Fate, Fortune, Luck in Chinese & Greek

Fate, Fortune, Chance, and Luck in Chinese and Greek: A Comparative Semantic History Author(s): Lisa Raphals Source:
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FATE, FORTUNE, CHANCE, AND LUCK IN CHINESE AND GREEK: A COMPARATIVE SEMANTIC HISTORY
LisaRaphals
andForeign ofComparative Literature Department Languages, of California at Riverside University In TheConsequences ofModernity, that new Giddens sociologist Anthony suggests and trust are distinctly thatsupplant notions of risk modern earlier developments notions of fate, and fortuna; the unexpected comes notfrom fortune, nowadays, ordivine turns offate intervention butfrom the"Fei Ming" risk.'From 4 lp-chapters oftheMohist on theological Canonto modern attacks fatalism and scientific deterfatalism a belief infate) from has a longhistory ofdisrepute. As a (as distinct minism, modern critic putsit: Iftime confers on philosophical there arefewissues in the respectability problems, of with more to be and considered than history philosophy right carefully charitably fatalism. Yetin thetwentieth at this has not been century, least, approach certainly offatalism discussions havebeenscattered and perfunctory, adopted. Contemporary almost with a dismissal of the fatalist's always summary concluding argument. Typically, the fatalist isseenas making some rather a tautology for sophomoric blunder-mistaking a substantive about thesis the of a 'model necessity, misunderstanding scope operator', facts about the future as facts about the andthelike.2 misrepresenting past, IfAnthony Giddens and MarkBernstein are right, theprevailing to countendency "modern" notions of and so forth with a "prechance, randomness, risk, terpose modern" notion offate, and fatalism attributes to the semantics fortuna, universality and categories of the modern which it privileges over an obscure formulation, somehowconnected withalterity and thedistant amalgam, past.A "from religion to philosophy" has tendedto dominate earlier Classicalapproaches to paradigm thesubject,3 and thecharge of"fatalism" has notinfrequently been leveledagainst Chinesethought, often as a result ofa confusion between fatalism and fate.4 I meanthenotion ordestiny that there is a setor immutable tothe Byfate pattern world.It maybe understood as humanly knowable or ultimately inscrutable, personified as (orunder thepowerof)a God or independent ofanydivine will.Atthe levelof individual a consciousagentis apt to consider the "fate"she is agency, and askwhatcan be changed and whatis unalterable. Inthis "given"in life, sense, theconceptoffatecan provide a way to categorize or discriminate whatcan and cannotbe changed.The related both epistemological questionis foreknowledge:
about what is given (fate)and about what is alterable. Belief in fate (forthe nonfatalist) may be closely connected to divination,since divinationis based on the premise that fate can be controlledor at least influencedby conscious entities available to humancontact.5
PhilosophyEast & West Volume 53, Number4 October 2003 537-574 of Hawai'i Press ? 2003 by University
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is thebelief inadvanceand unchangeable Fatalism that events arefixed byhumanagency. The idea that human actionhas no influence on events is readily confused with thedoctrine that eventhas a cause,either an earlier determinism, every infate. law.Both arethus from thebelief Thestrong event ora natural distinct fatalist are set by whatis "given," withno significant believesthatoutcomes scope for she has no need for which outcomes intervention; therefore, practical distinguishing can be altered. be fatalistic aboutsomethings and notabout (One can, ofcourse, for the Nordoes thefatalist havea practical others.) her, epistemological problem; like the undone. cannot be future, past, Chinese A considerable oftwentieth-century and corpus sinological scholarship, effects. RuanYuani~J thecharge offatalism, tovarious also haswielded otherwise, Some attacked and other Neo-Confucianism.6 dynasty Qingscholars Songand Ming unXia and Chinese scholars portrayed Shangdynasty religion twentieth-century have incomparison toward fatalism as "primitive" to theZhou.7Attitudes favorably States also been usedas a basisfor thought.8 Warring classifying studies of thesubject, In one of the mostinfluential (1896Fu Sinian Wi,~V@ Zhou and five from the Eastern a theories of Hu articulated student Shi, 1951), lun the the theory thatming("fate")is fixed(mingding States: Warring E_),ming of awaiting thatmingrectifies (mingzheng lun pEA), the theory theory and the lun as a wheel(ming thetheory ofming lun (si ming yun AP1MA), 1kir*), scholand much later lun Fu's ).9 (feiming study original theory contra-ming P#1 in States offate Warring oftheproblem to itattest totheimportance indebted arship to Han shown its have also Recent studies espephilosophy, centrality thought.10 of in the and of in the jf Lunheng Yang Xiong@if Taixuanjing cially it in of the reinvented also have been terms process WangChong_E~.l1 Fu'soriginal translation: determinism, ming zhengas moral ming ming dingas predeterminism, to do not tend Such formulations fei as and as anti-fatalism.12 fatalism, ming yun the and inwhich of reveal contexts arose, fate, fatalism, problems necessity concepts of to do, thesystems wereintended the"work" to address, wereintended they they of beliefs and practices wereelements, and thesystems of whichthey metaphors or in of contrast relations stood which toward opposition. they ofthesemantic overview historical and comparative Thepresent essayis a brief as a preintended China. It is in Greece and Classical of "fate" fields pre-Buddhist ofconofinterrelated treatment extended ambleto a more complexes comparative fortune, luck,and chance in ancientChina and Greece-the two cepts of fate, andWest. Thefirst East cometodefine cultures that "Classical" have,inmany ways, the field from in Chinese semantic the elements describe twosections Warring key lexiconin contemporary of theearlier and the Han and in the reinvention States and (statistias risk, modern for suchentirely Chineseterms randomness, concepts avoid Buddhist cal) chance. I deliberately separate languagebecause it warrants
study.My account of the Greek semantic field focuses on Homer and the Aios on Plato and the role and the problemof fateand necessity, on Parmenides BouAr, of the "On Fate" topos in Hellenistic of daimons, and on a very brieftreatment meta verybrief section I attempt Greece. In the third comparativemetaphorology;
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and wheelor division orallotment, theaction offateincluded for command, aphors of cycles change.13 ofoverI seekto avoidtherespective fields Inpresenting thesesemantic pitfalls and of projecting in time, differences place, and context) (byignoring generalizing To thatend, I have avoidedany ontothe other.14 the conceptsof one tradition offate. I haveheuristically identified theories to classify Nonetheless, eight attempts fields of the semantic of the theoretical much that cover range topoi overlapping to groupsimilar of fatein earlyChinaand Greece.I use themas a convenience, notas a classification. expressions, ofone or moreanthropomorphic "command" 1. Fateas divine gods,ancestors, or other divinities. spirits, itsscope). or inception at birth 2. Fateas something (whatever predetermined in as insofar Thistoposdoes notimply determinism, "destiny" mayoperate specific life. Thefirst ofFu controls human that and limited waysand notbe theonlyfactor of is an instructive fivetheories Sinian's poweroftherange exampleofthelimited lives: of of "fixed fate" to determine the actual human unfolding interpretation
that was ofheaven wassomething held that the command isfixed Thetheory that ming The common in different This was understood fixed andcouldnotbe altered. ways. not rid of. andsecured but that could be completed took ittomean gotten people [ming] or be changed protookitto mean that substance couldnoteasily Thelearned [its] tected.15 will. to theexercise ofhuman choiceand free 3. Fateas subject of ming showtherange of 4. Moralfate.Fu Sinian'ssecondand third theories conduct: to virtuous (someaspects of)destiny evenwhenlinking nuancepossible,
rectifies heldthat theaffections of heavenwerenotconstant, and The theory that ming orcalamity.16 that towards others couldbring downgoodfortune conduct
The si ming theintentions of highest heavenare in themainto bring holdsthat theory the fortune to and to the there butthat arethosewhomit licentious, calamity good good does nothelp.Thosewho areworthy are notnecessarily and long-lived, thosewho are unbenevolent are notnecessarily without emoluments.17 The theoryof awaiting ming was the specificallyRuistview that heaven rewards withthe impliedrecommendation virtue to practiceselfoverall,but unpredictably, cultivationand await the Mandate of Heaven. A moral heaven rewards virtue; moralchoices. To describe thisview as therefore, through people can affect destiny moraldeterminism overstates the case.
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5. Fateas subject to random etcetera. chance,luck, fortune, 6. Fateas predictable, whether construed as necessity, mechanical orthe cycles, of laws of nature. operation 7. The problem oftranspersonal versus individual destiny. 8. Explicit denialof"fate" or "fatalism," whatever that is taken to mean. thereis tension between (3) and (4) and between (5) and (6), these Although are notmutually orientations and each has many exclusive, interpretations. TheChinese Semantic Field in China are the Shangdynasty The earliest written records oracle-bone inscriptions.These nonnarrative divination records the records of the reading of present "cracks."Shangdivination oracle-bone covereda wide variety of subjectmatter: sacrifice, excursions, calendrics, weather, military campaigns, hunting, agriculture, divine and for or ancestral illness, childbirth, dreams, construction, tribute, requests Theoracle-bone and assistance.18 use thegraph approval inscriptions ling 4, commandor decree,intwoarguably distinct senses:(1) command ordecreeand (2) the nounming, thenameofa deity.19 There is no separate for thesetwo possibly graph are distinct context. became the concepts; they separated ming through Although fate links term for or it retained its close with and command. destiny, always key ling In some inscriptions, was associatedwiththe highgod Di &, who has the ming Intheexpression to issuecommands.20 Di ming preeminent power I* , "thedecree were of Di," Ming may have been the name of a deityto whom divinations addressed.21 were inseparable aboutdivinecommand from divination. Most Shangbeliefs weredivinations aboutthefuture, whether of human oracle texts assertive prefertheimplication orblind toward divine offixed ence or interrogative will,butwithout thesemantic theearliest fields forfateand fateor determinism. Thus,from times, were intertwined with the practice of a range of techniques that furthered destiny term mantic access to mantic the welfare personal knowledge. By personal through from oftechniques ofprediction and divination, access I meana range starting the A detailed their localvariaof records.22 oracle-bone provenance, description these, butthere is someevidence thescope ofthisdiscussion, et ceterais beyond tions, some inChinathaninGreece.Itcan be saidwith that mantic access was far greater of the divine beliefs about fate concerned the earliest Chinese that topos certainty some kind thereis also considerable evidencethattheypresupposed command; a willor human rather than notion of offree of notion lot, choice, predetermined
to portray as fatalistic.23 of efforts Shang religion despite a variety States Ming 4 in theZhou and Warring States we findbotha broadersemanticfieldforwords In the late Zhou and Warring and destinyand an increasingly concerned with fate,fatalism, complex range of
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associated thewordming. The difficulties oftheterm (and debated)with concepts of translation. There was no consensus on how to are not ming problems simply define theterm, and rival thinkers tended to use itindifferent even within meanings, thesame text. thatamplify or specify itsmeaning.24 Mingalso occursin binomes Hereare some ofthemostimportant Zhou and Warring States uses of ming, both in in and Some are discussed the literature; widely scholarly singly compounds. others are lesswellknown.25 or mandate. Accounts ofming as to (a) Mingas decree,command, vary widely who orwhatdidthedecreeing. and death, theextent ofone's life (b) Mingas life span;for example: Life anddeath have their wealth andhonor inHeaven. reside Zixia (Analects 12.5, ming; a he has heard) quotingsaying
Life and deatharedecreed. 6:241)26 (Zhuangzi
Thesetwomeanings ofming to thetopoioffate as divine comcorrespond closely mandand fate as insomesensepredetermined at birth or inception (topoi1 and 2). the will of free or the actionof 3) Neither, however, precludes operation (topos chance events(topos5). Mingas command allows for, butdoes notrequire, the of virtue and the action of on rewarding (topos4) predictable regularities theworld (topos6). 1. Mingcommanded of Destinies.27 Two chapters of the Nine Songs (a) Si MingIJ@, the Director the Songsof Chu 0- are titled "Da Si Ming" I-A~r and "Shao Si AV within namedSi Mingis theobjectofsacrifice in divination intexts Ai. A deity Ming" J , at Baoshanand excavated an astral associated with Fangmatan,28 possibly divinity thefourth star oftheWen ChangPalace constellation in UrsaMajor.29 or decreeof heaven, themostimpor(b) Tianming RA, themandate perhaps tant senseofming as "decree."The Odes and Documents theidea frequently repeat that Heaven'sdecreeis notconstant, that a ruler cannot count on it unless meaning is he worthy of it.The Ode of thistitle,"Da ming" cAi (Greatming), refers to Heaven'smandate on King Wen: devolving There wasa mandate from itmandated this WeninZhou, inthecapital, heaven; King andthe female successor a girl from Shen. (Mao236)30 This passage also makesit clear thatthe decree worked bothmen and through women.Ina passageintheDocuments, theDukeofZhoutellsPrince Shithat, even the Shangdynasty has lostthe Mandate,he dare not restassuredof the though mandate oftheLord on High(ShangDi ming L94) because:
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Heaven's mandate isnot Heaven ishard todepend on.31 easy[topreserve]; The attitude intheAnalects toward is a subject ofconsiderable ming disagreement. Confucius seemsto havebelieved in it,at leastinearly life:32 Ajunzi fears three the Mandate ofHeaven, andthe words ofsages. things: persons, great
(Analects 16.8)
2. Mingab initio or itsopposite, (a) Shou ming*P, a "mingof longevity" earlydeath.This is associated with the of as life above).33 phrase meaning ming span (discussed Xunzirefers to soldiers who fleefortheir livesas literally toward their "running assumes added importance intheLunheng (benming (disming" ~@i).34 Thisterm cussedbelow). nature and fate, as thetwooverlapping factors that (b) Xing mingt'i, (human) determine life's Thisterm is particularly in the course.35 together prevalent Zhuangzi and the Lunheng It also appearsin the instances) instances). (sixty (twenty-seven and the LUj Shi chunqiu (2.4 and 9.18), the Huainanzi (fourteen instances), Lunyu Itdoes notoccurintheMengzi. (twelve instances). 3. Choosing ming Severalphrases describeattitudes and actionsof actingwith, to, conforming or or all the exercise following, actively completing grasping They emphasize ming. willthrough offree and choice. understanding withming. associates thesephrases with theZhuangzi, but conformity TangJunyi neither occursinthat text.36 An ming does occurintheBaopuzi.37 totheZhuangzi, for someone (b) Cheng uia, completing ming ming. According who understands itfate is a means to letthings cometocompletion, for the example adroit who his skill to Confucius: swimmer, explains
I don'tknowwhyI do whatI do; thatis fate!(Zhuangzi (chenghu mingiAT-f@).... 19: 657-658) in ming,or an mingshun ming (a) An ming pr, resting in irlILf, resting
I begin with isinborn, what itbyessential andcomplete itbymeans offate nature, grow
ming" to the moralizedmingof the Mandate of Heaven (topos4):
theOde "Hao tianyouchengming," whichdescribes Wen'sand Bycontrast, King Wu's receipt of heaven'smandate as complete and entire, links King "completing
Great Heavenhascomplete twosovereigns received it.Cheng mandate; Wangdarednot be easy;morn and night he laiditsground. (Mao 271)
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a matter ofstrategy, andthewiseassesstheir times and decidehowto act:those part ofpenetrating do not trouble about what cannotremedy:38 insight knowledge
(c) Da ming46r, graspinghold of ming.Accordingto the Zhuangzi, fate is in
to grasp is happenstance. smallming 30:1059) (Zhuangzi to ming,in the Laozi and Zhuangzi; forexample: (d) Fu mingfr , returning
istrue tograsp ming conformity; great
to ming andtake heaven as their teacher become models for others. Sageswhoreturn
25 :880) (Zhuangzi (e) Li ming , establishing mingin Mencius (Mengzi 7A1). _1i
to ming. to Mencius: (f)Shunming11fii, conforming According There is nothing that is notming andonereceives andconforms toone'sowncorrect Goodandbadfortune, or in life human all these areas heaven [one]. prosperity grief, decrees. 7A2) (Mengzi to ming includes that one follows one's correct a topic Conforming ensuring destiny, inseveral that recurs Han discussions.39 to Xunzi, thejunzi According conforms toming andthereby hisauthentic (Xunzi 3/30) preserves singularity. viewthat
(g) Sui ming 4p, to Huang Di the followingdestiny.The Zhuangzi attributes
whopenetrate into true form andfollow toming. Sagesarethose according (Zhuangzi

