaluation approach. To gain trust into the emulator, a validation against analytical results is given in Section. 6.1. Next, Section. 6.2 introduces a reference scenario as a basis for comparisons that involves only very few RRC algorithms. The following sections introduce stepwise more sophisticated RRC algorithms using basic scenarios to be able to understand the contributions of these. In Section. 6.3 dierent FH setups and Fractional Loading (FL) are presented and compared at low user speed. The investigation of the PC capabilities of EGPRS is presented in Section. 6.4 including a comparison of open and closed loop PC. Section. 6.5 compares the performance of throughput-optimised and delay-optimised LA and discusses the contributions of IR.
6.1
An Emulator Validation
A scenario consisting of a single cell has been investigated by emulation. The results have been compared to the results obtained from an analytic model studied by Vornefeld [131]. The key emulation parameters are given in Tab. 6.1. Parameter Number of MS Trac source Page arrival rate Number of PDCHs Coding Scheme Average CIR User speed Number of TRX Value 1 WWW (on = 6.67s1 ) = 2.047s1 3 1-4 4 - 30 dB v = 50km/h 1
Table 6.1: Parameters for validation scenario The link level mapping used in this comparison has been taken from [131] and the results are shown in Fig. 6.1. Lines represent the results of the analytic model and points the emulation results. For CS 1, RLC throughput of emulative and analytic result match exactly. For higher CSs, the analytic result shows a slightly higher average throughput. The analytic model does not consider the one phase access using a constant CS 1. One phase access increases the Round Trip Time (RTT) and so the oered DL throughput is
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6. EGPRS Trac Performance Results
60 CS 50 Z [kbit/s] 40 30 20 10 5 10 15 20 CIR [dB] 25 30 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 0.9 0.8 PDCH Utilization 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 5 10 15 20 CIR [dB]
CS 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
25
30
b) RLC throughput, DL
a) PDCH utilisation, DL
Figure 6.1: Throughput and PDCH Utilisation versus CIR for various GPRS coding schemes (continuous curves: analysis, dotted curves: emulation lowered. If this eect would be considered by the analytic model, the results would match much better. The PDCH utilisation for both, emulative and analytic model results match exactly. As the PDCH utilisation is a system measure, it is not inuenced by the missing one phase access procedure that has not been considered in the analytic model. As the MS is not under full load ( 0.1), the session duration simply increases slightly for the analytic model and the duration of the session gaps shrinks thus showing equal PDCH utilisation. This validation experiment, while establishing some condence in the emulator, shows that there are limitations of analytic modeling and analysis: If the very details of a real system and the respective impact on system and user performance need to be studied, analytic modeling comes to its limits. Emulation is then the adequate technique for analysis. Next, a comparison against real-world measurements from both, a live network and a testbed as typically used by operators shall prove modeling accuracy. Measurement data has been collected in a small cell in Roetgen, a city close to Aachen [142]. DL TCP throughput and RTT of a TCP handshake for dierent numbers of active users are compared in Fig. 6.2. The simulation scenario and parameter setup can be found in [142].
30 25 Z [kbit/s] 20 15 10 5 0 1 Testbed 1 Testbed 2 Emulator, 4 PDCHs Emulator, 8 PDCHs Simulator, 4 PDCHs Simulator, 8 PDCHs 2 3 4 5 # of MSs 6 7 8 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 2 3 4 5 # of MSs 6 7 8
Live Network Testbed 1 Testbed 2 Emulator, 4 PDCHs Emulator, 8 PDCHs Simulator, 4 PDCHs Simulator, 8 PDCHs
a) Throughput
RTT [s]
b) RTT
Figure 6.2: Comparison of real world measurement, emulation and simulation To show the dierence between emulation and simulation, the results of a conventional simulator [124] have been added.
6.1. An Emulator Validation
97
The emulator matches the real world results quite accurately. For medium and high number of active MSs, the real-world throughput measurements show higher values than simulation and emulation as in the testbed, the GSM control channels are used and GPRS control channels such as PCCCH are not established. For the same reason, dierent throughput values are expected for 1 MS and 2 MS. Considering timing constraints of the MS multislot class, it is always possible to assign 3 PDCHs without control channels for one active MS while the probability is lower if two MSs are active. This behaviour is found in the emulator results but not in the simulator results. If only few users are active, e.g. 1 MS, real-world measurements and emulation match almost perfectly while the simulation shows a throughput deviation of almost 5 kbit/s. For the RTT, deviations are even more severe. In [142], latency of the xed network is given as the reason which is not modeled in emulator and simulator. An own measurement with traceroute shows latency below 100 ms for the route Aachen - Frankfurt - Roetgen. So, this argument explains the deviation of the emulator, but not the deviation of the simulator which is 700 ms in average. Concluding, emulation shows big advantages over simulation. Accuracy is much higher for results obtained with an emulator. Even very elaborated correlations that are not visible at a rst glance in a simulator can be studied using an emulator.
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6.2
Scenario 1: Reference Scenario
In the reference scenario, namely the outdoor micro cell scenario with random user mobility, Section. 5.3.1.1, Fig. 5.12 ,RRC algorithms are being selectively applied as stated in the following sections. Investigations are performed separately for each of the 9 available MCSs. 6.2.1 No Frequency Hopping, Cluster Size N = 3
The scenario serves as a reference for a loose reuse network applying the parameters in Tab. 6.2. The TRX carrying PDCHs is operating in the hopping layer. For the TRX not Parameter # of EGPRS MS per cell # of GSM MS per cell Reuse pattern MA size # of ETCH Blocking probability for voice calls pb Voice trac GSM MS activity Voice session duration # of channels for hopping layer Trac mix Value 10 45 (3/3) (no sectorisation) 3 22 0.02 14.8 ERL 1/3 59.2 s 9 TCP and UDP services
Table 6.2: Parameters for the reference scenario carrying PDCHs, GSM voice trac is assumed. It is worth noting that the GSM MSs do not have an eect on the interference for this scenario as frequency hopping is not applied. Neither frequency hopping nor link adaptation nor power control is applied. Access times are shown in Fig. 6.3. For TCP services the minimum theoretical service access time is
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 5 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) Service Access Time
b) Application Response Time
Figure 6.3: Access times 570 ms (including the handshake), for UDP services it is 164 ms. During service access, control messages are being transferred, mostly using short packets that are transferred using MCS 1 in EGPRS UL TBFs. In DL the packets typically t into one radio block period and use one or more of the available 6 TSs there. So the inuence of the MCS
6.2. Scenario 1: Reference Scenario
99
is nearly invisible for the service access time. Only at larger distance from the BTS, the higher MCSs suer from transmission errors and extended access time owing to repeated transmission of control messages. The application response time includes the download of the rst data chunk and dependence on the MCS is visible now since the data volume transmitted requires dierent download duration for dierent MCSs. The UL throughput per user, Fig. 6.4 a) is limited by two reasons: Since the DL load is typically higher than
6 MCS 5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 35 30 Z [kbit/s] 25 20 15 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 40 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) for requests (UL)
b) for responses (DL)
Figure 6.4: User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side the UL load, one reason for UL limitation is waiting for the DL packet transfer to complete. The other reason for UL limitation is waiting for the user to read HTTP pages. Fig. 6.4 shows throughput behaviour depending on distance and MCSs as expected, e. g. , highest throughput for highest MCS with a throughput decrease with distance from BTS. For the DL, Fig. 6.4 b), the picture is not so clear. DL limitations occur solely due to the HTTP page reading durations that are independent of the system load. This results in an asymptotic behaviour for very good receive conditions close to the BTS for the DL throughput around 25 kbit/s. Due to the lower overall load, we cannot observe a similar eect for the UL: the maximum available bandwidth is rarely used. In addition, the duration the UL transmission has to wait for the DL transmission depends on the MCS used on DL. Next, the DL throughput is separated into the fractions contributed by the dierent services. Streaming services oer a constant DL throughput of 25 kbit/s in average. As the streaming class is prioritised, the throughput can be kept in most situations and the corresponding diagrams are not shown here. Fig. 6.5 shows the DL throughput for the remaining services. HTTP page reading times have been removed from throughput measurements to obtain comparability. During session start, the TCP slow start mechanism limits throughput for both, HTTP and Post Oce Protocol Version 3 (POP3) service. As the amount of data transferred in an HTTP session is larger than that in a POP3 session, the ratio of data transferred with limited throughput towards overall data is smaller and so the overall throughput for HTTP is slightly larger than that for POP3. The variance of jitter on application layer, Fig. 6.6 depends on the RLC BLEP (Fig. 6.12) as well as the RLC overload situation, Fig. 6.13. For MCSs 1 - 3, the system is in overload resulting in medium to high jitter variance even at the cell centre. For MCSs 7 - 9, the CIR at medium to large distance from the BTS is not sucient and high block error ratio is resulting increasing the jitter variance. Low jitter variance is observed for MCS 5 and 6 for all distance values. Very similar behaviour is observed for packet delay on transport layer, Fig. 6.7.
100
80 MCS 70 60 Z [kbit/s] 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
60 MCS 50 Z [kbit/s] 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) HTTP at DL (during page download)
b) POP3 at DL
Figure 6.5: User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side
0.1 MCS 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) Audio
b) Video
Figure 6.6: Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL)
3 1.4 1.2 1 t [s] 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) TCP Figure 6.7: Packet delay, downlink
b) UDP
101
The delay is lower for UDP service for MCSs 4 - 9 that avoid saturating the system since UDP packets are smaller than TCP packets and UDP packets are prioritised higher by GPRS than TCP packets as said in Section. 2.2.11. In case of overload, the inverse is observed: As the UDP service oods the RLC input queue, the delay of UDP packets becomes larger than with TCP that limits the number of outstanding packets by its ow control. Also, the weak performance of the redundancy-free MCSs 4 and 9 is visible at medium to large distance. The TCP throughput vs. distance, Fig. 6.8, shows the potential for a distance dependend choice of MCS for throughput optimisation, called Link Adaptation (LA) as discussed in Section. 6.5. The mean DL throughput at low distance reaches almost 70 kbit/s for
5 MCS 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 80 Z [kbit/s] 60 40 20 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 100 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink Figure 6.8: TCP throughput
b) downlink
MCS 9 whilst MCS 6 is the best choice for medium to large distance. This is also visible for the UL. As the channel capacity is up to 6 times larger in DL than in UL due to the multi-slot class (40), the IP segment delay (Fig. 6.9) is clearly much higher on UL than on DL in overload situations. With a suitable MCS chosen, DL delay can be kept below 200
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 5 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink Figure 6.9: IP segment delay
b) downlink
ms for the inner part of the cell (r 400 m). The loss ratio of IP segments measured at the receiver (Fig. 6.10) is a quality measure. In the reference scenario, segment losses mainly occur for MCSs 1 and 2 (congestion) owing to too small throughput capacity and time-out of packets and at the cell border for MCSs 8 and 9 (BLEP) owing to non-satisfactory CIR
102
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
P [%]
a) uplink
P [%]
b) downlink Figure 6.10: IP segment loss ratio
and too many block errors, causing time-outs. Although the overall loss ratio is below 1%, the TCP transmit window size is observed to be negatively eected, already reducing throughput. LLC retransmissions and reestablishments between SGSN and MS, see Fig. 2.3, are foreseen to compensate for packet loss due to cell reselection and for recovery of synchronisation loss and do not occur in the reference scenario. The LLC frame delay is similar to the IP segment delay (thus not shown here). Packet loss at the air interface is being handled by RLC. The RLC packets experience a service time vs. distance as given in Fig. 6.11. The largest inuence is caused by the MCS and its related BLEP, only minor
0.25 MCS 0.2 0.15 t [s] 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 3 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink
b) downlink
Figure 6.11: RLC block service duration inuence comes from the scheduling algorithm applied. It is worth noting that in UL only one TS is assigned to the TBF. The BLEP vs. distance, see Fig. 6.12 is much worse in DL compared to the UL. Whenever there is at least one UL TBF pending, the USFs have to be known to the MS and therefore every DL radio block has to be transmitted, eventually containing no user data but only USFs. As this causes the DL TRX to send almost continuously, DL interference is higher than UL interference. In UL, where packets are not sent continously, interference is really load-dependent. The main problems within the PCU RLC instance resulting from wrongly chosen MCS or high BLEP are overows of its input queue and RLC retransmissions, Fig. 6.13. Queue overows are basically caused by a saturated link. Retransmissions close to the
103
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BLEP
a) uplink
BLEP
b) downlink Figure 6.12: Block error probability
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7 MCS 6 5 4 N 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) RLC queue overows
b) RLC retransmissions
Figure 6.13: Problems within RLC, downlink cell border are caused by block errors while retransmission at the cell centre are caused by the PEN ACK mechanism using the free DL capacity for the retransmission of packets with outstanding acknowledgement. So, the retransmission rate at the cell centre gives an indication for the degree of saturation of the channel capacity. 6.2.1.1 Link adaptation for streaming services?
It is one goal of radio network planning to provide optimum quality of service to the end user. For best eort services this typically means oering maximum available throughput, which can be achieved by applying a throughput-optimised link adaptation (see below). For streaming services, the goal is minimum delay and bounded jitter since maximising the throughput will not be sucient. In fact, the required throughput has to be available anywhere in the cell. Users might move to the cell border where only a fraction of the data rate available at the cell centre is usable. If a QoS level would be contracted that is available at the cell centre only, the contract could not be served at the cell border. So, service in the inner cell area might be used to rell the jitter buer but not to increase the streaming data service rate. The goal would then be to increase the user quality perception that would be lower in medium to large distance of a MS from the BTS.
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6.3
Scenario 2 - 5: Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading
This section introduces the performance gain possible with frequency hopping for slow moving users of an EGPRS service. The rst comparison targets at base band frequency hopping. The other three examples use synthesiser hopping, tightening the reuse pattern from (3/3) to (1/3) and (1/1). The hopping layer always consists of 9 frequency channels as used in the reference scenario in Section. 6.2. All FH scenarios use the outdoor micro cell scenario with random user mobility, Section. 5.3.1.1. The conguration and parameters in Tab. 6.3 are applied. The scenarios with synthesiser hopping carry a lower GSM trac density than the rst two scenarios. Scenario Hopping Reuse Section BCCH TRX Hopping TRX GPRS MS GSM MS Trac (ERL/Sector) ETCH F MA size MAIO management FL Sectors / site Trac Density GSM ( ERL ) km2 1 None (3/3) 6.2.1 1 3 10 45 14.8 22 3 1 1 17.1 2 BB. (3/3) 6.3.1 1 3 10 45 14.8 22 3 1 1 17.1 3 Synt. (3/3) 6.3.2 1 1 10 8 2.9 7 3 X 1/3 3 10.0 4 Synt. (1/3) 6.3.3 1 1 10 8 2.9 7 3 1/3 3 10.0 5 Synt. (1/1) 6.3.4 1 1 10 8 2.9 7 9 X 1/9 3 10.0
Table 6.3: Setup of FH scenarios
6.3.1
Scenario 2: Base Band Frequency Hopping, Reuse (3/3)
Investigations on frequency hopping start with the application of a cyclic hopping sequence over 3 channels (MA size = 3). As the load fraction shall be 100%, 3 TRX must be active in the hopping layer. The channels on the rst TRX in the hopping layer are used for PDCH, the channels on the 2 remaining TRX carry GSM voice calls as given in Section. 6.2. Reuse and trac density are kept constant. This setup provides frequency diversity but no interferer diversity as every BTS is assumed to use the same hopping sequence. Service access time does not show severe dependency on distance and MCS, Fig. 6.14 as already explained, see for the reference scenario, Fig. 6.3. Application response time however severely increases with distance for MCSs 7 - 9. UL user throughput (Fig. 6.15) remains more or less unchanged, compared to the reference scenario, Fig. 6.4. For the DL, a reduced tendency towards overload is observed for MCSs 1 and 2 since the curves now run horizontally. The upper throughput limit is unchanged, 25 kbit/s. Also the throughput deterioration when approaching the cell border is smoother. DL throughput perceived by the user is improved, especially for the medium and high MCSs, Fig. 6.16.
6.3. Scenario 2 - 5: Frequency Hopping and Fractional Loading
105
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 6.14: Access times
6 MCS 5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
80 MCS 70 60 Z [kbit/s] 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
60 MCS 50 Z [kbit/s] 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b) POP3 at DL
106
Packet data in general suers from any uncorrected bit error. FH aims at averaging the channel quality for all users, thereby reducing the number of packets without raw bit errors. This avoids the EGPRS from selecting high MCSs. So frequency hopping has not the same benets for packet data than it has for voice data. The variance of jitter vs. distance deteriorates remarkably for MCSs 4 and 7 - 9, Fig. 6.17, compared to the reference scenario, Fig. 6.6. This is basically caused by the higher
0.1 MCS 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.1 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) Audio
b) Video
Figure 6.17: Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) BLEP resulting from these MCSs. For the other more robust MCSs, an improvement compared to the reference scenario can be observed in both, UL and DL that is due to FH. The packet delay on transport layer, Fig. 6.18 now shows a clear saturation starting point of the link capacity for each MCS, namely where delay over distance deviates from horizontal relationship going up to high delay values.
b) UDP
107
Without FH (Fig. 6.8), a strong bias for the UL channel was observed. With FH, the throughput advantage of the UL and disadvantage of the DL resulting from interference disappears, as can be seen for the TCP throughput in Fig. 6.19. IP segment delay
b) downlink
(Fig. 6.20) does not fall below 40 ms (2 radio blocks) for MCS 9, corresponding to the size of the UDP packets and is, in general, smaller for medium distance and bigger for large distance compared to the reference scenario (Fig. 6.9).
b) downlink
For the IP Rx Segment loss ratio, Fig. 6.21, when applying BB FH the dierence between UL and DL is smaller than in the reference scenario, Fig. 6.10. FH helps reducing loss ratio. The lost packets are mainly UDP packets and not TCP packets. The RLC block service duration is always larger than the time equivalent to transfer one radio block (18 ms), Fig. 6.22, and it is always smaller than 3 time equivalents for the MCS optimum for a specic distance, for the non-overloaded MCSs even smaller than 2 time equivalents. So for the inner cell area there is not much room left for improvement for MCS 4 - 9. For the outer cell area, the channel quality only allows application of low MCS. For most MCSs an increase of the BLEP compared to the reference scenario (Fig. 6.12) can be observed in UL, see Fig. 6.23. Only for MCSs 1 and 2, the opposite is observed.
108
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
P [%]
a) uplink
P [%]
0.25 MCS 0.2 0.15 t [s] 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 MCS 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink
b) downlink
Figure 6.22: RLC block service duration
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BLEP
a) uplink
BLEP
109
This happens because the MCSs are still far from losing error correction capability. In this case, frequency diversity helps reducing the BLEP and thus helps reducing the number of required retransmissions. The interference is now, partly, caused by GSM voice calls (2/3rd of the interfering channels). 1/3rd of the interferers remain EGPRS PDTCHs, so UL and DL interference are still not equal. The DL CIR is increased by approx. 2 - 3 dB while the UL CIR decreases by the same gure. The channel activity caused by a voice call is in between the activities for EGPRS UL PDCH and DL PDCH. This can be clearly observed for the GMSK modulation (MCS 1 - 4). However, for the 8PSK modulation (MCS 5 - 9), the BLEP is a little worse than in the reference scenario, see Fig. 6.12. 8PSK modulation requires very good receive conditions while FH tends to average out these conditions. For the most robust MCS 1, even in UL there is only minimum increase in BLEP with distance while the benets from hopping diversity are fully present. So, MCS 1 benets most from BB FH. The RLC queue overows t the big picture, Fig. 6.24. The RLC retransmissions are
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 N 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 7 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 6.24: Problems within RLC, downlink caused by at least 3 sources. First, increasing BLEP requires an increased number of retransmissions. Second, overload tends to decrease the frequency of acknowledgement polling resulting in a delay of TBF ending. Last, the number of retransmissions increases with decreasing system load. All free radio blocks are occupied by the so-called pending acknowledgement mechanism that retransmits already transmitted blocks which have not yet been acknowledged. The limit around 0.5 retransmissions can be observed for overload situations, MCSs 1 and 2. Concluding, base band frequency hopping provides a throughput increase of up to 5 kbit/s on transport layer for medium and high MCSs. The maximum relative throughput increase is 17 % for the cell border (MCS 3) and 15 % for the cell centre (MCS 7). Packet delay is shortened in the distance range of optimum operation of a MCS but tends to increase outside. Packet delay shrinks down by up to 200 ms for TCP and up to 500 ms for UDP packets. The maximum relative delay decrease for TCP is 25 % for the cell border (MCS 2) and 15 % for the cell centre (MCS 8). The maximum relative delay decrease for UDP is 42 % for the cell border (MCS 3) and 12 % for the cell centre (MCS 8). However, the benets for packet services are smaller than for voice services as packet services require error free transmission and, therefore, need some retransmissions.
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6.3.2
Scenario 3: Synthesiser Hopping, Reuse (3/3)
The cyclic hopping sequence is now replaced by a random sequence. The load fraction is reduced to 1/3rd. This is achieved by applying the same MA size but using only one TRX in the hopping layer. The GPRS trac density remains the same as in the reference scenario. Sectorisation is used now and the overall GPRS trac per sector is, therefore, one third of the cell load. The GSM trac has been adapted so that a blocking probability of pb = 0.2% is reached. The GSM trac is carried completely in the BCCH layer and does not interfere with the GPRS trac in the SFH scenarios. MAIO management is applied in order to avoid intra-site co-channel interference. The voice trac density is lower for all synthesiser hopping scenarios, Tab. 6.3. Threefold sectorisation reduces the number of perceived interferers by 2/3rd. Simultaneously, the average carrier strength is reduced by -2 dB as the antenna directivity weakens at the sector edges. As the average number of GPRS MS per sector is lower (10/3 instead of 10 MSs) the DL is not continuously transmitting anymore (generating interference to co-channel cells) but sends with interruptions. This results in a substantially improved DL interference situation. The cyclic hopping sequence of the base band hopping scenario 2 did not properly implement interferer diversity. This is achieved in scenario 3 by random hopping sequences - dierent for each site. It can already be seen from the application response time (Fig. 6.25) that the system load is remarkably lower. Even for the high MCSs, delay is lower than 2.5 s User
Figure 6.25: Access times throughput, Fig. 6.26, is almost constant over the cell area for the lower MCSs. Only for MCSs 7 - 9 a slight decrease can be observed at the cell border. The upper limit of the DL throughput however does not change much compared to scenario 1 and 2 as the read times of the user are kept constant. For the UL, a new (higher) throughput limit can be observed. The UL interference is now extremely low due to the small load fraction and so even the throughput of the high MCSs reaches saturation at around 350 400 m distance. The net data rate for HTTP services reaches almost 80 kbit/s, the highest value of the scenarios compared, Fig. 6.27. It can be clearly observed that MCS 4 becomes never optimum due to bad error correction capabilities. The variance of jitter (Fig. 6.28) reduces with the system load substantially, compared to scenario 2, as expected.
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b) POP3 at DL
a) Audio
b) Video
112
From the transport layer packet delay, Fig. 6.29, the MCSs reaching saturation at some distance can be determined. As the oered trac is reduced for the synthesiser hopping
b) UDP
scenarios, overload is only reached at distances quite close to the cell border, compare Fig. 6.18 for scenario 2. Saturation for MCS 3 and 4 does not occur with TCP trac at all, for MCS 1 and 2 the delay is remarkably smaller than in the reference scenario. For UDP trac, the overowing RLC input queue still leads to high packet delay for MCS 1 and 2. The throughput comparison for TCP in UL and DL (Fig. 6.30) shows a peculiar behaviour. Due to the dierent interference level, the usage range for high MCS in UL is
5 MCS 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 80 Z [kbit/s] 60 40 20 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 100 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b) downlink
higher than in DL. Please also note the increased range of coverage for higher MCS.
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IP segment delay is still quite high, Fig. 6.31. Reduction could be achieved by sharp5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 5 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b) downlink
ening the trac shaping conditions for UDP services. Packets older than 4 seconds are discarded as negotiated in the PDP context. Earlier discarding would result in a lower overall IP segment delay but also in a higher segment loss ratio. Segment loss ratio is still not optimum for MCS 1 and 2 though aordable, Fig. 6.32. While the congestion in DL substantially decreases, the UL is still under high load when
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
P [%]
a) uplink
P [%]
using MCS 1 or 2. The RLC service duration, Fig. 6.33, is slightly reduced, compared to scenario 1/2. The BLEP is lowered due to the interference decrease from sectorisation, Fig. 6.34. The asymmetry in BLEP for UL and DL, however, is slightly larger than for BB FH (scenario 2). The number of RLC retransmissions is increased for the inner cell, a clear sign for low system load, Fig. 6.35. Concluding, synthesiser hopping with reuse (3/3) performs better than base band hopping. The throughput gures for the transport layer show an increase of the MCS operational radius of 200 m compared to BB FH. Packet delay on transport layer is decreased by 200 ms for GMSK modulation within the operational range; for 8PSK modulated transmission up to 100 ms are gained. Scenario 3 shows the best overall performance of all synthesiser hopping scenarios that are studied in this work.
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0.25 MCS 0.2 0.15 t [s] 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 MCS 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink
b) downlink Figure 6.33: RLC service duration
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BLEP
a) uplink
BLEP
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7 MCS 6 5 4 N 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 6.35: Problems within RLC, downlink
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6.3.3
Within this thesis, also a contribution to the discussion about the usage of tight reuse patterns shall be made. Especially the suitability of reuse (1/3) and (1/1) are compared. For GSM voice, a comparison has been performed e. g. in [104] that can be concluded as
Reuse (1/3) works better in scenarios with hexagonal cell shape Reuse (1/1) works better in scenarios with irregular cell shape
A similar comparison shall be made here (and statement established) for EGPRS. Within this section, sectorised cells with reuse of (1/3) are investigated and Section. 6.3.4 studies reuse (1/1). The comparison between reuse (3/3) and (1/3) is contained within this section while the comparison between (1/3) and (1/1) is made in Section. 6.3.4. Trac load parameters remain the same as used for reuse (3/3), Section. 6.3.2, see Tab. 6.3. As the site sectors use dierent frequency groups, MAIO management is not applied for reuse (1/3). Random hopping causes the co-oriented sectors in dierent sites to interfere. Adjacent channel interference is observed between sectors of one site. The reuse distance is smaller than with the (3/3) reuse resulting in increased interference level. However, there is an interference reduction compared to BB FH caused by the sectorisation. So, the comparison result cannot be predicted in advance. Compared to scenario 3 with reuse (3/3), application response time increases by 500 ms for MCS 9, Fig. 6.36. In addition, for low MCSs, the curves are less horizontal towards
Figure 6.36: Access times the cell border, a clear hint for an increased BLEP. Service access time vs. distance remains almost constant. User throughput in DL is slightly worse, Fig. 6.37. Especially at the cell border, a deterioration of 2.0 - 2.5 kbit/s can be observed. In UL, throughput decreases by 1.8 kbit/s for most MCSs. For the service-dependent application throughput (Fig. 6.38) a deterioration of around 2 kbit/s is observed. Please note that MCSs 1 - 5 never become optimum within scenario 4. While MCS 9 already perceives throughput deterioration at a radius of 180 m, MCSs with average robustness perform astonishingly well under fractional load. The jitter variance slightly increases, Fig. 6.39. The increase is limited to the area of the cell border. The expectation would be that due to the high interference level - if interference occurs - even packets in the cell centre would show errors. This eect however seems to be small and so the jitter performance is not decreased in the cell centre.
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b) POP3 at DL
a) Audio
b) Video
117
The jitter variance increase basically results from a higher average packet delay on transport layer (Fig. 6.40). It is worth noting that the horizontal delay vs. distance is
b) UDP
caused by channel capacity saturation for MCS 1 - 3 and is dependent on the trac load only. As this is constant for the SFH scenarios, the delay value where saturation is reached remains equal. As already discussed, the UDP throughput is given by the stream and remains almost constant (not shown here). The TCP throughput decreases compared to scenario 3, especially at the cell border (Fig. 6.41), caused by the higher interference.
b) downlink
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The IP segment delay increases by around 300 ms, Fig. 6.42. While the IP Rx segment
b) downlink
loss ratio (Fig. 6.43) for UL only slightly decreases at the cell border, for the DL, the distance where saturation occurs rst is shifted towards higher values, e. g. for MCS 1 from 200 m towards 250 m.
P [%]
a) uplink
P [%]
The number of required RLC block transmissions per LLC segment is constant for MCSs 1 - 3, Fig. 6.44. For the higher MCSs, an increase in RLC service duration is observed not exceeding 1.6 s in DL and 0.17 s in UL. The BLEP is increased compared to scenario 3 as a result of the unfavourable mix of bad and good channel conditions during the hopping cycle, Fig. 6.45. The ratio of RLC queue overows stays almost constant, Fig. 6.46. The system capacity is used more eciently as can be seen in the increased number of retransmissions for the inner cell area. Concluding, reuse (1/3) shows the worst performance of all synthesiser hopping scenarios. The operational radius for an MCS in the throughput gures is around 50 m smaller than for reuse (3/3). The average packet delay is 80 ms higher within the operational range of an MCS.
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0.25 MCS 0.2 0.15 t [s] 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 MCS 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BLEP
a) uplink
BLEP
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7 MCS 6 5 4 N 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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6.3.4
Within this section, sectorised cells with reuse pattern (1/1) are investigated and compared against those from scenario 4, Section. 6.3.3 using reuse pattern (1/3). Trac parameters remain the same as for scenario 3 with reuse pattern (3/3), Section. 6.3.2. MAIO management must be applied in order to avoid intra-cell co-channel interference. The MA size is increased to 9 decreasing the fractional load to 1/9. The response times vs. distance (Fig. 6.47) do not change severely when compared to scenario 4 (Fig. 6.36). The throughput at the cell border increases by 1 kbit/s compared to reuse
Figure 6.47: Access times (1/3), Fig. 6.48. The saturation line for DL throughput remains unchanged. The through6 MCS 5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 35 30 Z [kbit/s] 25 20 15 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 40 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 6.48: User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side put dierences between the reuse patterns are caused by the following eects: Due to the low fractional load, interferer diversity and frequency diversity show higher gain for reuse pattern (1/1) than for (1/3). This has to compensate for the extremely tight reuse pattern. The benets of MAIO management only work well for the own cell. For the interfering sites, other random hopping sequences are applied and so every sector contributes to the interference. So, the throughput per service shows worse performance than for (1/3) reuse, Fig. 6.49. The variance of jitter is slightly increased at the cell border, especially for MCS 7 - 9 (Fig. 6.50). Jitter increase with distance for the larger video packets is higher than for the audio packets. Inuence of the interference on the UDP packet delay seems to be
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b) POP3 at DL

