Leadership Role of Muslim Scientists

Dr Wan Hazmy Che Hon was born in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan
and received his earlier education at Dato Klana Putra Primary

School, Lenggeng and MARA Junior Science College, Seremban.
He received his medical degree from the State University of Ghent,
Belgium in 1991. After completing the 3 years compulsory service
he pursued a 4 years residency training in Orthopaedic Surgery at
the National University of Malaysia and received his Master
degree in Orthopaedic Surgery in 1998. In 1999 he completed his
Trauma Fellowship at the Augsburg Trauma Hospital, Germany.
He did his sub-speciality training in Arthroscopy,Arthroplasty and
Sports Surgery at the Wakefield Orthopaedic Clinic and the Royal Adelaide Hospital,
Adelaide, Australia in 2002 under the Australian Orthopaedic Association (AOA) accredited
fellowship programme.
He is actively involved with professional bodies, being a member of International Society of
Arthroscopy, Knee and Orthopaedic Sports Medicine(ISAKOS), European Society of Sports
, Knee Surgery and Arthroscopy (ESSKA), Asia Pacific Orthopaedic Association (APOA),
Malaysian Orthopaedic Association (MOA), Malaysian Medical Relief Society(MERCY),
Magellan Society and the Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia.
Throughout his career he had been granted several awards including Prof N.Subramaniam
Award for Outstanding Performance in Master of Surgery (Orthopaedic) Residential
Programme from the Malaysian Orthopaedic Association (1999), ESSKA-APOA Travelling
Fellowship Award for Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery & Arthroscopy from the European
Society for Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery & Arthroscopy (ESSKA) (2004). He was
also awarded the prestigious J.W Fulbright Scholarship for the year 2004-2005 and spent
three months in Temple University, Philadelphia, USA as a visiting scholar.
Academically, he was the member of the Malaysian Academy of Medicine and has been
the adjunct lecturer to the International Medical University Clinical School since 1998,
visiting lecturer and examiner to the National University of Malaysia and the International
Islamic University. He was instrumental in disseminating the art of arthroscopic surgery to
the younger surgeons, being visiting surgeon to various hospitals in Malaysia and
becoming the founding member of the committee for arthroscopic and sports surgery
internal fellowship training for the Ministry of Health. He had various scientific papers
presented and published at the international and regional level.
His tenure in the Ministry of Heath has brought him to Ipoh, Kuala Pilah, Kuala Lumpur and
Seremban Hospital where he contributed most of his expertise. He was the Consultant
Orthopaedic, Trauma and Sports Surgeon, Seremban Hospital till 2005 before setting up
his own practice at Wan Orthopaedic, Trauma and Sport Injury Centre (WOTSIC),
Seremban Specialist Hospital (SSH), Seremban.
His areas of interest include general orthopaedic, orthopaedic trauma and fracture
treatment, sports injuries, arthroscopic reconstructive surgery (knee, ankle, shoulder &
elbow) and adult replacement surgery (hip, knee).
He has a special interest in medico-religious aspect of science and was the co-editor and
contributor of 5 books related to the subject . This is his latest book titled ’The Leadership
role of Muslim Scientists’, a part of his Fulbright Award research project.
He is married to Dr Zainab Yahaya, a gynaecologist and was blessed with five children.
ISBN 983-41324-3-3
THE LEADERSHIP
ROLE OF
MUSLIM
SCIENTISTS
SIGN OF
SCIENTIFIC
REEMERGENCE
Dr Wan Hazmy Che Hon
"The light of conscience is religious sciences. The light of mind is

modern sciences. Reconciliation of both manifests the truth. The
student's skills develop further with these two (sciences). When
they are separated, from the former superstition and from the
latter corruption and scepticism is born."
(Turkish Scholar Bediuzzaman Said Nursi)
THE LEADERSHIP ROLE
OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:
SIGN OF SCIENTIFIC
REEMERGENCE
Published by:
Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia N. Sembilan
No. 6, Jalan Angsana 2,
Taman Pinggiran Golf,
70400 Seremban, N. Sembilan.
Tel: 06-6797907 Fax: 06-6797907
Website: http://www.imam_ns.tripod.com
©IMAM-NS
ISBN 983-41324-1-7
©IMAM-NS
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
or criticism or review, as permitted under the copyright act, no part of
this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance
with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.
Enquires concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should
be sent to the publishers at the above address.
Printed by:
HNI Universal Creative,
No 40-2, Jalan Vivekananda,
Brickfields, 50470 Kuala Lumpur.
e-mail: mhr_creative@time.net.my
THE LEADERSHIP ROLE
OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:
SIGN OF SCIENTIFIC
REEMERGENCE
RESEARCHER:
DR WAN HAZMY BIN CHE HON