14: 507)
and is discussed (h) Zhi ming, understanding ming, presents specialdifficulties, below. These few illustrate the that these were separately examples point phrases used indifferent texts to express a range ofpoints ofview,and cannot be identified with thewordming. of,ortheories about, particular meanings 4. Moralming The most ofmoral was tianming, thetranspersonal, important expression ming moralming mandated discussed above. Other notions oftranspersonal Heaven, by
withvirtue. ming(discussed below) do not necessarilylinkmacro-destiny , to thereceipt ofa (human) command times it (e.g.,at Zhuangzi 4: 153),butat other to the decrees of fate:40 clearlyrefers the decree. Sometimes (a) Shou ming @, receiving thisformulation refers both
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Ofthose their whoreceive from the andcypress stand winter and earth, alone; ming pine are summer fresh Of and those who receive their from Yao they green. ming heaven, and stand the Shun have luck to be able to their ownlives. alone; they regulate (Zhuangzi 5:193) Thispassagelinks with self-determination 3). receiving ming (topos 5. Chanceand ming ofthetimes. The Warring States semantic field does (a) Shi ming *Pi', thefate notseemto contain to luckand chance(ofthekind references that are so explicit in the Lunheng). States refer to do, however, texts, prominent frequently Warring of "thetimes"one was bornin as a keyto humanprospects, the importance in to "thefateofthetimes" in references and in remarks on theimportance ofacting in moment. Thesereferences differ twowaysfrom accordwith theopportune locutions for with thefate concerned ofstates or individtranspersonal ming (guoming) discussedbelow. First, formoral uals (renming) theyare notused as arguments involve notions of as or luck chance insofar chance Second,they (topos5), ming. whenone willbe born. also involve notions ofregularity determines and cau(They time are subject to study as the"regularities" ofa given and 6], insofar sality [topos prediction.) Statesintellectual Associations of mingand shi appear across the Warring to the A Mohist for the existence of and refers spirits spectrum. argument ghosts a mandate for whose was of Wen as rule King Zhou, appointed ming newly newly heldthemandate: theming ofShangDi theShangno longer Bycontrast appointed.
was nottimely ;&P7I.41
fate ofthetimes: A Zhuangzi thedeclineofdao and theadverse passagelinks have andming beenright, Hadtime Thefate wasterribly oftimes they might wrong.
donegreat deedsintheworld. 16:555) (Zhuangzi
Analects to Confucius and Xunzi 12.5): (quoting According arematters ofming. life anddeath arematters ofthe with success orfailure time; Meeting
(Xunzi28/39)
of Wu, wifeof LingofZhao, King ofthe Daughter In the LienO zhuan biography womannotyetborn: whosings ofa beautiful ofa girl ofZhao dreams Wuling
thetime ofHeavenshewillbe born.42 whenshe meets Oh Ming, O Ming, are linked In these,and in laterHan examples, both personaland dynasticdestiny time.43 at the right withthe timesand shi I, timeliness, doing the right thing
544
6. Predictable ming from the (a) Zhi mingPR'. This phrasehas threedistinct meanings arising of as life and command. It means "to sacrifice one's life" meanings ming span,fate, at Analects 19.1: "A shiwho perceives is prepared to deliver overhis life" danger about" when he Zhuangziuses it in the sense of "cause" or "bring -~.fERA. attributes to Confucius theadvicethat
is as good as realizing 4: 160) Nothing ming. (Zhuangzi
Hereming either as one's life oras one's destiny. maybe understood Realizing ming also refers to "carrying out a command," forexamplein Xunzi'sstatement that Prince Fa was respectful incarrying outhischarge(zhiming) in refusbutobstinate ingreward.44 several (b) Zhi ming U1p, "understanding ming." "Understanding ming"meant different It was mostwidelyunderstood to meanthe knowledge or accepthings. tanceofdestiny as heaven'sdecree,45 and was strongly with associated in sagacity Ruist for texts; example:
Whoever does notunderstand cannot becomea junzi.(Analects 20.3) ming
Those whounderstand themselves do not those whounderstand others; begrudge ming