0.1 MCS 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.1 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) Audio
b) Video
Figure 6.50: Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) higher than on the TCP packet delay, Fig. 6.51. As UDP packets are smaller, they are not spread over so many radio blocks as TCP packets, resulting in less prot from the large MA size. For the same reason, the jitter of the video packets suers more than that of the audio packets. TCP throughput performance improves by 1 kbit/s in UL and DL for the outer cell area, Fig. 6.52. The IP segment delay (Fig. 6.53) still shows the UL limitations. For MCS 9, the delay is 300 ms larger in UL than in DL. The delay reduction compared to the (1/3) reuse is 300 ms (UL) resp. 150 ms (DL), so reuse (1/3) appears to be the better choice.
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b) UDP
b) downlink
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 MCS 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b) downlink
123
The IP Rx segment loss ratio is very close to the behaviour for reuse (3/3), Fig. 6.54. While the loss ratio at the cell border is comparable for reuse (1/1) and (1/3), the start
P [%]
a) uplink
P [%]
of the saturation is shifted by 50m for MCS 1 in DL. For reuse (1/1), discarding of IP segments starts closer towards the cell centre. RLC service duration (Fig. 6.55) shows constant behaviour vs. distance for the low MCSs. In comparison to reuse (1/3), the peak
0.25 MCS 0.2 0.15 t [s] 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2.5 2 t [s] 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 3 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) uplink
service duration at the cell border decreases by 10 ms in UL and by 260 ms in DL for MCS 9. Starting location and intensity of the BLEP are improved for reuse pattern (1/1) compared to scenario 4 (1/3), Fig. 6.56. The adjacent channel interference observed between sectors of one site is at a weak level and does not severely increase overall interference. RLC queue overows hardly occur for non-overload situation, Fig. 6.57. Accordingly, the RLC retransmission ratio shows a large spare capacity except for MCS 1 - 3. It can be summarised that the performance of reuse pattern (1/1) lies between that of reuse pattern (1/3) and (3/3) for synthesiser hopping. Frequency hopping allows to avoid extremely bad receive conditions of mobile terminals. Its benets are basically eective at low user speed and absolute improvements are low. FH may be combined with FL to achieve a smart adaptation to the currently oered trac and to the current interference situation in a cell and the system performance is improved then, a little.
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1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BLEP
a) uplink
BLEP
1 MCS 0.8 0.6 P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7 MCS 6 5 4 N 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
6.4. Scenario 6: Power Control
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6.4
Scenario 6: Power Control
In this chapter, the power control algorithms for open loop and closed loop control are compared (see Section. 3.3.3). In order to study the control behaviour, one set of results represents investigations on a non-fading channel. Fading holes are typically deeper than PC control steps. The same emulations are carried out with a fast fading model applied. The fast fading model allows to investigate the settings for the averaging process applied by GPRS PC, [144]. The two cell scenario is applied as described in Section. 5.3.1.4. 6.4.1 Control Behaviour without Inuences of Fast Fading
Focus is set on the control behaviour over time in this investigation. As the user is moving with high speed, averaging eects and lter delay are slightly visible. The lter delay is quite low, T AvgT = 5 = 113 ms. PBCCH has been set to 42 dBm and P0 to 10 dB. The maximum Tx power for the UL is 33 dBm, the lowest is 5 dBm. 6.4.2 Control Behaviour under Fast Fading
For a multi path propagation environment, the control behaviour is clearly visible only for the Tx power. For the other performance indicators, the measures inuenced by fast fading can still be investigated for control ranges and overall timing, but control errors regarding the commanded signal strength values / quality values are hardly visible. The averaging process now has a severe inuence on the control behaviour. Experiments have been made with dierent lter constant (not printed here). The conclusion is that for high user speed, short lter constants shall be applied (as shown below), while for slow user speed, longer lter periods are better suited to improve the control accuracy. 6.4.2.1 DL/UL Closed Loop, Signal Strength based Control
The Tx power without fast fading reaches its maximum at the cell border as expected, see Fig. 6.58 a). If fast fading is applied, the average Tx power is 1 dB higher in UL and DL,
Transmission Power 50 40 P [dBm] P [dBm] 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL DL 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 Transmission Power UL DL
a) No fast fading
b) Under fast fading
Figure 6.58: Tx Power, Signal Strength based close loop PC Fig. 6.58. The time range for which the control works properly is equal. The reference receive signal strength is set to -80 dBm (UL) / -75 dBm (DL). These values are visible in the receive signal strength diagram, Fig. 6.59 a). For the DL the control capacity is exhausted at the cell border. This can be seen in the slightly weaker
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Receive Carrier Strength -40 -60 C [dBm] -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 C [dBm] UL DL -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0 20
Receive Carrier Strength UL DL
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60 t
80
100
120
b) No fast fading
Figure 6.59: Rx Carrier Strength, Signal Strength based close loop PC DL receive level in Fig. 6.59 a) and in the application of the maximum Tx power (32 dBm) in Fig. 6.58 a). At 30 sec. and 53 sec., new DL TBFs start. All involved control blocks are sent with maximum allowed power. The measurement averaging process is not reset, so the control power level is reached immediately after the TBF reestablishment. Under fast fading, the overshooting in Rx carrier strength at TBF start is still visible for the UL. 6.4.2.2 DL/UL Closed Loop, Quality based Control
The quality based control algorithm aims to keep the CIR value constant. The large control range of the UL Tx power, Fig. 6.60 a), allows satisfactory adaptation of the target CIR. The DL control range of 10 dB only is soon exhausted. Tx power shows the
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.60: Tx Power, Quality based close loop PC same behaviour with fast fading (Fig. 6.60 b) ). Rx carrier strength in UL is kept quite constant (Fig. 6.61 a) ), similar to a signal strength based control. This is due to the quite constant interference level in UL, Fig. 6.63 a). For the exhausted DL control range, the corresponding receive signal strength follows the path loss, Fig. 6.61 a). Although it is not possible to see the average Rx signal strength, the curve under fast fading (Fig. 6.61 b)) shows the same shape as for the non-fading case. Quality based PC aims to keep the CIR value constant, Fig. 6.62 a). As the interference is generated by other packet streams, this task is dicult, requires averaging and results in
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60 t
80
100
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a) No fast fading
Figure 6.61: Rx Carrier Strength, Quality based close loop PC

CIR 50 40 P [dBm] P [dBm] 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL DL 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 CIR UL DL
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.62: CIR, Quality based close loop PC higher temporary control errors. However, the target CIR value (20 dB) can be kept over a wide range of the scenario. The measurement averaging delay (T AvgT = 5 = 113 ms) is only slightly visible in a reduced CIR variance. Under fast fading (Fig. 6.62 b) ), CIR variance is increased compared to Rx signal strength as both, the signal and the interferer show fading now. After the session end of the interferer at 62 s, the variance is reduced to the part caused by the Rx signal. At 65 sec., the interfering session ends, Fig. 6.63 a). This is visible in the CIR diagram (Fig. 6.62 a) ), the improved CIR cannot be controlled perfectly in the DL due to the limited control range. Applying fast fading, the interference shows variance, but at a reduced depth compared to the CIR (around 12 dB in DL), Fig. 6.63 b). The reduction results from the large distance between victim and interferer. 6.4.2.3 DL/UL Open Loop, Signal Strength based Control
The UL control might also work without a feedback loop. The UL Tx power is then simply derived from the DL Rx level, Fig. 6.64 a). Assuming the path loss is equal in UL and DL, an acceptable control behaviour results, comparable to that of Fig. 6.58 a). Open loop PC is used for a MS after entering the cell. In this case, there are not sucient measurement samples available to control the UL in a closed loop. After collecting valid samples, the PCU might switch to a closed loop control. Under fast fading, the UL Tx power diers
128
Receive Interference Strength -40 -60 C [dBm] -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 C [dBm] UL DL -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0
Receive Interference Strength UL DL
20
40
60 t
80
100
120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.63: Rx Interference Strength, Quality based close loop PC

a) No fast fading
Figure 6.64: Tx Power, Signal Strength based open loop PC in two aspects, Fig. 6.64 b). First, the lowest Tx power (around 22 dB) is reached only between 50s and 70s. Without fast fading the range was 40s till 80s. Next, the variance of the Tx power is obviously higher. Both results from a higher variation in DL Tx power. The reference receive signal strength is set to -80 dBm (UL) / -75 dBm (DL), Fig. 6.65 a). The Rx signal strength is similar as for the closed loop case with and without fast fading. The overall control characteristic is kept. One problem occurs: The control is based on the normalised C V ALU E , corrected by the parameters P0 and PR. As PR has a very low resolution (3 intervals for 10 dB DL control range), the UL power cannot exactly be determined. This is visible between 28 and 35 sec in Fig. 6.65 a). At 35 sec., the PR value is increased and the positive control error is changed into a negative one. 6.4.2.4 UL Open Loop, Quality based Control
First it should be mentioned how open loop is to be understood in the context of quality based control. In general a complete open loop control cannot be quality based. The following split is done here: For UL control, the the UL carrier strength is an unknown parameter. The UL interference on idle slots can always be measured. So the control is done using the UL interference measurement results, transferred to CH compared to the DL carrier measurement results obtained in the MS. The control is quite unstable as it is inuenced by both, control steps
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a) No fast fading
Figure 6.65: Rx Carrier Strength, Signal Strength based open loop PC on the DL and changes in the UL interference strength. 6.4.2.5 UL Open Loop, mixed Signal Strength / Quality based Control
We can reduce the inuence of the unsteady interference by reducing the weighting factor w in Eq. (3.15). This improves the control error remarkably. w = 0.8 provides 80% quality based inuence and 20 % signal strength based inuence. Compared to Fig. 6.60 a) and Fig. 6.61 a), the ragged look of the curves in Fig. 6.66 a) and Fig. 6.67 a) is worth mentioning. As packets are not contiguously sent in a packet
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.66: Tx Power, Quality based open loop PC, links of the victim switched service, control is done on an irregular time basis. The measurement samples suer from aging if no packets are received thus resulting in more estimation errors. If new packets are received, the estimation error is corrected little by little over time. This behaviour causes the high additional peaks in the UL curves of the gures.The Tx power curve shows basically the same behaviour than for the non-fading case, Fig. 6.66 b). While the limits of the Tx power remain the same, the control behaviour seems to be a bit slower at some TBF starts, see also Fig. 6.67 b). The target CIR is 20 dB and can be roughly kept by the PC algorithm, Fig. 6.68 a). Under fast fading, the UL CIR looks more ragged than for the closed loop case, Fig. 6.68 b). Please note that the UL CIR shows high overshooting as the interferer starts several
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60 t
80
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a) No fast fading
Figure 6.67: Rx Carrier Strength, Quality based open loop PC, links of the victim
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.68: CIR, Quality based Open Loop PC new TBFs - always starting with full power. Again, the interfering session ends after 65 sec., Fig. 6.69 resulting in very good CIR afterwards, Fig. 6.68. Concluding, GPRS power control performs suciently well for the UL. The infrequent packet transmission provides enough opportunities for the transmission of measurement results and control commands. For the DL, the limited control range of 10 dB only does not allow appropriate PC, especially for quality based control. The possibility to shift the control window by the PCU at TBF start mitigates the control problem if the measurement results already obtained show sucient accuracy.
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Receive Interference Strength -40 -60 C [dBm] -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 C [dBm] UL DL -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0
Receive Interference Strength UL DL
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60 t
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a) No fast fading
Figure 6.69: Rx Interference Strength, Quality based Open Loop PC
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6.5
Scenario 7 - 9: Link Adaptation and Incremental Redundancy
In this section, a Link Adaptation (LA) algorithm based on channel quality measurements [148] is applied to the reference scenario without using Frequency Hopping (FH) (Section. 6.2). An algorithm for throughput optimisation is compared with an algorithm for packet delay optimisation. The inuence of the averaging process is investigated by changing the characteristic of the averaging lter. In order to provoke MCS mis-selections, the user speed is assumed low and a fading hole covers more than one TDMA frame, see Section. 5.1.5.5. For higher user speed, a fading hole only contributes to the average BLEP of a radio block and the BLEP variance between radio blocks is lower. Due to the low user speed selected here, severe timing errors of the LA algorithm do not occur. The performance of FH in combination with LA can be deduced by simple superposition of the results from Section. 6.3 according to the MCS selected by the LA algorithm as shown below. Those results are thus not printed here. 6.5.1 Scenario 7: Link Adaptation, Throughput-optimised
Throughput-optimised link adaptation aims at the selection of the highest MCS possible in order to prot from an increase in average data rate. This is achieved by choosing a high target BLEP. The required block retransmissions of the acknowledged RLC service will lead to an increase in service time. The MCS selection scheme for throughput-optimised LA from Tab. 3.10 is applied. The lter constant inuencing the low pass lter of the channel quality measurements has been set to BEP PERIOD = 2, 6 or 10. The service access time appears to be almost constant, Fig. 6.70. As mostly control blocks are trans5 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] t [s] BepPeriod 2 6 10 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
Figure 6.70: Access times ferred - causing small RLC packet sizes -, LA has no severe inuence on this performance indicator. With a maximum service access time below 1 s, the overall performance is better than for any xed MCS. Application response time corresponds to that of using a xed MCS 3/4, which is not optimum. The user throughput is similar to MCS 5/6 in the reference scenario, Fig. 6.71. There is no strong dependency on the lter coecient, only BEP PERIOD = 10 shows a slightly worse performance. The deterioration basically results from the performance degradation of the POP3 service, Fig. 6.72. The high throughput expected for the the MCSs carrying 2 RLC blocks cannot be achieved with throughput-optimised LA (reached for BEP PERIOD = 6: 63 kbit/s (TCP) and 43 kbit/s (UDP), expected: 78 kbit/s (TCP) and 50 kbit/s (UDP). Obviously, MCS mis-selection due to BLEP estimation errors leads to this performance degradation. As the average
6.5. Scenario 7 - 9: Link Adaptation and Incremental Redundancy
133
6 5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 Z [kbit/s] BepPeriod 2 6 10
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) for requests
b) for responses
Figure 6.71: User throughput, measured at the receiver side

80 70 60 Z [kbit/s] 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 Z [kbit/s] 60 50 40 30 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) HTTP (during page download)
b) POP3
Figure 6.72: User throughput, measured at the receiver side BLEP is still low in the cell centre (< 10 %), the throughput deterioration cannot be caused by bad channel quality. Jitter variance is close to optimum for both, audio and video sessions, Fig. 6.73. This gives a hint for the over-compensation of the increase in throughput compared to the retransmission losses caused by the high BLEP switching points chosen according to Tab. 3.10. It is worth noting that the low rate MCSs are rarely being selected within this scenario. Packet delay on transport layer under throughputoptimised MCS selection (Fig. 6.74) almost reaches the optimum for the reference scenario for TCP sessions described in Section. 6.2. For UDP sessions, delay becomes worse at the cell border due to queue overow. Again, the DL throughput for streaming services is almost constant (25 kbit/s) as described in Section. 6.2.1. UL TCP throughput is similar to that when applying a single MCS 7 (Fig. 6.8), see Fig. 6.75. Throughput at the cell border is slightly higher. DL TCP throughput follows the curves for single MCSs as expected but shows the degradation for high MCSs as already explained. A high BEP PERIOD leads to a decrease in throughput for the inner cell area. For the outer cell area, dependency on the BEP PERIOD cannot be observed.
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0.1 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 var(J) [s*s]
0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) Audio
b) Video
Figure 6.73: Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side
3 1.4 1.2 1 t [s] t [s] 0.8 0.6 1 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 2.5 2 1.5 BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) UDP
5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 Z [kbit/s]
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) downlink
135
The IP segment delay, Fig. 6.76 is around 50 ms larger than the optimum value from the reference scenario shown in Fig. 6.9. UL and DL performance are very similar for all
5 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] t [s] BepPeriod 2 6 10 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) downlink
lter coecients. According to the very good delay performance, segment losses hardly occur within this scenario, Fig. 6.77. This is a clear improvement towards the reference
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 P [%] 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
P [%]
a) uplink
scenario (Fig. 6.10), where only MCSs 4 - 6 showed no segment losses. For the outer cell area, the fast lter settings resulting from BEP PERIOD = 2 lead to a small but still visible IP segment loss probability due to MCS mis-selections. The RLC service duration (Fig. 6.78) remains below 0.09 s (UL) / 0.45 s (DL) corresponding to a single MCS 7 / 4, see Fig. 6.11. For the inner cell area, service duration almost reaches the optimum. It is worth noting that especially for high BLEP targets, the strategy applied for PaDowAckNack transmission has a severe inuence on the service duration. Very frequent transmission consumes a lot of channel capacity while rare transmission increases the service duration of erroneously received packets. In this example, transmission frequency was selected quite low resulting in a channel capacity consumption of around 3 % of one PDCH. From the BLEP curves, a clear limitation can be seen for DL, Fig. 6.79. The limitation visible in the DL at around 30 % results from the lter coecient chosen. For the inner cell, the curve raises steeper than in the reference scenario, see Fig. 6.12. This is the eect targeted at by throughput optimisation. The UL BLEP follows that of a single MCS 7,
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0.25 0.2 0.15 t [s] t [s] BepPeriod 2 6 10
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 BepPeriod 2 6 10
0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500
0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500
a) uplink
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 BLEP
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
BLEP
a) uplink
see Fig. 6.12. RLC queue overows hardly occur, Fig. 6.80. The RLC retransmission ratio is high compared to the reference scenario (N = 3=300%), see Fig. 6.13 b). This shows the capacity gain caused by the LA. Control behaviour for the dierent lter coecients is slightly dierent. Contrary to the reference scenario, the number of retransmissions decreases with increasing distance, a result from the MCS switching. Concluding, the proposed MCS selection scheme (Tab. 3.10) shows very high throughput close to the optimum reached in the reference scenario using xed MCSs. Only few MCS mis-selections occur in the inner cell area deteriorating the maximum throughput to around 14 kbit/s. Simultaneously, the packet delay is only around 50 ms larger than in the reference scenario. It is worth noting that optimum MCS selection cannot be achieved based on measurement results but only by exact location awareness, e. g. by using GPS and a BTS map in combination with exact reuse awareness.
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1 0.8 0.6 N P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
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6.5.2
Scenario 8: Link Adaptation, Delay-optimised
With a rst impression of the performance of throughput-optimised LA in mind, potential gains of delay-optimised LA are discussed in this section. The MCS switching points as given in Tab. 3.9 are applied. Emulation results are provided and compared with the expected delay values.
6.5.2.1
Discussion: Is there a Link Adaptation that optimises Latency?
For streaming applications, the minimisation of latency and variance of jitter is one of the prior goals. It is expected that this optimisation can be achieved by selecting an appropriate LA strategy. How can this be done? In literature, an approach to lower the RLC packet delay by reducing the percentage of retransmitted radio blocks is found [46]. The reduction is achieved by selecting a more robust MCS than it would have been selected by the switching strategy proposed by the standard. But is streaming support really as simple as Shift the BLEP target? From the results for throughput over distance for a single transmission using xed MCSs, in [46] it is deduced that there is a simple rule like Select highest MCS for the inner cell area and lowest MCS for the outer cell area. The results from the last sections clearly show that the relations are somewhat more complex. Indeed this rule applies if the service data rate is extremely low, assuming that all requirements are fullled even if MCS 1 is used. For higher data rates however, low rate MCSs are in overload even if there are no block errors, visible at the high IP segment loss ratio in the reference scenario, see Fig. 6.10. So the rule must be extended to: The MCS must not be selected lower than required for the throughput required. Next, also for the inner cell area, the gain from selecting higher rate MCSs must be questioned. For example, let MCS 5 be optimum for the outer cell area. For the inner cell area, higher rate MCSs are expected to be optimum under the following restrictions: 1. The inner cell area is sparsely populated by users so sucient samples cannot be collected (same in reality) and the inuence on the average performance is low. Optimising towards the cell centre does not optimise the overall performance. 2. If the available data rate is higher than demanded, some radio blocks remain unused. We cannot establish more streaming TBFs as the user might move towards the outer cell area and the PCU would not be able to support the required throughput there. By selecting higher MCSs, redundancy is being decreased. Under insucient channel quality, the error-prone high rate MCSs increase delay by introducing higher block error ratio. Especially MCS 9 has no redundancy at all. For sucient channel quality, packet delay for any MCS decreases and channel capacity is freed. This capacity might be used for best-eort services. 3. There are many unnecessary retransmissions (PEN ACK) for MCSs 7 - 9 carrying two RLC blocks within one radio block. As the second half of the radio block - if not lled by NACKED RLC blocks - is lled by PEN ACK RLC blocks, capacity gain does not result into interference gain for other users. 4. The IP segment delay measured in Fig. 6.76 almost reaches its optimum. So, there is not much room for improvement at all. These observations should be kept in mind when evaluating the following results.
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6.5.2.2
Emulation Results
Service access time remains equal for both LA types, throughput-optimised (Fig. 6.70) and delay-optimised, Fig. 6.81. As expected, it represents the lowest border from all of the
5 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] t [s] BepPeriod 2 6 10 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
Figure 6.81: Access times reference emulations performed. Application response time is lower for delay-optimised LA than for throughput-optimised LA (1.4 s vs. 1.6 s at the cell border), see also Fig. 6.70. User throughput is lower for delay-optimised LA (reduction in UL: 0.3 kbit/s, DL: 1 kbit/s, Fig. 6.82) than for throughput-optimised LA, Fig. 6.71. This is expected since less
6 5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 Z [kbit/s] BepPeriod 2 6 10 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) for requests
b) for responses
Figure 6.82: User throughput, measured at the receiver side aggressive MCS selection is applied. The overall characteristic of the curve does not change. For the HTTP service, Fig. 6.83, especially for BEP PERIOD = 10 a throughput decrease up to 5 kbit/s compared to Fig. 6.72 is visible. For POP3, decrease is around 4 kbit/s. For the cell centre, this corresponds to the performance of a single MCS 7. Performance at the cell border matches MCS 2. This is denitely a sub-optimum throughput. Again, the changes in throughput are hidden within the user throughput due to the HTTP read times. Jitter variance is increased by 0.002 s2 (Audio)/0.004 s2 (V ideo), compare Fig. 6.84 and Fig. 6.73. So the goal to increase user perception for streaming services cannot be reached. Packet delay on transport layer is remarkably higher for the so-called delayoptimised approach, Fig. 6.85. Increase in packet delay at the cell border is 50 ms for TCP and 500 ms for UDP for BEP PERIOD = 2 and 6 compared to Fig. 6.74.
140
80 70 60 Z [kbit/s] 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 Z [kbit/s]
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) HTTP (during page download)
b) POP3
Figure 6.83: User throughput, measured at the receiver side
0.1 0.08 var(J) [s*s] 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 var(J) [s*s]
0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) Audio
b) Video
Figure 6.84: Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side
3 1.4 1.2 1 t [s] t [s] 0.8 0.6 1 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 2.5 2 1.5 BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) UDP
141
For BEP PERIOD = 10, the characteristic changes. While the longer lter coecient shows a lower delay for throughput-optimised LA, delay is now 50 ms (TCP) / 250 ms (UDP) larger than for BEP PERIOD = 2 and 6. This means, the decrease in channel capacity caused by the shifted MCS selection can partly be compensated by a fast MCS selection algorithm but cannot be compensated for BEP PERIOD = 10. UL TCP throughput is similar for throughput-optimised and delay-optimised LA, compare Fig. 6.86 and Fig. 6.75. As the UL mostly transfers short packets, MCS 1 is often
5 4 Z [kbit/s] 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10 Z [kbit/s] 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) downlink
chosen and so inuences on the throughput are negligible. Throughput decrease in DL is up to 5 kbit/s at the cell centre and 2 kbit/s at the cell border. IP segment delay increases by 300 800 ms at the cell border, Fig. 6.87 compared to Fig. 6.76. In addition, delay
5 4 3 t [s] 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 t [s] BepPeriod 2 6 10 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
b) downlink
is now depending on the lter coecient. Delay increases with increasing lter constant. Changes at the cell centre cannot be observed.
142
A slight deterioration of the IP segment loss probability (Fig. 6.88 compared to Fig. 6.77) can be observed in DL for all investigated lter coecients. The underlying packet delay
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10 P [%] 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 BepPeriod 2 6 10
P [%]
a) uplink
is increased by the higher relative system load due to the decrease in channel capacity. In UL, losses hardly occur on network layer. The RLC service duration (Fig. 6.89) is 10 ms shorter in UL at the cell border compared to Fig. 6.78. This is the only point where the
0.25 0.2 0.15 t [s] t [s] 1.5 1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 Distance [m] 400 500 0.1 BepPeriod 2 6 10 3 2.5 2 BepPeriod 2 6 10
a) uplink
delay optimisation can be seen. No changes for the cell centre can be observed. A slight increase in service duration is visible for DL at the cell border resulting from the lowered channel capacity due to the applied MCS selection scheme. The selection of less aggressive MCSs for delay optimisation lowers the BLEP signicantly (30 % to 20 % at the cell border, Fig. 6.90 compared to Fig. 6.79). The average number of retransmissions per radio block (Fig. 6.91) therefore decreases from 1.6 to 1 at the cell border, compare Fig. 6.80. This is also caused by the lower data rate oered by the selected MCS: The remaining capacity, used for PEN ACK transmissions, decreases, and so the overall system load increases. The higher system load also leads to a higher RLC queue overow probability. It can be concluded that this approach of delay optimisation does not full the promises. The gains in BLEP improvement are over-compensated by the losses in channel capacity.
143
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10 BLEP
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
BLEP
a) uplink
1 0.8 0.6 N P 0.4 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance [m] BepPeriod 2 6 10
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6.5.3
Scenario 9: Link Adaptation Eciency
The next section aims at an in-depth investigation of the measurement and averaging algorithm used for the Link Adaptation (LA), based on the two-cell test scenario (Section. 5.3.1.4). One investigation without fast fading caused by multi path propagation shows the overall behaviour of the LA algorithm while a second investigation under fast fading shows the performance of the averaging algorithm. 6.5.3.1 Link Adaptation Eciency without Inuences of Fast Fading
In order to understand the inuence of the lter coecient, emulation sets with dierent BEP P ERIOD = [0..10] have been performed. As the user is moving with high speed, averaging eects and lter delay are visible on a macroscopic view. Emulation sets with BEP P ERIOD = [2..6] show stable behaviour under all investigated conditions and the set BEP P ERIOD = 4 is presented here. BEP P ERIOD > 6 shows slight overshooting and a large control error which is especially problematic with shadowing, e. g. in urban areas. In reality, the selection of BEP P ERIOD should be based on the frequency of ACK/NACK messages as these control the MCS selection. However, this would introduce a dependency of the carried trac on the control quality. To keep things simple, this has been skipped within this investigation. 6.5.3.2 Link Adaptation Eciency under Fast Fading
While the rst scenario elaborates the problems of the LA algorithm, a scenario under fast fading shows whether the benets make it worth using the LA algorithm. All parameters are kept as in the last scenario but now a multi path propagation model is applied. 6.5.3.3 Emulation Results
Transmission power is kept constant during the emulation, PU L = 33 dBm, PDL = 42 dBm. The receive signal strength for the non-fading case therefore follows a simple function over MS / BTS distance far from saturation and minimum receiver sensitivity, Fig. 6.92 a). Highest receive signal strength is reached at the closest MS / BTS distance
Receive Carrier Strength -40 -60 C [dBm] -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 C [dBm] UL DL -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 Receive Carrier Strength UL DL
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.92: Rx Carrier Strength, Link Adaptation around t = 60 s. Multipath propagation leads to a high variance in the receive signal strength, Fig. 6.92 b). The depth of a fading hole is up to 20 dB. The empty spaces represent the times where no TBF is active.
145
As the interfering MS is xed, the average UL interference is constant while the DL interference is decreasing with increasing distance of the victim MS from the disturbing BTS, Fig. 6.93 a). Under fast fading, the interference shows deep fading holes, Fig. 6.93
Receive Interference Strength -40 -60 C [dBm] -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 C [dBm] UL DL -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 Receive Interference Strength UL DL
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.93: Rx Interference Strength, Link Adaptation b). Due to the discontinuous transmission of the interferer, large peaks in the CIR over time can be observed, Fig. 6.94 a). This behavior allows to investigate the speed of the LA
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.94: CIR, Link Adaptation algorithm. Under fast fading, together with the carrier fading, the variance of the CIR is increased up to 40 dB, Fig. 6.94 b). The input for the MCS selection is the MeanBEP, ltered by a low pass lter. For the non-fading scenario, MeanBEP is always too high for usage of the GMSK modulation, Fig. 6.95 a) and Fig. 6.96 a). Under fast fading the ltered MEAN BEP measurements show regions for GMSK application, Fig. 6.95 b) and Fig. 6.96 b). These are especially measurements taken in fading holes. For a very quick LA, the amount of those measurements is high and reduces the overall throughput by MCS mis-selection. For a very slow LA, almost all of those measurements are ignored and no GMSK MCS is selected (not shown here). The MeanBEP measurements for 8PSK modulation, Fig. 6.97 a) and Fig. 6.98 a), show
146
Mean BEP filt. GMSK 30 25 Mean BEP 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 DL, GMSK Mean BEP 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20
Mean BEP filt. GMSK
DL, GMSK 40 60 t 80 100 120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.95: DL MEAN BEP for GMSK modulation, ltered
Mean BEP filt. GMSK 30 25 Mean BEP 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL, GMSK Mean BEP 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20
Mean BEP filt. GMSK
UL, GMSK 40 60 t 80 100 120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.96: UL MEAN BEP for GMSK modulation, ltered
Mean BEP filt. 8PSK 30 25 Mean BEP 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 DL, 8PSK Mean BEP 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20
Mean BEP filt. 8PSK
DL, 8PSK 40 60 t 80 100 120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.97: DL MEAN BEP for 8PSK modulation, ltered
147
Mean BEP filt. 8PSK 30 25 Mean BEP 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL, 8PSK Mean BEP 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20
Mean BEP filt. 8PSK
UL, 8PSK 40 60 t 80 100 120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.98: UL MEAN BEP for 8PSK modulation, ltered the expected correlation with the CIR measurements. As the scale for MEAN BEP is logarithmic, the higher values (25 .. 31) only represent a small range of 0.01 .. 0.05 % BER and therefore show high variance. Switching between MCS 8 and 9 is therefore observed with high frequency. For 8PSK modulation under fast fading, the ltered MEAN BEP measurements show a lower average and higher variance (Fig. 6.97 b) and Fig. 6.98 b) ) than for GMSK modulation, see Fig. 6.95 b) and Fig. 6.96 b). In case no TBF is or was active, any reporting is possible, e. g. meanBEP = 31. The corresponding MCS selection (Fig. 6.99 a) and Fig. 6.100 a) ) is mostly restricted to 8PSK-modulated MCS. Only
MCS 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 DL 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 DL MCS
MCS
a) No fast fading
MCS
Figure 6.99: DL MCS selection, all MCS selectable the initial MCS of a TBF is always selected lower than MCS 4. This is done due to the insecurity of the rst measurement. An erroneously selected aggressive MCS inevitably results in capacity loss at the TBF start. The LA uses a mechanism to prosper from buer underruns. If MCS 7 - 9 would be optimum but the second RLC block of a radio block would remain empty, the next MCS in the family with higher redundancy is used. This is visible: even in the cell centre (around 60 s), MCS 6 is selected. MCS 9 does not provide any redundancy. Under fast fading, the highest MCSs are selected less frequently, Fig. 6.99 b) and Fig. 6.100 b). Especially at the cell borders, selection of GMSK MCSs occurs. MCS 4 has a small selection band and is therefore selected seldomly. Within the MEAN BEP area of MCS 4, the switch to 8PSK modulation happens. The higher UL CIR leads to a MCS selection improved by 1 MCS in average.
148
MCS 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40
MCS
MCS
MCS
UL
60 t
80
100
120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.100: UL MCS selection, all MCS selectable Even at the cell centre, block errors occur, Fig. 6.101 a) and Fig. 6.102 a).
BLEP 10 8 6 DL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 10 8 6 DL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 BLEP
The LA
Error
a) No fast fading
Error
Figure 6.101: DL BLEP, all MCS selectable switching points from the standard proposal are used for these investigations. All MCSs were involved. Under fast fading, the BLEP is higher due to the fading holes, Fig. 6.101 b) and Fig. 6.102 b). It is worth noting that for BEP P ERIOD > 6 the process becomes too slow for the high variance and the BLEP increases due to MCS mis-selection. In a second emulation run, MCSs 4 and 9 have been removed from the set (Fig. 6.103 a) and Fig. 6.104 a) ). Under fast fading, the reduced MCS set (Fig. 6.103 b) and Fig. 6.104 b) ) does not provide heavy restrictions. The usage duration for MCS 9 was already reduced and MCS 4 occurred seldomly.
149
BLEP 10 8 6 UL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 10 8 6
BLEP
Error
Error
UL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.102: UL BLEP, all MCS selectable
MCS 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 DL 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40
MCS
MCS
MCS
DL
60 t
80
100
120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.103: DL MCS selection, reduced set of MCS selectable
MCS 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 UL 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40
MCS
MCS
MCS
UL
60 t
80
100
120
a) No fast fading
Figure 6.104: UL MCS selection, reduced set of MCS selectable
150
The BLEP is remarkably lower now without severe capacity losses for both, non-fading (Fig. 6.105 a) and Fig. 6.106 a) ) and fast fading scenario (Fig. 6.105 b) and Fig. 6.106 b)).
BLEP 10 8 6 DL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 10 8 6 DL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 BLEP
Error
a) No fast fading
Error
Figure 6.105: DL BLEP, reduced set of MCS selectable