Fulbright Visiting Scholar at Temple University &
Consultant Orthopaedic, Trauma & Sports Surgeon
Seremban Hospital, 70300 Seremban
Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
SUPERVISOR:
PROF DR KHALID AY BLANKINSHIP

Professor in Religion,
Religion Department,
College of Liberal Arts, Temple University,
W. Berks Street, Philadelphia 19122,
Pennsylvania, United States of America
Leadership Role of Muslim Scientist: Sign of Scientific Reemergence
________________________________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author acknowledges with deep gratitude the assistance and

encouragement extended to him by the following persons and bodies:
1. The W. Fulbright Foundation, USA

2. MACEE - Malaysian-American Council for Educational Exchange
3. Sister Ayesha Begum and the occupants of Makkah Masjid,
Philadelphia
4. Datin Dr Hjh Zailan, Director, Seremban Hospital
5. Ministry of Health, Malaysia
Equally, the author acknowledges his enormous appreciation to his

beloved wife, Zainab and children (Dalila, Hasif, Syafiq, Aqilah and
Ihsan) for their patient and prayer throughout the preparation of this
book.
May Allah reward them all.

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientists: Sign of Scientific Reemergence
________________________________________________________
i
CONTENTS
0. Preface
1. The Glorious Era of Islamic Scientific Civilization
1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement
1.2 The essential factors of success
1.2.1. Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message

1.2.2. The importance of nature in Islam
1.2.3. The unity in faith
1.2.4. The expansion of the Islamic empire end the
Arabic conquest
1.2.5. The superiority of the Arabic language as a
language of science
1.2.6. The attitude of the Churches toward scientists
in Europe
1.3 The significant contributions and prominent figures

during the glorious era
1.3.1. Astronomy
1.3.2. Mathematics
1.3.3. Optics
1.3.4. Physics and Mechanics
1.3.5. Geography
1.3.6. Medicine
1.3.7. Chemistry and Pharmacology
1.3.8. Establishment of Libraries
1.3.9. Establishment of Hospitals
1.3.10. Establishment of Observatories
1.4 The 'Golden Era' of knowledge and civilization

________________________________________________________
i
2. The Stagnation Period of Muslim Scientific Achievements
2.1 The end of the glorious era
2.2 Factors contributing to the stagnation
2.2.1. Break-up of the Muslim Empires

2.2.2. Partisanship, political differences and power
politics
2.2.3. Religious and theological differences
2.2.4. The intoxicants of pleasures and enjoyment
2.2.5. Governmental ruling by the non Arabs
2.2.6. Neglect of practical knowledge and world
realities
2.2.7. Internal conflicts among scholars
2.2.8. High esteem and unduly proud rulers
2.2.9. The rise of European economic,political and
cultural imperialism
2.2.10. Deception of Western achievements and
values
2.3 The critical era of Islamic science
3. The Current State of Muslim Scientists
3.1 Science in Muslim world during the recent centuries
3.1.1. The scientific development in the Muslim

world post-Renaissance
3.1.2. Development in Arabic-African continent
3.1.3. Development under the Turkish Ottomans
Caliphate
3.1.4. Development in Indian subcontinent
3.1.5. Progression after 1945
3.1.6. Why does the Muslim still lag behind in
science?
________________________________________________________
i
3.1.7. The challenges
3.2 The Noble prize and its implication to the Muslim

world
3.2.1. Life and philosophy of Alfred Noble

3.2.2. Alfred Noble's life and philosophy from the
Islamic perspective
3.2.3. Muslim Noble Prize winner
3.2.3.1. Prof Dr Abdus Salam
3.2.3.2. Prof Dr Ahmed Zewail
3.2.4. Noble Prize: Is there a selection bias?
3.3 Prominent Muslim scientific figures in the 20th

century
3.3.1. Muslim scientists
3.3.1.1. Prof Dr Farouk El-Baz

3.3.1.2. Dr Fazlur Rahman Khan
3.3.1.3. Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan
3.3.1.4. Dr Avul Pakir Jainul Abdeen Abdul
Kalam
3.3.1.5. General Kerim Kerimov
3.3.1.6. Prof Dr Seyyed Mahmoud Hessaby
3.3.1.7. Prof Dr Zakaria Erzin Clioglu
3.3.1.8. Prof Dr Samira Ibrahim Islam
3.3.1.9. Prof Dr Haroon Ahmed
3.3.1.10. Prof Dr Ahmed Shammin Siddiqui
3.3.1.11. Prof Dr Ali Javan
3.3.1.12. Prof Dr Karimat El-Sayed
3.3.1.13. Prof Dr Ayse Erzan
3.3.1.14. Prof Dr Salim Al-Hassani
3.3.2. Muslim astronauts and cosmonauts