do notbegrudge Heaven.(Xunzi 4/21)
The claimthatming could be understood does notstrictly thatming is preimply dictable. 7. Transpersonal ming The Ode ofthis title (a) Da mingQic, great (Mao 236, discussed above) ming. makesit clear thatit refers to the macro-destiny of a kingdom, notmerely of an insofar as themandate to the entire Zhou The Han Feizi individual, applies kingdom. also refers a "great of both heaven and ming" humanity: Heaven hasa great hasa great ming; humanity ming.46
(b) Xiao ming.1N?, or "small ming."
ofa state. Xunzimakes thedistinction (c) Guo ming gig, thedestiny explicit:
A person's lieswith liesin itsrites. Heaven;a state's ming (Xunzi ming 16/4and 17/43) The Chunqiu fanlu (Luxuriant dew of the springsand autumns)directlylinksthe to the ming of the entirepopulace of a state to whetheror not its rulerconforms Mandate of Heaven:
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Theancients the sonofheaven the receives mandate from the heaven, say: only (people ofthe) receive the mandate from the of heaven. A son state receives its mandate empire and ifthelord as one from itslord, conforms to it[the Mandate ofHeaven] then the have a If the lord then a the have it, people conforming opposes ming. people contrary
(niming).47 ming
ofan individual, as distinguished from the (d) Renming AA, thefate guo ming, fate ofa state (discussed above).48 will(thechoicesofKing also emphasizes free Wen and the Transpersonal ming link the from and between mandate to rule and moral rectitude. Shen) girl 8. Contra-ming 35-37 oftheMohist Canon. Itwas historically linked to Mohist attacks on Ruists, in shi fei for the lun" account of the of theRuists X4 2) "Qiwu example (Zhuangzi a Ruist of ming and theMohists. The Mohist as arguments targeted understanding of More number attacks on 2). however, predetermination (topos any generally, as "fei butmost sensesofming be described particularly specific might ming," Wang notion as attack on the ofthecourseoflife predetermined. Chong's offate. TheMohists first thequestion oftheexistence takethe (b) Youming ,4fk, ofthedoctrine offatalism, offate: theexistence up thequestion exists isnot that exists isto doctrine but toreject the doctrine [The that] ming ming, ming
This is thetitle ofchapters (a) Fei mingA1 @, the Mohist"againstming"doctrine.
[the (Mozi46/20-21)49 of]ming. reality reject
in the Zhuangziasks whether we can knowwhether lifeis The skeptical thread fated:
havenoming? we how Since know the endofthings, canwe saythey Since we do not howcan we saythey haveming? ofthings, do notknow thebeginning (Zhuangzi
27 : 958)50 Other Terms
and cause. describe notionsof fate,destiny,
States texts to used inWarring Forall itslexicalvariety, was nottheonlyterm ming