BLEP 10 8 6 UL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 10 8 6 UL 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 t 80 100 120 BLEP
Error
a) No fast fading
Error
Figure 6.106: UL BLEP, reduced set of MCS selectable Concluding, the investigation without fading eects basically shows the disadvantages of long BEP P ERIODs. The benets are based in the stable behaviour under shadowing and multi path propagation. The MCS set might be reduced by the redundancy-less MCSs 4 and 9 in order to lower the BLEP. Especially for the removal of MCS 4, performance loss is not observed.
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6.5.4
Incremental Redundancy
Incremental redundancy is thought of as an optimisation of throughput at the costs of delay. As we can see from the comparison of the results of the reference scenario (Section. 6.2) with that of the throughput-optimised LA (Section. 6.5.1), there is not much room for optimisation by IR. The optimum transport layer throughput is represented by the envelope curve for all MCSs in the reference scenario, Fig. 6.8. It could be reached with an ideal link adaptation algorithm applying a priori knowledge of the channel condition, which is of course not feasible in reality. Comparing this envelop curve with the TCP throughput under throughput-optimised LA, Fig. 6.75 the room for improvement is another 1 kbit/s in DL and 0.7 kbit/s in UL. The same comparison for the TCP delay (Fig. 6.7 a) and Fig. 6.74 a)) yields 40 ms delay reserve at the cell border and nothing at the cell centre. Expectation is that IR improves throughput a little while increasing delay. This works well under laboratory conditions with a single MS. In reality, repeating a packet costs the throughput of others. Another argument in favour of IR found in literature [69, 86] is its ease of implementation. Only MCS 9 is proposed to be implemented and no complicated LA algorithms are required. It is worth noting that both are software implementation issues which are cheap in terms of production costs. The introduction of IR, however, complicates the MS, requiring extra, fast memory and additional processing power. Both is expensive in production and consumes battery power during operation. But is it really so easy to implement IR compared to conventional LA? For compatibility reasons, all MCSs must be implemented, anyway. Under bad receive conditions, the IR memory will be exhausted soon. The OutOfMemory ag is signalled to the PCU and this forces the PCU to shrink the send window and to abandon already sent blocks. A smaller send window results in a throughput decrease neglected in [86] or [69]. The burstiness of the block arrival process at the receiver (one large MCS 9 block after several retransmissions instead of several MCS 2 blocks) increase the jitter variance severely. Under FH, the chances to transmit under excellent and bad channel conditions for a long duration are averaged out. Due to the missing excellent channel conditions, it can be expected that throughput increase will hardly be visible when applying IR together with FH. In summary, the contribution by IR to maximise capacity for delay sensitive services compared to LA can be expected to be negligible, if any. Throughput sensitive services might benet a little (up to 5 %) from using IR compared to LA, but on higher equipment cost and lower terminal stand time under good channel conditions. But most of the user terminals are operated in medium to low channel quality regions as discussed in Fig. 5.16. Applying FH, the benets expected from IR are further reduced. So, IR is clearly no realistic alternative to LA, in general.
CHAPTER 7
EGPRS to serve Micro- and Pico Cells

Content 7.1 Scenario 10: Cell Reselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 7.2 Scenario 11: Indoor Pico Cell Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
he most challenging network setups are typically found in urban environment where the trac density is high, user speed is low to average and signal fading is severe. For these setups, the performance of EGPRS is illustrated in the following sections. The performance loss resulting from cell reselection is discussed in Section. 7.1. An elaborated scenario is introduced in Section. 7.2 applying the already introduced RRC algorithms to show the system performance of GSM/ EDGE networks in an indoor pico cellular environment (Section. 7.2).
7.1
Scenario 10: Cell Reselection in Micro Cells
The following investigations on Cell Reselection (CR) are based on the outdoor micro cell scenario with directed user mobility (Section. 5.3.1.2) from [138]. In order to understand the performance degradation caused by the transmission gap during CR, user speed is varied from 3 km/h to 72 km/h. For a slow user (v = 3 km/h, Fig. 7.1), the CR takes place close to the planned cell border. A slight left shift caused by a small cell reselect delay is visible. In addition,
Cell Reselection (CR) Locations 2000 1000 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -2000 CR location BS location -1000 0 x [m] 1000 2000 2000 1000 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -2000 CR location BS location -1000 0 x [m] 1000 2000 Cell Reselection (CR) Locations
y [m]
a) v = 3 km/h
y [m]
b) v = 18 km/h
Figure 7.1: Cell reselection locations minor shifts caused by random signal fading is visible. As the travel of a slow user lasts long in this scenario (5200 s), the relative duration of the gaps in user connectivity is low resulting in high performance, Tab. 7.1 Delay is provided for IP and TCP separately so that the pure delay as well as the inuence of the TCP send window can be seen.
7.1. Scenario 10: Cell Reselection in Micro Cells
153
User speed [km/h] 3 18 36 54 72
DL TCP Throughput [kbit/s] 40.9 30.6 20.2 15.3 11.8
DL TCP Packet Delay [ms] 180 188 192 254 268
DL IP Delay [ms] 151 152 168 205 210
Table 7.1: EGPRS performance with cell reselections The ping pong CR suppression works eectively. Only for mobiles travelling through areas served by three cells, some unnecessary CRs are visible. The performance decreases at higher speed (v = 18 km/h). At a rst glance, the fading eects show more infrequent CR locations. The travel time in the scenario is reduced to 800 s. As the speed of the averaging algorithm remains constant, CR locations show a shift along the x coordinate in negative direction with increasing user speed. Also, the relative time fraction of the transmission gaps increases thus increasing delay and decreasing performance. For even higher user speed (Fig. 7.2) CR locations appear to become more irregular (e. g. even at the cell centre). This CR behaviour results in a load shift towards the old cell under very
Cell Reselection (CR) Locations 2000 1000 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -2000 CR location BS location -1000 0 x [m] 1000 2000 2000 1000 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -2000 CR location BS location -1000 0 x [m] 1000 2000 Cell Reselection (CR) Locations
y [m]
a) v = 36 km/h
y [m]
b) v = 72 km/h
Figure 7.2: Cell reselection locations bad receiving conditions. The LA will therefore choose a low MCS decreasing throughput further. Summarising, the CR algorithm under high user speed substantially decreases throughput and increases delay. This is, especially, true if dense BTS scenarios are being considered. The outdoor micro-cell scenario appears to be non-suited to serve mobile terminals at speeds higher than 36 km/h, Tab. 7.1. An umbrella cell should carry the trac resulting from faster moving terminals. From GSM release 4 on, the Network Assisted Cell Change (NACC) reduces the transmission gap severely.
154
7. EGPRS to serve Micro- and Pico Cells
7.2
Scenario 11: Local System Performance in an Indoor Pico Cell Scenario
Finally, an indoor pico cell scenario is studied, see Section. 5.3.1.3. Link adaptation (BEP P ERIOD = 6) and power control (closed loop quality, target CIR = 20 dB ) are active. A two-dimensional results map is used for results evaluation. Fig. 7.3 shows the receive signal strength map for constant BTS output power P 0 = 0 dBm in the scenario.
Figure 7.3: Receive signal map of an indoor scenario with base stations on the corridors The gure has been obtained by the Keenan-Motely model as a reference, see Section. 5.1.5.3. The frequency allocation has been selected in order to allow the investigation of co-channel and adjacent channel interference. The MA size is 4. The BTS in the upper right and lower left use the same MA while the MAs of the other stations contain channels adjacent to those of the two mentioned stations but dierent to each other. The BTS in the upper left uses four channels adjacent to the co-channel BTSs, that in the lower right uses three. The reference is compared with the trace of the DL signal strength, Fig. 7.4. The signal carrier shows rapid changes and a broad range over the small area. The overall coverage is excellent so coverage problems will not deteriorate the performance results. The minimum output power of the PC algorithm is 0 dBm and this is also the value measured around the BTSs. In Fig. 7.4, the cell reselection locations are visible, e. g. at (95,60) or (5,40) where mobiles switch from the upper BTS to the lower BTS and reverse. Sharp edges in the signal strength occur, together with a smooth adaptation of the PC. The power control algorithm has to re-calibrate after the cell reselection. Other sharp edges are caused by shadowing, especially the doors contribute. Interference is highest in the inner (central) room, Fig. 7.5. While path loss due to distance is low (the whole scenario measures 100 x 100 m only), the attenuation caused by walls dominates. As the serving cell in the upper right and the interfering co-channel cell in the lower left are one wall away from each other, the interference strength is close to 0 dBm. The BTS in the lower right suers from the lowest interference as expected. Luckily, the fractional loading in addition with dierent hopping sequences allows for
7.2. Scenario 11: Local System Performance in an Indoor Pico Cell Scenario
155
Figure 7.4: Carrier strength [dBm] of DL channel
Figure 7.5: Interference strength [dBm] of DL channel
156
interferer diversity so the average CIR at (55,70) is around 35 dB, Fig. 7.6.
Figure 7.6: CIR of DL channel [dB]
157
Problematic areas (if any) can be found around (90, 35) where the signal strength is quite low and the interference is quite low. Again, please note the rapid changes with location also in the CIR. Bit errors hardly occur, Fig. 7.7. The average BER is below
Figure 7.7: BER [%] of DL channel 10 /00 as a consequence of the good overall CIR. However, due to the FL, the BER is not uniformly distributed. Some radio blocks suer severely while others do not see interference at all. So despite the low BER, an increase in LLC frame delay - resulting from RLC retransmissions can be observed, Fig. 7.8. Some heavy delay which is highly localised is caused by transmission interruptions due to cell reselections. Delay in such cases is typically above 1.5 s on average. The ratio of pending radio blocks in DL is an inverse measure for the system load, Fig. 7.9. Saturation typically occurs at a ratio of 15 % or below. This is not the case here, so delay caused by congestion is mitigated within this investigation. A strong correlation with the BER is visible.
158
Figure 7.8: LLC frame delay [s], DL
Figure 7.9: Pending radio block ratio [0..1], DL
159
The RLC service duration, Fig. 7.10, is inuenced basically by radio block retransmissions. As the channel quality is high, the LA chooses high rate MCSs. The eects of cell
Figure 7.10: RLC service duration [s], DL reselections are not visible here as required retransmissions are handled on LLC layer. From the higher layer performance indicators, especially the delay measurements give valuable hints. Throughput evaluations are dicult due to the high location uncertainty. Fig. 7.11 shows the delay of IP segments. The high correlation with the delay of UDP segments is inevitable, Fig. 7.12. While the IP delay - caused by both, TCP and UDP trac shows the cell reselection locations, the UDP delay shows regular performance at these locations. The reason for this behaviour is the time out mechanism skipping old UDP packets while TCP packets will be retransmitted after timeouts. Also it can be seen that UDP transmissions are more sensitive to high BLEP. Around (90, 35), UDP is higher than IP delay. While the TCP window stalls if BLEP increases, the UDP packets - generated at constant frequency - simply ood the RLC queue. In summary, the deterioration of system performance caused by cell reselections is dependent on the user speed and on the reselection frequency. Even in indoor environments, the overall performance of GPRS is sucient for interactive and background trac. However, services with low delay requirements such as streaming or voice might perform low. This investigation also shows that trac performance in a multi-cell scenario is a local parameter, suggesting that mobile terminals should move during operation, namely move fast if quality is low and move slowly if quality is high.
160
Figure 7.11: IP segment delay [s], DL
Figure 7.12: UDP packet delay [s], DL
CHAPTER 8
Conclusions
he preceeding chapters give a comprehensive introduction into the EGPRS packet data service and its trac performance under typical load. Not only the structure of the involved radio protocols is explained and taken into account but also basic functionality of the RLC/MAC and PHY protocols. An overview of the means available to RRC is given and an analysis of their contribution to system performance is presented. The very detailed simulation environment, claiming to represent an EGPRS emulator, is introduced. A brief overview of the software architecture including limitations in protocol modelling accuracy gives a hint on the reliability to be expected of the emulation results. Models for the radio channel are introduced and the involved trac models are explained. The scenarios studied by emulation are presented and the respective results are discussed. A so-called reference scenario is being introduced which trac performance results serve for comparison purposes. Based on careful experiments, the following statements can be made on the RRC algorithms standardised for EGPRS: Any application of RRC algorithms shows remarkable performance improvement compared to the reference scenario. However, the contributions from dierent algorithms dier, signicantly. Frequency hopping allows to avoid extremely bad receive conditions of mobile terminals. Its benets are basically eective at low user speed and absolute improvements are low. FH may be combined with FL to achieve a smart adaptation to the currently oered trac and to the current interference situation in a cell and the system performance is improved then, a little. Link adaptation shows by far the highest gain in throughput and delay performance. The tale that LA must be applied dierently for delay-sensitive and throughput-sensitive services is shown not to be correct. In fact, both improvements go together. A comparison of the results in the reference scenario to that of the LA scenario, in addition, allows to deduce that throughput improvements from IR will be low but delay can be expected to increase substantially. Together with the practical limitations such as memory size and energy consumption in the MS, IR as an RRC algorithm appears not to be promising. Power control is a suitable means for mitigating signal shadowing. The DL PC range for EGPRS is lower than that for GSM speech services. Nonetheless PC is a helpful means of RRC. The increase of open loop control in terms of PC error compared to closed loop control is astonishingly low. Cell reselection causes transmission interrupts that degrade performance. The ratio of service time to gap time is dependent on the user speed, so performance deteriorates with increased user speed. The EGPRS service is also well suited for indoor service enabling usage of high rate MCSs. Cell reselection contributes delay that might degrade QoS of real time services under high terminal speed, severely. All algorithms mentioned have been evaluated using dierent parameter settings and applying parameters optimised for the scenarios investigated.
APPENDIX A
Link Level Mapping

Content A.1 Introduction to Link Level Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 A.2 Channel Coding for Data Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Keywords Link Level Mapping, Channel Coding, PDCH
he abstraction of the channel decoding process, known as link level mapping is very popular. Some problematic approaches should be avoided as discussed in Section. A.1 in order to obtain reasonable mapping sets given in Section. A.2.
A.1
Introduction to Link Level Mapping
The process for channel coding and especially decoding demands high computational eort. Within the NEs, the calculation is normally done by Digital Signal Processors (DSPs). Within a system level simulation, literally hundreds of such processes are required to run in parallel. Even a modern high performance workstation does not provide sucient processing power to serve these processes within reasonable time. An abstraction is required, the link level mapping. The mapping provides a model for the decoding process while the coding process is more or less skipped. Only the coding rate and therefore the size of the data blocks is considered. Input of such process are channel quality (CIR), user speed, morphological / topographical aspects (more general: multi path propagation and delay spread), data block size, modulation type, soft or hard decision, channel coding scheme and potential interference mitigation techniques such as frequency hopping. Output is the error ratio, especially the raw BER (after demodulation), the rBER (after decoding), FER for voice services and BLEP for data services. The following mapping types have been evaluated for usability in a system level simulation: 1. Independent mapping for BER and BLEP, separate input parameters: There are two mapping sets; one maps the CIR to the BER and one maps the CIR to the BLEP / FER / rBER. Each mapping set spans over as many dimensions as input parameters such as user speed, modulation type etc. (see above). The mapping is very accurate and maintenance eort is moderate as the number of mappings is not too large. 2. Independent mapping for BER and BLEP, input parameter guess from CIR variance: Again, the two mapping sets from CIR to the target performance indicators are involved. In order to reduce the number of mappings, the variance of consecutive CIR inputs is recorded and involved in the mapping. In this way, the inuence of user speed, multi path propagation, delay spread and frequency hopping is assumed to be covered. In reality, this approach showed severe errors when taking samples on a packet/frame basis. The only way to obtain an accurate mapping on the basis of variance measurements is to take a sample per symbol. Doing so, the
A.2. Channel Coding for Data Services
163
computational eort is again in the area of the decoding process itself and nothing is won. 3. Consecutive mapping of BLEP from BER, separate input parameters: The above mentioned mapping methods have one disadvantage. Especially if a random process for the demodulation / decoding eects is involved, the BER and BLEP mapping for a single CIR sample are uncorrelated. To provide correlation, the two mapping might be concatenated. The mapping CIR to BER remains as described. The second mapping set is changed to a BER to BLEP/FER/rBER mapping. Disadvantage is the high number of (potentially random) mapping processes in the second mapping. For an accurate mapping, one map per code bit is required. 4. Consecutive mapping of BLEP from BER, input parameter guess from BER variance: The consecutive approach is used as given above. Now, the variance of the raw BER samples (the output of the rst mapping) is used as an input for the BLEP/FER/rBER mapping [134]. This approach is similar to [58]. The same problems for the parameter guess from variance occur. Within the given simulations, the rst approach has been used. It avoids the problems of the variance guess and requires only a small mapping set for the coding process.
A.2
Channel Coding for Data Services
For GPRS services, the PDCH is dened as physical channel. Channel coding is standardised in [37]. Mapping sets for the rst and third mapping type are provided below. A.2.1 A.2.1.1 Independent Mappings, independent Parameters GPRS
The link level mapping for the PDTCH F channel was taken from document Technical Recommendation (TR) 45.050, Annex P [21]. In a feasibility study during the specication of reference transceiver conditions for GPRS channels for document TS 45.005 [36], several companies (Ericsson, Cselt, Alcatel) evaluated the link level performance of the PDTCH F for all 4 CSs under dierent reference channels. The following reference channels were considered within this investigation: A user in a car travelling through a city centre at 50 km/h is represented by the Typical Urban (TU)50 channel, Fig. A.1. If applied, frequency hopping is is assumed to be ideal. The TU3 channel represents a pedestrian in a city centre walking at 3 km/h, Fig. A.2. In order to test the performance of the GSM system at high speed, a user in the rural area travelling at 250 km/h is dened. The performance of the reference channel RA250 is displayed in Fig. A.3.
164
A. Link Level Mapping
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 CS 0.1 BLER BLER 1 2 3 4 0.1 1
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR
CS 1 2 3 4
0.01
0.01
0.001 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
0.001 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
TU50, no FH
TU50, ideal FH
Figure A.1: Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU50
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 CS 0.1 BLER BLER 1 2 3 4 0.1 1
CS 1 2 3 4
0.01
0.01
0.001 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
0.001 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
TU3, no FH
TU3, ideal FH
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 CS 0.1 BLER 1 2 3 4
0.01
0.001 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
RA250, no FH Figure A.3: Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, RA250
165
A.2.1.2
EGPRS
The link level mapping for the PDTCH F using EDGE MCSs has been derived from several publications. Molkdar and Featherstone provide an in-depth introduction to the link level performance of EDGE, e.g. [85], [84], also for incremental redundancy [86]. The optimum equalisation technique for narrow band channels is the Viterbi equaliser. Unfortunately, for 8PSK modulation Viterbi equalisation exhausts the computation capabilities of todays DSPs. Sub-optimum approaches are required introducing a ReducedState Sequence Estimation (RSSE) [90] such as Delayed Decision Feedback Estimation (DDFSE), described by Gerstacker [61]. This leads to slightly reduced link level performance. The following reference channels are required for this investigation: A user in a car travelling through a city centre at 50 km/h is represented by the TU50 channel, Fig. A.4. If applied, frequency hopping is assumed to be ideal.
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 MCS 0.1 BLER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40 0.1 BLER 1 MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40 Block Erasure Ratio over CIR
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001
TU50, no FH
TU50, ideal FH
Figure A.4: Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU50 It is interesting to observe that some MCSs such as 4 and 3 never become optimum for reasonable BLEP values. As expected, gains from FH are minor for the TU50 channel. The fading holes at high user speed are typically within one burst, so FH cannot provide much mitigation. The TU3 channel represents a pedestrian in a city centre walking at 3 km/h, Fig. A.5. The FH gain for low user speed is much higher as the fading holes are within the length of a burst or larger. In order to test the performance of the GSM system at high speed, a user in the rural area travelling at 250 km/h is dened. The performance of the reference channel RA250 is displayed in Fig. A.6. Only codecs with high redundancy survive these rough environment. The following assumptions have been made: The USF is always error-free. Link level simulations in TR 45.050 showed that the USF coding is more robust than CS 1 coding by at least 4 dB CIR. Header errors are neglected. Link level simulations showed that header errors are not severely inuencing link level performance if IR is switched o [86].
166
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 MCS 0.1 BLER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40 0.1 BLER 1
MCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001
TU3, no FH
TU3, ideal FH
Block Erasure Ratio over CIR 1 MCS 0.1 BLER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10 0 10 CIR 20 30 40
0.01
0.001
RA250, no FH Figure A.6: Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, RA 250
167
A.2.2
Consecutive Mapping, independent Parameters
The following mappings have been obtained by a link level simulator developed at the chair. Only the second mapping from BER to BLEP is shown. A.2.2.1 GPRS
For GPRS, 4 Coding Schemes (CSs) are dened. The performance is shown in Fig. A.7 for the TU3 channel and in Fig. A.8 for the TU50 channel.
Block Erasure Ratio over Raw Bit Errors 1 0.1 0.1 BLER BER 0.01 0.001 CS 1 2 3 4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 raw Bit Errors 1e-04 1e-05 0 20 40 60 80 1 2 3 4 100 120 140 Residual Bit Error Ratio over Raw Bit Errors
0.01
CS
0.001
raw Bit Errors
Figure A.7: Block erasure ratio and residual BER for GPRS PDTCHs, soft decision decoding, TU3 channel, no FH Parameters not covered by the denition of the TU3 channel, e.g. type of frequency hopping sequence must be covered by dierent modulation mappings (not shown here).
Block Erasure Ratio over Raw Bit Errors 1 0.1 0.1 BLER BER 0.01 0.001 CS 1 2 3 4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 raw Bit Errors 1e-04 1e-05 0 20 40 1 2 3 4 60 80 100 120 140 raw Bit Errors Residual Bit Error Ratio over Raw Bit Errors
0.01
CS
0.001
Figure A.8: Block erasure ratio and residual BER for GPRS PDTCHs, soft decision decoding, TU50 channel, no FH
A.2.2.2
EGPRS
For EGPRS, 9 Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCSs) are dened. The MCS 1 - 4 use GMSK modulation. The performance for the TU 3 channel is shown in Fig. A.9. The MCSs 5 - 9 use 8PSK modulation. The performance for the TU3 channel is shown in Fig. A.10.
168
BLER over Raw Bit Errors, 1st transmission

1 0.1
Residual BER over Raw Bit Errors, 1st transm.
0.1
0.01
BLER
BER
0.01 MCS 1 2 3 4 0.001 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0.001
1e-04
MCS 1 2 3 4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1e-05
raw Bit Errors
raw Bit Errors
Figure A.9: Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, GMSK modulation, soft decision decoding, no FH
BLER over Raw Bit Errors, 1st transmission
1 0.1
Residual BER over Raw Bit Errors, 1st transm.
0.1
0.01
BLER
BER
0.01 MCS 5 6 7 8 9 0.001 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
0.001 MCS 1e-04 5 6 7 8 9 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
1e-05
raw Bit Errors
raw Bit Errors
Figure A.10: Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, 8PSK modulation, soft decision decoding, no FH
The MAC headers are coded separately with higher redundancy. The performance for the TU3 channel is shown in Fig. A.11. MCSs 1 - 3 use header type 3, MCSs 5 and 6 use type 2 and MCSs 7 - 9 use type 1.
169
BLER over Raw Bit Errors, headers