________________________________________________________
i
3.3.2.1 Sultan Salman Abdul Aziz Al Saud

3.3.2.2 Abdul Ahad Mohmand
3.3.2.3 Toktar Ongarbaevich Aubakirov
3.3.2.4 Talgat Amangeldyevich Musabayev
3.3.2.5 Musa Manarov
3.3.2.6 Saliszan Shakirovich Sharipov
3.3.2.7 Mohammed Faris
3.3.3. Muslim scientists cum political leaders
3.3.3.1. Prof Dr Necmettin Erbakan

3.3.3.2. Prof Dr Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie
3.3.3.3. Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad
3.3.4. Muslim scientist and philosopher
3.3.4.1 Prof Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr
4. The Scientific Re-emergence and its Future Direction
4.1 Prerequisites for Muslims scientific re-emergence
4.1.1. The correct diagnosis: What really happened

to Islamic science?
4.1.2. The proven treatment: Al-Qur'an
4.1.3. The expert doctors: the Muslim scientists and
religious scholars
4.1.4. The Islamic Unity
4.1.5. Review of educational approach
4.1.6. Mastering the language of technology
4.1.7. Effective scientific learning
4.1.8. Recognition and awards
4.1.9. Building up the 'scientific family, scientific
community'
4.1.10. Credibility of Muslim countries
________________________________________________________
i
4.2 The assets
4.2.1. The spiritual assets

4.2.2. The historical assets
4.2.3. The material and physical assets
4.3 The future direction
4.3.1. Centrally based scientific leadership

4.3.2. Identification of the expertise (Muslim Who's
who in science)
4.3.3. Reorganization of material and human
resources
4.3.4. Selection and establishment of the regional
scientific centres
4.3.5. Preservation of scientific heritage
4.3.6. Awards and scholarships
5. Conclusions
6. References
Preface 0
________________________________________________________
2
BACKGROUND:
The Muslims were the global leaders and innovators of intellectual,

scientific and cultural development for many centuries. Islam had
patronized and fostered the Greek scientific heritage in the field of
medicine, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry and philosophy.
Islam continued to add new scientific achievements which bear witness
that Muslim were deeply and seriously interested in the scientific
research. It was on the cream of the Islamic scientific achievement of
Andalusia that the European Renaissance and its modern scientific
inventions were based.
However, things started to go awry in the early thirteenth century,

when the Muslim started to stagnate and the Europeans surged ahead.
Several factors had been attributed to this including the Mongol and
other Central Asian invasions, political instability and spread of
religious intolerance.
For almost seven centuries the Muslim scientists were not at the
forefront of scientific achievement. Despite the facts that many of the
Muslim scientists have been accepted to work in the world class
established laboratory or institution throughout the world, none except
a few has make it to win the Noble prize. On the other hand, there is an
increasing numbers of Muslim scientists elected to leadership role in
their respective countries or abroad either in established scientific
institutions or whether as the ruling political leaders, the opposition
leaders or as leaders of the non-governmental organizations. This might
be an important sign of scientific re-emergence already present in the
Muslim world but yet to be recognized by the Western communities.
OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify the reasons why the Muslim scientists are not making
a significant impact in the current scientific achievement. What is
the limitation, restriction or hindrance towards this achievement?
Is there possible bias in selection of Nobel Prize winner for science
as far as the Muslim scientists is concern?
________________________________________________________
3
2. To determine whether the increasing number of Muslim scientists

taking the leadership role in their respective countries and abroad
is a sign of recognition of their scientific merit besides their
leadership capabilities. Are there any similarities amongst these
scientists became leaders in their thinking, dedication and
principles.
METHODOLOGY:
1. Library and archival research on articles related to the title. This

include the study on the achievement of Muslim scientist during
the last decade, the detail biography of scientist cum leader and
commentary by the non Muslim prominent writer on the status of
Muslim scientists
2. Interviews with prominent Muslim scientists in the selected

institutions on the past, present and future of the Muslim scientist
and to identify their weaknesses and strength.
3. Comparative study on the Muslim scientist cum leader including

their principle, their motivating factors and their visions.
SIGNIFICANCE:
This research will be determine the current position of the Muslim