as withmingand variouslyunderstood identified (a) Fen 4-were "allotments," to and be used cheror individual lifespan, longevity, destiny, prosperity, specific ished, includingby the forceof humaneffort:
546
Theformless hadallotments butthey were still notdivided andthey called [fen] out,
them 12:424) ming. (Zhuangzi
fateas decreeor opportunity, a nodal meeting, or "meeting (b) JieOiP, literally overintervals." Xunziusesjie, literally a nodeorjoint ofbamboo, butmore broadly circumstance oropportunity, to define fate: unexpected one'snature iscalled the node[jie]iscalled (Xunzi illness; Harming 22/6) meeting ming. thecyclesoflife, (c) Bianhua VVE,changeand transformation, death, including and theseasons.In theZhuangzi thesage WangTai "takesitas fated that things theZhuangzi hasLao Dan admonish Confucius that change"(pi1qth).51 Elsewhere cannot be transformed" the refers to the ).52 "ming Similarly Zhuangzi (;qThi ofaffairs transformations as "themovements ofdestiny" (2ifi).53 or "setup."54 A wide rangeoftexts stress the impor(d) Shi *, configuration tanceoftimeliness in response to one's times and to fate, (shi)and configuration by whether ornotthetimes orevenmore localstrategic understanding "configurations" oftime and place heldgood orwereinauspicious. thenotion that theactivities ofthesage or shengren (e) ShengV or sagacity, included and were prominently understanding, comingto some kindof acA)? commodation fate. this meant varied (What with, widely.) terms for (f)ii xiong `-INand other below). good and bad auspice(discussed therelations ofming to whatmight be calledchance. Alltheseconcern broadly theterm form of links to (a *1, command), Bycontrast, yi duty Gu ming moral duty.
iA, purpose or cause, and chang *, constancy (in nature),emphasize notionsof
or predictability necessity (guand chang).
Han Accounts ofMing a of MichaelNylandistinguishes twelveconceptually In summary Han meanings, distinct ofming: ordecree,(2) duty, (1) fate (3) destiny, (4) predestination, meanings and their the (5) causal connections manifestation of Heaven's (6) possibilities, the created will,(7) theinevitable, life (8) empirical (9) facts, (10) world, span,(11) and (12) circumstances human The precircumstances, objective control.55 beyond showsthat ofthesewerealready evident inWarring States cedingdiscussion many texts. To theextent that Han rulers consolidated a neworthodoxy, Han Confucianismremained concerned with debatesaboutming, theidea prominently including that received the mandate of heaven kings (*_E1~E ).
The problemof fatereemerges as an important issue in Han debates, especially in the thoughtof Yang Xiong and Wang Chong.s6 Wang devotes some eighteen oftheclaim thatall or mostaspects of humanlife chaptersofthe Lunhengto variants are determined at birth.57 were, on the one hand, the divinaWang Chong's targets
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tionpracticesof his own timeand, on the other, the Confucianmoralism of bothhis own and earliertimes,specifically the concept of moralming,as describedby both An example of the latter is Ban Biao, WarringStatestextsand Han Confucians.58 who argued in the Han shu treatise"On the Destinyof Kings" (Wang ming lun rulers,specificallythe Han founderGaozu I-@A) that heaven selected upright for their means of tian ming.59Wang's attack on moral ming virtue, by &'#t, introducesnew categorizations of kindsof fateand places a new emphasis on the role of chance as a factorin the outcome of human life. His arguments are not but notalways between,chapters.60 consistent; entirely theytendto cohere within, a unified view of mingin the Lunheng, but rather My purpose here is notto present to show how he extendedthe discourseon fate. of mingin both physicaland political life Wang Chong held thatthe unfolding was determined at threelevels: the personal level of inbornnatureand endowment, the interpersonal level of chance encounters, and thetranspersonal level oftimeand common destiny.61 three kinds of and neutral, Wang distinguished ming:favorable, adverse. He argued that ming was not determinedby a superhumanpower and could not be changed (or predicted) by ethicalbehavior. In and fortune the ~A). (lu Ming chapter"Ming and Fortune"(Ming lu), Wang that from emphasizes everyindividual, kingto commonerand from sage to ignoraa has mus, ming: Thereis a ming of life and deathand of longor short lifespan;there is also a ming of honor or low rank and ofwealth and poverty. 20).62 3, (Lunheng p. riseand fallaccordingto the wealth and honordecreed by ming, People's fortunes it: notas a result of their efforts to affect time,and circumstances,
and estimable conduct never wealth and honor. Nor Therefore, ability great guarantee are limited and poorconduct reliable indicators of poverty and low status. knowledge with itweakens someone andestimable conduct hasa bad ming; Sometimes ability great it. him so that he cannot comeup to Someone with limited and poorconduct knowledge whenconsidering and soar and fly. circumTherefore, mayhave an auspicious ming, of mean conduct are matters of wisdom and and the exercise or stances, stupidity pure and in low in and wealth and status office innate nature and poverty high [xing] talent; and timing arematters ofming business [shi]. 3, p. 20)63 (Lunheng timethanto exhaust is thatit is better to await the right The forceof the argument oneself pursuingdestiny.The tian ming exists but is not knowable beforehand. to acquire wealthand honor, When people exertthemselves at hand; and losethematter wealth theopportune moment they hopefor they go against think that and honor butcannot obtainit.Although exists, ming they they they saythat for it.(Lunheng haveto search 3, p. 26)
548
ofthetimes and theimportance oflongevity ofa ming The notions (shi) (shouming) willbe familiar from thelastsection. levelat which fuhuo W, ji xiong IV]. The first shane Mingab initio: ,, "Initial nature(xing).The chapter mingacted was the personallevel of inborn Heaven that which is received from defines as Endowments ("Chubing" @#J) ming at birth, eventhough that and xingare received at birth.64 bothming Itargues they that each until or later. themselves manifest adulthood, Wangargues maynotfully a destiny an allotment ofgood and receives RLi-A', and peopleall obtain person their from the at time receive at bad fortune X qi parents birth: =AI~- l they
is bad; Now xing and ming maybe at odds.Insomecases,thexingis goodbuttheming and good and bad is good. Deliberate conduct in others, thexingis bad buttheming of xing;prosperity and good and bad auspice are matters of ming. deeds are matters 6, p. 51) (Lunheng
at birth; is manthat ming people receive xingand ming together Wangargues that He also as the form of the as and ifested externally body.65 argues internally xing inthebodybefore as the distinction offate are inherent thesegradations birth, just intheeggshell; thesame is true ofall animals, between cocksand hensis inherent The exampleof and seeds.66This accountof mingis not deterministic. plants, an One's maymakea heritage predisposition provides aptanalogy. genetic genetic individual its all inevitable. choices illness but Nonetheless, mayaffect particular it or shortens life. and the extent to which one's handicaps severity totheprinciple ofming as toWangChong, tianming is no exception According of the investiture of endowedat birth. founders receive specific Dynastic may signs the as at the time of their accession to the but receive throne, they kingship adults, that He even tianming at birth. havedistinguishing marks. Wangalso argues kings of officials who to kings theability to recognize thedistinguishing marks attributes thisprovides a new explanation for accounts of have a ming ofwealthand honor; in talent" that first the States and continue well appear kings "recognizing Warring after theHan.67 human Chanceand luck(xingou *%). The second levelat whichindividual destinies unfolded was the interpersonal level of chance meetings. The chapter "Chanceand Luck"("Xing theactionofchanceand luckas compliou") describes reward and punishment luck(xing); arematters of(goodorbad)fortune, ou. Yan Hui and Bo Niu,students ofConfucius whodied young, traditional to provide examples illustrate bad luck.Wangalso adducesa setofexamples in nature: ofarbitrariness individual and blades of grasssurvive crickets notbecause theyare virtuous but
thataffect the action of ming.68 Itargues thathappiness is a matter of catingfactors
because theyare lucky.69 A Hierarchy of mings.A thirdlevel at which fate acted was the transpersonal level of the times (shi) or fate held in common (da ming, da yun Wang's 7_). between "Meaning of Fate" ("Ming yi" -r) chapterbegins with a disagreement The arguMohistsand Ruistsover whetherthe time of death is subject to ming.70
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ment is notwhether butwhether or nothuman life to exists, ming spansare subject it. Bothsides makearguments thatare interestingly The Mohists cite quantitative. cases ofmassdeath, and natural that war,epidemic, through catastrophe; they argue so manypeople cannothave had thesame ming. The Confucian is also response in light ofthetotal thesenumbers are notimpossibly i"statistical": population, large. out of the total with thesame ming individuals were Theyarguethat, population, to drawn those unfortunate locales.The nextset of arguments claims inexorably thatan improbably of lowborn oftheir elevation people experience largenumber fortunes. Thischapter and resolves articulates a tension between as strictly individming ual and thetranspersonal of times and or states (topos7, above): ming the of the state takes isvictorious] over the of ming [guo precedence [literally, ming ming] the oflongevity takes individuals over the [ren [shou ming]; ming ming] precedence ming
ofprosperity [luming]. 6, p. 46) (Lunheng
Theming ofa state is connected with thestars, whosegoodand bad auspicechange revolve andwander. The rationale for theming oflife as they life spanisthat spanis notbythestars. A strong visible orweakconstituin,and determined by,thebody, tiondetermines life span:
is inherent Therefore whenwe speakof ming 6, ming nature/(xing). existing, (Lunheng p. 47)
thestars, The ming ofwealth and honor, is from and their are in bycontrast, signs heaven. In thischapter three kinds of ming: standard Wang also distinguishes (zheng and (zao ming (suiming M4p), contrary ming IET-),consequent
-P_):
hisown receives refers someone tothe casewhere Standard goodfortune [jilfrom ming
at birth. basicendowment 6, p. 49)71 (Lunheng
comes In cases ofstandard thebonesare good and the"fated" good fortune ming effort. without and spontaneously, requires consequent ming Bycontrast, naturally effort: considerable ofeffort come andwell-being Inthe caseofconsequent only bydint ming, goodfortune bad if intohisinner nature anddesires this anddeliberate person gives goodconduct;
willresult. 6, p. 50) (Lunheng auspiceand malaise Contrary ming,on the otherhand, is irreparable: Inthecase ofzao ming, is goodand results arebad. (Lunheng conduct 6, p. 50)
550
a complex calculusthat is very far ofxingand ming The combination presents be adverse seems to or The one either from exception by xing ming. predestination cases ofpersons is no recourse. whichthere fate, Wanggoes on to address against thebenefits of butbad lives,people who shouldhave obtained with good natures of He that continbut the disasters achieved contrary argues ming. contingent ming "three natures" He also introduces are mutually exclusive. gentand contrary ming A of standard that to the three (san xingE_') spontacorrespond xing ming. person the birth. virtues has thefive(constant) Consequent xingfollows neously _iS from and mother. leadsWangChongto emphaThisconsideration natures ofthefather on the and to advocatestrictures ofcaution size the importance during pregnancy ofpregnant women. activities four influences: articulates (1) ming, (2) lu,good fortune overlapping Wangthus and thespecific in thegeneral senseofemoluments, senseof prosperity (3) zao yu distinct and luck. These four and ou chance adverse (4) encounters, xing *, !-, fate. of the action of a nondeterministic factors explanation Ming provide nuanced, is wealth and wealth and honor, butluckwaxesor wanes.Ifone's destiny governs refers to extraordinary (and vice versa).Adverseencounter honor,luck thrives A person zhi bian such as a sage's beingimprisoned. change(feichang 4lZ,), an butif and not harmed adverse with luck be encounter, by may good ming waxing ofbothming and luck. itcan overcome theinfluence this factor is great enough, an innocent to thegood and bad luckthat result from accidents: Chance refers and a who Adverse encounter or one escapes.72 personfalsely imprisoned guilty In with and or luck. the actual chanceand luckeither world, tally destiny go against and good and bad fortune wax orwane; areeither or not, auspicious xingand ming to chance,and few thisdependson contingencies. People live or die according all and their desires. their deeds obtain hearts' accomplish a descending also follows The operation of different kinds of ming hierarchy: survival and longevity shou state overindividual (ren ming), (sheng ming, (guoming) fu over and honor and wealth prosperity ming) (guiming, ming). in the Lunheng of ming of terms: the Innovations discussion focuson clusters of ming and theopportune moment the of interrelations (shi), embedding mingin inner nature and thevisible between luck body(ti0), and a new distinction (xing) and chance.Terms for "luck"inthesenseofgoodand bad auspice,include lu (good shane (goodand fortune, emoluments), prosperity, ji xiong(goodand bad auspice), bad fortune), and fuhuo (goodfortune and calamity), all discussed above. Byconin modern the ou and zao yu JA, adverseencounters, trast, parlance terms xing refer to chance,rather than"luck,"themoreusualtranslation. to really Theyrefer accidental or unpredictable events(xing and unpredictable ou) and to catastrophic both wouldrefer to chance. change(zao yu).Ina modern analysis, ThusWangChongbuilds on theWarring States discourse on ming, butina new
and originalway. He vehemently above. arguesagainstmostof the topoi presented He retainsthe notion of ming but reformulates it as subject to chance. His new endowmentsintroduces a "genetic" account of "embryological"emphasison initial that in Six Daoist ming gained prominence Dynasties texts.73
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A Contemporary Semantic Field modern terms add to the semantic fieldof wordsforluck,fortune, Specifically chance,and risk. The root ofyunistocarry, oruse, (a) Yun W,luckorfortune. meaning transport, and also to revolve. Thederivative is for luck, fate, exampleinthe meaning fortune, was also part ofa phrases yunqi M or luckand hao yunOM or good luck.Yun as in tianyunA?, the(fortune-bearing) movement ofthecelestial cyclemetaphor, bodies. or happiness. Thesetwosensesof"lucky" com(b) Xing *, luck, good fortune, bineinxing orxing and "fortune's fortunate, favorite," yun*?, very yun'er -~*, zhi shen Luck."74 the of "Lady xing yun Xingapproaches meaning -WZ*, in the a or or de jiao xing phrases luckily by fluke, xing *4, to "chance" f-, obtain shi that outofsheer $, "something bychance,and xing happened luck."75 for willfulness and risk-taking. ofChinesetranslations One group for (c) Terms theEnglish "random" refer totheemotional be to willful sui disposition (e.g., yiPIM, as one pleases,or renyi 4I1A, or arbitrary). forriskwillful several terms Similarly, on in to in Chinese focus the oneself rather than on taking willingness put danger, of thestatistical for mao xian to take risks. aspects risk, example Vi!, Thisis theChineseterm fortuitous. that (d) Qiao z-, opportune, coincidental, in closest to notion of chance the of comes the sense randomness or acciperhaps dent.Related include or serendipitous), coucompounds qiaohe-J (coincidental moment or J-M (opportune coincidence), qiao sA (fortuitous), qiao dangr qiao orcoincidence), and qiao shi The root (coincidence). jin J?ia (knack meaning, linked to qiao's other ofskill orcraft. seemsto be opportunity, however, meaning of technical Thisterm is used in a variety stochastic. (e) Sui ji MI, random, or stochastic randomness terms for random (suiji xing processes: 9i4'), stochastic Itis stochastic model moshi (suiji system (suijixitong AIfR ), et cetera. IJ*,k), sui "act to also used inthemoretraditional according phrase ji yingbian MIf%,, circumstances." A Noteon Divination is a detailed discussion the foregoing absentfrom (and following) Conspicuously and other and practice of Greekand Chinesedivination accountof the language included divination Relevant mantictechniques. by various religious practices ofsigns theinterpretation etc.),andtheefforts omens, anomalies, (dreams, methods, divinecommands.76 A central of specialists etc.) to ascertain (oracles,mediums, to this information had access who was mantic access: both traditions in problem
and these techniques?Some techniquesformanticaccess focused on shamanism, and includingthe activitiesof Chinese wu -I shamans and othershaman officials Othertechniques at the popular level."77 mediums,probablyincludingpractitioners dreamsand othersignsand prodof omens, including concernedthe interpretation of In to the contrast omens, passive receipt specific divinationmethods igies.
552