1 0.1 0.1
Residual BER over Raw Bit Errors, headers
BLER
BER
0.01
0.01
Header Type 1 2 3
0.001
Header Type 1 2 3
1e-04 0.001 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
raw Bit Errors
raw Bit Errors
Figure A.11: Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, MAC headers, soft decision decoding, no FH
APPENDIX B
Data Evaluation
Content B.1 Introduction to Data Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 B.2 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Keywords Data Evaluation, Probes, Sorting
ata evaluation looks like a dull task at rst glance. For larger simulation scenarios with literally hundreds of interesting probes, data evaluation soon becomes challenging. Section. B.1 gives an introduction to the data collection in the simulation environment described above. Once data is collected, the whish to sort it meaningfully soon arises. The Section. B.2 deals with meaningful data sorting.
D
B.1
Introduction to Data Evaluation
Especially in large scenarios, the evaluation of the data should be well-organised. On the one hand, data should be collected and sorted within a single simulation run, on the other hand, the sorting should be easy to use. Finally, a meaningful representation of the data is required. Within this thesis, a data evaluation concept has been developed based on dynamic probes. While the location of the probes is specied in the software, the evaluation mode is set dynamically for a certain simulation run by a set of parameters.
B.1.1
Writing to the Probe
From the viewpoint of probe calling, we distinguish two types of probes. The rst one is a pure data logging service that does not allow any stochastic evaluation. Text strings with programmer-dened style are output using the method PDataBase::putText() [120]. The second one allows stochastic evaluation and requires oating point numbers as input. Two modes are available. In the absolute mode, the method PDataBase::put() writes the value to the probe. Alternatively, a dierential mode writes the dierence of the value between two consecutive calls. As this mode has been developed for the measurement of time dierences originally, it is addressed by the method PDataBase::putTime(). To distinguish dierent calls of PDataBase::putTime(), unique Ids have to be used in the latter case. Given the following example: For a delay measurement, the sending instance calls PDataBase::putTime() of the probe named delay. The PDU Id is provided in the probe call as a unique Id and the current model time as value. The receiving instance calls PDataBase::putTime() for the second time with the PDU Id and the new model time and the probe calculates the dierence between both values (the delay) and stores it. The value is not limited to the model time, any oating point value might be input.
B.2. Sorting
171
B.2
Sorting
For large scenarios, the collected data typically contains information that can only be obtained by sorting the data according to criteria like user location, service type or attached cell. The way how to sort the data may change between simulation series. It might even be necessary to sort the data in dierent ways within one simulation. To cope with these requirements, the following concept has been developed. The probe call is combined with a set of sorting Ids each one representing a means of sorting e.g. the current x-coordinate, the Id of the cell or any integer value one could think of. There might be more Ids provided with the PDataBase::putXX() call than evaluated in the current simulation run. In order to evaluate the data, one or more sorting criteria have to be dened for each probe. A sorting criterion species which buckets are set for each sorting Id and how they are aligned to the sorting Id values. For more than one sorting Id in use, each active Id spans a dimension of the data evaluation buckets. The order of the criteria has no inuence on the evaluation, except for the le name which is extended by SCn for the nth sorting criterion. To give an idea of the facilities, some basic examples might be useful. Fig. B.1 shows a criterion that does not sort at all. It requires one sorting Id as the groupOutputFormat
Value 10, 20, 30 ID 1, 2, 3 sortingCriterion groupOutputFormat = n accessList = 0 all samples in one bucket
10 20 30 File
Figure B.1: The most simple sorting criterion possible parameter has one entry n (= no sorting). All values are put into the same bucket during the simulation and the stochastic evaluation is done over all values, regardless of the sorting Ids. Certain Ids only might be included in the evaluation by putting them into the accessList. This is not done here, the value 0 allows any Id. Fig. B.2 shows a criterion with active accessList. Sorting is not performed, but the Ids
Value 10, 20, 30 ID 1, 2, 3 sortingCriterion groupOutputFormat = n accessList = 1, 5 8 idResolution = 0 all samples in one bucket
10
File
Figure B.2: The most simple sorting criterion with access list are limited to those in the accessList. Please note that idResolution has to be 0 in this case (if provided) in order to disable sorting. Also, no accessGroups must be provided. Fig. B.3 shows a way to sort the data into groups of equal size. The group size is determined by the entry idResolution (here 2). The entry groupOutputFormat = f commands the
172
B. Data Evaluation
Value 10, 20, 30 ID 1, 2, 3 ID 1,2 20 10 ID 3,4 30 ID 5,6 sortingCriterion groupOutputFormat = f accessList = 1 6 idResolution = 2 samples sorted by IDs into separate buckets
File 1
File 3
File 5
Figure B.3: Sorting into equal groups, output to separate les
probe to write the data into one le per bucket. An active sorting Id always has to set its access list. This allows the probe to nd out how many buckets have to be created, here: size of accessList (highest - lowest Id)/ idResolution = 3. The le names are extended with the lowest sorting Id they represent. Please note that providing Id 0 at the PDataBase::putXX() call puts the value into all buckets. This is a contribute to backward compatibility to versions 1 and 2 of the probe concept, Fig. B.4. It also allows a simple means to circumvent the sorting for special values,
Value 10, 20, 30 ID 0, 0, 0 ID 1,2 20 30 10 ID 3,4 10 20 30 ID 5,6 30 10 20 sortingCriterion groupOutputFormat = f accessList = 1 6 idResolution = 2 ID 0 > value is written to every bucket!
File 1
File 3
File 5
Figure B.4: The sorting Id 0 e.g. for broadcast information a sorting Id representing the station Id might be disabled in this way. There are special cases where the Ids must be sorted into irregular groups. Fig. B.5 shows the usage of the accessGroups entry. Groups are separated by a | sign. The le name
Value 10, 20, 30 ID 1, 2, 3 ID 2,6 20 ID 1 10 sortingCriterion ID 3,4,5 groupOutputFormat = f accessList = 1 6 30 accessGroups = 2,6 1 35 samples sorted by IDs into separate buckets File 3 no entry accessGroupNames
File 1 FileMS
File 2 FileBTS
FileSGSN accessGroupNames = MS BTS SGSN
Figure B.5: User-dened, irregular groups is either extended by the bucket Id (rst line in gure) if no entry accessGroupNamesxx is present or with the nth name on that line if the entry is present (second line in gure).
B.2. Sorting
173
The sorting into les might be done with any number of Ids, it works for the data logging and for the stochastic evaluation. The stochastic evaluation contains a minimum set of evaluations like mean, variance, coecient of variation, minimum, maximum, number of trials and others. The evaluation might be extended by setting more sophisticated evaluation types such as numerical data logging, checks for stochastic security (Batch means and LRE [13, 48, 81, 111, 112]), probability (density) functions, histograms and others. These methods require more memory and/or runtime. In case more than one sorting Id is used, the entries accessList and accessGroups have to be numbered, accessGroups2 addresses the groups for the second Id in line. Some data might be better understood if the buckets are written to a table instead of dierent les. This service is available for the stochastic evaluation service (it does not make sense for the data logging service). Only the basic evaluation type (StatEval, a subset of Moments) is available as there is no representation for a higher evaluation type in a table style, at least not for a human reader. For the same reason, the number of dimensions is reduced to two: one column and one row. A table might be created by setting the groupOutputFormat to r (= row) or c (= column). Fig. B.6 shows an example where both are set and so a two-dimensional table is created. Creating a one-dimensional table is also possible by setting c or r only. The
Value 10, 20, 30 20 ID (1; 1), (2; 2), (2; 1), (1;1) ID_2 = 1 ID_1 = 1 10 20 ID_2 = 2 sortingCriterion groupOutputFormat = r c accessList1 = 1 2 accessList2 = 1 2 idResolution = 1 1 tableParameters = mean tableFileFormat = matlab samples sorted by IDs into separate buckets
ID_1 = 2
30
20
15 0 30 20
Figure B.6: Sorting to table, output mean values to one le evaluated type is written to one le extended by the type name, here mean. It is possible to create several evaluation types in dierent les by adding more types to tableParameters, e.g. variance. As tables are typically used to sort a larger number of buckets, this exibility has been added to reduce the disk space required to write all possible types. Dierent le formats might be created, suitable for Matlab, OpenDx and many other tools for graphical representation by setting the parameter tableFileFormat. For the OpenDx format, empty buckets are marked with the invalid marker thus giving the renderer a hint to skip these entries. Each bucket in a table consumes 28 byte of memory, so large tables have to be designed carefully. Further sorting is possible by setting additional Ids to the le format. For the Ids containing the r and c entry on the groupOutputFormat line, a table is created, the tables are further sorted to dierent les according to Ids containing the f entry. However, one should consider that stochastic security must be contained for each bucket in order to create useful data. A high number of buckets will therefor increase the simulation time tremendously.
APPENDIX C
Link Adaptation Strategies

Content C.1 Selection of optimum MCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Throughput-optimised MCS Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Delay-optimised MCS Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.4 Standard proposal for MCS Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keywords Link Adaptation, MCS
174 174 176 178
ependent on the type of service, dierent strategies for the selection of the optimum MCS are discussed in literature. For bulk data, the throughput-optimised approach (Section. C.2) is most suitable. Streaming services demand low delay and jitter. A proposal for these services shows Section. C.3. The proposal from the standard for general purpose is given in the nal Section. C.4.
D
C.1
Selection of optimum MCS
While preprocessing of the measurement samples in the averaging process determines the behaviour of the LA process in time (e.g. quick or slow response), the MCS selection determines the overall behaviour towards throughput, delay and BLEP. A simple mapping from the measured Bit Error Probability (BEP) value (mean and CV) towards the optimum MCS sets the behaviour. Three selection sets are introduced. The rst one aims at throughput optimisation, the second one tries to minimise delay and jitter while the third one is for general purpose and follows a proposal from the standard.
C.2
Throughput-optimised MCS Selection
For bulk data services such as FTP, performance is mainly characterised by high throughput. As user interaction is seldomly required, delay is of minor importance. The selection of high MCSs with low redundancy for a given channel quality will serve these needs. A higher overall BLEP will be over-compensated by the gain in gross data rate. An appropriate MCS selection set is shown in Tab. C.1 and Tab. C.2. The MCS 4 is not selected as is shows poor performance. It is necessary to switch the modulation type (GMSK or 8PSK) if the channel quality changes severely. This region is marked with s in the tables. In this mapping, switching to 8PSK modulation starts with MCS 5 and switching to GMSK modulation starts with MCS 3. As measurements are taken separately for both modulation types, a problem might arise with aging of measurement samples after the switching.
C.2. Throughput-optimised MCS Selection
175
GMSK MEAN BEP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : 31
GMSK 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 s s s s
CV BEP 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 s s s s s : s s s
6 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 s s s
7 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 s s s s
8 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 s s s s
Table C.1: Throughput-optimised MCS selection for GMSK modulation
8PSK MEAN BEP 0 : 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 : 23 24 : 31
8PSK CV BEP 1 2 3 4 5 s s s s s : s s s s s s s s s s s s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 : 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 : 9 9 9 9 9
6 s s s 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9
7 s s 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9
8 s s 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9
Table C.2: Throughput-optimised MCS selection for 8PSK modulation
176
C. Link Adaptation Strategies
C.3
Delay-optimised MCS Selection
Streaming services such as packet video or even VoIP demand low delay and jitter. Proposals from literature demand a conservative MCS selection in order to decrease the BLEP. It should be noted that the corresponding decrease in channel capacity might even lead to an increase in delay! However, jitter variance might be decreases successfully with this approach as long as higher layers do not suer from timeouts. The mapping is shown in Tab. C.3 and Tab. C.4.
GMSK MEAN BEP 0 : 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 : 31 GMSK CV BEP 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 s s s s s s s : s s s s s 6 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 s s s 7 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 s s s s 8 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 s s s s
Table C.3: Delay-optimised MCS selection for GMSK modulation
C.3. Delay-optimised MCS Selection
177
8PSK MEAN BEP 0 : 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 : 31
8PSK CV BEP 1 2 3 4 5 s s s s s : s s s s s s s s s s s s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 : 9 9 9 9 9
6 s s s 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9
7 s s 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9
8 s s 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9
Table C.4: Delay-optimised MCS selection for 8PSK modulation
178
C. Link Adaptation Strategies
C.4
Standards proposal for MCS Selection
Within the standardisation document of the RLC/MAC protocol, a proposal for MCS selection is given for 8PSK modulation [43]. It has been enhanced by the author by a mapping set for the GMSK modulation as well as a switching between the two modulation types. The corresponding mapping tables are shown in Tab. C.5 and Tab. C.6.
GMSK MEAN BEP 0 : 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 : 20 21 22 : 29 30 31 GMSK CV BEP 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 : 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 : 4 4 4 4 4 s s s s s s s s s s 6 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 s s 7 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 s s 8 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 s s
Table C.5: Addition to Standards proposal for MCS selection for GMSK modulation
C.4. Standards proposal for MCS Selection
179
8PSK MEAN BEP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 : 20 21 22 : 27 28 : 31
8PSK 1 2 s s s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 7 7 8 8 9 9
CV 3 s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9
BEP 4 5 s s s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 : 7 7 8 8 8 8 : 8 8 9 9 : 9 9
6 s s 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9
7 s s 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9
8 s s 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9
Table C.6: Standards proposal for MCS selection for 8PSK modulation
APPENDIX D
Application Layer Protocols