scientists and their direction in the future This will help them to
reorganized their expertise and resources to achieve the field that once
were dominated by them. This study will act as catalyses for the
individual and institutions throughout the world irrespective of their
religious or political background to contribute to the re-emergence of
Muslim scientists which will not only benefit the Muslim community
but the whole world in general.
1 The
Glorious Era
of Islamic
Scientific
Civilization
________________________________________________________
5
THE GLORIOUS ERA OF ISLAMIC SCIENTIFIC CIVILIZATION
1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement
The concept of 'ilm ("science") has been an important one in the history
of Islamic civilization and has gone a long way to giving this
civilization, and all those who participated in it regardless of their
ethnic or religious application, a distinctive shape. Again the concept of
science in Islam is a vast subject. Historically Arabs and Persians who
were interested in exploring the natural world around them first
introduced Greek scientific treatises to the Arab-speaking world during
the eight century.
From the ninth century on, scholars travelled from one end of the
empire to the other, carrying books and ideas, thereby ensuring what
some have called the cultural and intellectual unity of the Islamic
world. Since this time, countless Muslims from all over the world
throughout the course of many centuries have been involved in
scientific development.
A momentous impetus was given to the development of science in the

Islamic world with the accession of the Abbasid Caliphate to power and
the subsequent foundation of Baghdad as its capital in 762. This
resulted in a translation movement that saw, by the end of tenth
century virtually all of the scientific and philosophical secular Greeks
works that were available in the Late Antique Period (fourth to seventh
century CE) translated into Arabic. These works included many diverse
topics such as astrology, alchemy, physics, mathematics, medicine and
various branches of philosophy. The great majority of these texts were
translated from Greek to Arabic by way of Syriac. The earliest
translators include Christians, many of whom were employed in the
renowned bayt al hikma (House of Wisdom). This functions as the
official institute and library for translation and research.
The Caliph Al Ma'mun (d 833) sent emissaries throughout the

Mediterranean world to seek out and purchase books on "ancient
learning" which were subsequently brought back to Baghdad and
translated into Arabic by panel of scholars. The result was an
________________________________________________________
6
impressive official library that included many of the most scientific and
philosophical works produced in the ancient world. These works would
form the foundation for medieval science, not only in the Islamic world
but also subsequently in the Christian world.
The earliest Greek works translated into Arabic were often made for
purely pragmatic reasons. This is why treatises devoted to astrology,
mathematics and alchemy represent some of the earliest scientific works
in Arabic. A useful list of the treatises translated into Arabic and when
and by whom can be found in the account given by the biographer of
Islamic writings, Ibn al-Nadim (d 995).
A common ,though incorrect, assumption has it that the Greeks

invented the sciences, the Arabs rescued them from disappearing in the
'Dark Ages', and subsequently passed them untouched and
uncommented upon to the Renaissance period. This ignores the fact that
many people living in the Islamic world wrote commentaries to the
works of important individuals such as Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy.
The genre of the commentary was not a slavish recapitulation of a text,
but often a creative way of writing about science and philosophy in the
medieval period. Rather than regard the commentaries as uncreative,
they often allowed scholars to think about scientific matters in such a
way that they would validate their claims by putting them in the mouth
of the ancient sages. In fact, many commentators often used ancient
authors to argue the very opposite of what these ancient authors had
intended in the first place. So although the Arabs worked within the
parameters of science as established by the Greeks, they made many
important developments in the Western scientific tradition.
Another argument which worth of discussing is the following: This

golden age was definitely Muslim in that it took place in predominantly
Muslim societies, but was it Islamic, that is, connected to the religion of
Islam? States were officially Islamic, and intellectual life took place
within a self-consciously Islamic environment. Ahmad al-Hassan and
Donald R. Hill, two historians of technology, see Islam as "the driving
force behind the Muslim scientific revolution when the Muslim state
reached its peak." But some western author argued that non-Muslims
had a major role in this effort, and much of the era's scientific
achievements took place in a tolerant and cosmopolitan intellectual
________________________________________________________
7
atmosphere quite independent of the religious authorities.
Al-Faruqi in explaining this matter had came to the following

conclusion: the same achievement may well be term Muslim or Islamic
despite the fact that some were the achievements of Sabaeans, Jews, and
Christians. He explicitly gave two reasons for this: First, the works of
non Muslims constitute a very small portion of the whole and belong
either to the preparatory period or that of collection and
systematization, bur not to that of creative flowering. Second, the non
Muslims contributors were in the service of Muslims as their
employees, directed to produce what Muslims desired to see produced.
Their non-Islamic religions had nothing to do with their works, which
were being totally determined by the Islamic categories and values their
employers, colleagues, and the milieu in which they lived. Their works
were part of an Islamic culture, determined by an Islamic worldview,
ordered by Islamic categories. Hence the two appellations- Arab and
Islamic- are justified; and the latter is preferable because it is more
general and more inclusive and has the prior connotation of the first
principles and values, the culture as a whole, rather than merely its
linguistic medium.
The Muslims had a tendency to consider every potential discipline as a