the will of and ascertain to seek answers allowed the diviner (or direct) actively on the based were and divination of Some deities. techniques prediction specific and the use of milfoil Yi and the clouds and of the divination, stars, jing "reading" at Shuihudi to determine inthetombs suchas thoseunearthed auspicious daybooks for theprediction and campaigns.78 suchas marriages times for events Techniques oftheir included ofindividual children), bymothers (including destiny physiognomy suchas in nature, and anomalies ofdreams theinterpretation techniques geomantic names to of andthemanipulation personal divination boards, shui, horoscopes, feng of is also an important and practices Thisrange ofbeliefs fate.79 avoidadverse part bothearly and late. on fate and fatalism, Chinesediscourses withspecialskillsin diviand techniques also included Greekreligion figures seers (manteis), of signs,including nationand the interpretation omens,and oraof one or more takefateas the command beliefs cles.80Some of thesereligious Inthis orwhosewillcan be ascertained. who can be petitioned deities sense,belief access. Again,these about mantic connectedwithbeliefs in fateis inextricably treatment. issuesrequire separate A Noteon Women's Fate otherwise ofwomenis a striking lacunainthis oftheming Theabsenceofdiscussion believes in the Lunheng. detailedsemantic Wang Chongclearly especially range, with Emoluments" since "Mandated to individual that women, begins ming applies in his a and blood of of the that theassertion head, eyes, anyone category having ofwomenas awareness showsa particular "Initial Endowments" veinshasa ming.81 of mingforwomenin in transmitting factors mingto men,yetthe ramifications thata recently interest Therefore it is of particular is neverdiscussed. themselves details "Women's Fate" but reference to text makes excavated specific W@A, further ofthat awaitthepublication must text.82 Field Semantic TheGreek historical before and after distinct Greekaccountsoffatefallintotwofairly strata, withHomer, describe thefourth B.C.E.83 Pre-fourth-century texts, beginning century or acuya, and metaphors: terms distinct "fate"in several (1) ooTipa transparent fairly ofdestiny, orofallotted life lots orportions ofdivision, death, span.Over metaphors in which fateis of and thesewerereplaced time by(2) metaphors spinning binding, of life. In later moira a thread works, increasingly spunaboutthe "spindle" each as the "Spinners," theThreeFatesor Molipat. becomespersonified (3) Misfortune
who variously or guided individual was attributed to cailCOVEs, gave out misfortune
add (5) the appearances of the Moirai or Fates as objects of cultsas birth goddesses the Parcae ["childbearing"] were equivalentto the (Hesiod, Pausanius,etc.; in Latin, the fourth fatewas viewed as the principle thatruledboth century, Moirai). (6) After . the term the worldoverall and the lives of individuals, expressedby eicCpvpv
offateand thegods,most was theproblem oftherelation destinies. (4) There speand most To thesewe may to thewillofZeus, king ofthegods.84 cifically powerful
LisaRaphals
553
I sampletexts three strata ofthepre-fourth-century Homer, representing picture: and Plato. Each text or more of defines one Parmenides, "problems fate"; they prefrom in and significantly differ later usesoffate as a dramatic element cede, inform, and Hellenistic debates on fate andfatalism. TheHomeric first corpus poses, tragedy and conspicuously does notresolve, offateand fatalism. of The relation problems is ambiguous. willofmortals fateto boththewillofZeus and thefree Pre-Socratic "is dividedintotwo halvesby the nameof Parmenides" (b. 515-510 philosophy infavor ofdivine instruction on the"true" world B.C.E.), who abandons cosmogony of unchanging a of and makes fate vivid fate) reality aspect unchanging (including in Plato's(427-347 B.C.E.) accountofthesoul and thedefense being.Fatefigures ofthePlatonic As an aspectofdivination and self-representation Socrates. and disofGreek ofprognostication, itis also an indirect medicourses issueinthehistory and the of of the creation the cine, "inquiry nature," concerning category rationality. of determinism and metaphors Thesetexts, precederejections byAristotle images, of it bytheStoa,for and defenses (341-270 B.C.E.) (384-322 B.C.E.) and Epicurus whomfate central as a philosophical assumed prominence problem.85 Fatein Homer ofmeanings as a range informed Chinese a range offorms and (a) MoTpa. Just ming, "to receive a portion") inform Greek moira. (from Moipa,PEpos meanings ~Eipocpat, of destiny, of death,or of allotted lifespan. The and aTua were lotsor portions, for referred to a share,lot,or portion, oldestterms and aciya, mostimfate, poTipa of hence as lifespan (topos2). These "shares" destiny allotted mediately death, to theanger to literal, material ofa specific could refer goodsorto specialdestiny, of to a of fate the will the or to combidecree 6), 1), beyond gods(topos god (topos Achilles tellsThetis that after he has killedHector he nations ofall ofthese.Thus, of his own death at the the because even Herakles was will accept hands gods and theanger ofHera: conquered byhisfate(moira),
iOr1ipa Eiy'V, KEiaOOI -O if mewhen I die.(Iliad I lie, a like fate hasbeenworked for 18.1190andso, shall too, COSKXL
El 811Ii ol 1oi1 TETUKTa0,
KE OX(VCO. ETrEi
1121)
ofa thing, unfortuor &pplopos, to be bereft was Itsopposite alpotpos, aopos, to a piece oflandas "no refers a lotor share.Demosthenes nate,or to be without was to be "fate-less" to be (or&pp[opia) man'sland"(d&wopios).86 Similarly, &popia in that the Zeuswell knows for statement no portion, inthesenseofhaving example andbereftnesses ofmortals. the (Od.20.76) portions
For the most part,moira occupied a place apart fromsocial status,the share of frombirth, wealth, rank,and privilegethat results althoughIliad 3 describesAgamemnon as "born of good moira and happy in [the protectionof] a daimon" 3.182). (11. 6Aplt68atlov lotplpyEves,
&vepcTarrcov loipodvT' aappopilv -rEKaTOO-revlTCA)v
554
Nor did moiraresult from the "justdeserts" of virtuous or unvirtuous action rather to suddenreversals and situations that threaten theorder (topos4). Itreferred decreedbythegods(topos boasts toAndromache, no mancan killhim 5). As Hector because fate is a that cannot be prematurely power gainsaid bygod or man:
ciav o0-yap iS 1p1'TrTEp a 1PPrEvOa1 &vbpc-v,
poipaV8' O0 TVC (~ilp TrqyprVov avip Ai"6i TrPOlcXyEt
flee.(11. 6.487-489)
No man will metoHades hurl I saynooneofmankind but fate can beyond my portion,
to fate"and KCT' to measure," (b) Kax-rd polpav "according caluav "according and and The above raises the ofhowor aluav. passage problem ploipav rTrrip rTrrip whether action"beyond fate" couldoccur.Thephrases to poipav,"according KcT-rt to measure," occurfrequently in the Homeric fate,"and K-(T cuayv, "according corpus;"beyondfatedmeasure"--crrrip lioipav and rri~paluav-are relatively rare. Moreimportant, are counterfactual inone ofseveral a with senses, they always of from to moral range meanings physical "impossibility" (topos6).87 The one instanceof the phrase occurswhen Poseidon polpav in the Homeric corpus rTrrpip intervenes to save Aineas from to avoid the wrath ofZeus,since Achilles, ostensibly he is fated to survive the war Poseidon uses an appeal to 20.301-302). (pi6ptpov) (11. to him deter from further encounter with Achilles, destiny any
polpav 86pov "Ai'8os pilKCxi OTrrp EiOcapiKro tothehouse ofHades. lest, fate, 20.336) beyond yougodown (/I.
eitherto divination(attempts to understand and perhaps conform to a fatedfuture) or to metispfirs (the skillsand wiles thatGreek societyso prized fordealing with unpredictableand rapidlyshifting Metis, it appears, was not used to situations).88 thwart the decrees of fate.
to prevent the Argives from Apollo also intervenes winning victory "beyondthe of Zeus" intwo 17.321).We mayreadtheseinstances portion (Ocrrrp At6saolrrav) (/I. to preserve the decreedorderand ways.Takenat face value,the gods intervene mortals from outsideit.Read rhetorically, a prevent acting appealsto fateprovide rationale for the to intervene to their own wishes powerful gods according (presumthelimits offate). ably,within In battle, refers to premature and "beyondfate"or "beyondmeasure" clearly violent death(topos2). In other measure" has the broader concontexts, "beyond notations of impropriety or even impiety (topos4). On twooccasions,Parisagrees that Hector's are "according to measure" and "notbeyond reproaches (KcT' caicav) measure" 3.59 and Excess also can on impiety. dtyav) 6.333). c verge (o0v8' 0rrip (I/. After a pitched theGreeks measure" battle, aisan),when prevailed "beyond (huper the of Kebriones and him of his armor they captured body 16.780). In stripped (//. thesecases, "beyondmeasure"labels an act as morally, rather thanphysically, "impossible." In all theseinstances, it is noteworthy thatmoiradoes notseem to be linked
LisaRaphals
555
offate tothewillofZeus,king (c) TheAto6s ouAilor"PlanofZeus,"therelation and mostpowerful ofthegods (topos1). Homer never resolves thequestion ofthe relation of moira to thewillofthegods,and they coexist Human ambiguously.89 affairs 1.267).The "destructive "lie on thekneesofthegods" (Odyssey planofthe ofOedipus (Od. 11.276),and gods" 6Ec'v6Aod& 81ta pouh&scauses thesuffering "thewillofthegods"6Ec'v i6o-rq-r causesthedeath ofPatroklos of (II.19.9),thetoils and the War (Od. 12.190 and 17.119).Yetthegods Odysseus(Od. 7.214), Trojan a fatebeyond their to alter. Forexample, Poseidon acknowledge power grudgingly that it is aisa to death 5.288 (Od. ff.). acknowledges Odysseus' escape Whilefate not to a be problem for thegods ingeneral, itposesa more appears and also unresolved, for theplanofZeus (Atois As king particular, problem pouA#). ofthegods,Zeus is more than all the other his will and has powerful godscombined, a uniquestatus. The beginning ofthe Iliadmakesitclearthat thewillof Zeus is to completion IntheOdyssey, with thesack ofTroy. Zeus is moreaccombrought tothewilloftheother inthereturn ofOdysseus. Nevermodating gods,for example Zeus has no morepowerthantheother to determine the theless, gods span ofan life individual as the of "steward war for mankind" 2). Zeus, 19.224),may (topos (11. ofantagonists inbattle thefates and mayevenattempt to defer themoira ofa weigh heroin battle 16.431-443 his will and but and seam22.167-181), inevitably (11. conforms to thefate ofthat Irwin individual. As Terence out,Zeus and lessly points thefates to two distinct notions of within order the Homeric universe: point (partial) theimpersonal, amoral ofthefates order (andusually inscrutable) inexorable, (topos ofZeus (topos1).90The moral6) and theintelligent, moral, justice-based rulership of Hesiod,Pindar, accounts and Aeschylus the izingretrospective (topos4) linked of the Moirai with the of to the of as Zeus and led Zeus power government worship "leaderoftheMoirai," inthefifth B.C.E.. century MotpayE-rns, daimons or guidesofthesoul (from therootda(d) AaiclPvEs. Psychopompic or guidedindividual destinies. Daimonswereoriginally ouslygave out misfortune to humankind are linked whoshared outallotments (topos1). Assuchthey "sharers" theterms of apportionment thatunderlines moiraand aisa. Like to the metaphor them,theywere powersbeyondhumanwill, older than the anthropomorphic Olympian gods and incomprehensible, 8acti6vios(topos6).91Theyare notmajor in Homer, wheretheyusually cause illness (Od. 5.396) and such mispresences on as Odysseus' fortunes imprisonmentOgygia:
leadto herhearth. self didthedaimon (Od. 7.248)92 onlymyunhappy T SUorrlvov &aX' E -rOv EcpqEa-rTov fycayE 8acipjov of meat, in sacrifice)varito divide, especially to cut up portions 8aico, ace-rocpat,
as tothat ofthegods(0E61) ofdaimons can be contrasted To someextent, theactivity and aiding human purposes, respectively. thwarting
as sevand the metaphor of spinning.Fate was personified (e) Fate personified eral goddesses, who were linkedto notionsof destiny(topos 2), punishment, retri-
556
and justice(topos6), typically and revealedby oracles,omens,prodigies, bution, the of the relation of the or also fate and Themis They pose problem signs. gods: and the The (Three Fates). AiK1r (Justice), AvoyKIr (Necessity), MoTpa(Fate), MoiTpai werevariously as handmaidens of Dike and as the "SpinThreefates represented in Homer The Moirai as three destinies. ners"ofhuman appearinfrequently figures who spinthethread ofdestiny each individual. Alkinoos describes thefates around as "HeavySpinners" whenhe speaksoftheunusual (aisa)ofOdysdestiny KAC'0Es once he to returns seus,who, safely Ithaka,
& aaa o atca Kar KcACx 7Treice-rat
O's -rE apECTa
OTE [PVTEKE v1iaCroAiVCA), yEtiEVOCV
will bear as much as his for him atbirth with andthe thread, spun destiny Heavy Spinners when hismother bore him. (Od.7.197) This"spinning" takesplace primarily at birth (Od. (topos2), butalso at marriage ofgood fortune 4.207), wheretheMoiraicould be bearers and, in some accounts, In Homer, thebridal thegods are also "spinners" offate.In Iliad singfor couple.93
24 "the gods spun lifethusforafflicted mortals" (cbs yap 0EOi 8E1Ao71l ETrEKAcAG'VTO The Odyssey begins when "the gods had spun forhim his ppo-roTt) (II. 24.525). 1 return home" (-rc o0 (Od. 1.17). The gods spun 0EOiOtKOVSE TrEKAcUcVTrO VE0E6tl)
thedestruction ofOdysseus (Od. 3.208),thefate (Od. 11.139),and hisbegofTroy (Od. 16.64). garpersona The division and personification of moiraintotheThreeFatesor Molpat,who the thread of each life, first spin,weave, and cut off appearsin Hesiod (Theog. ofZeus and Themis-Clotho, Lachesis 904-906). HeretheFatesare thedaughters and which cannot one (from turn)-and lot"), by Atropos ("getting onlyreappear in Plato. together Parmenides uses specifically lanHomeric In theclimactic 8, Parmenides passageoffragment and to diction describe "what-is" and to frame the claim that the guage truly (ic-riv) realis unchanging and immobile.94
v r Kp-rTEpily&p AvaxyK ipqpis pyEt Trreipaoros 8eapo-iaiv XEt,-r6pv
Forstrong Ananke holdsitinbondsofchainthat bindsitall around. (Parmenides 8, frag.
lines 30-31)
ral C&-AAo oi6i8v yap <i) ">-rtlV TrdpE ToO E6VToS, Errei T6 ye MoTp 7T-rr'r5ev ouAov KKiVl]T6V i T' V-l'evai. itso as to be wholeand immovable. (Parm. 8, lines36-38) frag.
For orwill exists exist than other what Moira hasfettered is]nothing [there [that] is,since
Homericdiction:krateros (used of Zeus) and peiratosen desmoisi. In the poem of Parmenides,it is a beneficent daimon who guides the possibly shamanic journeyof a young man towardthe discoveryof truth:95
Here the powersof Moiraand Anankecome together to bind reality in strongly
LisaRaphals
557
Themares that bear meas far as my heart sent meon,when oncethey setmeon aspires themuch-spoken road ofthedaimon. (Parm. 1-3) 1, lines frag. He reaches thegatesofthepaths ofNight and Day,filled with and Dike hugedoors, theavenger the holds A him welcomes (line 9).96 keys goddess AiKrq TrroAirTrotvoS and tellshim:
xaip',
"Trpo"rpTETTE for itisnoillFate that sends totravel here. (line 26) Rejoice, you rrEi O-rl
Tali pE Op' S iKaVO, i-rr-rrot OuipoS rp1pouciv, coav T' Trrl "rTrTrOV,TrrEI TrroAqirLpov &youcra aciipovos
66v PfCaav
OE MoTpa KCK1]
VEEaOal
Plato's fullest oftheMoirai account is intheRepublic (Rep.617b-621a), where they in at a common task. Their is liked to Ananke and to thedaising harmony activity monsthatguide the fatesof individuals (topos7). Socrates explainshow souls choose their livesin theorder ofthelotsthey draw.Theyare thenbrought before of first who the Lachesis, Moirai,
EKEiVIJV
Plato
8' OV EIAETO anitpova, TOOTOV EKa"TOC) (lqpaKa T-rv acpE0eVTrcv. a-rro-rr1pC-rT1iv
aUpTrEitTrElV TTOO r(OU
Kcai
chosen.(Rep.620e)
sends a daimon forth for each[soul] toguard hislife andtobring he has topasswhat
The daimonnextleads the soul to Clotho.The turning of herspindleratifies the that the soul has chosen. the daimon leads the soul to (moiran) destiny Finally, "she who cannot be who as "fixes the web so to be irreversible" turned," Atropos,
withno look back, itgoes -r TrrlKACOCEVTr aPE-rTra-rpoopa TrolOVTra. Fromthere, beneaththe seat of Necessity to the T6V TS aZVyKS i6vatl p6vov and finally OTrrr6 Plain of Lethe6 621a). (Rep. T'~S Aiins TrESiOV
of the Platonic Daimonsplaya majorrolein theself-representation Socrates, a who claimedrepeatedly that daimonguidedhisdestiny, whichhe describes as in hisselfunusualand remarkable (topos7). His daimonalso figures prominently intheApology: defense
Tri
polt eEi6V Ti Kai
e oo0rnoTE. TnpoTpn-ETr: TnrpaTTElV, me... eversincemy a anddaemonic wouldbefall childhood that divine early something whenitcame,alwaysturned wouldcome to me,which, me backfrom voice of sorts whatI was not.(Apol.31d) metoward whatI was intending to do, and turned had happened to him. marvelous(6aupacrt6v) to thejurythatsomething He remarks he had metwiththe approvalof That verymorning,
apiapEvov,
)covl TrS ytYyvopIvl, TQ v Y
8ati6viov
yiyVETXal
[c)OVil]
...
Ta, atl
aTrOTp-TrEl
iOt
i5
TOOT'
o0 av PIE'co TOU-TO laE
E-rTIV EK -rralib
fiyap
voice of the daimon,to which I had become accustomed, the mantic [which]in I might inerror. intend close at handto opposethesmallest times thing pastwas always (Apol.40a)
l i Xp6vc TrravTirrarvu EV EicOOul~ [ot aVT1KllKT TOO 8aitOVIOU. Tci rp6o'0EV O IEV Ti pil TraV. EiT r.IUKV?i ]V Kati ri IlKpoTsEvaVtouitPv1, El iAAoit 6p< s% rrpdElv. aEt
558
acin the Euthyphro, whichgivesa quasi-humorous accountis reflected Socrates' countofthesecharges:

EKX0aTOTE is always in attendance it is because you say that daimonic Socrates, upon something 3b) you.(Euth.
) TT 8a? pave6vco, co ~CbKpaTES' 5T
o'T)tiS atp6ViOV
'aavUTc
yiyVEaOC[t.
of to thefine details attends daimon Socrates' also makesclearthat The Theaetetus his howhe chooses ofthesoul,he describes Inhisaccountofthemidwifery hislife. association:
5r r, pot atxl6VtOV EvioiS aouveiatvc, yiyv61Eov6v 'n'OKvCxco\UEl with some, the daimonic [presence] comes and forbidsme to associate, withothers,it it.(Tht. 151a) permits
EviolS pEv To
and in Platoas guidesofthesoul before birth Daimonsalso figure prominently after death: daimons after death.InthePhaedo,individual appearas psychopompoi
cryvE TrXElpEl EL\11XEl, OUTOS EiS 811 T1va y
EiS KcaacCIeVoUS
EKCTOV TrEAEv-rUT1iaaVTra \EyeTrat 8E OUTCoS, Cob C&paC
jS ( ei TOTrOV, O 56TOJs
KoTa-rou
8atipcov,
oa-rEp
VTovra
Ey'VTCXS 8Cia-
while ofhim ofeach,who hadcharge wheneach person Itis saidthat, dies,thedaimon to lead him to a certain sameone tries he was alive,this 107d) (Phaedo place.
to thebodylingers, and attached theguide,buta soul overly The wisesoulfollows can it with be and excessive resistance and much after much force, suffering, "only who leads itto judgment,
whenthedead cometo led away by its guiding daimon (To -rrpo-re-r(ayPEvou ctaiovoS) (Phaedo 108b),
EiS TOV TOTrOVOT 6 8aitcov EKCaaTOV KOpiZtE1 iapiKCOVTalOi TETErEUTv1KOTES -r'EitSXv 11 the to which thedaimon leadseach.
place
(Phaedo 3d)
on fate theHomeric ofthe reflection moves Greek problem awayfrom philosophical of will of As we have Plato takes it with the role of daimons limits the Zeus. seen, up ofindividual souls(Republic and Timaeus). Aristotle takesin up in and thedestinies theNicomachean De Interpretatione, theMetaphysics, and thePhysics. Ethics, thefourth "Moirai"was increasingly After Eipapcentury, replaced bytheterm was as a Fate viewed that ruled both the world overall and thelives principle p~ivq. ofindividuals. Itis well known that determinism and deniedin bothphys(asserted ical and ethical becamea central of Greekphicontexts) problem post-Aristotelian From the late second B.C.E. to the third discussions of C.E., losophy. century century fatebecame partof a philosophical common to all the repertoire philosophical schools.Itwas central to theStoafor four hundred no Stoictreatise years, although on ithas survived. Discussions ofthetopicsoffateand providence appearin texts titled On On On the On and On the Fate, Nature, Possible, Providence, variously Gods.A surviving text titled On Fatebegins with ofSoli(280-207 B.C.E.), Chrysippus
followed by Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)and Alexander of Aphrodisias (second-third accounts refer to the views of Epicurus(341-270 B.C.E.), century C.E.).97Surviving the skepticCarneades (214-129 B.C.E.),and severalfigures associated withthe Stoa:
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of Sidon (secondcentury itsfounder Zeno of Citium (335-263), Boethus B.C.E.), Lost and Epictetus texts areattributed Posidonius (135-51 B.C.E.), (ca. 55-135 C.E.).98 Plutarch to the Platonist (first (second century C.E.),Tertullian C.E.),and century and Stoics.Therewere also fourth-century Christian second-century Peripatetics Fate"byGregory ofNyssa and Diodorus ofTarsus. works titled "Against himself from who did notrecognize chanceor Aristotle separates predecessors the orspontaneity causes of events luck( -rvXTrl) (-ro (love, strife, among auv-ropacrov) ofcausation therelation to chanceand luck(topos 5) and argues etc.).He addresses he rejects), evenwhena cause can be ascribed that (as inthedeterminist arguments chance and others as as happening not we speakofsomethings 2.4). (Physics by RootMetaphors thesemantic areasofcommon or contrasting between Thereare several metaphor the also reflect and Greekmoira. Some ofthesemetaphors of Chineseming fields The fate as command this of have informed discussion. metaphor appears topoithat train bothtraditions as specifically divine commands (topos1). Both prominently in human the relaofdivinities accounts oftheinvolvement ditions contain destiny, and the of predictive tionof fateto the powerof gods,the possibility divination, the of to of fate of an impersonal beyond power gods control. power possibility and inthepurpose and techniques for divination differences Therewereimportant concern of divinecommand access. Chinesemetaphors of mantic theavailability of the gods (or to the commands and allotment of sharesaccording the division divine of command of fate. Greek orders had the force whose ancestors), metaphors to spinners, who spun and boundthe coursesof individual sharers shifted from such as sensesof fate, of fate.Othermoregeneral humanliveswiththethreads and this and former fruit actions the of (in lives), more retribution, past punishment, bothChina in absent from seem and of abstract notions causality constancy nature, and Greece. as an endowment thetoposoffate In both traditions 2) appearsin meta(topos of differed bothbetween fate as division Accounts allotment. and of division phors as to what was cultural the two within and contexts, by whom,to apportioned, oflife fate as a lotorallotment and moira end.Both andtowhat whom, portray Ming metaa of root words Both of an autonomous and as partake destiny. power span to but is which it from and division of allotment, tempting, dangerous, overphor and to whatend differed to was What by whom, whom, apportioned, generalize. themoira described The Greeks cultural contexts. thetwo and within bothbetween aboutwhatcommoners Homertellsus little of epic heroesand dramatic figures. ofthelivesof in discussions Chinese aboutfate. believed contrast, ming appears By life outtheir live to as or battle soldiers as commoners, ordinary peopletrying fleeing in albeit commoners to the attributed even some are themselves, spansundisturbed;
textsof elite authorship. also associate fatewith change or constancyin nature;some Root metaphors or unpredictability accounts of destinyas a wheel or cycle emphasize randomness
560
thepredictable behavior of regular cycles(topos6). The Chinese (topos5), others a ofwheelsor cycles, of offate as a wheelor cycle(yun) notion partakes metaphor The as are both and repetitive. whichare perfectly insofar they regular predictable of the movement appearsas tianyun~iK, the (fortune-bearing) cycle metaphor with thecyclesof that thecyclesoffate celestial bodies,and thenotion correspond et cetera.Itsmost as the in Zou Yan, intheLunheng, thestars, presence significant is beyond thescopeofthis discussion. Thewheelor Buddhist wheelofreincarnation in non-Buddhist-influenced of Chinesetreatments is lessprominent cyclemetaphor that is sucha powerful forluckin theWest The Wheelof Fortune metaphor ming. The Chinese direction from the Chinese has a completely metaphor. opposite in and theWestern fate" is a wheel constant motion of "wheel recurrence; regular this is an turns The force of Wheel of Fortune and thencomes to rest. metaphor at which thewheelwillstop. and unknowable arbitrary point withinevitable to preThe specific association offate changeseemsparticular Buddhist Chineseaccounts,wheremingincludeslifespan, wealth,and fortune in explicitly times.Fate in thissense mayapplyto individuals, families, changing Parmenides usesfate as a metaphor for or polities. nations, the empires, Bycontrast, thinkers and nature "what-is." Other immobile of Greek specifically unchanging theactionoffate with and associated (inassociation necessity, changewith justice, in but rhetorical and intellectual different the Chicontexts from retribution), very nese. Anaximander describes a balance betweencomingintoand passingout of
and mutual"penaltyand retribution"iKr)VKc Ti -ritv, but being based on necessity it is based not on fate but on "the assessment of time" Ka-rTO Tr)v T-ro Xp6vou Heraclitusspeaks of all things"undergoingalteration"&Axotoorct and Trxtiv.99
accounts combine acceptance of fatewithstrong anti-fatalism and well-developed notionsof strategy or maneuvering roomwithinitsdecrees. Lifespan may be fated, butwithinitfreewill reigns. Change and resilienceare theorderofthe day and open to human strategy and ingenuity. A wide range of textsstressthe importanceof
even of the sun beingsubjectto the retribution of the Fates,the handmaidens of oftheorder ofnature and thephysical world.100 Dike,buthisfocusis theintegrity References to theactionoffate or justicebecamepart oftherhetoric ofappealsto in Nature that expressed legaland moral language appealedto a wide range pvacris, ofGreeks ofthefifth-century B.C.E.. Thesewereusedto justify diverse positions.101 Pre-Buddhist Chineseaccounts, include but do not notions contrast, by emphasize in nature. ofcausality and constancy Yetother ofmetaphor ofhuman will choiceand free systems speakto questions ethical choices(topos traditions tookup therelations of 4). Both (topos3), including and freewill, but withverydifferent results. Greekmetaphors of fate,sagacity, and binding tendedto expresshumanpowerlessness. Chineseaccounts spinning takethe understanding of and harmony withfate(according to very different forcharacteristic ofthesage. Chineseaccounts focuson thefigure mulas)as a defining ofthesage as someonewho "understands" fate. This preliminary evidencefrom Chineseand Greeksuggests some common of fate,butverydifferent notions attitudes toward fatalism. Pre-Buddhist Chinese
LisaRaphals
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or"setup" and timeliness toone'stimes (shi04)andconfiguration (shi *) inresponse to one's fate.Thus,longevity and good auspicewerefated and unknowable, but In and this could be cherished and cultivated sense, through knowledge sagacity. towardomnipresent boththe Zhuangziand the Xunzitake "strategic" attitudes offate were accounts contain a significant fatalist element. Greek fates Greek ming. will Themis the of as the the of or Dike, variously personified: Moira, Moirai, power in of held fate their the daimons. These divinities Zeus, or activity alternatively The decrees with an autonomous "fate" their control. beyond powerand coexisted as anddivine were and commands ofthese divinities consistently portrayed agencies and inexorable. fixed, binding, Notes and symposia werepresented as papers at conferences ofthis article Earlier versions forAsianStudies of London(1997), the Association at the University (1998), the at andthe Riverside the of California of (2000), (1998), University UniversityOregon of research Other this Maine Conference (2000). York, Center, aspects Breckenridge from I havebenefited comments 2002 and Raphals forthcoming. appearin Raphals David N. Keightley, R. Bokenkamp, Rob Campany, withStephen and discussion RobinD. B. Yates,and an MichaelPuett, David Schaberg, Sabina Knight, Deirdre for Eastand West. reader Philosophy anonymous in 1 - Giddens1990, pp. 29-31. Giddensnotesthat"trust" appearsfrequently of"faith" insofar butsomeuses invoke deepermeanings everyday language, results of action. risk the to and a relation as trust unanticipated presupposes of modernity are feature as a defining viewsof the conceptof risk Similar 1975 and 1990. 1996. See also Hacking in Peter Bernstein expressed 2 - Bernstein 1992, p. 1. See also Craig1988; Doob 1988; Holmand Bowker 1996. Turner 1994; 3 - Greene1944; Cornford 1965; Doyle1984. 1957; Dietrich
1996. 4 - Weber 1951; Turner
ofanother 5 - Thiscomplex forthcoming paper. topicis thesubject also xun." See 6 - RuanYuan,"Xing Tang1962,pp. 197-198; Gu etal. gu ming 1926-1935; Zhou 1982. 7 - Chan1967,pp. 286-302; Xu 1963,pp. 154-155; Tang1957,pp. 17-18. Cf. Chen1997.
8 - Chen 1994a, 1994b, 1997b.
9 - Fu 1952, vol. 3, p. 114; Fu 1980, vol. 4, pp. 253-258, as quotedin Wang theuseofEuropean ofthejournal 1996. Aneditor Renaissance, Fupioneered research for historical new a basis as methods (he studiedin philological 1920 to 1927). from Britain and Germany
562
10 - Tang 1957, 1962, 1963, 1964; Miyazaki1963; Graham1967; Mori1971; Tateno1983; Kanaya1986; Nylan1993; Chen1994a.
11 - Nylan 1993 and 1997. 12 - Chen 1994a, pp. 4-5.
13 - Lakoff andJohnson 1996 and 1997. 1980; Reding 14 - Detienne and Vernant 1978; Raphals 1992; Lloyd 1996,pp. 3-6. 15 - Fu 1952, p. 114. 16 - Ibid.,p. 115. 17 - Ibid.,p. 116.
18 - Keightley 1978, pp. 33-35.