n emulator uses protocols as close to the standard as possible. The implementation of the application layer protocols follows the specications. This appendix serves as a reference for application layer protocol functions. Choices made for the numerous protocol parameters are given.
A
D.1
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
The HTTP is based on a client-server architecture. The client requests for content, the server responds. HTTP requires a reliable transport service and is mostly carried over the Transport Control Protocol (TCP). A web session consists of a number of pages, Fig. D.1. The initial page is downloaded, the rst GET request fetches the main object with the
Figure D.1: A HTTP session Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) content. Consecutive GET requests fetch the inline objects found in the HTML content. If all responses have been received, the user starts reading the page. When he/she nishes, the next page download is triggered. We will now have a closer look at the performance of HTTP. HTTP is known in two versions. The main dierence is the handling of the underlying transport layer service. Version 1.0 [5] opens and closes an own TCP connection for each request / response pair, Fig. D.2. Each connection establishment and release consumes one RTT which introduces
Figure D.2: HTTP version 1.0
D.1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
181
high delay. The send window size of the TCP is reset for each request/response pair which limits the throughput for both directions. In order to mitigate these problems, HTTP Version 1.1 [47] introduces mechanisms for improved throughput via TCP networks, e.g. persistent connections (Fig. D.3). Instead of a new connection establishment for each
Figure D.3: HTTP version 1.1 using keep alive timer and early closing request/response pair, the session is kept during a page download. A supervisory timer tiKeepAlive at the server side cares for proper closing of the session. The well-known apache server uses a default keep alive duration of 15 s. The optimum timeout value can be calculated according to [82]: F () f () with N E [N 1] (E [X1 ] E [X2 ]) =: E [N ] = rnd. variable: pages per session =
X1 = rnd. variable: page transfer time, new connection X2 = rnd. variable: page transfer time, existing connection Assumed a Weibull distribution for the inter click-time: f (x) = (bxb1 /ab )ex/a) F (x) = 1 e(x/a) b Here: E [X1 ] = 10; E [X2 ] = 6; E [N ] = 5 In the same publication, early closing is recommended based on the measurements made in xed networks where typically < 1 s. The only optimisation criterion is the server load. In mobile networks, late closing is more attractive, Fig. D.4. Higher and increased trac costs make early closing appear less attractive here. Indeed, early closing might be a performance barrier and late closing allows shorter response times and reduced network load. Please note that the send window size remains high for consecutive pages. This again increases the throughput. However, there is still one RTT remaining between request and response. Even this can be removed if pipelining is activated, Fig. D.5. After the download of the main HTTP object, the URL of all inline objects required to complete
b b
yields b = shape parameter
with b = 0.9 = 2.88s
182
D. Application Layer Protocols
Figure D.4: HTTP version 1.1 using keep alive timer
Figure D.5: HTTP pipelining
the page are known. This allows to send all requests consecutively without waiting for the responses. There is however a small limitation due to the TCP send window as the mean request size is 360 byte [12]. Measurements of HTTP trac [12] showed that during a web session 5 pages are transferred in average with a negative-exponentially distributed read time of 15 s. The number of pages follows a geometric distribution. A page download consists of GET requests by the client and a GET responses by the server. The responses consist of a main object and optional inline objects. The number of inline objects follows a neg.-exp. distribution with 5 objects in average. The other data sizes are listed in Tab. D.1. The GET response for the rst object has a larger size than Type GET req. GET resp. (main) GET resp. (inline) distribution neg.-exp. neg.-exp. neg.-exp. mean size (byte) 360 10000 7000 min. size (byte) 30 100 100 max. size (byte) 6000 128000 128000
Table D.1: HTTP objects the consecutive GET responses containing the inline objects. Choi found the type of distribution using a best-t algorithm [12]. As we can see in his gures, the dierence between the recorded packet size and the estimated probability
D.2. Post Oce Protocol (POP) Version 3
183
density function is around 5 % at an object size of 64 kbyte. Object sizes above 64 kbyte are hardly found in the data he recorded but are present with a density of 5 % in the distribution he proposes. To avoid errors based on very large packets, the packet size has been limited as listed in the table. A MS has limited memory and is therefore not able to download huge objects.
D.2
Post Oce Protocol (POP) Version 3
For downloading email the POP3 is commonly used. Fig. D.6 shows a typical POP3 session as described in [89].
Client Download Request TCP Handshake Greetings (RAND) Authorization APOP (User,Result) Authorization OK Transaction Stat Transaction List OK(Mail list) Retr(Mail ID) OK(Mail content) Dele(Mail ID) OK OK(Number of mails, total size) Server
Quit Update OK Update TCP Session end
Figure D.6: Message Sequence Chart (MSC) of typical POP3 session
For authorisation, the client sends user name and password in an encrypted message (APOP command). After receiving the conrmation of the authentication, the client checks for the number of new email (Stat command). As the model refers to a frequent download, one email per session is retrieved. Next, the client demands the list of mails, including ID and data size with the list command. Each email is retrieved (retr command) and deleted (dele command). After the successful reception of all email, the session is closed.
184
Fig. D.7 shows the length distribution of email. The original distribution is taken from [95] and it has been adapted to todays trac. It follows a bimodal lognormal distribution
Email size 1 0.14 0.8 P(x <= X) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1000 large emails small emails all emails 10000 size (byte) 100000 0.12 0.1 P(x) 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 1000 10000 size (byte) 100000 Email size large emails small emails all emails
Figure D.7: Length distribution of email, adapted with the two parts representing large and small email (with and wo. attachment). The average size of large email has been increased acc. to [127] so that the resulting average of the whole distribution increases from approx. 1000 byte to approx. 10 000 byte. IThe bimodal switching point has been shifted from 2048 byte to 4096 byte resulting in a continuous distribution with an average email size of 6500 byte. This distribution has been used in all emulations. For the upload of email, the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) protocol is used [79]. The distribution of the email size is the same as for the download.
D.3
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The FTP [101] is used for the transmission of bulk data, Fig. D.8. As data transfer
User Interface
User
Server PI
FTP Commands FTP Replies (Telnet) Data Connection
User PI
File System
Server DTP ServerFTP
User DTP UserFTP
File System
Figure D.8: File transfer protocol, transmission model requires reliable transmission, FTP is usually carried by TCP. In order to prioritise the protocol-related commands over the bulk data transfer, FTP uses two sockets. The session is controlled by the Protocol Interpreter (PI) using a reduced set of telnet commands via the control socket. The Data Transfer Process (DTP) sends/receives the data via the data socket and cares for data retrieval/storage. The PI and the DTP process might be located on dierent machines in order to allow remote operation.
D.4. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
185
Both, the le sizes and the number of les transferred in a session have a high variance [95], Fig. D.9. This results in a total amount of data transferred in a session ranging over
FTP file and session size 1 0.8 P(x <= X) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 100 10000 size (byte) 1e+06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 1 100 10000 size (byte) 1e+06 FTP file and session size file size session size
file size session size
Figure D.9: Data distribution of FTP sessions 6 decades ( 30 byte to 23 Mbyte).
D.4
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
For the control of streaming sessions, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) [109] has become very popular with the introduction of telephony via VoIP. The SIP is an application control protocol, it is not bound to other specic protocols but is frequently used together with RTP, Real-time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) and Session Description Protocol (SDP) [113, 114]. The typical user model has the shape of a trapezoid, Fig. D.10. Each user establishes a
Server 1 User 1 Server 2 User 2 Model
Figure D.10: Session initiation protocol, reduced trapezoid connection with a server and the servers correspond with each other. As the focus of this thesis is not set on the examination of the core network, a simplied model is assumed. It is based on the assumption that a certain type of responses (the 100 and 300 family) is not issued. The assumption holds if 1. All users are connected to the same server and 2. The callee responds within a response time of 100 ms The second condition might be interpreted as follows: A waiting loop answers immediately and plays a message or music until the callee accepts the call. In that case, a triangular model can be assumed as shown with the dotted lines. It leads to a simplied state machine. SIP might be carried over TCP or UDP services. For unreliable links, enhancements are required [108]. The protocol communication is based on requests and responses, similar
P(x)
186
to the HTTP. In addition, SIP has internal states. The state machine is shown as a MSC in Fig. D.11
Client Terminated connect_req Calling Resp(OK) connect_resp Timer A Terminated Req(Invite) Proceeding Resp(OK) connect_resp Terminated disc_req Trying Timer F disc_conf Completed Timer K Terminated Terminated Completed Timer J Timer E Resp(OK) disc_resp SESSION Req(Bye) Trying t resp Terminated disc_ind connect_ind t resp Req(Invite) Proceeding Server Terminated connect_ind t resp
Timer B connect_conf
Timer A
Figure D.11: Session initiation protocol, basic transitions
If a session is to be established, the client sends an Invite request to the server side and waits in state Calling. The request is protected by two timers: timer A causes retransmissions of the request on expiry, the interval is exponentially increased starting at T1 = 0.5 s. Expiry of timer B after 64 T1 s stops the attempt and reports an error to higher layers. On reception of the Invite request, the server indicates the new connection request to the user and waits for a response in Proceeding up to tresp = 0.1s. We assumed that the callee will respond within this interval and the server sends an OK response and stays in Terminated. At the reception of the OK response, the client conrms the session establish request to the user and proceeds to state Terminated; the session is established. There are two dierent state machines, one for the invite request and one for all other request. The one for the invite is the simpler one as it is assumed that the entities will exist during the session. For all other requests, this is not necessarily the case. In order to end the session, the client sends a Bye request, starts timer E for retransmissions and timer F for the overall protection similar to the invite case and waits in state Trying. The server indicates the session end to the user and waits for the response in Trying. On reception of the response it starts timer J, sends the OK response and stays in Completed. If the client side retransmits the Bye request, the server side will answer an OK without informing the user until timer J expires after 64 T1 s. The client receiving the OK response informs the user about the conrmation of the session end, sets timer K and stays in Completed. In this state, it receives duplicated OK responses caused by
D.5. RTP
187
retransmitted Bye requests that have been delayed. On expiry of timer K after T4 = 5 s, the process proceeds to Terminated and is immediately erased.
D.5
RTP
The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) provides a service for carrying frequent small data packets in unacknowledged mode. It is used for streaming services like voice, audio or video streaming. Adaptations are available to support Adaptive Multirate (AMR) [117].
D.6
Voice
Voice is one of the most important services in terms of prot. The typical user is willing to pay a much higher price for a voice service than for a data service with comparable QoS requirements. It is commonly accepted that the arrival process of voice sessions follows a Poisson process, and so the inter arrival times are negative-exponentially distributed with mean durations of 60 - 90 seconds. A business user produces 25 mERL in average, a private user produces 18 mERL. A voice session consists of talk spurts and silence intervals. Brady [7, 8] has shown that both follow negative-exponential distributions with mean durations of 1.34 s for talk spurts and 1.67 s for silence intervals. In addition, he found that a talk spurt is never shorter than 20 ms and a silence interval is at least 205 ms long. For a user of the xed network the Mini-source model is used to generate talk spurts, Fig. D.12. On expiry of tiSilence, the silence interval ends and a new talk spurt is started.
Figure D.12: State machine of voice model
188
The speech timer is set and the state changes to Speech. The other transition follows just the opposite behaviour. Acoustic Echo Especially in mobile devices where the case consists of a solid material, there is hardly any acoustic attenuation between the microphone and the loudspeaker. In a conventional Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN), the echo is mitigated by an Acoustic Echo Canceller (AEC). which is located at the network side, Fig. D.13. This means that the signal
Network Acoustic Echo Acoustic Echo Cancellation
Figure D.13: Acoustic echo received by the mobile station is transferred back to the network resulting in higher trac load on the UL [45, 62]. Fig. D.14 shows the distribution of the talk spurts and silence intervals for the link to the network assumed that both voice sessions are modelled by the Mini-Source model. The mean talk spurt duration is found to be 1.87 s, the mean silence interval lasts 0.82 s.
Speech Duration Uplink 1 0.8 P(t<T) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 T [sec] 4 5 6 talk spurt silence spurt
Figure D.14: Distribution of talk spurt durations and silence interval durations with crosstalking It should be noted that in premium-class handsets, a software solution for AEC is often available. To model the acoustic echo in UL direction, a more sophisticated state machine is required, Fig. D.12. If a talk spurt starts from the network and the mobile user is silent, the process transits from Silence to Crosstalking. A talk spurt is started towards the network. If the end of a talk spurt from the network is received, the process transits back
D.7. Audio Streaming
189
to Silence and ends the talk spurt to the network. In state Speech, the state changes to Speech/Crosstalking without changing the mode of the link to the network. Voice Activity Detection (VAD) The voice encoder produces speech frames on a frequent basis. Typical interframe intervals last 30 ms for the codec proposed by the ITU rec. G.723.1 [74] and 20 ms for most other codecs [24, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33] The ITU codec has two codec modes, the high quality mode uses a bandwidth of 6.3 kbit/s resulting in 24 byte frame size, Fig. D.15.
Figure D.15: Voice frame generation and SID insertion If the input signal falls below a predened threshold, the voice frame generation is stopped. This method is called Voice Activity Detection (VAD), it reduces the trac load by the percentage of silence. Comfort Noise Generation (CNG) As the listener feels uncomfortable if no acoustic signal is present, the noise level is recorded at the sender during silence intervals and is coded in a low bandwidth channel. For the ITU codec, the Silence Descriptor (SID) frame is 4 byte long. The noise signal is put to the receivers loudspeaker. This is called Comfort Noise Generation (CNG). SID frames are produced immediately after the end of a talk spurt and if the noise level changes. We have assumed noise level changes to happen frequently every 200 ms. Other codecs use dierent SID style, e. g. [23, 25, 26, 29, 34].
D.7
Audio Streaming
Since the availability of low bandwidth high quality real-time decoding techniques, audio streaming over the Internet has become popular. One of the most famous codecs is the audio codec proposed by Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) 1 Layer 3 (MP3) [67]. The models for interactive services and for streaming services show one remarkable dierence: While the time consumed for an interactive service is determined by the size of the content, the duration of a streaming session is mostly determined by the time the user is willing to follow the content. The input signal is passed to a sub-band lter (32 lter bands) and transformed to the frequency domain. The signal is analysed applying a psychoacoustic model to nd masking eects of loud frequency bands over silent frequency bands. A bit allocation algorithm selects the coding depth of the frequency band according to the estimated importance of the frequency coecient based on the Mask to Noise Ratio (MNR). This results in a variable packet size. The packets are mapped on a frame with frequent occurrence (26 ms) and frame size adapted to the nominal output data rate, Fig. D.16.
190
Frame 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11
Frame 2
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Data 1
111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 Data 2 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11
Data 3
000000 111111 11 00 000000 111111 000000 111111 00 11 000000 111111 00 11 000000 111111 00 11 00 11 0 000000 1 111111 0 1 0 1 00 11 000000 111111 0 1 Data 4 Sync Side Info 0 1 000000 111111 00 11 0 1 0 1 00 11
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11 000000 111111
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Frame 3
Frame 4
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Figure D.16: Mapping of MPEG 1 layer 3 data blocks to frames
The frame size has been measured with a free decoder [56] and has been found to be almost constant. MPEG 1 layer 3 allows borrowing between frames in a way that large packets are transferred in more than one frame while short packets might be stacked within one frame. The output data rates for MP3 are shown in Tab. D.2. Data rates above 112 kbit/s provide near Compact Disc audio quality. Type Data Rate [kbit/s] 1 32 2 40 3 48 4 56 5 64 6 80 7 96 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 112 128 160 192 224 256 320
Table D.2: MPEG 1 layer 3 data rates, CBR
D.8
Video Streaming
Video streaming applications have been forecasted to be the driving force for upcoming 3G networks. The most popular streaming format for low-quality video has been dened by MPEG 4. MPEG 4 denes a hierarchical layer structure for task separation, Fig. D.17.
Elementary Streams SL SL SL SL SL SL SL Elementary Stream Interface
FlexMux Channel
Sync Layer DMIF Application Interface
SLPacketized Streams
FlexMux TransMux Channel
FlexMux
FlexMux FlexMux Streams
DMIF Layer DMIF Network Interface .... Delivery Layer
File
Broad Inter cast active
(RTP) UDP IP
(PES) AAL2 MPEG2 ATM TS
H223 PSTN
DAB MUX
TransMux Layer (not specified in MPEG 4) ....
TransMux Streams
Figure D.17: Hierarchical layer structure dened by MPEG4 The transport facility might be provided by IP or by the MPEG 2 transport stream. Note that also storage to a le or to a database is a valid transport facility. The Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework (DMIF) cares for session management. Flexible multiplexing facilities for streams are applied by FlexMux channels by the DMIF layer. The
D.8. Video Streaming
191
Sync layer cares for stream synchronisation as a part of the DMIF. At the application layer, Elementary Streams (ESs) are created by the dened video, audio and text codecs. Video Coding The bit rates supported by MPEG 4 typically range from 5 kbit/s to more than 1 Gbit/s. Progressive as well as interlaced video is supported. The image resolution is selected from sub-Quarter Common Intermediate Format (QCIF) up to Studio resolutions (4k x 4k pixels). Frame rates for Common Intermediate Format (CIF) are 30 Hz and 15 Hz, for QCIF and sub-QCIF 15 Hz and 10 Hz are available. The following investigations are based on QCIF resolution at 15 Hz resulting in a typical bit rate of 14.4 kbit/s. A video stream following the MPEG 4 format consists of up to three dierent frame types:
Intra coded (I) frames: An I frame consists of a full Joint Pictures Expert Group (JPEG) picture. It establishes a synchronisation point for further frames. I frames are decoded independently from other frames. Predictive coded (P) frames: A P frame carries information about the dierences of the current picture relative to the last picture (motion compensated prediction). The frame size is normally remarkably smaller than an I frame and slightly larger than a B frame. Bidirectionally predictive coded (B) frames: A B frame carries motion compensated prediction relative to the last and to the next I / P frame. This allows very high compression rates, so the B frame is normally the smallest frame type.
The Group of Pictures (GoP) represents the order of frames in the stream. It determines the required bit rate and channel quality. Two typical sequences are frequently used. For medium quality streaming such as movie downloads, the GoP 15.3 is used, Fig. D.18.
Frame size
Type
I B B P B B P B B P B B P B B I B B P
Figure D.18: MPEG stream: GoP 15.3 The sequence is read from the GoP as follows: every 15th frame is an I frame and every 3rd frame is a P frame. For higher quality such as video conferencing, the 15.1 GoP is used. B frames are not transmitted for this GoP. While the I frame coding is trivial (basically, a JPEG gure is transmitted), the coding of P frames and B frames requires higher eort, Fig. D.19. From the sequence of input images, moving sprites are determined and the motion vectors for the sprites are calculated by the motion estimation. In a second branch, the prediction preprocessing is prepared. Each image is transformed to the frequency domain by a Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT), the representation is then weighted and quantised. To check the quality of the transformation, the quantisation and the DCT are reversed and compared to the original. The result is stored in an image memory. According to the GoP, the frame type determines the next prediction to be used: For an I frame, the transformed image is run-length encoded, compressed by a Human coding
192
Image Memory (Originals) Motion Estimation
Motion Vectors
Image Memory (Backtransformation)
Intraframes
Prediction Prediction P I B
+
Subtractive Mixer
+ +
Additive Mixer
Vectorization DCT
S S
Reorganization IDCT
Quantization
S
Inverse Quantization
Backcoupling RLE Huffman Coding Video Multiplexing Shape Coding
Figure D.19: MPEG4 video coding structure
and multiplexed to a video stream. For a P frame, the static part of the picture is removed and only the motion information is coded in the same way as for the I frame as a forward prediction from the last I frame. For the B frame, motion information is coded relative to the neighbouring I/P frames. From the motion vectors, the shape of the moving object is calculated and masks the xed image.
APPENDIX E
Reference Scenario
Content E.1 Session Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 Application Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.3 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.4 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.5 GPRS Control Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.6 GPRS User Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.7 GPRS RRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.8 GPRS PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.9 GSM RRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.10 GSM PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.11 GSM BTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.12 GSM MSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.13 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keywords Reference Scenario, Parameter Settings, Simulation
194 194 196 198 198 198 202 203 204 207 210 210 210
n order to meet the requirements of network operators for sophisticated adaptation of the protocol behaviour towards each special mode of operation, a large amount of parameters is introduced for ne-tuning in the involved protocols. It is hardly possible to tune all parameters and to understand the behaviour in detail, the pure simulation time for this eort would rise to incredible 12000 years! To circumvent this problem without reducing accuracy of the protocol models, most mechanisms (and therefor most parameters) have been implemented as standardised. However, their values are not changed within these investigations. In this appendix, the default values for all parameters are provided. The changes (if any) are mentioned in the specic simulation scenario.
194
E. Reference Scenario
E.1
Session Generation
The load generation is performed by a stochastic model of sessions and session inter arrival times, both negative exponentially distributed. sessionGap range [true, false], default = false Toggles between usage of session gap or inter arrival time in order to determine inactivity periods. For IAT, a negative exponential distribution and a queue are used, for the session gap, a negative exponential distribution is used. if sessionGap = false: meanSessionIAT range [0..inf] sec., default = 600.0 Mean inter arrival time of sessions. maxSessionIAT range [0..inf] sec., default = 1000000.0 Maximum inter arrival time of sessions. sessionRetryInterval range [0..inf] sec., default = 2.0 Time after which a session setup retry takes place when connection was rejected by lower layer prob(HTTP/Ftp/Smtp/Wap/Mms/Pop3/Video/ Audio/Voice)Session range [0.0 .. 1.0] Probability for the selection of session type. Default: 30% HTTP sessions, 70% POP3 sessions l2Prot(Http/Ftp/Smtp/Wap/Pop3/Video/Audio/Voice) range [GSM, GPRS, 802 11] Protocol used to serve the session on layer 2. default: voice uses GSM, all other protocols use GPRS maxDur(Http/Ftp/Smtp/Wap/Pop3/Video/ Audio/Voice)Session range [0..inf] sec., default = 3000.0 User Patience: if the session is not terminated by the system before this time it is terminated by the impatient user. meanDur(Video/Audio/Voice)Session range [0..inf] sec, default = 80 / 70 / 60 For services like video, audio and voice, the length of the session is not determined by the amount of data to be transferred, but it is xed by the amount of time the user spends talking/ listening/ watching. This is represented by a distribution in time, typically neg. exp. distributed. minDur(Video/Audio/Voice)Session range [0..inf] sec, default = 0.04 / 0.03 / 0.02 Minimum duration for a Video/Audio/Voice session.
defaultDstIpV4Addr range [1..inf], default = 10000 The Domaine Name System (DNS) is not implemented but a xed server is assumed. This is the IP address of the server the client connects to.
E.2.1
HTTP settings
meanHttpPagesPerSession range [1.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 Number of requested pages during a HTTP session, follows a geometric distribution minHttpPagesPerSession range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Minimum number of HTTP pages requested during a HTTP session. maxHttpPagesPerSession range [1 .. inf], default = 50 Maximum number of HTTP pages requested during a HTTP session. meanHttpObjectsPerPage range [1.0 .. inf], default = 2.5 Mean number of objects per HTTP page, follows a geometric distribution. minHttpObjectsPerPage range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Minimum number of objects per HTTP page. maxHttpObjectsPerPage range [1 .. inf], default = 50 Maximum number of objects per HTTP page. meanHttpReadtimePerPage range [0.0 .. inf], default = 12.0 Time the user needs to read the web page, this is the mean of a negative-exponential distribution. meanHttpReqObjSize range [1.0 .. inf] byte, default = 200.0 Size of request objects, log-n-distributed. varHttpReqObjSize range [0.0 .. inf] byte, default = 106.52 Variance of size of request objects, log-n-distributed. maxHttpReqObjSize range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 2000 Maximum size an HTTP client object is limited to. minHttpReqObjSize range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 100 Minimum size an HTTP client object is limited to. meanHttp(Main/Inline)ObjSize range [0.001 .. inf], default = 9.4 Mean size of HTTP server objects, erlang-k distributed. Not all combination of mean and variance are possible. The variance for un-matching pairs will be rounded towards the next k value. NOTE: The size is 2.0(the value drawn from the erlang-k distribution) varHttp(Main/Inline)ObjSize range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.2 Variance of size of HTTP server objects, erlang-k distributed. Not all combination of mean and variance are possible. The variance for un-matching pairs will be rounded towards the next k value. NOTE: The size is 2.0(the value drawn from the erlang-k distribution)
E.2
Application Layer
tcpAbortiveReleaseForUserInterrupt range [true,false], default = true Behaviour of TCP on user interrupt: false: Normal close (FIN / ACK) for both sides true: Use Abortive Release (RST). This corresponds to the lingering option with linger timer = 0 isClient range [true, false] Toggles client / server behaviour of this station, e.g. active/passive open for transport layer protocols.
E.2. Application Layer
195
maxHttp(Main/Inline)ObjSize range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 64000 Maximum size an HTTP server object is limited to. minHttp(Main/Inline)ObjSize range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 100 Minimum size an HTTP server object is limited to. isHttpServer range [true, false] Toggles behaviour of HTTP instance httpKeepAlive range [true, false], default = true Toggles keep-alive feature (open transport layer connection during HTTP page) httpKeepAliveTimer range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default: 15.0 Time idle connection is kept open if keep-alive feature is active. httpEarlyClose range [true, false], default = false In conjunction with keep-alive feature: If true, closes the connection immediately after page download (the next page is expected from a dierent server). If false, connection is kept open (next page is expected from same server). httpPipelining range [true, false], default = false Toggles usage of pipelining for request no. 2 .. n. httpTcpTimeout range [0.0 .. inf] sec., default = 3000 TCP timeout provided during open call. If set to 0.0, the default (300s) is used.
E.2.4
WAP settings
isWapServer range [true, false] Is this a server for the wireless application protocol (Wireless Application Protocol (WAP))?
E.2.5
MMS settings
isMmsServer range [true, false] Is this a server for the multimedia messaging service (Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS))?
E.2.6
POP3 settings
isPop3Server range [true, false] Is this a server for the post oce protocol Version3 (POP3)? pop3MeanItemsInMailbox range [0.001 .. inf], default = 1.0 Mean number of email in mailbox that are downloaded during one session. Amount follows a geometric distribution. pop3MinItemsInMailbox range [0 .. inf], default = 1 Minimum number of email in mailbox that are downloaded during one session. pop3MaxItemsInMailbox range [0 .. inf], default = 1 Maximum number of email in mailbox that are downloaded during one session. pop3TcpTimeout range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 3000 TCP timeout provided during open call. If set to 0.0, the default (300s) is used.
E.2.2
SMTP settings
isSmtpServer range [true, false] Is this a server for the simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)?
E.2.7
Email sizing
E.2.3
FTP settings
isFtpServer range [true, false] Is this a server for the le transfer protocol (FTP)? ftpLogTotalMean range [0.0 .. inf] byte, default = 16.0 File size transferred in an FTP session, log-normal distributed, provided as power of 2 (2f tpLogT otalM ean ) ftpLogTotalVariance range [0.0 .. inf], default = 0.0 Variance of le size transferred in an FTP session, lognormal distributed, provided as power of 2 (2f tpLogT otalV ariance ) ftpLogFileMean range [0.001 .. inf], default = 12.0 Size of an FTP object transferred within one TCP data request, normal-distributed and cut to 32000 bytes. ftpLogFileVar range [0.001 .. inf], default = 11.55 Variance of size of an FTP object transferred within one TCP data request.
Email is split into two groups, large email with attachments and small email without attachment. The size distribution of email follows a bimodal distribution, both parts are approximated by a log2normal distribution. The separation is a the size 2k byte / P(s <= 2k byte) = 0.8 emailSmallDataSizeLogMean range [0.0001 .. inf], default = 10.0 Mean size of small email. The size is 2emailSmallDataSizeLogM ean . emailSmallDataSizeLogVariance range [0.0001 .. inf], default = 2.13 Variance of size of small email. The variance is set to 2emailSmallDataSizeLogV ariance . emailLargeDataSizeLogMean range [0.0001 .. inf], default = 9.50 Mean size of large email. The size is 2emailLargeDataSizeLogM ean . emailLargeDataSizeLogVariance range [0.0001 .. inf], default = 12.08 Variance of size of large email. The variance is set to 2emailLargeDataSizeLogV ariance . emailMinSize range [1 .. inf], default = 300 Minimum size of an email, forced by headers etc.
196
emailMaxSize range [1 .. inf], default = 100000 Maximum size of a download-able email
E.2.10
SIP settings
isSipServer range [true, false] Is this a server for the session initiation protocol (SIP)? sip(VoIP/Audio/Video)Port range [1025 .. 32000], default = 5061/5062/5063
E.2.8
Audio stream settings
audioRtpPayloadType range [MPA, userDef], default = MPA Type of payload (CODEC) for RTP protocol. MPA = MPEG 2 layer 3, userDef = dened by frame size / interframe duration. For MPA type: audioMP3CodeRate range [32 .. 320] kbit/s, default = 32 Codec rate of MP3 stream. NOTE: this is the maximum bit rate for Variable Bit Rate (VBR) and the constant bit rate for Constant Bit Rate (CBR). available types: 32 (mono) 40 48 56 (stereo) 64 80 96 112 (near CD) 128 (near CD) 160 (CD) 192 (CD, Layer 2) 224 256 (Layer 2) 320
E.2.11
Voice settings
voiceDtxFlag range [true, false] Use DTX (insert SID frames?) voiceMiniSourceSpeechDuration range [0.0001, inf] sec, default = 1.34 For the Minisource Trac generator, speech duration and silence duration are distributed negative exponentially. The parameter sets lambda of the distribution. voiceMiniSourceSilenceDuration range [0.0001, inf] sec, default = 1.67 For the Minisource Trac generator, speech duration and silence duration are distributed negative exponentially. The parameter sets lambda of the distribution. voiceCrosstalking range [true, false], default = true Cross talking normally increases the load on the UL as the echo cancellation is located in the network. Use false to produce symmetrical link utilisation. voIpRtpPayloadType range [GSM, GSM EFR, G723], default = G723 Type of payload (CODEC) for RTP protocol.
Table E.1:
Audio MPEG 2 layer 3 codec types
E.3
For userDef type: audioInterframeDuration range [0.00001 .. inf] sec, default = 0.2 Duration between two consecutive audio frames audioPayloadLength range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 4000 Payload size of audio frame.
Transport Layer
activePortsList range [0 .. 6000], default = 80 110 536 5060 5061 5062 5063 NOTE: Well-known ports are those up to 1024. However, the SIP ports have to be handled from here, too. 536 is a dummy port for earthing of CS voice calls. ipV4Addr range [1 .. 64000], default = 10000 IP V4 address of the server station (xed here as we do not have domain name resolution). ackedTrProt range [TCP] Type of transport layer protocol for acknowledged data service (primitive TR Data req) unackedTrProt range [UDP] Type of transport layer protocol for unacknowledged data service ( TR Unitdata req)
E.2.9
Video stream settings
videoRtpPayloadType range [userDef] Type of payload (CODEC) for RTP protocol. userDef = dened by frame size / interframe duration. For userDef type: videoInterframeDuration range [0.00001 .. inf] sec, default = 0.015 Duration between two consecutive video frames. video(I/P/B)FrameLength range [1 .. inf], default = 775 / 100 / 63 Length of I-Frame, P-Frame or B-Frame. videoGoPArr range [I, B, P], default = I B B P B B P B B P B B P BB Array containing the group of pictures. This is the sequence of I, B and P frames used for the coding. Typical sequences: IBBPBBPBBPBBPBB IPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
E.3.1
Session Manager settings
There are two session managers available. One does not perform any action on the lower layers and simply answers the request. This is used for protocol that have no session establishment, e.g. IEEE 802.11. The other one triggers a GPRS PDP context activation / deactivation. The following description refers to the GPRS type instance
E.3. Transport Layer
197
gprsPdpAddressType range [IPv4, IPv6, PPP], default = IPv4 Type of PDP address involved in the context. gprsReliabilityClass range [AGTP ALLC ARLC P, UAGTP ALLC ARLC P, UAGTP UALLC ARLC P, UAGTP UALLC UARLC P, UAGTP UALLC UARLC UP], default = UAGTP ALLC ARLC P The GTP, LLC and RLC might be used acknowledged or unacknowledged mode. In addition, the damaged packets might be delivered (unprotected mode, UP) or might be skipped (protected mode, P). gprsDelayClass range [1 (lowest) .. 4 (best eort)], default = 4 QoS delay class, release 1999 gprsPrecedenceClass range [high, normal, low], default = normal QoS precedence class, release 1999 gprsPeakThrClass range [1000 .. 256000] octets / s, default = 25600 Peak throughput in steps of 1000 2n . gprsMeanThrClass range [100 .. 50000000, best eort] octets / h, default = best eort Mean throughput in steps of (1,2,5) 10n . gprsDeliverErrSDUs range [true, false], default = true Toggles delivery of erroneous SDUs. gprsKeepDeliverOrder range [true, false], default = true Toggles preservation of delivery order. gprsTracClass range [streaming, conversational, interactive, background], default = interactive The trac classes are mapped to the LLC SAPI, conv = UD3, str = UD 5, int = UD 9, ba = UD 11. It is also mapped to the RLC priority, conv. = 1, str. = 2, int = 3, ba = 4. gprsMaxSDUSize range [10 .. 1520], default = 1500 Maximum SDU size (SNDCP). gprsMaxUlBitrate range [1 .. 8640] kbit/s, default = 8640 Maximum bit rate for UL TBF. gprsMaxDlBitrate range [1 .. 8640] kbit/s, default = 8640 Maximum bit rate for DL TBF. gprsRBER range [5 E 2, 1 E 2, 5 E 3,4 E 3, 1 E 3, 1 E 4, 1 E 5, 1 E 6, 6 E 8], default = 5 E 2 Maximum allowed residual bit error ratio gprsSDUErrorRatio range [1 E 1, 1 E 2, 7 E 3, 1 E 3, 1 E 4, 1 E 5, 1 E 6], default = 1 E 1 Maximum allowed error ratio for SDUs. gprsTracHandlingCat range [1 .. 3], default = 1
Trac handling category. gprsTransferDelay range [10 .. 4000], default = 4000 Maximum transfer delay in ms. gprsGuarUlBitrate range [1 .. 8640] kbit/s, default = 1 Guaranteed bit rate on UL TBF. gprsGuarDlBitrate range [1 .. 8640] kbit/s, default = 1 Guaranteed bit rate on DL TBF.
E.3.2
TCP settings
tcpFlavour range [RENO, Tahoe, SACK], default = RENO TCP Flavour, RENO: fast retransmit/fast recovery, Tahoe: fast retransmit, SACK: selective retransmissions, fast retransmit/fast recovery tcpMss range [1 .. inf] byte, default = 1460 Maximum segment size. tcpDelayedAckFlag range [true, false], default = true To avoid the sending of too many ACKs, ACKs might be delayed by the DelayACK timer (typically up to 0.2 sec.) if this ag is set. tcpDelayedAckTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec., default = 0.2 To avoid the sending of too many ACKs, ACKs might be delayed by the DelayACK timer. tcpInitialRcvWndSize range [1 .. 65535] byte, default = 8192 Initial receive window size. Stevens says: for clients. Most common values: size 2920 (2 * 1460) 4096 8192 8760 ( 6 * 1460, Ethernet) 16384 32786 (30 * 1024) 61440 (60 * 1024) occurrence 6% 40% 15 % 4% 4% 2% 2%
tcpInitialRto range [1 .. 255] byte, default = 6 For exponential retransmission timeout algorithm: Starting value for retransmission timeout (RTO). tcpMaxRto range [1 .. 255] byte, default = 64 For exponential retransmission timeout algorithm: Maximum value for retransmission timeout (RTO). tcpMinRto range [1 .. 255] byte, default = 1 For exponential retransmission timeout algorithm: Minimum value for retransmission timeout (RTO). tcpTos(Delay/Thrput/Reliability/Costs)Flag range [true, false], default = false/true/false/false
198
Type of service ags set by TCP. For interactive sessions, the throughput optimisation is used. tcpMsl range [0.5, 1.0, 2.0], default = 0.5 Maximum segment lifetime. NOTE: The packets are not discarded in this implementation, but the time wait state is left after 2 * MSL.
gprsT3312MsPeriodicRau range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 3240.0 Periodic Routing Area Update Timer. gprsT3314MsReadyTimer range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 44.0 Ready Timer. gprsT3321MsDetachReq range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 15.0 Repetition interval of Detach req message. gprsT3330MsRau range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 15.0 Repetition interval of Routing Area Update Request. gprsT3350CommonProc range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 6.0 Routing Area Update Accept timer. gprsT3350CommonProc = 6.0
E.3.3
UDP settings
udpTos(Delay/Thrput/Reliability/Costs)Flag range [true, false], default = false/true/false/false Type of service ags set by UDP. For unacknowledged data service, we use the delay optimisation. udpMsl range [0.5, 1.0, 2.0], default = 0.5 Maximum segment lifetime.
E.4
Network Layer
E.6
E.6.1
GPRS User Plane

GPRS SNDCP Protocol
mtu range [1 .. inf], default = 1500 Maximum transfer unit. Segments larger than MTU are fragmented. numParallelSessions range [1 .. inf], default = 25500 Maximum number of parallel sessions in this instance.
gprsSndcpHlXidNegotiation range [true, false], default = false Is XID negotiation done by SNDCP or higher layer? gprsSndcpHeaderCompAlgType range [none, rfc1144, rfc2507], default = rfc2507 Algorithm for header compression. gprsSndcpDataCompAlgType range [none, v42bis, v44], default = none Algorithm for header compression. gprsSndcpRfc1144CompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.00009 Time for compression of a RFC1144-compressed header, 90 microseconds on a 20 MHz MC 68020 controller. gprsSndcpRfc1144DecompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.00009 Time for decompression of a RFC1144-compressed header, 90 microseconds on a 20 MHz MC 68020 controller. gprsSndcpRfc1144S0 range [0 .. 255], default = 15 Number of slot states S0 . gprsSndcpRfc2705CompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.00009 Time for compression of a RFC2705-compressed header, 90 microseconds on a 20 MHz MC 68020 controller. gprsSndcpRfc2705DecompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.00009 Time for decompression of a RFC2705-compressed header, 90 microseconds on a 20 MHz MC 68020 controller. gprsSndcpRfc2507FMaxPeriod range [1 .. 65535], default = 265 Maximum number of compressed headers before full header is required. gprsSndcpRfc2507FMaxTime range [1 .. 255] sec, default = 5 Maximum time interval before full header is required. gprsSndcpRfc2507MaxHeader range [60 .. 255] byte, default = 168
E.5
E.5.1
GPRS Control Plane

