Description

Nuclear technology and the use of radiation have spread into fields from warfare to healthcare, and from space exploration to terrestrial transport. With this widespread use comes the possibility of accidents involving radiation, possibly combined with trauma.


Natural background radiation is the largest single source of radioactive exposure for most living things on earth. It is made up of cosmic radiation and radiation from naturally occurring radioactivity in the soil. Background radiation is small and mostly unavoidable.


Other minor sources of small amounts of radiation abound in everyday life: building materials, televisions, smoke detectors, glaze in ceramics at home, even radon in the air we breathe. Occupational exposure can occur in nuclear power generation, industrial applications, medical and research facilities, and in the disposal of nuclear waste.


Radiation injuries, like other trauma, have a scale of severity from minor incidental exposure to large-scale accidents such as Chernobyl and Goiania. The latter are medical, social and ecological disasters, and thankfully are extremely rare. It is much more likely that the medical practitioner will encounter the former, as a result of occupational or accidental public exposure. Radiation injuries are very uncommon, due in part to the fewer nuclear facilities compared to other industries, but also to the strict safeguards imposed by most authorities upon the use, transport and disposal of radioactive material and products, as well as on the use of radiation-producing devices.


Key points


Natural background radiation is the largest single source of radioactive exposure for most living things on earth

Basic radiation science


Radiation damage is caused by transmission of energy from radiation sources to biological material. These sources may be radioactive materials which emit particles such as alpha and beta particles, and neutrons, or gamma rays (photons), or they may be artificial sources of radiation such as x-ray machines.


Radioactive materials may in turn be sealed (where the source is encapsulated) or unsealed (where the source is a potential source of contamination).

Radiation can be measured in various ways :



Exposure, measured in coulomb/kg , refers to the ionisation produced in air by x or gamma rays .
Absorbed dose, measured in gray (Gy), refers to the energy absorbed per kilogram by a material such as an organ or tissue.
Equivalent dose, measured in sievert (Sv) takes into account the differing effects that each type of radiation has on body tissue. For example, 1 Gy from alpha radiation has twenty times the effect on tissue than that from 1 Gy of gamma or x-radiation.
Effective dose, also measured in Sv, takes into account the differing sensitivity to radiation of various tissues. This allows assessment of severity of injury by converting separate tissue doses into a whole-body dose, which in turn can be used to estimate the biological relevance of a person’s radiation exposure. The effective dose is derived by adding the product of the equivalent dose and a tissue weighting factor for all exposed organs.
The quantity of a radioactive material (radioisotopes or radionuclides) is called the activity, measured in becquerels (Bq). As the Bq is a very small amount, multiples such as kBq or MBq are common. Each radioisotope has different types and energies of emissions. For photon emitters a quantity sometimes called the dose rate constant, measured in Gy.hr-1.MBq-1 at 1 metre, is used to describe the radiation intensity from a particular radioisotope.

Key points


Radiation damage is caused by transmission of energy from radiation sources to biological material


Types of radiation accidents


It is very important to understand the difference between radiation exposure and contamination with radioactive materials. Exposure from sources of x-rays and gamma rays does not itself create