19 - Xia 1980; HongJiayi 1983,p. 122. 20 - Di presided overlesser ancestors and was responsible for the godsand royal welfare oftheShangkingdom. See Poo 1998,p. 224 n. 37. 21 - Forexample, A: lYi@K1*~tWl(Yao 6746.1) inYao and Xiao 1989,p. 127b. Other of nominal uses of ling occurat Yao 6928.1 zheng, examples = ming 14295.1,and 34146.1. In Xia Lu's interpretation (1980, p. 86) oftheinscription :iVt4(i)? (Yao 1239.1) Di-sacrifice is offered notto Si Ming,the Director ofDestinies who is accordedthepoweroffateinZhou sources, but to another god namedMing.See also Ding1988,p. 203.
22 - Poo 1998, pp. 3 ff.
23 - Fora particularly lucidpresentation ofthiscombination see Smith 1991, pp. 13-14. 24 - Someofthosepresented herearetaken from a series ofpapers between 1957 and 1962, originally in Chineseand later in in published published English East and West. used nine to Philosophy TangJunyi verb-object compounds doctrines ofming inhisview,all originated intheZhou that, identify pre-Qin of the Odes and Documents. are: (1) the"understanding religion They ming" of Confucius, (2) the Mohist"againstming,"(3), Mengzi's "establishing in ming," (4) Zhuangzi's to ming"in the (5) the"Returning ming," "resting Laozi and Zhuangzi, or "causingming," (6) Xunzi's"controlling" (7) Zou Yan's "omen of receiving the ming,"(8) Zhongyong's"whatheavenhas decreedis called nature" and (9) the"arriving at [awareness of] kPPifa~_f, to theChanges _YhA?in theXicicommentary See Tang ming" (49/Shuo/1). 1957, pp. 1-2, and Tang 1962, pp. 196-197. He does notidentify specific their and at leastone of themis probably passagesor elaborate contexts,
periphrastic. 25 - Fu 1952; Tang 1957, pp. 1-33; Tang 1962; Mori 1971; Kanaya 1986; Nylan 1993, pp. 35-39; Smith1991, pp. 35-37.
LisaRaphals
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I use the 26 - Translations are myown unlessotherwise specified. Throughout, terms inboth and mandate thenominal and verbal senses decree, fate, ming, for of to avoid a kind ming crypto-fatalism. 27 - Da Si Mingand Shao Si Ming, trans. Waley(1955). See Zhang1991. in theexcavations from 28 - Severalstrips Baoshanrecommend divinations and sacrifice to Si Ming.See BaoshanChujian, 212-215, 236-238, and strips 242-244. Si Mingalso appearsas an authority overlife and deathin a text in a Qin tombin Gansu.Here,theresurrection ofa mannamed discovered Si Tan was granted when Tan's master to that Tan did not argued Ming to die for a minor offense. See Peng1991; Poo 1998,p. 66; He 1989; deserve Li Xueqin1990; Harper 1994. 29 - See Li Ling1990,p. 84. ofWenWangand from Shenwas thewife 30 - See Mori1971,pp. 7-22. Thegirl ofWu Wang.Herlife zhuaninthe"Three mother story appearsintheLienu ofthetrope oftheZhou" (juan 1, story offemale Mothers 6). Fordiscussion intheriseand fallofdynasties see Raphals virtue 1998,pp. 11-26, 29. 31 - Shang shu, Zhou shu, PrinceShi (16): 18b-19a, trans.Legge(1960, pp. fall(zhuiming Or) becausethey cannot 475-477). People letitsmandate maintain thevirtue oftheir See 199. 1962, p. predecessors. Tang to ming thatsome Lunyu references mean tianming 32 - Fu Sinianargues (2.4, the inconsistency 6.10, 9.1, 12.5, 14.36, 16.8, and 20.3). Fu resolves by believedin the Mandateof Heaven, but thatConfucius initially arguing in life, hisown failures. it in later See Fu 1952, pp. 32b-33a, after rejected and 331. in theZhuangzi 33 - Cf.Zhuangzi 29:998. Thisphraseis particularly prevalent and theLunheng the Taiping (thirteen (teninstances), instances), jing(sixteen wereconducted instances) Sinica). (searches Scripta using Theterm still retains thesenseofbeingina desperate 34 - Xunzi15/60. hurry. 35 - RuanYuan,"Xingming (Fu 1952; Mori1971). guxun" and Tang 1957, p. 1 (Chinese), 36 - Tang 1962, pp. 196-197 (English), respecin of for Daoist notions later These be "resting phrases may periphrastic tively. in the not since this does Zhuangzi. appear phrase ming"(an ming), 37 - Baopuzi, juan 11, p. 177. 19:630. 38 - Zhuangzi under does notstand whounderstands someone 39 - Thepassagecontinues: ming intheFayan takes a wallthat isabouttocollapse.YangXiong upthis example
(6:1 7). Wang Chong discusses "standardming" in detail (discussedbelow). 40 - Zou Yan's "omen of receivingming" RAZf ming. is also an example of shou
564
41 - Mozi 31/62.
42 - Lieni zhuan, 13, p. 7: 10a. juan 7, story 43 - Zhuangzi17:596; Han Feizi8:122; Huainanzi, pp. 333, 376; L0 Shi chun1 : Shuo Ob. yuan 1 qiu,juan 4.1, p. 186; 44 - Xunzi 16/23.This is quite distinct from reference to Xunzi's Tang Junyi's in or note above. 24, "controlling" "causing ming" 45 - Otherunderstandings of theterm included or obeying either understanding the orders a of ruler or the "orders" of heaven-decreed nature. See Nylan 1993, p. 35 n. 92; Mori1971, pp. 35-41; Kanaya1986,pp. 136-166. 46 - Han Feizi8: 121. 47 - Chunqiu fanlu 11.1, p. 283. 48 - Ning Chen(Chen1997b)has usedthenotions oftranspersonal and individual ming as a wayto resolve theinternal inconsistencies intheMengzi. 49 - Cf. Graham1978, pp. 489-490. The LU Shi chunqiuchapter Out "Living One's Lot" ("Jin shu" &V) provides an apt exampleof thisargument. It describes how sages use theknowledge ofyinand yangto understand what benefits the myriad creatures and helpsthemto live out their allotted life without either or them off (LUShichunqiu 3.2). spans, augmenting cutting 50 - Thetranslation ofthis on whether we readj)t and Mf4 passagedepends as referring to thecyclesofheavenand earth described inthepassage earlier orto thespanofhuman lives.I havetaken itintheformer sense.Inthelatter sensethepassagewouldread:"Sincewe do notknow ourends,howcan we [todie]; sincewe do notknowhowwe began,howcan saywe are notfated we saywe arefated?" 51 - Zhuangzi 5:189. Graham takesming as naming rather thanas ordering des"he does his own naming of the transformations of things" (Graham tiny: 1986, p. 76). 52 - Zhuangzi 14:532. 53 - Ibid.,5:212. 54 - The semantic ofshiincludes bothstatic and dynamic which elements, range calls and the more Jullien circumstances) respectively disposition (position, instrumental rendered as dispositif (power, potential), elegantly byJanet Lloyd 1995,p. 11. "setup."See Jullien 55 - Nylan 1993,p. 35; Tang1962,p. 214; Tang1963,pp. 42, 48; Graham 1967, 255. 215, pp.
56 - Forthe problemof fatein the Taixuanjing, see Nylan 1993. 57 - Lunheng1-7, 9-12, 20-21, 42-43, 53-55. 58 - Fora more complex view of Han Confucianism, see Nylan 1999.
LisaRaphals
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59 - Han shu 100A, 4207-4212.
60 - Thispoint is argued in Nylan 1997. persuasively 61 - Thisanalysis is indebted to Loewe1978,pp. 681-682, 701-702, 780-783. 62 - Cf.Forke 1962,vol. 1, pp. 144ff. is misleading 63 - Forke's translation because it inserts a notion of predestinationthat is notinthetext. inthechapter Later he translates ming pin-r-someonewith a ming ofpoverty-as"in thecase ofa person literally, prefor 1 destined (Forke :49). 1962, poverty" 64 Forke 1962, 1 : 130ff. 65 W-66 - Ibid.,p. 128.
)N NiL, ', '~-lN
12, p. 126). (Lunheng
67 - Henry1987; Raphals 1992.
68 - Cf.Forke 1962, 1 :151 ff. ofarbitrariness from 69 - Other include: whichporea sorebreaks out, examples whichinsect the spidertraps, whichfishare caughtin the net,who gets to calamity, theresponse and beingcrushed bank caught, bya wall or river collapse. 70 - Cf.Forke 1962, 1 : 136ff. 71 - Lunheng theseas "natu(1962, 1 :138-139) translates 6, pp. 49-50. Forke and "adverse." ral,""concomitant,"
72 - Cf. Rescher1995. 73 - Cf. Bokenkamp 2000. 74 - Lianget al. 1993, p. 424. 75 - Ibid.,p. 424.
bio76 - The Gujintushu vol. 47, pp. 5681-7854) contains S~AiM, jicheng(yishu milfoil of: oracle bones and for diviners under the entries categories graphical stalks (bushi ftA), physiognomy (xiangshuHi1ii), (xingming astrology b_1), arts and (shushu ~t). tV), computational (kanyu geomancy 77 - Von Falkenhausen 1995; Poo 1998. 78 - Masp6ro1924; Kalinowski 1991; Loewe 1979, 1981, 1982, 1988a, 1988b; Yates1997. offate see Chao 1946; for themanagement 79 - Foraccounts of later techniques
Smith1991; Topley 1973; Yuan 1919, 1926, 1947. 80 - Halliday 1913; Vernant1974. 81 - Lunheng3, p. 20.
566
PhilosophyEast & West
82 - Conference on Excavated DartTexts, Sponsored by the Luce Foundation, and mouth 18-21 August 2000. College Beijing University, Beijing, 83 - Thesethemes intreatments intheClassics, ofthesubject appearconsistently the history of philosophy, and religion. See Greene1944; Guthrie 1962Irwin Burkert 129-130. 1981; 1989, pp. 16, 157, 171, 180; 1985, pp. 84 - These includeThemis or Dike (in addition laterrolesas deitiesof to their and Punishment, Dike is associated with an orderly as is flow oftime, Justice and signs. oracles, omens, prodigies, 85 - For Parmenides' dates see Guthrie 1962-1981, vol. 2, pp. 1-2, based on Plato's(Parm. ofa meeting between theold Parmenides 127a-c) description and theyoungSocrates. Forthe inquiry nature see Lloyd1987, concerning absent from thispreliminary are medipp. 1-4, 38-49. Conspicuously study cal and other scientific works. Fora discussion offateas an area ofspeculationthat offers "someofthegreatest orthemaximum resistance for, problems scientific see 38-49. As to, any takeover," Lloyd1987, pp. 4, Lloydpoints on prediction in medicine and astronomy conout,muchof thediscourse cerned ofthecourseofdiseaseortheprediction ofthepositions of prognosis thesun,moon, and planets. Thesepredictions didnotsignificantly involve the notions offate. operative 86 - Demosthenes, "On theHalonnesus," 7.40. 87 - Ofthe101 instances ofpoilpca intheIliadand theOdyssey, onlyone is inthe moiran. aisan occurs five times out of instances of phrasehuper Uper forty aisa. 88 - Detienne and Vernant 1978. For"meticintelligence" in Chinasee Raphals 1992. 89 - Forexample, II. 1.5; Od. 11.297.
90 - Irwin1989, pp. 16-17. 91 - Greene 1944, p. 12. Moira withtheorderly divisionof space) and avXcyKT) (Necessity), revealedby
92 - Cf.11. 9.600 and Od. 3.166, 5.396, 12.295. 93 - Forexample, at themarriage of Peleusand Thetis and Zeus and Themis. 94 - Parmenides also wrotein Homeric hexameter and began his poem, in the Homeric with a claim for divine manner, inspiration. 95 - Guthrie considers thedaimon to be Helios,thesun;Austin takesheras "the goddess."
96 - Austin1986, pp. 156-157; Guthrie1962-1981, 2 : 7-9. 97 - Cicero, De fato; Sharpies1983; den Boeft1970; Bobzien 1998. 98 - Amand 1945; Cioffari 1935.
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99 - Kirk and Raven103; Diehlsand Kranz 12A9. 100 - Kirk and Raven 207, 229; Diehlsand Kranz 22B90,94. 101 - According to Greene(1944, p. 228), these includednai'veindividualists, ofthestate's toexist), democrats of (indefense (indefense super-patriots right thestatus of aristocrats defense a and the Athe(in quo), reactionary coup), nianempire itself oftheconscription ofMelianneutrals). (indefense References et libert6 dans I'antiquit6 sur la Amand,D. 1945. Fatalism grecques:Recherches survivance de I'argumentation moraleantifataliste de Carneadechez les phides quatre Louvain. losophes grecset les th6ologiens premiers chr6tiens sibcles. Scott.1986. Parmenides: Boundsand Logic.New Haven:Yale UniAustin, Being, Press. versity 1980. Edited byWangMing 10).Xinbian Baopuzineipian jiaoshi~ r~Ri-Ji~,. Zhuzijicheng. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Tielu Kaogudui BaoshanChujian1LWLOM. 1991. Hubeisheng Jingsha Mtl~'itJ, ed. Wenwu. ~M~I4-ti&, Beijing: Press. Mark H. 1992. Fatalism. ofNebraska Lincoln: Bernstein, University L. 1996. Against ofRisk. NewYork: Peter theGods:TheRemarkable Bernstein, Story Wiley. in Stoic Philosophy. Oxford: and Freedom Bobzien,Susanne.1998. Determinism Press. Clarendon with R. 2000. "SimpleTwists of Fate:The DaoistEncounter Bokenkamp, Stephen Lot:Destiny at theconference "Heaven'sWilland Life's Fate."Paperpresented Public Affairs in Chinese Culture," and Determinism Center, Breckenridge Bowdoin College. Raffan. London:Basil Translated Walter.1985. GreekReligion. Burkert, by John Blackwell. In TheChinese inChineseReligions." Mind: 1967. "The Individual Chan,Wing-tsit. A. Moore,pp. editedbyCharles and Culture, Essentials ofChinesePhilosophy ofHawai'i Press. 286-302. Honolulu: University Studies Folklore ScienceofFateCalculation." 1946. "TheChinese Chao,Wei-pang. 5:279-315. Pittsburgh. in Ancient China."Journal of Chinese ofTheodicy . 1994b. "The Problem -22 (Fall):51-74. Religions
of Chen, Ning. 1994a. "Concepts of Fate in AncientChina." Ph.D. diss., University
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yanbian" ~$
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Fate, Fortune, Chance, and Luck in Chinese and Greek: A Comparative Semantic History Author(s): Lisa Raphals Source:

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ming" to the moralizedmingof the Mandate of Heaven (topos4):

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(c) Da ming46r, graspinghold of ming.Accordingto the Zhuangzi, fate is in

istrue tograsp ming conformity; great

whopenetrate into true form andfollow toming. Sagesarethose according (Zhuangzi

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Those whounderstand themselves do not those whounderstand others; begrudge ming

[the (Mozi46/20-21)49 of]ming. reality reject

and cause. describe notionsof fate,destiny,

States texts to used inWarring Forall itslexicalvariety, was nottheonlyterm ming

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iA, purpose or cause, and chang *, constancy (in nature),emphasize notionsof

or predictability necessity (guand chang).

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East& West Philosophy

East& West Philosophy

East& West Philosophy

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Forstrong Ananke holdsitinbondsofchainthat bindsitall around. (Parmenides 8, frag.

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acin the Euthyphro, whichgivesa quasi-humorous accountis reflected Socrates' countofthesecharges:

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East& West Philosophy

East& West Philosophy

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East & West Philosophy

East& West Philosophy

i 9.6 Guanyu ming Zhou Zuoren i,1kA. yunN J@r.InZhouZuorenquanji @

, 1], no. 145:105-117.

Zhongguo wenhua yuekan mP9l,

East & West Philosophy

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Fate, Fortune, Luck in Chinese & Greek

Fate, Fortune, Luck in Chinese & Greek