GPRS SM Protocol
gprsT3380MsPdpActRetrans range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 30.0 Retransmission timer 3380 for Activate PDP context req message. gprsT3385NwReqPdpActRetrans range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 30.0 Retransmission timer 3385 for Req PDP Context Activation message. gprsT3390MsPdpDeactRetrans range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 30.0 Retransmission timer 3390 for Deactivate PDP context req message. gprsT3395NwPdpDeactRetrans range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 30.0 Retransmission timer 3395 for Deactivate PDP context req message. gprsSmPdpKeepAlive range [true, false], default = false Enable keep alive of PDP context.
E.5.2
GPRS GMM Protocol
gprsT3302Value range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 720.0 Duration of error recovery timer on attach or RA update failures. gprsT3310MsAttachReq range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 15.0 Repetition interval of Attach req message.
E.6. GPRS User Plane
199
Maximum header size gprsSndcpRfc2507TcpSpace range [3 .. 255] byte, default = 15 Maximum CID value for TCP connections. gprsSndcpRfc2507NonTcpSpace range [3 .. 65535] byte, default = 15 Maximum CID value for non-TCP connections. gprsSndcpV42bisCompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.0000001 Time for compression of V42bis-compressed data per 100 byte packet length. gprsSndcpV42bisDecompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.0000001 Time for decompression of V42bis-compressed data per 100 byte packet length. gprsSndcpV42bisComprFactor range [0.0 .. 1.0], default = 1.0 Compression factor. gprsSndcpV42bisP0 range [0 .. 3], default = 3 Direction for which compression is is performed, 0 = none, 1 = UL, 2 = DL, 3 = both. gprsSndcpV42bisP1 range [512 .. 65535], default = 2048 Maximum number of codewords in dictionary. gprsSndcpV42bisP2 range [6 .. 250], default = 20 Maximum number of characters in string to be decoded. gprsSndcpV44CompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.0000001 Time for compression of V44-compressed data per 100 byte packet length. gprsSndcpV44DecompTime range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.0000001 Time for decompression of V44-compressed data per 100 byte packet length. gprsSndcpV44ComprFactor range [0.0 .. 1.0], default = 1.0 Compression factor. gprsSndcpV44C0 range [10000000, 11000000], default = 10000000 Packet mode, 10000000 = single packet mode, 11000000 = multi-packet mode gprsSndcpV44P0 range [0 .. 3], default = 3 Direction for which compression is is performed, 0 = none, 1 = UL, 2 = DL, 3 = both. gprsSndcpV44P1T range [256 .. 65535], default = 1600 (single packet mode) / 2048 (multi packet mode) Maximum number of codewords for the transmission direction. gprsSndcpV44P1R range [256 .. 65535], default = 1600 (single packet mode) / 2048 (multi packet mode) Maximum number of codewords for the reception direction.
gprsSndcpV44P3T range [512 .. 65535], minimum: 2 * P1 T, default = 3 * P1 T = 4800 Number of characters in the history for the transmit direction. gprsSndcpV44P3R range [512 .. 65535], minimum: 2 * P1 T, default = 3 * P1 T = 4800 Number of characters in the history for the reception direction.
E.6.2
GPRS LLC Protocol
A set of parameters is negotiated at connection setup, the XID parameters. The settings for these parameters are provided per SAP. NOTE: for SAPs carrying only unacknowledged trac, the parameters for acknowledged trac (N201I, mD, mU, kD, kU) are not provided. These are the SAPs GMM, TOM2, SMS and TOM8 gprsLlcXidVersNr Range [0 .. 15], default = 0 Version number of LLC. gprsLlcXidT200 Range [0.1 .. 409.5] sec, default timeout for T200: (sec) SAP GMM TOM2 UD3 UD5 SMS TOM8 UD9 UD11 sec. 5.0 5.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 40.0 Duration of retransmission timers T200 and T201. gprsLlcXidN200 Range [1 .. 15], default = 3 Number of retransmissions before reestablishment is performed. gprsLlcXidN201(I/U) Range [140 .. 1520] byte, default values for acknowledged service (I) and unacknowledged service (U) : SAP GMM TOM2 UD3 UD5 SMS TOM8 UD9 UD11 I 1503 1503 1503 1503 U 400 270 500 500 270 270 500 500 Maximum segment size LLC will transmit, separate for acknowledged LLC service (I) and unacknowledged LLC service (U). gprsLlcXidm(D/U) Range [0 or 9 .. 24320] 16 octets SAP UD3 UD5 UD9 UD11 default 1520 760 380 190 Maximum amount of outstanding (unacknowledged) data, separate for DL and UL. gprsLlcXidK(D/U) Range [1 .. 255] SAP UD3 UD5 UD9 UD11 default 16 8 4 2 Maximum number of outstanding (unacknowledged) LLC segments, separate for DL and UL. gprsLlcXidNegType Range [accept], default = accept Type of XID negotiation algorithm, accept will always accept the requested parameter set (no downgrading). gprsLlcUseUnitdata Range [true, false], default = false
200
For each SAP, unacknowledged trac (LL Unitdata req) might be carried by acknowledged RLC blocks (GRR Data req) or unacknowledged RLC blocks (GRR Unitdata req). If this ag is set to false, GRR Data req is forced all the time (recommended).
on the MS side and in order to provide the facility to make measurements for the MS. gprsT3198Value range [0.01846 .. 0.2769] sec, default = 0.2769 T3198 is started when a packet is sent. Until it is running, the packet state is kept as pending ack, after it expired, the state might be set to nacked again if a negative ACK arrives. This is for avoiding retransmissions of packets that have been recently transmitted. BS CV MAX block periods = 0..15. when BS CV MAX = 0, the timer shall be interpreted as BS CV MAX = 1, so the range is [0.018461536..0.27692304] gprsRlcEgprsWS range [64 .. 1024] in steps of 32 # of PDCH default min max 1 192 64 192 2 256 96 256 3 384 160 384 4 512 192 512 5 640 224 640 6 768 320 768 7 896 352 896 8 1024 512 1024
E.6.3
GPRS RLC Protocol
gprsEgprsFlag range [true, false], default = true Toggle EGPRS capability of station. linkAdaptation range [true, false], default = false Toggle link adaptation completely. incrementalRedundancy Toggle incremental redundancy completely. gprsIncrementalRedundancy range [true, false], default = false Toggle incremental redundancy capability of station. gprsMaxIrTransmissions range [1 .. inf], default = 3 Maximum number of IR transmissions before the packet is declared error free. gprsLinkAdaptation range [true, false], default = false Toggle link adaptation capability of station. gprsUlResegmentation range [true, false], default = false Use resegmentation (up- or downgrading) for uplink, cannot be used together with incremental redundancy. gprsDlResegmentation range [true, false], default = false Use resegmentation (up- or downgrading) for downlink, cannot be used together with incremental redundancy. gprsInitCs range [1 .. 4], default = 2 Fixed CS for GPRS (CS 1-4) if link adaptation is switched o. Initial CS if link adaptation is used. gprsInitMcsEgprs range [1 .. 9], default = 5 Fixed MCS for EGPRS (MCS 1-9) if link adaptation is switched o. Initial CS if link adaptation is used. gprsRLCBuerSize range [1 .. inf], default = 200 Size of RLC input queue. gprsT3182Value range [0.0001 .. inf] sec, default = 5.0 Stall condition supervisor, started at last radio block (also: with CV=0), stopped at PaUplAckNack, else: abnormal release with access retry, must be < T3169. gprsRlc(Ul/Dl)PreemptiveTrans range [true, false], default = true Use preemptive transmission for pending radio blocks, UL or DL gprsRlcDlMaxEmptyBlockDuration range [0.0 .. 4.5] sec, default = 0.5 For DPARR scheduling: blocking period during which no PEN ACK blocks are scheduled (we have to transmit a few blocks in order to calm down the supervising timers
NOTE: dierent from the standard, all entries in the EGPRS window are acked with one single ack (always). In reality, there are special cases where the run length encoding does not reach over the window size and some bits have to be acked in a second message. However, there is also an uncompressed ack facility available for up to 240 bit WS -> no model errors for WS below 240 bit, little errors for very large WS. the encoded bitmap has up to 240 entries with run length 0 - 127. gprsUse(Ul/Dl)TbfEndDelay range [true, false], default = true Toggles usage of delayed ending of UL/DL TBF. gprsMax(Ul/Dl)TbfEndDelay range [0.0 .. 4.9] sec, default = 1.0 / 0.3 Maximum delay of UL/DL TBF end. gprsMaxRbTillFirstUlAck range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Maximum number of RB received by the PCU before the rst UL Ack/Nack message is sent. This is to limit the contention phase. Please note that N3105 has to be large enough to allow this value. gprsUseLlcDummyUiFrames range [true, false], default = true Toggle usage of LLC dummy UI frame lling during delay period
E.6.4
GPRS MAC Protocol
gprsPaChaReqS range [12, 15, 20, 30, 41, 55, 76, 109, 163, 217], default = 12 Determines waiting time for PaChaReq retry after collision. S = number of slots (TDMA-Frames) between two PaChaReq. gprsPaChaReqTxInt range [2..10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 25, 32, 50], default = 20 T = TX INT = number of slots (TDMA-Frames) to spread PaChaReq retries. The delay in (number of TDMAFrames) is drawn from a uniform distribution with the borders [S, S + T - 1]. gprsPaChaReqMaxRetransPrio(1/2/3/4) range [1,2,4,7], default = 7 7 7 7 Maximum number of retransmissions of PaChaReq message before surrender of access attempt.
E.6. GPRS User Plane
201
gprsPaChaReqP range [0 .. 14, 16], default = 1 2 2 2 Access persistencies P(i) per radio priority. gprsMacNewBlockPrioritization range [true, false], default = true DPARR scheduling (PEN ACK suppression). gprsMac(Ul/Dl)PrioSchedulerType range [rrPre, rrPrioPre, multistageRrPrioPre], default = multistageRrPrioPre Toggle scheduler type for UL/DL, types: pure Round Robin, Round Robin with preemptive prioritisation or Round Robin with multistage prioritisation. gprsMac(Ul/Dl)MultistageRrMaxCnt range [1 .. inf], default = 4 3 2 1 If scheduler type is multistage round robin, select scheduling ratio between stages. Order: [prio1 (high) : prio2 : prio3 : prio4 (low)] gprsPaQueueNotMaxQueueLength range [0 .. inf], default = 10 Maximum queueing length for mobiles that got a packet queueing notication. 0 disables queueing. gprsPaAccRejWaitInd range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 5.0 Duration an access attempt is blocked after the reception of a packet access reject. gprsBsCvMax range [0 .. 15] sec, default = 15 Maximum countdown value. Maximum N3104 value = 3 * (BS CV MAX + 3) * num assigned ul PDCH T3198 value = BS CV MAX block periods. The countdown procedure is not implemented. gprsPan(Inc/Dec) range [0 .. 7], default = 1 / 1 Step size for increase/decrease of counter N3102, MS side. Counter is decreased if T3182 expires by PanDec, increased if V(A) is increased by PanInc. gprsPanMax range [4 .. 32], default = 4 Starting value of radio link counter N3102, MS side. Counter is decreased if T3182 expires by PanDec, increased if V(A) is increased by PanInc. gprsN3101UsfSupervisor range [9 .. inf], default = 29 Maximum counter value for unanswered USF polls, per TBF. If reached, T3169 is started. gprsN3103UlRrbpSupervisor range [0 .. inf], default = 10 Maximum number of unanswered PaUplAckNack with FBI = 1. If reached, T3169 is started. gprsN3105DlRrbpSupervisor range [0 .. inf], default = 10 Maximum number of unanswered downlink RRBP polls. If reached, T3195 is started. gprsT3162WaitQueAss range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 5.0 Wait for PaResReq, MS. The BTS uses this value also in order to recognise when a queueing has become useless. gprsT3169USFReuse
range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 5.0 Wait before reusing assigned UL resources (USF and TFI). gprsT3191TReleaseData range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 5.0 Wait for TFI release after unanswered data. gprsT3193BsDlTRelease range [0 .. 7], default = 0 T3193, must be larger than T3192. We are using: Index Value (ms) 0 600 1 1100 2 1600 3 30 4 110 5 150 6 200 7 250 High values for cells with many TBFs and small packets (e.g. VoIP) Low values for cells with few TBFs and large packets (e.g. FTP), also dependent on the RLC/MAC scheduling strategy. gprsT3195TReleaseError range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 Release TFI after transmission error on air interface (MS not responding). gprsT3168WaitRespDuration range n = [0 .. 7], value = (n + 1) 500ms, default = 3 MS Side. In two phase access: Start when sending PaResReq, end when rec. PaUplAss gprsT3192MsDlTRelease range [0 .. 7], default = 0 Sets the delay of the DL TBF end on MS side. The following coding is used: Index Value (ms) 0 500 1 1000 2 1500 3 0 4 80 5 120 6 160 7 200 High values for cells with many TBFs and small packets (e.g. VoIP) Low values for cells with few TBFs and large packets (e.g. FTP), also dependent on the RLC/MAC scheduling strategy. gprs(Ul/Dl)RoundRobinDepth range [1 .. inf], default = 1 / 10 Round robin depth for scheduler. gprsTUplAckNackMsgValue range [0.001 .. inf] sec, default = 0.5 Minimum interval between two consecutive PaUplAckNack messages. gprsTPollingValue range [0.001 .. inf] sec, default = 0.2 Minimum interval between two consecutive polls for PaDowAckNack messages. gprsMaxUnacked(Ul/Dl)RbPerPdch range [1 .. limit], default = 20 / 12
202
Minimum number of transmitted radio blocks per PDCH before Pa(Up/Dow)AckNack message is polled if no other reason for polling is present (TBF end, stall condition). GPRS limit: max. number of assigned PDCH * limit < WS (64) EGPRS limit: max. number of assigned PDCH * limit < WS (dynamic) gprsFrameStealingPccch range [true, false], default = true Toggles frame stealing between PCCCH and PDTCH/ PACCH. gprsPdchAssignmentAlgorithm range [anyTiming, stdTiming], default = anyTiming Type of PDCH assignment algorithm. gprsTaiTs range [0 .. 7], default = 2 TS on which timing advance information is located. gprsPbcchBlks range [1 .. 4], default = 1 Number of radio blocks for PBCCH in a 52-Multi frame. NOTE: The sum of gprsPbcchBlks and gprsPagBlksRes must be <= 11 gprsPagBlksRes range [0 .. 10], default = 1 Number of radio blocks for PCCCH in a 52-Multi frame. gprsPrachBlks range [0 .. 12], default = 2 Number of radio blocks for PRACH in a 52-Multi frame gprsPsi1RepeatPeriod range [1 .. 16], default = 6 Number of 52-Multi frames after which the PSI 1 message is repeated pbcchPsi1PatternLR range [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 13], default = Pattern of messages on the PBCCH with low repetition rate (always start with PSI 1). Number of entries on this line must be gprsPbcchBlks psi1RepeatPeriod and number of entries on this line = [0..63] This parameters also sets psiCounterLR. pbcchPsi1PatternHR range [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 13], default = 1 2 3 4 5 13 Pattern of messages on the PBCCH with high repetition rate (always start with PSI 1). Number of entries on this line must be gprsPbcchBlks psi1RepeatPeriod and number of entries on this line = [1..16] This parameters also sets psiCounterHR. gprsAccessMode range [1, 2], default = 2 One phase (1) or two phase (2) access mode. For unacknowledged data, two phase access is compulsory. For acknowledged data, one or two phase access might be selected. A short access is used if the amount of data to send ts into eight or fewer RLC/MAC blocks using CS 1. gprsMultislotClass range [1 .. 45], default = 8 The multi slot class also sets the MS type (1 = one TRX, 2 = one Rx/Tx each). gprsT3180UlDataPolling
range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 T3180 for supervision of data polling requests, MS side. gprsT3186WaitAssDuration range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 T3186 supervises the packet channel request message. gprsT3182WaitQueAss range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 T3162, wait for PaUplAssignment after PaQueNot. gprsT3164CollisionRes range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 After TBF establishment, there might be a contention if more than one MS has been using the same random reference. In this case, only the MS with the tting TLLI will receive data, the other(s) will not. For those the timer T3164 will run out and the access procedure has to be repeated. gprsT3166OnePhaseFirstBlock range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 After a one-phase access this timer supervises the reception of the rst RLC/MAC block. If the timer runs out, a contention (see above) has been detected and an access failure is reported to the RLC layer. gprsT3190DlDataReception range [0.0 .. inf], default = 5.0 MS Supervisor for DL data reception.
E.7
E.7.1
GPRS RRC
GPRS Channel Allocation
gprsEnOdPdchReordHO range [true, false], default = false Toggle Repacking handover for onDemand PDCH channels
E.7.2
GPRS PowerControl
gprsPowerControl range [true, false], default = false Enable power control for GPRS service. gprsPb range [0 .. 30] dB, default = 1 Power reduction of PBCCH / PCCCH relative to BCCH. gprsP0 range [0 .. 30] dB, default = 1 Power reduction of max. PDTCH power to BCCH. gprsPrMode range [0 .. 1], default = 0 Power Reduction Mode. 0 = A = per MS, 1 = B = per Cell (not supported) gprsPcAlpha range [0.0 .. 1.0], default = 1.0 Initial alpha value, 0.0 = closed loop, 1.0 = open loop. gprsPcLevFlag range [true, false], default = true Toggles level or quality based power control. gprsSSbTarget range [-130, 0], default = -100 For level-based control: signal strength target level.
E.8. GPRS.PHY
203
gprsBtsITarget range [-130, 0], default = -120 For quality-based control: additional interference strength target level. Together with signal strength target, this forms the target CIR. gprs cell reselection?
Additional hysteresis applied in Ready state or RRCCell Shared state for cells in the same RA. gprsRaReselectHyst range [0, 2 .. 14] dB, default = 4 Additional hysteresis applied for cells in dierent RAs. gprsPenaltyTimeNC range [10, 20 .. 320] sec, default = 10 Duration for which the temporary oset is applied in order to prevent ping pong cell reselections. gprsNcReportingPeriod(T/I) range [0 .. 7], value = 2k 0.48s, default = 2 / 0 Time periods for measurement reporting, 0.48, 0.96, 1.92, ..., 61.44 seconds.
E.8
E.8.1
GPRS.PHY
GPRS Measurement
gprsMeasurementOrder range [true, false], default = false The network might order measurements from the MS. gprsPcMeasChan range [true, false], default = true If true, the C Value measurements are derived from the PDCH assigned for PACCH monitoring, else (false), the BCCH is monitored.
gprsBepPeriod range [0 .. 15], default = 7 The forgetting factor e (Filter constant for fast EGPRS quality measurements) is dened by BEP PERIOD (external, per BS) and BEP PERIOD2 (internal, per MS). If BEP PERIOD2 is sent and the value diers from 15 , it gprsCellReselectTimerFlag will overwrite BEP PERIOD. In all other cases, the value range [true, false], default = true Use Reinforcement of measurement update in Cell-Reselect for BEP PERIOD is valid as provided below. Depending from the values of BEP PERIOD(2) (Filter constant algorithm? for EGPRS quality measurements), the corresponding e value is shown below: gprsC31HystFlag range [true, false], default = true Field value 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 Flag indicating if hysteresis shall be applied to C31. BEP Reserved 25 20 15 PERIOD gprsC32QualFlag e1 0.08 0.1 0.15 range [true, false], default = true BEP Norm90 70 55 40 25 20 15 Flag indicating an exception rule for PERIOD2 GPRS RESELECT OFFSET. e2 e1 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.065 0.08 0.1 0.15 gprsHierCFlag Field value 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 range [true, false], default = false BEP 12 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 Toggle usage of hierarchical cell structure. PERIOD e1 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.65 0.8 1 gprsHcsThr 12 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 BEP range [-110 .. -50] dBm, step size 2, default = -110 PERIOD2 HSC signal level threshold for serving BTS. e2 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.65 0.8 1 gprsHcsThrNC gprsTAvgW range [-110 .. -50] dBm, step size 2, default = -110 range k = [0, 1, .. 25], T AvgW = 2( k/2)/6 multi frames, HSC signal level threshold for neighbour BTS. default = 5 Signal level lter period for power control in packet idle gprsPriorityClass mode. range [0 .. 7], default = 7 HCS priority class for serving cell. gprsTAvgT range k = [0, 1, .. 25], T AvgT = 2( k/2)/6 multi frames gprsPriorityClassNC and range [0 .. 7], default = 7 forgetting factors b = 1/(6 T AvgT ) and c = 1/(12 HCS priority class for neighbour cells. T AvgT ), default = 2 gprsReselectOsetNC Signal level lter period for power control in packet transrange [-52, -48, ..., -12, -10, ..., 12, 16,.., 48] dB, fer mode. default = -6 Oset for the MS reselection criterion for neighbour BTS. gprsNAvgI range k = [0, 1, .. 15], N AvgI = 2( k/2) multi frames, gprsTemporaryOsetNC default = 1 range [0, 10, .. 60] dB, default = 10 Signal level lter constant for interference measurements Applies a negative oset to C32 for the duration of for power control. PENALTY TIME. gprsNetControlOrder range [0 .. 3], default = 1 Controls cell re-selection and measurement reporting. gprsCellReselectHyst range [0, 2 .. 14] dB, default = 4
E.8.2
GPRS Coding
gprs0502En(PBCCH/PCCCH/PDTCHF/PDTCHH) range [0.0 .. inf], default = true/true/true/false Toggles usability of logical GPRS channels.
204
E.8.3
GPRS Power Limits
gprsMaxRadioPwr range [0 .. 100] dBm, default = 45 Maximum radio power capabilities of the station for GPRS egprsPdchFnBlEDTVariance services. Range [1 .. inf], default for n = 1: 217 111 0 70 60 50 264 17 0 gprsMinRadioPwr Variance of block erasure decision threshold for EGPRS range [0 .. 100] dBm, default = 15 PDCH F, MCS 1 - 9. n determines the nth transmission Minimum radio power capabilities of the station for GPRS for EGPRS incremental redundancy. services. gsmMinRecSens8PSK range [-300 .. 0] dBm, default = -130 Minimum sensitivity of the receiver for 8PSK modulation. gprsRxLevAccessMin range [-110 .. -48] dBm, default = -102 Minimum received signal level at the MS required for access to the system. gprsMsTxPwrMaxCCH range [0 .. 39] dBm, default = 33 Maximum sending power on common control channels. gprsMsTxPwrMaxCCHNeigh range [0 .. 39] dBm, default = 33 Maximum sending power on common control channels of neighbour cells
Mean block erasure decision threshold for EGPRS PDCH F, MCS 1 - 9. n determines the nth transmission for EGPRS incremental redundancy.
E.9
E.9.1
GSM RRC
GSM Channel Allocation
gsmCaType range [xedSimple, xedEnhanced, DhrGprsPrio, UsrDef1], default = xedEnhanced Type of GSM channel allocation algorithm gsmSoftBlocking range [true, false], default = true This ag belongs to the mobility model. In case, soft blocking is selected, one attempt is made to position the MS. If it has access to the best cell (rx lev > rxlev acc min), it will establish a session, otherwise the call is blocked. If soft blocking is not selected, attempts are made to position the MS until it has access to the best cell. gsmMultiCaAttempts range [true, false], default = false During call establishment, the desired (best) cell might be blocked. In this case, a retry at weaker cells might be done if gsmMultiCaAttempts is true, else the call might be lost directly. gsmNumHOSpareChannels range [0 .. numChannelsAtCell], default = 0 Number of channels reserved for handovers by each base station. These channels are not available for call setups. gsmIdleChannelInterf range [true, false], default = false Allow consideration of idle channel interference in channel selection process. if gsmIdleChannelInterf = true: gsmResIndTime range [1 .. 256] SACCH cycles, default = 4 Resource indication interval for idle channel measurements. gsm0508IntAve Range [1 .. inf], default = 3 Number of averaged interference measurements in an idle channel evaluation.
E.8.4
GPRS LinkLevelInterface
gprsModIntType range [NoInterface, ModDist, ModTable], default = ModTable Type of interface for modulation mapping. gprsCodecIntType range [NoInterface, CodecDist, CodecTable], default = CodecDisc Type of interface for codec mapping. gprsMCSGMSKMapTable Mapping table for GMSK modulation from CIR to BE. gprsMCS8PSKMapTable Mapping table for 8PSK modulation from CIR to BE. gprsBeEvalDir, gprsBleEvalDir Directories containing the mapping les for bit error and block erasure calculation. gprsUseStdevCorrection range [true, false], default = true Involve correction of error ratio based on standard deviation of the CIR measurements.
gsmIdleChannelLevel gprsPdchFBlEDTMean Range [true, false], default = false Range [1 .. inf], default = 62 37 13 1 Idle channel measurements are sorted by levels (true) or Mean block erasure decision threshold for GPRS PDCH F, by bands (false) as dened below. CS 1 - 4. gsm0808 Xn, n = 1..5 gprsPdchFBlEDTVariance Range [1 .. 31], default = 2 6 10 14 18 Range [1 .. inf], default = 195 130 42 0 Interference level boundaries for idle channel evaluation. Variance of block erasure decision threshold for GPRS X1: lowest interference, X5: highest interference. PDCH F, CS 1 - 4. gsm (u/l) rxlev UL CMM egprsPdchFnBlEDTMean Range [1 .. 31], default = 16 / 14 Range [1 .. inf], default for n = 1: 80 47 14 1 50 40 54 For channel mode modication: Modication via HO. 10 1 During idle times of the channel, the mode of the channel
E.9. GSM RRC
205
(FR or HR) is determined by the interference level of the uplink channel. All Channels with idle interference level below this parameter might be used as half rate channels. The usage as half rate channel is allowed if the idle interference falls below gsm l rxlev UL CMM, it is revoked if the idle interference exceeds gsm u rxlev UL CMM.
Range [0 .. 30] sec, default = 0.96 (2 SACCH periods) Minimum distance between two PC steps. gsm0508powerIncStepSize Range [2, 4, 6] dBm, default = 4 Step size for power increase. gsm0508powerDecStepSize Range [2, 4] dBm, default = 4 Step size for power decrease. gsmEnBsPwrcCorr Range [true, false], default = false When hopping over the BCCH, no power control is used on the BCCH frequency. If the measurement samples collected on these bursts shall be discarded, set gsmEnBsPwrcCorr to true. gsm0508n(3/4)EPC Range [1 .. 16], default = 4 4 Separate settings for enhanced power control. EPC is solely quality-based. However, the RxLev-measurements are used to determine the step size of the next control step. Stabile results for p in [1,2] and n in [2..5].
E.9.2
GSM Power Control
gsmPowerControlFlag range [true, false], default = false Toggles GSM power control globally. gsmPowerControlMSFlag Range [true, false], default = false Toggles GSM power control at the MS. gsmPowerControlBSFlag Range [true, false], default = false Toggles GSM power control at the BS. gsmPCType Range [gsm0508, gsm0508Rel5, UsrDef1], default = gsm0508Rel5 Type of power control algorithm
gsm0508p(3/4)EPC Range [1 .. 16], default = 3 3 Separate settings for enhanced power control. EPC is gsmEnEnhPwrCtrlFlag solely quality-based. However, the RxLev-measurements Range [true, false], default = false Toggle enhanced power control (EPC) or normal (SACCH- are used to determine the step size of the next control step. Stabile results for p in [1,2] and n in [2..5]. L1 controlled). gsm0508n(1/2/3/4) Range [1 .. 16], default = 4 / 4 / 4 / 4 Number of samples to be considered in comparison with threshold. References: 1 = lower level PC, 2 = upper level PC, 3 = lower RxQual PC, 4 = upper RxQual PC. gsm0508p(1/2/3/4) Range [1 .. 16], default = 3 / 3 / 3 / 3 References: 1 = lower level PC, 2 = upper level PC, 3 = lower RxQual PC, 4 = upper RxQual PC. Number of samples that have to exceed the threshold for an action. gsm0508 l rxlev (UL/DL) P Range [0 .. 63], default = 10 / 10 Lower power control threshold, Tx power is increased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508 u rxlev (UL/DL) P Range [0 .. 63], default = 15 / 15 Upper power control threshold, Tx power is decreased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508 l rxqual (UL/DL) P Range [0 .. 7], default = 5 / 5 Lower power control threshold, Tx power is increased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508 u rxqual (UL/DL) P Range [0 .. 7], default = 1 / 1 Upper power control threshold, Tx power is decreased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508hreqave Range [1 .. 32], default = 2 Number of measurement data considered by PC and HO alg. for averaging. gsm0508pConInterval gsm0508 l rxqual (UL/DL) PEPC Range [0 .. 7], default = 1 1 Lower power control threshold, Tx power is increased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508 u rxqual (UL/DL) PEPC Range [0 .. 7], default = 2 2 Upper power control threshold, Tx power is decreased if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508pConIntervalEPC Range [0 .. 30] sec, default = 0.48 (four EPC periods) Minimum distance between two EPC steps (in sec.) [0..30], multiples of one EPC period (120 ms). gsm0508epcPowerLevelSize Range [0.1 .. 5.0] dB, default = 2.0 Level size for power control, the control capabilities range from +4 levels to -2 levels within one control step. gsmEPCTimeStep Range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.12 GSM enhanced power control (EPC) interval.
E.9.3
GSM Handover
gsmHandoverFlag range [true, false], default = false Toggles usage of GSM handover. gsmHOType Range [gsm0508, UsrDef1], default = gsm0508 Type of GSM handover algorithm gsmInterCellHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable inter cell handover. gsmIntraCellHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true
206
Enable intra cell handover. gsmLoTerCHFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable BSS control for inter cell HO. gsmLoTraCHFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable BSS control for intra cell HO. gsmChaMoModifyFlag Range [true, false], default = true Allow a channel mode modify command. gsmChaModHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Allow intra cell handover for channel mode modication between full rate and half rate. gsmRxLevHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable level-based handover decision. gsmRxQualHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable quality-based handover decision. gsmDistHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable distance-based handover decision. gsmPwrBgtHOFlag Range [true, false], default = true Enable PBGT-based handover decision. gsmEnLimICHOFlag Range [true, false], default = false Limited number of successful quality intra cell handovers. gsmMaxICHO Range [0 .. 30], default = 2 Maximum number of successful quality intra cell HOs that can occur on the same connection towards the same cell. gsmEnNoBackHOFlag Range [true, false], default = false Enable back handover prevention for power budget handovers. gsmEnNoFailHOFlag Range [true, false], default = false Enable limitation of handovers after repetitive failed handovers. gsmHierCFlag Range [true, false], default = false Enable hierarchical cell structure. gsmHierF Range [0, 1], default = 0 For hierarchical cell structures: if 0, the ranking criterion for the cell id list is the power budget, if 1, the ranking criterion is the level rxlev ncell. gsmEndPwBHOFlag Range [true, false], default = false Enable speed sensitive handover. gsm0508n(5/6/7/8) Range [1 .. 31], default = 4 8 4 4
Number of samples to be considered in comparison with threshold. References: 5 = lower level HO, 6 = lower RxQual HO, 7 = lower level intra cell HO, 8 = distance. gsm0508p(5/6/7/8) Range [1 .. 31], default = 2 4 2 2 References: 5 = lower level HO, 6 = lower RxQual HO, 7 = lower level intra cell HO, 8 = distance. Number of samples that have to exceed the threshold for an action. gsm0508lRxLev(Ul/Dl)H range [0 .. 63], default = 2 Lower level handover threshold, HO is triggered if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508lRxQual(Ul/Dl)H range [0 .. 7] for normal reporting, [0 .. 31] for enhanced reporting, default = 10 Lower quality handover threshold, HO is triggered if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508lRxLev(Ul/Dl)IH range [0 .. 63], default = 50 Lower level intra cell handover threshold, on RxQual HO trigger, HO is performed intra-cell if threshold is exceeded. gsm0508MaxMsRange range [2 .. 35] km, default = 8 Maximum MS-BS distance. gsm0508HoMargin range [0 .. 24] dB, default = 4 Threshold for PBGT HO. gsm0508rxLevelMin range [0 .. 63], default = 1 Minimum rx level for HO access. gsmPL gsmPLNCXX range [0 (highest) .. 30 (lowest)], default = 1 gsmPL: mandatory, if gsmHierCFlag is set. PL is the priority layer of the serving cell. If one value is provided, all transitions for all cells are equally prioritised. If one value per cell is provided, all transitions for one cell are equally prioritised. If additional entries GSMPLNCXX are provided, with one entry for each provided neighbour cell in cell XX, each transition from one cell to another is handled with the provided priority. gsmPPLNCXX range [0 (highest) .. 30 (lowest)], default = 1 Tightened priority active while speed sensitivity timer is running. gsmHOMSOFF range [-50 .. 50] dB, default = 3 Tightened handover margin active while speed sensitivity timer is running. Positive values means: increase HO margin during interval for speed sensitive handover detection. gsmHOMDOFF range [-50 .. 50] dB, default = 4 HO margin after expiry of speed sensitivity timer. Positive values means: decrease HO margin after interval for speed sensitive handover detection. gsmLEVONC range [0 .. 50] dB, default = 0
E.10. GSM PHY
207
Level oset for tightening up the minimum receive level condition for cell id list ranking if gsmHierF = 1. gsm0508tHandRQD range [0.0 .. 30.0] sec, default = 0.96 Minimum duration between two handover required messages generated from BTS. gsm0808T7 range [0.0 .. 30.0] sec, default = 0.96 Duration between a repetition of the handover required message from BSS to MSC in case of and MSC-controlled HO (only if the HO cause is still present). gsm0808NCells range [1 .. 16] sec, default = 16 Maximum number of neighbour cells that are reported in a handover required message. gsmTiNBackHO range [0.0 .. 900.0] sec, default = 60.0 Duration of back HO prevention in case of power budget HO. If this timer lasts longer than than the radio link timeout, a call drop might appear although a handover is possible. gsmTiNFailHO range [0.0 .. 900.0] sec, default = 60.0 Duration of HO prevention due to repetitive HO failures. If this timer lasts longer than than the radio link timeout, a call drop might appear although a handover is possible. gsmTiNoICHO range [0.0 .. 300.0] sec, default = 20.0 Duration of HO prevention due to repetitive successful quality intra cell HOs. If this timer lasts longer than than the radio link timeout, a call drop might appear although a handover is possible. gsmHOMDTime range [0.0 .. 3000.0] sec, default = 10.0 Interval for speed sensitive handover detection. gsmMaxFailHO range [0 .. 300], default = 2 Maximum number of HO failures that can occur on the same connection towards the same cell.
gsm0509DynAdaptiveChannelScheme range [true, false], default = false Shall the adaptive channel types be xed or changed dynamically, depending on the channel quality? [ xed = false, dynamic = true ] (select channel mode modify and/or intra-cell HO in the handover section!) gsm0509activeChannelSet range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Select the ID of the active channel set (ACHS) used by this base station. Dene the active channel sets within sections with consecutive numbering. gsm0509activeChannelSetDenition range [TF, TH, TAF, TAH, TWF, OAH, OWF, OWH], default = TF TAF TWF OWF It is compulsory that each session starts in TCH F mode. However, this starting mode need not be a member of the dynamic channel set Order: rst entry for low channel quality, last entry for high quality The handover for the change FR <-> HR is applied when required. gsmChTHR MX (UP/DN)X range [0 .. 7] for RxQual, [0 .. 31] for meanBEP defaults: X DN UP 1 10 2 8 17 3 15 25 4 22 -
Thresholds for selecting active channel mode. The selection process is based on the current quality parameter, that is RxQual for the normal measurement reporting and meanBEP for the enhanced measurement reporting. The reporting method is selected in the GSM Measurement section. Mapping: RxQual: 0 = good Quality, 7 = bad quality meanBEP: 0 = bad Quality, 31 = good quality For each channel mode, the active codec set has to be dened: gsm0509supportedCodecSet range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Applies supported codec set (SCS) to BS. gsm0509activeCodecSet range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Applies active codec set (ACS) to BS. now dene the SCS and ACS gsm0509supportedCodecSetDenition range [1 .. 9] The example settings can be found in Annex B of GSM TS 45.009: Channel Mode TCH AFS TCH AHS TCH WFS OTCH AHS OTCH WFS OTCH WHS Codec Set Denition (CSD) 12345678 123456 123 12345678 12345 123
E.10
GSM PHY
disturberThreshold range [0 .. 1000], default = 1000 Path loss threshold (dBm) between two BS below which a BS is considered to be a disturber to the other one. If set to 0, no BS will be considered.
E.10.1
GSM Coding
gsmAdaptiveMultirate range [true, false], default = true Toggle usage of adaptive multi rate channels. gsmWidebandAdaptiveMultirate range [true, false], default = true Toggle usage of wide band adaptive multi rate channels. gsm0502En(TchFS/TchHS/ETchFS) gsm0502En(TchAFS/TchAHS/TchWFS/) gsm0502En(OTchAHS/OTchWFS/OTchWHS) range [true, false], default = true Toggle usage of voice channel types.
Codecs supported by this cell, most robust codec rst. The codec indices are interpreted as follows (kbit/s):
208
CSD / Channel Mode TCH AFS TCH AHS TCH WFS OTCH AHS OTCH WFS OTCH WHS
4.75 4.75 6.6 4.75 6.6 6.6
5.15 5.15 8.85 5.15 8.85 8.85
5.9 6.7 7.4 7.95 10.2 12.2 5.9 6.7 7.4 7.95 12.65 5.9 6.7 7.4 7.95 10.2 12.2 12.65 15.85 23.85 12.65
gsmMsTxPwrMax range [0 .. 39] dBm, default = 39 Maximum Tx power a mobile is allowed to use in this cell. The minimum of maxGsmMsRadioPwr and msTxPwrMax[n] will limit the transmit power. gsmMsTxPwrMaxCCH range [0 .. 39] dBm, default = 39 The maximum TX power level an MS may use when accessing the system. gsmMaxRadioPwr range [0 .. 100] dBm, default = 35 Maximum radio power capabilities of the station for GSM services. gsmMinRadioPwr range [0 .. 100] dBm, default = 0 Minimum radio power capabilities of the station for GSM services. gsmMinRecSensGMSK range [-300 .. 0] dBm, default = -130 Minimum sensitivity of the receiver for GMSK modulation. gsmPowerOset range [0,2,4,6] dB, default = 4 The power oset will be used in conjuction with MxTxPwrMax parameter by the class 3 DCS 1800 MS. gsmCellReselectHyst range [0 .. 14] dB, default = 4 Additional hysteresis applied for cells in dierent RAs if PCCCH does not exist. gsmEnhancedMeasReport range [true, false], default = false Toggle usage of enhanced measurement report. gsmNBalmPerT range [1 .. 31], default = 1 Number of BCCH Allocation List Measurements per TDMA frame. gsmStdConfAMRFilter range [true, false], default = true Use standard conforming ltering for AMR codec mode selection. true: Filter function from TS 45.009 false: Filter as dened below gsmAMRUpgrdTimer range [0.0 .. inf], default = 0.0 Time after downgrade before the next upgrade is allowed. gsm0509FsFirWeight range [-10.0 .. 10.0] The lter proposed in the standard did not work well. Now, a variable lter is used (adapted to the estimated user speed). FIR lter coecients for all adaptive full rate channel modes (typ. 100 coecients); value * 0.01:
gsm0509activeCodecSetDenition range [1 .. 9], size 1 - 4, most robust codec rst. The example settings can be found in Annex B of GSM TS 45.009: Channel Mode Codec set denition TCH AFS 368 TCH AHS 2346 123 TCH WFS OTCH AHS 368 1345 OTCH WFS OTCH WHS 123 Codecs in use by the current active codec set (here: 12.2, 7.95, 5.9 kbit/s) gsm0509THR MX (UP/DN)X range [0 .. 63] * 0.5 dB defaults: TCH AFS / X DN UP TCH AHS / X DN UP TCH WFS / X DN UP OTCH AHS / X DN UP OTCH WFS / X DN UP 1 17 1 26 1 18 1 26 1 24 2 13 27 2 22 30 2 14 24 2 22 38 2 20 31 3 23 3 25 34 3 20 3 34 3 27 39 4 30 -
35 -
OTCH WHS / X 1 2 3 DN 24 31 UP 28 35 Thresholds for selecting codec mode. This is done by CIR estimates. gsm0509HystC range [0 .. 3], default = 1 Common Hysteresis, range [0..3], 0 = 1dB .. 3 = 4dB in steps of 1 dB This is used automatically for initialisation if the active codec set has size 4. The exact hysteresis as provided above are sent in a thresh.req message afterwards.
E.10.2
GSM Measurement
gsm0508RadioLinkTimeout range 1 .. 64, default = 20 Timeout for radio link failure detection. gsmRxLevelAccMin range [-110 .. -47] dBm, default = -98 Minimum receiver level for random access of MS.
E.10. GSM PHY
209
2.737 2.393 2.072 1.782 1.520 1.273 1.031 0.827 0.629 0.473 0.351 0.165 0.006 -0.104 -0.208
2.692 2.335 2.032 1.743 1.489 1.236 0.998 0.800 0.601 0.464 0.311 0.137 -0.018 -0.107 -0.232
2.643 2.286 1.993 1.715 1.465 1.205 0.958 0.784 0.586 0.443 0.290 0.119 -0.027 -0.122
2.573 2.240 1.956 1.682 1.422 1.178 0.928 0.757 0.565 0.424 0.269 0.098 -0.034 -0.146
2.527 2.203 1.923 1.642 1.382 1.141 0.909 0.729 0.540 0.397 0.232 0.073 -0.043 -0.162
2.499 2.158 1.877 1.614 1.340 1.102 0.882 0.693 0.510 0.385 0.204 0.052 -0.064 -0.183
2.448 2.106 1.825 1.566 1.303 1.068 0.854 0.659 0.491 0.360 0.180 0.031 -0.079 -0.195
Mean frame erasure decision threshold for TCH AFS (8 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmTchAFSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 221.88 268.24 185.08 261.22 272.03 166.94 437.74 446.62 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for TCH AFS (8 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmTchAHSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 65.4 59.13 48.17 41.97 33.75 29.4 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for TCH AHS (6 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmTchAHSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 61.7 98.1 112.3 121.15 102.51 86.9 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for TCH AHS (6 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmTchWFSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 147.3 131.2 91.7 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for TCH WFS (3 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmTchWFSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 272.3 284.2 480.5 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for TCH WFS (3 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmOTchAHSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 179.6 169.2 160.7 153.6 149.1 132.3 123.0 103.6 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for OTCH AHS (8 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmOTchAHSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 488.7 454.0 433.0 484.4 478.1 449.8 510.8 449.5 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for OTCH AHS (8 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmOTchWFSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 401.5 369.2 310.2 293.3 214.3 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for OTCH WFS (5 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmOTchWFSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 1361 1482 1705 1475 1871 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for OTCH WFS (5 codecs), most robust codec rst. gsmOTchWHSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 153.9 134.0 107.2 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for OTCH WHS (3 codecs), most robust codec rst.
gsm0509HsFirWeight range [-1 .. 1] The lter proposed in the standard did not work well. Now, a variable lter is used (adapted to the estimated user speed). FIR lter coecients for all adaptive half rate channel modes (typ. 50 coecients); value * 0.01: 3.998 3.223 2.585 2.032 1.474 1.135 0.681 0.403 3.903 3.116 2.524 1.923 1.431 1.080 0.647 3.781 3.036 2.441 1.837 1.370 0.974 0.613 3.650 2.911 2.368 1.788 1.297 0.919 0.558 3.513 2.832 2.277 1.712 1.263 0.836 0.534 3.406 2.756 2.194 1.636 1.221 0.790 0.494 3.296 2.682 2.118 1.544 1.181 0.748 0.436
E.10.3
GSM Linklevelinterface
gsmModIntType range [NoInterface, ModDist, ModTable], default = ModTable Type of interface for modulation mapping. gsmCodecIntType range [NoInterface, CodecDist, CodecTable], default = CodecDist Type of interface for codec mapping. gsmBeEvalDir, gsmFeEvalDir Directories containing the mapping les for bit error and frame erasure calculation. useStdevCorrection range [true, false], default = true Involve correction of error ratio based on standard deviation of the CIR measurements. gsm(TchF/TchH/ETchF/Sacch/SacchTP)FEDTMean Range [1.0 .. inf], default = 100.32 61.27 100.32 81.1 78.4 Mean frame erasure decision threshold for TCH F / TCH H / ETCH F / SACCH / SACCH TP.
gsmOTchWHSFEDTVariance range [1.0 .. inf], default = 348.9 380.9 373.0 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for gsm(TchF/TchH/ETchF/Sacch/SacchTP)FEDTVariance OTCH WHS (3 codecs), most robust codec rst. Range [1.0 .. inf], default = 513.71 119.60 513.71 263.3 215.4 Variance of frame erasure decision threshold for TCH F E.10.4 GSM Paging / TCH H / ETCH F / SACCH / SACCH TP. gsmBsPaMfrms range [2 .. 9], default = 4 gsmTchAFSFEDTMean range [1.0 .. inf], default = 173.577 164.49 156.77 150.756 Number of 51 multi frames between paging blocks of the same paging group. 136.916 137.527 109.04 91.548
210
E.10.5
PHY Antennas
numAntennas range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Number of antennas at this station. numDiversityAntennas range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Number of diversity antennas. coords range [- inf .. inf] m, default for height: 2 (MS), 20 (BTS). Coordinates (x y z height) of antenna. (0,0,0) means origin of coordinates system.
Only if this parameter is provided, it is used as cell id, otherwise, the BS id is used. gprsSgsnId range [0 .. inf], default = 0 System ID of SGSN the BTS is connected to.
E.13.2
General GSM
fHTimeStep range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.004615384615384615384 Update interval for frequency hopping algorithm. numGsmTimeSlots range [0 .. inf], default = 8 Number of GSM time slots per TDMA frame.
antennaCharacteristic range [isotropic, lambda, lambda half, directed six degrees, directed nine degrees, directed 66 degrees, gsmFrameTimeStep directed 120 degrees], default = isotropic range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.004615384615384615384 Duration of a GSM TDMA frame. antennaElevation range [0 .. 90] degree, default = 90 gsmSacchTimeStep Each antenna has a rotation axis. This can be set via range [0.0 .. inf] sec, default = 0.4800000000000000000000 the elevation and the azimuth. No eect for isotropic Duration of a GSM SACCH frame. antenna types. (theta, 0 means z-axis, PI/2 means x/yplane) gsmInterlType range [NoInterleaving, GSMTch F], default = NoInterantennaAzimuth leaving range [0 .. 360] degree, default = 0 Type of interleaving for the GSM channel, inuences timAzimuth (0 means x-axis, Pi/2 means y-axis) ing. antennaGain gsmRandomImsiCreation range [0 .. inf] dBm, default = 0 range [true, false], default = true Antenna gain (directivity for main lobe). Create IMSIs randomly or provide in gsmImsi. NOTE: The random creation provides quite balanced usage of E.11 GSM BTS the control channels. gsmBscId range 1 .. inf, default = 1 Id of BSC of this BTS. gsmMscId range 1 .. inf, default = 1 Id of MSC of this BTS. gsmLac range 1 .. inf, default = 1 Location area identier of this BTS. gsmImsi range [0 .. inf], default = If IMSIs are not randomly created, one entry per MS is required. This sets e.g. the load on the PCCCHs in a GPRS cell.
E.13.3
General GPRS
gprsProbesAvInterval range [0.001, inf] sec, default = 10.0 Evaluation interval for IP throughput per cell.
E.12
GSM MSC
E.13.4
GPRS ChannelModel
gsmMscType range [gsm0508, UsrDef1], default = gsm0508 Type of MSC algorithm (gsm0508, UsrDef1) gsmMscId range [1 .. inf], default = 1 Id of MSC
gprsChannelModel range1,2, default = 2 Channel model for PhyLL interface 1 = error probability drawn uniformly from UL(DL)ErrorProb. 2 = channel model using SGOOSE capabilities. gprsPstDataErrorsOnly range [true, false], default = false Apply transmission errors only to data radio blocks, acc. to simulations of pst. Control blocks are not destroyed. gprs(UL/DL)DataErrorProb range [0.0 .. 100.0] percent, default = 13.50 Block error probability for the UL / DL radio blocks containing data for channel model 1. We suggest the following assumption for CIR (TR 145 050, TU3, no FH):
E.13
E.13.1
Others
GPRS Structure
gprsRac range [0 .. 65535], default = 1 Routing Area Code (16 bit). gprsCellId range [0 .. inf], default = not present
E.13. Others
211
C/I [dB] 4 7 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
-> BLER [%] -> -> -> -> -> -> -> -> ->
CS 1 30 20 13 12 8 4 2.5 0.9 0.5
CS 2 42 35 21 20 14 7 5 2.2 1.6
CS 3 50 45 28 25 19 9 6.5 2.7 2
CS 4 55 50 38 32 29 19 15 8 5
USF/ RACH 16 9 5.5 4 2.3 1.3 0.6 0.1 0.06
gprs(UL/Dl)CtrlErrorProb range [0.0 .. 100.0] percent, default = 13.50 Block error probability for the UL / DL radio blocks containing control blocks for channel model 1. NOTE: In order to represent on CIR value, the control block errors refer to CS1 while the data errors have to be adapted to the CS in use. gprsULRachErrorProb range [0.0 .. 100.0] percent, default = 13.50 Block error probability for the PaChaReq messages sent on the RACH for channel model 1.
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17
GSM and GPRS network elements and respective reference points Alternate PCU positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GPRS protocol suite, user and control plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . CM sub layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MM sub layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SNDCP sub layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LLC sub layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RR sub layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAC protocol, NW side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC/MAC Block for data transfer and control message transfer . PHY layer, MS side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contention on RACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GPRS PRACH access repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF establishment, one phase access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF establishment, two phase access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF reestablishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF establishment, DL established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Response to GRR Data ind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAC scheduling process for UL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF start at MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL TBF release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL TBF establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL TBF release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multistage round robin scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGPRS modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Channel allocation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Channel assignment example in a GSM cell . . . . . . TCH handover in order to free onDemand PDCH . . . Limitations of multi-slot assignment . . . . . . . . . . EGPRS window size over PDCH allocation [40] . . . . UL multi frame shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency channel arrangement for frequency hopping Hopping sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interpretation of CoV measurement . . . . . . . . . . Averaging of RX QU AL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Averaging of the SIGN V AR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Averaging of M EAN BEP n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping of CIR to MEAN BEP for a typical receiver Measurement and reporting cycle overview . . . . . . . Packet measurement report (NC) . . . . . . . . . . . . GPRS CQR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGPRS CQR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 18 19 19 20 21 22 22 23 24 25 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 31 35 36 36 37 40 40 41 41 41
List of Figures
213
3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14
Power control scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL closed loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL closed loop signal strength based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL closed loop quality based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Setting the operating point for quality based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL closed loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL open loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL closed loop signal strength based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL closed loop quality based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL open loop signal strength based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UL open loop quality based PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGPRS MCS families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combined EDGE IR and SC approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal attach procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behaviour of GMM for cell updates in the dierent GMM States . . . . . . Deployment of location area and routing area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dierence cell update / routing area update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell reselection: averaging process for RLA P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell reselection decision based on C31/C32 criterion and PRIORITY CLASS The ISO / OSI reference model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ISO / OSI inter layer communication model . . . . . . . . Emulator architecture according to ISO / OSI reference model The model of half SAPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The SDL environment represented by a system and a process . Setup of a NE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallel usage of dierent protocol types / libraries . . . . . . . Set of libraries used in the investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example: SGPRSim protocol library structure . . . . . . . . . Usage of example protocol library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PHY interfaces to example protocol library . . . . . . . . . . . Memory consumption of the emulator environment I . . . . . . Memory consumption of the emulator environment II . . . . . . Computational eort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Channel model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Propagation phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assignment of walls to tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Convenient (a) and inconvenient (b) scenarios . . . . . . Sample fading pattern, v = 3 km/h . . . . . . . . . . . . 2D antenna pattern, (l) horizontal and (r) vertical shape 3D antenna pattern (l) and error of 2D mapping (r) . . Application layer protocols of SLGlib . . . . . . . . . . . Brownian molecular movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moving on a road map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location uncertainty in system level emulations . . . . . Outdoor micro cell scenario, N = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . Outdoor micro cell scenario, directed movement . . . . . Indoor scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 43 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 47 48 48 50 52 53 53 54 54 55 57 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 70 71 71 72 75 78 82 82 83 84 84 86 86 87 88 89 90 91
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List of Figures
5.15 Scenario for power control tests, two cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.16 Unequal interval size of bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.39 6.40 6.41 6.42 6.43 6.44 6.45 6.46 Throughput and PDCH Utilisation versus CIR for various GPRS schemes (continuous curves: analysis, dotted curves: emulation . . Comparison of real world measurement, emulation and simulation Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC block service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC block service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96 96 98 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 105 105 105 106 106 107 107 108 108 108 109 110 111 111 111 112 112 113 113 114 114 114 115 116 116 116 117 117 118 118 119 119 119
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6.47 6.48 6.49 6.50 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.54 6.55 6.56 6.57 6.58 6.59 6.60 6.61 6.62 6.63 6.64 6.65 6.66 6.67 6.68 6.69 6.70 6.71 6.72 6.73 6.74 6.75 6.76 6.77 6.78 6.79 6.80 6.81 6.82 6.83 6.84 6.85 6.86 6.87 6.88 6.89 6.90 6.91 6.92 6.93 6.94 6.95 6.96
Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . User perceived throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side (DL) . . . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tx Power, Signal Strength based close loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Carrier Strength, Signal Strength based close loop PC . . . . . . . Tx Power, Quality based close loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Carrier Strength, Quality based close loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . CIR, Quality based close loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Interference Strength, Quality based close loop PC . . . . . . . . . Tx Power, Signal Strength based open loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Carrier Strength, Signal Strength based open loop PC . . . . . . . Tx Power, Quality based open loop PC, links of the victim . . . . . . Rx Carrier Strength, Quality based open loop PC, links of the victim CIR, Quality based Open Loop PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Interference Strength, Quality based Open Loop PC . . . . . . . . Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . User throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . User throughput, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variance of jitter, measured at the receiver side . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packet delay, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP segment loss ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RLC service duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block error probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems within RLC, downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Carrier Strength, Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rx Interference Strength, Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CIR, Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL MEAN BEP for GMSK modulation, ltered . . . . . . . . . . . . UL MEAN BEP for GMSK modulation, ltered . . . . . . . . . . . .
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120 120 121 121 122 122 122 123 123 124 124 125 126 126 127 127 128 128 129 129 130 130 131 132 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 144 145 145 146 146
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List of Figures
6.97 DL 6.98 UL 6.99 DL 6.100UL 6.101DL 6.102UL 6.103DL 6.104UL 6.105DL 6.106UL 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.7
MEAN BEP for 8PSK modulation, ltered . MEAN BEP for 8PSK modulation, ltered . MCS selection, all MCS selectable . . . . . . MCS selection, all MCS selectable . . . . . . BLEP, all MCS selectable . . . . . . . . . . . BLEP, all MCS selectable . . . . . . . . . . . MCS selection, reduced set of MCS selectable MCS selection, reduced set of MCS selectable BLEP, reduced set of MCS selectable . . . . BLEP, reduced set of MCS selectable . . . .
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146 147 147 148 148 149 149 149 150 150 152 153 154 155 155 156 157 158 158 159 160 160 164 164 164 165 166 166
Cell reselection locations . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell reselection locations . . . . . . . . . . . . Receive signal map of an indoor scenario with Carrier strength [dBm] of DL channel . . . . Interference strength [dBm] of DL channel . . CIR of DL channel [dB] . . . . . . . . . . . . BER [%] of DL channel . . . . . . . . . . . . LLC frame delay [s], DL . . . . . . . . . . . . Pending radio block ratio [0..1], DL . . . . . . RLC service duration [s], DL . . . . . . . . . IP segment delay [s], DL . . . . . . . . . . . . UDP packet delay [s], DL . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stations on the corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, RA250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, TU3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frame erasure ratio for PDTCH F, RA 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block erasure ratio and residual BER for GPRS PDTCHs, soft decision decoding, TU3 channel, no FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.8 Block erasure ratio and residual BER for GPRS PDTCHs, soft decision decoding, TU50 channel, no FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.9 Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, GMSK modulation, soft decision decoding, no FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10 Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, 8PSK modulation, soft decision decoding, no FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.11 Block erasure ratio and residual BER for EGPRS PDTCHs, MAC headers, soft decision decoding, no FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 B.2 B.3 B.4 B.5 B.6 The most simple sorting criterion possible . . . . The most simple sorting criterion with access list Sorting into equal groups, output to separate les The sorting Id 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User-dened, irregular groups . . . . . . . . . . . Sorting to table, output mean values to one le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 167 . 167 . 168 . 168 . 169 . . . . . . 171 171 172 172 172 173
D.1 A HTTP session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 D.2 HTTP version 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 D.3 HTTP version 1.1 using keep alive timer and early closing . . . . . . . . . . 181
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D.4 HTTP version 1.1 using keep alive timer . . . . . . . . . . D.5 HTTP pipelining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.6 MSC of typical POP3 session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.7 Length distribution of email, adapted . . . . . . . . . . . D.8 File transfer protocol, transmission model . . . . . . . . . D.9 Data distribution of FTP sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.10 Session initiation protocol, reduced trapezoid . . . . . . . D.11 Session initiation protocol, basic transitions . . . . . . . . D.12 State machine of voice model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.13 Acoustic echo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.14 Distribution of talk spurt durations and silence interval crosstalking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.15 Voice frame generation and SID insertion . . . . . . . . . D.16 Mapping of MPEG 1 layer 3 data blocks to frames . . . . D.17 Hierarchical layer structure dened by MPEG4 . . . . . . D.18 MPEG stream: GoP 15.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.19 MPEG4 video coding structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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182 182 183 184 184 185 185 186 187 188 188 189 190 190 191 192
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6
Access types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Forgetting factors for measurement averaging . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping of carrier strength to C VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping of CIR to I Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping table of BER to RX QU AL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping table for M EAN BEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping table for CV BEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurements reported per TS for dierent measurement modes Modes of PC operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MCS thresholds for delay-optimised LA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MCS thresholds for throughput-optimised LA . . . . . . . . . . . Standards proposal for MCS thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 39 39 39 39 40 42 46 49 49 50
Limits of GPRS addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Denition of cell types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attenuation for dierent structural elements . . . . . . . . Standard deviation for selected environment types . . . . Number of sessions needed to achieve a 5 % relative error Trac mix for outdoor micro cell scenario . . . . . . . . . Radii for interval borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 81 82 87 90 94
Parameters for validation scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Parameters for the reference scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Setup of FH scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 EGPRS performance with cell reselections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Throughput-optimised MCS selection for GMSK modulation Throughput-optimised MCS selection for 8PSK modulation . Delay-optimised MCS selection for GMSK modulation . . . . Delay-optimised MCS selection for 8PSK modulation . . . . . Addition to Standards proposal for MCS selection for GMSK Standards proposal for MCS selection for 8PSK modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 175 176 177 178 179
D.1 HTTP objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 D.2 MPEG 1 layer 3 data rates, CBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 E.1 Audio MPEG 2 layer 3 codec types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 F.1 List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
GLOSSARY
talic words with preceeding arrow point to other entries in the glossary.
Interoperabilit at Dies ist die F ahigkeit eines Endger ates, herstellerunabh angig Dienste einer gegebenen Infrastruktur unter Verwendung des jeweiligen Protokolls in Anspruch zu nehmen. Interworking
220
Glossary
Interworking
F ahigkeit einer gegebenen Infrastruktur mit einer anderen Infrastruktur unter Verwendung des jeweils standardisierten Intersystem-Interworking-Protokolls nicht bedeutungslose Informationen auszutauschen. Interoperabilit at
NOMENCLATURE
Table F.1: List of Symbols

Symbol w C V ALU E CIR D ch 0 CH I LEV EL N P0 Area Power Control Power Control Power Control Frequency Planning Frequency Planning Frequency Planning Power Control Power Control Power Control Power Control Frequency Planning Power Control Page 44 46 43 31 31 31 44 46 46 44 31 43 Explanation Weighting factor for quality-based GPRS power control Selector open - closed loop power control Receive signal strength normalised to BCCH Tx power Carrier to Interference Ratio Co Channel Distance Propagation Coecient Interference Level, GPRS Reference power level MS Power reduction, commanded by network CIR normalised to PBCCH Cluster size Static Power reduction relative to BCCH power, sets maximum sending power for DL TBF Power reduction relative to BCCH power Tx power of the MS Tx Power on BCCH Frequency Maximum allowed Tx power for the MS Dynamic Power Reduction relative to P0 Reference level Co Channel Interference Reduction Factor Cell Radius Distance Time Velocity Throughput
Pb PCH PBCCH P M AX PR PRef q R s t v Z
Power Control Power Control Power Control Power Control Power Control Power Control Frequency Planning Frequency Planning Trac Generation Trac Generation Trac Generation Trac Generation
43 46 44 46 43 44 31 31 88 88 88 88
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
8PSK 2+G 3G ACL AEC AMR ARFCN ARQ AT BA BB BCCH BEC BEP BER BLEP BSIC BSS BSC BSN BSSGP BTS CA CAC CBR CCCH CCU CDF CDMA CEP CEPI CIF CIR CM CNG CQR CR CRC CRQ
8-Phase Shift Keying 2nd+ Generation 3rd Generation Adaptive Cross Layer Scheduling Acoustic Echo Canceller Adaptive Multirate Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number Automatic Repeat Request Attention BCCH Allocation Base Band Broadcast Control Channel Backward Error Correction Bit Error Probability Bit Error Ratio Block Error Probability Base Station Identity Code Base Station System Base Station Controller Block Sequence Number Base Station System GPRS Protocol Base Transceiver Station Cell Allocation Connection Admission Control Constant Bit Rate Common Control Channel Coding Control Unit Cumulative Distribution Function Code Division Multiple Access Connection Endpoint Connection Endpoint Identier Common Intermediate Format Carrier to Interference Ratio Connection Management Comfort Noise Generation Channel Quality Report Cell Reselection Cyclic Redundancy Check Channel Request Description
CRTP CS CSD CV CV DCA DCT DL DLL DMIF DNS DSP DTP EDGE EFL EGPRS ES ETSI FAR FBI FCA FDD FDMA FEC FER FF FH FIR FL FN FNBW FTP GGSN GMM GMSK GoP GPRS GR
Compressed Real-time Transport Protocol Coding Scheme Codec Set Denition Countdown Value Coecient of Variation Dynamic Channel Allocation Discrete Cosine Transformation Downlink Data Link Layer Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework Domaine Name System Digital Signal Processor Data Transfer Process Enhanced Datarates for GSM Evolution Eective Frequency Load Enhanced General Packet Radio Service Elementary Stream European Telecommunications Standards Institute Frequency Allocation Reuse Final Block Indicator Fixed Channel Allocation Frequency Division Duplex Frequency Division Multiple Access Forward Error Correction Frame Erasure Ratio Forgetting Factor Frequency Hopping Finite Impulse Response Fractional Loading Frame Number First Null Beam Width File Transfer Protocol Gateway GPRS Support Node GPRS Mobility Management Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying Group of Pictures General Packet Radio Service GPRS Register
List of Abbreviations
223
GPS GSM GTP HCA HCS HDLC HLR HO HS HSAP HSN HPBW HTML HTTP IAT ICMP Id IDU IE IEEE IIR IP IPv4 IR ISO ITU JPEG KPI LA LGPL LLC LLR LoA LOS LRE MA MAC MAI MAIO MCS MM MMS MNR MPEG
Global Positioning System Global System for Mobile Communication Gateway Tunnelling Protocol Hybrid Channel Allocation Hierarchical Cell Structure High-level Data Link Control Home Location Register Handover Hopping Sequence Half SAP Hopping Sequence Number Half Power Beam Width Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Transfer Protocol Interarrival Time Internet Control Message Protocol Identier Interface Data Unit Information Element Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Innite Impulse Response Internet Protocol Internet Protocol version 4 Incremental Redundancy International Standards Organisation International Telecommunication Union Joint Pictures Expert Group Key Performance Indicator Link Adaptation Lesser GNU Public License Logical Link Control Log-likelihood Ratio Location Area Line of Sight Limited Relative Error Mobile Allocation Medium Access Control Mobile Allocation Index Mobile Allocation Index Oset Modulation and Coding Scheme Mobility Management Multimedia Messaging Service Mask to Noise Ratio Moving Picture Experts Group
MSC
Mobile Services Switching Center MSC Message Sequence Chart MS Mobile Station MTU Maximum Transfer Unit NACC Network Assisted Cell Change NB Normal Burst NC Neighbour Cell NE Network Element NLOS Non Line of Sight NS Network Services NW Network OSI Open Systems Interconnection PACCH Packet Associated Control Channel PaChaReq Packet Channel Request PaCtrlAck Packet Control Acknowledge PaData Packet Data PaDowAckNack Packet Downlink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge PaDowAss Packet Downlink Assignment PaDowDummyCtrl Packet Downlink Dummy Control PaEnhMesRep Packet Enhanced Measurement Report PaMesRep Packet Measurement Report PaPDCHRel Packet PDCH Release PaResReq Packet Resource Request PaTsRecong Packet Timeslot Recongure PaUplAckNack Packet Uplink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge PaUplAss Packet Uplink Assignment PaUplDummyCtrl Packet Uplink Dummy Control PBCCH Packet Broadcast Control Channel PC Power Control PCCCH Packet Common Control Channel PCU Packet Control Unit PDCH Packet Data Channel PDCP Packet Data Convergence Protocol PDN Packet Data Network PDTCH Packet Data Trac Channel PDP Packet Data Protocol PDU Protocol Data Unit PER Packet Error Ratio PHY Physical Layer
224
List of Abbreviations
PI PId PIM PLMN POP3 PRACH PS PSI PTM QCIF
Protocol Interpreter Process Id Packet Idle Mode Public Land Mobile Network Post Oce Protocol Version 3 Packet Random Access Channel Puncturing Scheme Packet System Information Packet Transfer Mode Quarter Common Intermediate Format QoS Quality of Service RA Routing Area RACH Random Access Channel rBER residual Bit Error Ratio RF Radio Frequency RFC Request for Comment RLC Radio Link Control ROI Return on Investment RR Radio Resource RRBP Relative Reserved Block Period RRC Radio Resource Control RTP Real-time Transport Protocol RTSP Real-time Streaming Protocol RTT Round Trip Time SACCH Slow Associated Control Channel SAP Service Access Point SC Soft Combining SDL Specication and Description Language SDP Session Description Protocol SDT SDL Development Tool SFH Synthesizer Frequency Hopping SGE Sun Grid Engine SGOOSE SDL Generic Object-Oriented Simulation Environment SGPRSim SDL GPRS Simulator SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
SID SIP SM SMS SMTP SNDCP
Silence Descriptor Session Initiation Protocol Session Management Short Message Service Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol SPEET SDL Performance Evaluation Tool SPEETCL SDL Performance Evaluation Tool Class Library SWARP SDL Wireless Application Radio Protocol TA Timing Advance TBF Temporary Block Flow TCH Trafc Channel TCP Transport Control Protocol TDMA Time Division Multiple Access TFI Temporary Flow Identity TLLI Temporary Logical Link Identier TN Timeslot Number TOM Tunnelling of Messages TR Technical Recommendation TRX Transmitter / Receiver TS Time Slot TTA Transceiver Turn-around TU Typical Urban UDP User Datagram Protocol UL Uplink UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System URL Uniform Request Location USF Uplink State Flag VAD Voice Activity Detection VBR Variable Bit Rate VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol WAP Wireless Application Protocol WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
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UNPUBLISHED WORK
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INDEX
Bold page numbers reference pages with important informations on the keyword, e. g. exact denitions or detailed descriptions. Non-bold page numbers reference occurences in the text. Italic entries provide the fully written-out meaning of an abbrevation that is referenced respectively, see also the list of abbrevations on page 222.
Symbols
2+G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2nd+ Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see 2+G 3G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3rd Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see 3G 8-Phase Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . see 8PSK 8PSK . . . 24, 38, 42, 49, 109, 113, 145, 147, 165, 167, 168, 174, 178
A
Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number see ARFCN access persistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ACL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Acoustic Echo Cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see AEC Adaptive Cross Layer Scheduling . see ACL Adaptive Multirate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see AMR AEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 AMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 ARFCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 31 ARQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii, iv, 12 AT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see AT Automatic Repeat Request . . . . . . . . see ARQ
Bit Error Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see BER BLER 48, 49, 50, 93, 99, 101, 102, 106, 107, 109, 113, 115, 118, 123, 132, 133, 135, 138, 142, 148, 150, 159, 162, 163, 165, 167, 174, 176 Block Error Probability . . . . . . . . . see BLER Block Sequence Number . . . . . . . . . . see BSN Broadcast Control Channel . . . . . see BCCH BSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 58, 69 BSIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 BSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 51 BSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5, 7 BSSGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 BTS 6, 27, 36, 4144, 52, 54, 55, 58, 6972, 74, 76, 85, 9093, 99, 103, 104, 136, 144, 145, 153, 154
C
CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 31 CAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Carrier to Interference Ratio . . . . . . see CIR CBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 CCCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 CCU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 CDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cell Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CA Cell Reselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CR CEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63, 68 CEPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Channel Quality Report . . . . . . . . . . see CQR Channel Request Description . . . . . see CRQ channel spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 CIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 CIR . . 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 39, 44, 45, 49, 51, 77, 95, 99, 101, 109, 126, 127, 129, 130, 145, 147, 154, 156, 157, 162, 163, 165 CM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 CNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Code Division Multiple Access . see CDMA Codec Set Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CSD Coding Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CCU Coding Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CS Coecient of Variation . . . . . . . . . . . see CoV
B
BA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Backward Error Correction . . . . . . . see BEC Base Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see BB Base Station Controller . . . . . . . . . . see BSC Base Station Identity Code . . . . . . see BSIC Base Station System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see BSS Base Station System GPRS Protocol . . . see BSSGP Base Transceiver Station . . . . . . . . . see BTS BB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 107, 109, 113, 115 BCCH . . . . 1315, 26, 27, 31, 34, 43, 44, 47, 5456, 89, 110 BCCH Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see BA BEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11, 12 BEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 BER . . . 35, 3639, 47, 48, 51, 77, 147, 157, 162, 163, 167169 Bit Error Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . see BEP
237
238
INDEX
Comfort Noise Generation . . . . . . . see CNG Common Control Channel . . . . . . see CCCH Common Intermediate Format . . . . see CIF Compressed Real-time Transport Protocol . . see CRTP Conclusions and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Connection Admission Control . . . see CAC Connection Endpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CEP Connection Endpoint Identier . . see CEPI Connection Management . . . . . . . . . . see CM Constant Bit Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CBR contention resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Countdown Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see CV CoV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3537, 48 CQR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 40, 41, 42, 48 CR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 5458, 152, 153 CRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 CRQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 CRTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 CS . . . 12, 16, 17, 27, 95, 163, 165, 167, 196 CSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Cumulative Distribution Function see CDF CV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 174 Cyclic Redundancy Check . . . . . . . . see CRC
EGPRS . 24, 12, 20, 29, 35, 36, 41, 42, 59, 71, 95, 98, 104, 106, 109, 115, 152, 161, 167169 Elementary Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see ES Enhanced Datarates for GSM Evolution see EDGE Enhanced General Packet Radio Service see EGPRS ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
F
FAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 FBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 FCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 27, 30 FDD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 30 FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 30 FEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 14, 76 FER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 162, 163 FF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 38 FH . iv, 3, 27, 32, 76, 91, 95, 104, 106, 107, 109, 113, 115, 123, 132, 151, 161, 165, 167169 File Transfer Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . see FTP Final Block Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FBI Finite Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . see FIR FIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 First Null Beam Width . . . . . . . . see FNBW Fixed Channel Allocation . . . . . . . . . see FCA FL . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv, 3, 32, 95, 123, 157, 161 FN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 FNBW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Forgetting Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FF Forward Error Correction . . . . . . . . see FEC Fractional Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FL Frame Erasure Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FER Frame Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FN Frequency Allocation Reuse . . . . . . . see FAR Frequency Division Duplex . . . . . . . see FDD Frequency Division Multiple Access . . . . . see FDMA Frequency Hopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Frequency Hopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see FH FTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 88, 90, 174, 184 Fundamentals on EGPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
D
data link layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see DLL Data Transfer Process . . . . . . . . . . . . see DTP DCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework see DMIF Digital Signal Processor . . . . . . . . . . see DSP Discrete Cosine Transformation . . see DCT DL 12, 13, 15, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 33, 34, 4348, 69, 91, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101104, 106, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, 115, 118, 120, 121, 123, 125130, 133, 135, 139, 141, 142, 145, 151, 154161 DLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 59 DMIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190, 191 DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Domaine Name System . . . . . . . . . . . see DNS Downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see DL DSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 165 DTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Dynamic Channel Allocation . . . . . see DCA
G
Gateway GPRS Support Node . . see GGSN Gateway Tunnelling Protocol . . . . . see GTP Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying . . . . . . . see GMSK General Packet Radio Service . . . see GPRS GGSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 73 Global System for Mobile Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see GSM GMM . . . . . . 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 16, 26, 5254, 65
E
iii, iv, 2, 3, 5, 24, 48, 51, 61, 73, 75, 89, 92, 95, 152, 165 Eective Frequency Load . . . . . . . . . see EFL EFL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 EDGE
INDEX
239
GMSK . . 24, 38, 42, 49, 109, 113, 145, 147, 167, 174, 178 GoP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 GPRS 2, 3, 5, 6, 715, 20, 23, 2628, 30, 33, 35, 36, 4043, 5254, 56, 57, 59, 61, 65, 67, 6973, 88, 89, 91, 92, 97, 101, 110, 125, 130, 159, 163, 167, 194, 196 GPRS Mobility Management . . . . see GMM GPRS Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see GPRSR GPRSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Group of Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see GoP GSM 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 15, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32, 38, 5456, 65, 6769, 74, 76, 89, 95, 97, 98, 104, 109, 110, 115, 152, 153, 161, 163, 165, 194 GTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
H
Half Power Beam Width . . . . . . . see HPBW Handover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see HO HCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 HCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 57, 79 HDLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 header compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hierarchical Cell Structure . . . . . . . see HCS High-level Data Link Control . . . see HDLC HLR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 HO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Home Location Register . . . . . . . . . . see HLR Hopping Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see HS Hopping Sequence Number . . . . . . . . see HSN HPBW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 84 HS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32 HSAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63, 67 HSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32 HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 HTTP . 91, 99, 110, 139, 180, 181, 182, 186 Hybrid Channel Allocation . . . . . . . see HCA Hypertext Markup Language . . . . see HTML Hypertext Transfer Protocol . . . . see HTTP
Interarrival Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see IAT Interface Data Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see IDU International Standards Organisation . . see ISO International Telecommunication Union see ITU Internet Control Message Protocol . . . . . see ICMP Internet Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see IP Internet Protocol version 4 . . . . . . . see IPv4 Interoperabilit at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 IP . . 6, 7, 101, 102, 107, 113, 118, 121, 123, 135, 138, 141, 142, 152, 159, 160, 190 IPv4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 9, 65 IR . . . iii, iv, 3, 12, 51, 52, 95, 151, 161, 165 ISO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 189
J
Joint Pictures Expert Group . . . . see JPEG JPEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
K
Key Performance Indicator . . . . . . . see KPI KPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
L
LA iv, 3, 12, 33, 42, 48, 49, 77, 90, 95, 101, 132, 136, 138, 139, 141, 144, 145, 147, 148, 151, 153, 159, 161, 174 Lesser GNU Public License . . . . . see LGPL LGPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii, iv, 59 Limited Relative Error . . . . . . . . . . . see LRE Line of Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see LOS Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see LA LLC 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 5658, 74, 102, 118, 157, 159 LLR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 52 LoA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 53, 54 Location Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see LoA Log-likelihood Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see LLR Logical Link Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see LLC LOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 78, 79, 80, 83, 90 LRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 173
I
IAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 90, 194 ICMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 64, 68, 69, 170173 Identier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see Id IDU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 IE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 IEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 IIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 55 Incremental Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . see IR Innite Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . see IIR Information Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see IE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see IEEE
M
MA . . . . . 31, 32, 98, 104, 110, 120, 121, 154 MAC . 3, 57, 1012, 13, 14, 15, 48, 57, 69, 161, 168, 169, 178 MAI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 MAIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32, 110, 115, 120 Mask to Noise Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . see MNR Maximum Transfer Unit . . . . . . . . . see MTU
240
INDEX
MCS . . . 12, 16, 33, 104, 106, 115, 117, 133, 135, 144, 145, 159, 161,
102, 113, 132, 142, 153, 176, 178 Medium Access Control . . . . . . . . . . see MAC Message Sequence Chart . . . . . . . . . see MSC MM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 8, 9, 11 MMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 MNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Mobile Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see MA Mobile Allocation Index . . . . . . . . . . see MAI Mobile Allocation Index Oset . . see MAIO Mobile Services Switching Center see MoSC Mobile Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see MS Mobility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . see MM Modulation and Coding Scheme . . see MCS MoSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Moving Picture Experts Group . see MPEG MPEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 190, 191, 196 MS . 3, 5, 7, 811, 1317, 1923, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 37, 3944, 48, 5257, 7072, 74, 76, 8587, 89, 9193, 9598, 102, 103, 110, 127, 128, 144, 145, 151, 161, 183 MSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 186 MTU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 multi-slot class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Multimedia Messaging Service . . . see MMS Multistage round robin scheduling . . . . . . 24
4852, 98, 99, 107, 109, 110, 118, 120, 121, 136, 138, 139, 147, 148, 150, 165, 167, 168,
101, 112, 123, 141, 151, 174,
N
NACC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 NB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 36 NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 29 NE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 6, 6468, 70, 162 Neighbour Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NC Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NW Network Assisted Cell Change . . see NACC Network Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NE Network Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NS NLOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 79 Non Line of Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NLOS Normal Burst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see NB NS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7 NW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 13, 15, 16
O
onDemand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 13, 27, 28, 30 Open Systems Interconnection . . . . . see OSI OSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv, 60, 61, 63, 64
P
PACCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 38, 39
PaChaReq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 17 Packet Associated Control Channel . . . . see PACCH Packet Broadcast Control Channel . . . . . see PBCCH Packet Channel Request . . . . see PaChaReq Packet Common Control Channel . . . . . . see PCCCH Packet Control Acknowledge see PaCtrlAck Packet Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PCU Packet Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PaData Packet Data Channel . . . . . . . . . . . see PDCH Packet Data Convergence Protocol . . . . . see PDCP Packet Data Network . . . . . . . . . . . . see PDN Packet Data Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PDP Packet Data Trac Channel . . see PDTCH Packet Downlink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge . see PaDowAckNack Packet Downlink Assignment . . . . . . . . . . see PaDowAss Packet Downlink Dummy Control . . . . . . see PaDowDummyCtrl Packet Enhanced Measurement Report . see PaEnhMesRep Packet Error Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PER Packet Idle Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PIM Packet Measurement Report see PaMesRep Packet PDCH Release . . . . see PaPDCHRel Packet Random Access Channel . . . . . . . . see PRACH Packet Resource Request . . . . see PaResReq Packet System Information . . . . . . . . see PSI Packet Timeslot Recongure . . . . . . . . . . . see PaTsRecong Packet Transfer Mode . . . . . . . . . . . see PTM Packet Uplink Acknowledge / Not Acknowledge . . see PaUplAckNack Packet Uplink Assignment . . . see PaUplAss Packet Uplink Dummy Control . . . . . . . . . see PaUplDummyCtrl PaCtrlAck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 PaData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 21, 22 PaDowAckNack . 19, 22, 23, 39, 41, 42, 44, 48, 135 PaDowAss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 22, 30 PaDowDummyCtrl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 PaEnhMesRep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 PaMesRep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 41 PaPDCHRel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 PaResReq . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 20, 36, 39, 41, 48 PaTsRecong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 PaUplAckNack . . . . . . . 17, 20, 21, 45, 46, 48 PaUplAss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 1721, 30, 43 PaUplDummyCtrl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 24 PBCCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 15, 16, 27, 56
INDEX
241
PC . 3, 13, 15, 33, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 90, 92, 95, 125127, 129, 130, 154, 161 PCCCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 43, 97 PCU 6, 7, 11, 13, 16, 17, 1924, 28, 30, 33, 38, 39, 4245, 48, 52, 57, 102, 127, 130, 138, 151 PDCH 11, 13, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 3638, 69, 74, 91, 9598, 104, 109, 135, 162, 163 PDCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 PDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 PDP . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 9, 53, 73, 74, 113, 196 PDTCH . . . . . . . . 14, 109, 163, 165, 167169 PDU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 18, 19, 22, 68, 170 PER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5, 13, 14, 15, 74, 161 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PHY PI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Picocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152161 PId . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 PIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 55 PLMN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 POP3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 132, 139, 183 Post Oce Protocol Version 3 . . see POP3 Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PC PRACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 19, 20 Process Id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PId Protocol Data Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PDU Protocol Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PI PS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 51 PSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 PTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 38, 55, 56 Public Land Mobile Network . . . . see PLMN Puncturing Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see PS
residual Bit Error Ratio . . . . . . . . . see rBER Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95152 Return on Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . see ROI RF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 RFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 73 RLC 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 1618, 23, 29, 42, 48, 50, 51, 57, 69, 71, 74, 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 107, 109, 112, 113, 118, 123, 132, 135, 136, 138, 142, 147, 157, 159, 161, 178 ROI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Round Trip Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see RTT Routing Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see RA RR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 13, 15, 74 RRBP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 2123 RRC 25, 26, 38, 69, 76, 77, 89, 95, 98, 152, 161 RTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 185, 187, 196 RTSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 RTT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9597, 180, 181
S
SACCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 40 SAP 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 223 SC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 52 SDL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 64, 6668 SDL Development Tool . . . . . . . . . . . see SDT SDL Generic Object-Oriented Simulation Environment . . . . . . . see SGOOSE SDL GPRS Simulator . . . . . . see SGPRSim SDL Performance Evaluation Tool . . . . . see SPEET SDL Performance Evaluation Tool Class Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SPEETCL SDL Wireless Application Radio Protocol . . see SWARP SDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 SDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Service Access Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SAP Serving GPRS Support Node . . . . see SGSN Session Description Protocol . . . . . . see SDP Session Initiation Protocol . . . . . . . . . see SIP Session Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SM SFH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 110, 117 SGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 SGOOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 67, 81 SGPRSim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 66 SGSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 6, 7, 10, 58, 71, 102 Short Message Service . . . . . . . . . . . . see SMS SID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Silence Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SID Simple Mail Transfer Protocol . . see SMTP Simulation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5975 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7593 SIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, 186
Q
QCIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 QoS iv, 7, 10, 11, 13, 18, 19, 23, 33, 73, 93, 103, 161, 187 Quality of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see QoS Quarter Common Intermediate Format see QCIF
R
RA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 9, 53, 54, 74, 163, 165 RACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Radio Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see RF Radio Link Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see RLC Radio Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see RR Radio Resource Control . . . . . . . . . . see RRC Random Access Channel . . . . . . . . see RACH rBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 162, 163 Real-time Streaming Protocol . . . . see RTSP Real-time Transport Protocol . . . . . see RTP Relative Reserved Block Period . see RRBP Request for Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . see RFC
242
INDEX
Slow Associated Control Channel . . . . . . . see SACCH SM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 65, 73, 74 SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 SMTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 SNDCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 9, 74 Soft Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SC Specication and Description Language see SDL SPEET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 67 SPEETCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 67 Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SNDCP Sun Grid Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see SGE SWARP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 67 Synthesizer Frequency Hopping . . . see SFH
U
7, 65, 73, 98, 101, 107, 109, 112, 113, 117, 120, 121, 133, 139, 159, 160, 185 UL 12, 13, 15, 16, 1724, 28, 34, 38, 4548, 69, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, 115, 118, 121, 123, 125130, 133, 135, 139, 141, 142, 145, 147, 151, 188, 196 UL TBF establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 90 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System see UMTS Uplink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see UL Uplink State Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see USF User Datagram Protocol . . . . . . . . . . see UDP USF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 21, 43, 74, 102, 165 UDP
T
TA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 74 TBF . . 12, 13, 15, 1624, 2830, 33, 37, 43, 50, 52, 56, 69, 74, 92, 98, 102, 109, 126, 129, 130, 138, 144, 147 TCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 27, 28, 74 TCP 9, 21, 57, 65, 73, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 107, 109, 112, 117, 121, 133, 139, 141, 151, 152, 159, 180182, 184, 185 TDMA . . . 15, 16, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 40, 55, 132 Technical Recommendation . . . . . . . . see TR Temporary Block Flow . . . . . . . . . . . see TBF Temporary Flow Identity . . . . . . . . . . see TFI Temporary Logical Link Identier see TLLI TFI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 72 Theory on Radio Resource Control for packet data services . . . . . . . . 2658 Time Division Multiple Access . see TDMA Time Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see TS Timeslot Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see TN Timing Advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see TA TLLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 24 TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 TOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 TR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 165 Trac Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see TCH Transceiver Turn-around . . . . . . . . . see TTA Transmitter / Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . see TRX Transport Control Protocol . . . . . . . see TCP TRX . . 15, 21, 2628, 31, 32, 71, 76, 89, 95, 98, 102, 104, 110 TS . . 26, 27, 28, 32, 37, 42, 55, 76, 98, 102, 163 TTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 29 TU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 165, 167, 168 Tunnelling of Messages . . . . . . . . . . see TOM Typical Urban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see TU
V
VAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Variable Bit Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see VBR VBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Voice Activity Detection . . . . . . . . . . see VAD Voice over Internet Protocol . . . . . see VoIP VoIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 21, 92, 176, 185
W
WAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Wireless Application Protocol . . . . see WAP Wireless Local Area Network . . . see WLAN WLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
LIST OF AUTHORS
Bold page numbers reference pages within the list of unpublished publications or within the bibliography. Normal page numbers reference citations in the text body.
A
Agrawala, A. K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ahmeti, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allman, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Almgren, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anderson, T. E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arlitt, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 225 235 225 231 225 225
B
Balanis, C. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barbier, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bayo Ruiz, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Berners-Lee, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, Bijendra, N. J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, Brady, P.T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bruemmer, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 230 235 228 225 225 228
Featherstone, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Fielding, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 228 Firoiu, V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Fishman, G. S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Floyd, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Fornefeld, U. . . . . . 48, 66, 76, 77, 228, 229, 231233 Frederick, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Fromme, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190, 229 Frueh, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Frystyk, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 228 ar, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Furusk
G
Gamma, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Genk, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 78, Gerstacker, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, Gettys, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giron, J. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . org, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G Goetz, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gray, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 229 229 228 235 232 229 229
C
Camarillo, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cardwell, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carson, J. S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casner, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 225, Chase, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Choi, H.-K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182, Conway, R. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cowling, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critelli, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 232 225 230 232 225 225 225 225 235
H
Halonen, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handley, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hartung, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heine, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helm, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hendrich, Dr. N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hipp, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hischke, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hoelzer, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H o ok, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holzwarth, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hook, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horn, U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hoymann, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151, 229, 229 232 226 229 229 229 229 233 229 229 229 231 226 233
D
Degermark, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Deschennes, J. H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Durgin, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
E
Elsen, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engelke, U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI 3GPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI 3GPP TSG 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI TC-SMG 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI TSG 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI TSG 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226, ETSI TSG GERAN 06 . . . . . . . . . . 227, ETSI TSG GERAN 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 235 226 226 226 226 227 228 228
I
ITU-T Study Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, ITU-T Study Group X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ITU-T Study Group XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivanov, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 230 230 231
F
Falsa, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Featherstone, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
J
Jacobson, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 230, 232
243
244
LIST OF AUTHORS
J averbring, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jalpa-Villanueva, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Johansson, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Johnson, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Johnsson, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Johnston, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Junius, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
229 230 231 229 230 232 230
Otyakmaz, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 235
P
Padhye, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pautet, M.-B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paxson, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perkuhn, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peters, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peterson, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pink, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Postel, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, Press, W. H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proakis, J. G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 231 231 231 235 226 232 225 231 231 231
K
Kampmann, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kernighan, B. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, Kersten, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Klensin, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kronestedt, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kurose, J. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 230 229 230 231 231
L
Lahjouji, Fathellah A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lakaniemi, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lambotharan, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laneman, J.N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, Larsen, H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Law, A. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173, Leach, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leong, S. Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limb, John. O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liu, Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 232 230 230 229 230 228 231 225 230
R
Rajasekharuni, P. S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rapport, T.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rehfuess, U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 115, Reynolds, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Richter, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ritchie, D. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rodrigues, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rohani, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Romero, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, Rose, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosenberg, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, Ruiz, A.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 225 231 231 232 230 232 234 232 231 232 229
M
Madhavi, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manevitch, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann, K. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martinez, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Masinter, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathis, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melero, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michaelsen, P.H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mirkovic, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mogensen, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mogul, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Molkdar, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 151, 165, Montenegro, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mouly, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, Myers, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 230 235 231 232 228 230 229 233 231 233 228 230 231 231 231
S
Salzmann, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Savage, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schieder, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schober, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schooler, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schreiber, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 173, Schreiber, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schultz, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schulzrinne, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, Sedgewick, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semke, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sievering, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 229, Sjoberg, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sk old, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sparks, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steppler, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stevens, W. R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stroustrup, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stuckmann, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, Sundberg, C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 225 232 229 232 236 232 231 232 232 230 232 232 229 232 232 233 233 233 230
N
Niclausse, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nielsen, T.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobelen, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nordgren, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 233 233 225
O
Olivier, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olofsson, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, Olzem, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ott, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 231 231 230
T
Telecommunication, COST . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 TeleLOGIC Malm o AB, Sweden . . . . . . . 233 Towsley, D. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
LIST OF AUTHORS
245
V
Vlissides, J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Vornefeld, U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
W
Walke, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, Wa smuth, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weiss, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, Westerlund, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wiesbeck, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wigard, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Williamson, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wol, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wright, G. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 233 236 233 232 229 233 225 236 233
X
Xiao, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xiaoxin, Q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie, Q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xu, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xu, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 233 232 233 225
Z
Zepernick, H.-J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 234
246
LIST OF AUTHORS
CURRICULUM VITAE
06. Dec. 1972 19791982 19831992 10/199209/1993 10/199303/1999
Date of birth Elementary school (Grundschule) Secondary school (Gymnasium) Army (Wehrdienst) Studies of Electrical Engineering, RWTH Aachen Finished with Diplom degree
06/199903/2006
Ph.D. student and employee at the chair of communication networks, RWTH Aachen

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Radio Resource Control Performance of the Mobile Data Service EGPRS

von Diplom-Ingenieur Ulrich Fornefeld aus Braunschweig

256 Seiten mit 247 Abbildungen und 33 Tabellen

Performance Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5.3.2.1 Distance dependent Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . 93

E.11 E.12 E.13

1.2. Contribution of this Thesis

Contribution of this Thesis

A TE MT BSS PCU Gn SGSN Signalling Data and Signalling

Gc GGSN Gf EIR PDN TE

GGSN other PLMN

GPRS related Network Elements

CCU CCU Key:

GSN Site PCU Gb C

Circuitswitching Function (16 or 64 kbit/s) Packetswitching Function

2.1. System Overview

IP / PPP SNDCP LLC SNDCP GTP LLC UDP IP L2 L1

IP / PPP GTP UDP IP L2 L1

RLC MAC GSM RF

RLC BSSGP MAC GSM RF NS L1bis

Core Network Protocols

Figure 2.3: GPRS protocol suite, user and control plane

Figure 2.4: CM sub layer

GPRS Mobility Management (GMM)

Figure 2.5: MM sub layer

taining a GMM context requires the following actions [19]:

2.1. System Overview

SNDCP Sublayer SNDCP Management Entity SNDCP Entity

Figure 2.6: SNDCP sub layer

following functions [35]:

Figure 2.7: LLC sub layer functions:

2.1. System Overview

Segmentation Acknowledgement Unit

RLC Header Assembly

Figure 2.9: RLC protocol

2.1. System Overview

Medium Access Control (MAC)

MAC UL TBF Maintenance Entity DL TBF Maintenance

Figure 2.10: MAC protocol, NW side

Figure 2.12: PHY layer, MS side includes the following functions:

2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer

Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer

One Phase Access

2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer

MS LLC PDU ti3168

PCU PaChaReq (one phase)

PaUplAss (dynamic) ContRes

ti3166 N3104 = 1 N3104 = 2

End of contention resolution TBF Est.

PaData LLC PDU

Figure 2.15: UL TBF establishment, one phase access

PaResReq (TLLI) PaUplAss (dynamic, TLLI)

Figure 2.16: UL TBF establishment, two phase access

2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer

PaUplAss (dynamic) TBF Est.

TBF Est. PaData PaData PaUplAckNack PaData LLC PDU

Figure 2.18: UL TBF establishment, DL established

LLC ACK GRR_Data_req(DATA)

Figure 2.19: Response to GRR Data ind

F 0 R F R 1 F 2 3 4 5 6 F R 0 F R 1 F F = free, 7 R = Rand RadioBlocks

2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer

t nopolling time switch to new PDCH(s)

Figure 2.22: UL TBF release

2.2. Basic Functions of MAC and PHY Sub Layer