science, and as result tried to articulate first, principles for them.
Important in this regard is the science of law or fiqh. In its developed
form, the science of Islamic legal theory recognised a variety of sources
and methods (usul al fiqh) by which to derive the law. The first principle
was the Qur'an, followed by the Sunna which, though second in
importance, provided the overwhelming majority of material from
which the law was derived. The third principle is consensus (ijma') of
the legal scholars in the name of the entire community. The fourth
principle is known as human reasoning (qiyas). These four principles
became the means whereby the legal scholars could, in their opinion,
scientifically determine the legal effects of the textual sources of Islam.
It is important to note that this principles still strongly being applied till
today. However its application is no longer limited to the Islamic
jurisprudence but, also expanded to other branches of science such as in
the field of biotechnology (cloning) and medicine (in vitro fertilization,
brain death, euthanasia).
________________________________________________________
8
During this era, many of the medieval philosophers compiled various

"list of science" and "classification of sciences" (maratib al-'ulum).One of
the famous examples of this is the Enumeration of the Sciences (Ihsa' al
'Ulum) by al-Farabi (870-950). In the preface of this work, al-Farabi states
that his intention is to give an enumeration of all the sciences of his day
and provide descriptions of their themes and subject matter. He divides
the sciences into those dealing with (1) linguistic (2) logic (3)
mathematics (4) physics (5) Metaphysics (6) political science (7)
jurisprudence and (8) dialectical theology. Other lists were compiled by
the "Brethren of Purity" (Ikhwan al-Safa'), Ibn al-Nadim in his Fihrist, Ibn
Sina (Avicenna), al Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun in his famous
'Prolegomena'. Ghazali's list is interesting in that he divides all of the
sciences into those that are either praiseworthy (mahmuda) or
blameworthy (madhmuma). Such lists, however, are by no means a
medieval phenomenon. In 1980 at the Second World Conference on
Muslim Education, sponsored by the King 'Abd al Aziz University,
Jeddah and the Quaid-I Azam University in Islamabad, delegate
adopted a similar list. The main difference between their enumeration
and that of someone like al-Farabi was that theirs begin with the
memorization of the Qur'an and ends with the practical sciences.
The importance of this 'Muslim' or 'Arab' science to the general progress

of culture is beyond question, and much evidence of it can be adduced.
In the first place, numerous Arabic words have passed into some of the
Western languages, especially terms used in chemistry, navigation and
astronomy. 'Arabic' figures, which came from India, were transmitted to
Europe by the Muslims. An even more significant fact is that in his
monumental Introduction to the history of science Sarton has given the
name of a Muslim scientist to seven chapters of the second volume,
deeming that the period under consideration can be designated by him.
Finally, the visitor entering the chapel of Princeton University may be
somewhat surprised to find there a window representing an outlandish
personage: clad in a long eastern robe and a majestic turban, he holds in
his hand an unrolled parchment on which can be read in Arabic Kitab al-
hawi. That those who inspired or endowed this chapel should have
deemed al-Razi (Rhazes), the author of the book, worthy to be presented
in a place of Christian worship among the great figures of mankind, is
sufficient indication of the position occupied by Muslim science in the
history of culture.
________________________________________________________
9
1.2 The essential factors of success
1.2.1 Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message
This glorious generation who just succeeded the generation of

companions and salafus-sholeh, had a very important element instilled
in the hearts and minds, that is Islam was born complete- complete in
the vision of its Prophet, complete in the Qur'anic revelations he
received, and complete in the sunnah he exemplified. This claim is not
that of any human or humans; it is Qur'anic (3:19, 5: 4, 2:132) and thus
God given. It is the ideal to which all the Muslims strive and by which
they would and should be defined. And the earlier generations knew
and withhold this in their heart, minds and practicality.
Hence, the vision of Islam as stated in the Qur'an demands that the
Muslims to take the history, as it were and to direct it so as to produce
culture and civilization. Its association with the Muslim history is hence
crucial, for Islamic culture and civilization were indeed its offspring,
nourished and perpetually sustained by it in every realm of human
endeavour.
It may be maintained, without paradox, that, with the possible

exception of poetry and its proverbs all Muslim intellectual activity in
the widest sense had its starting point in the Qur'an: Grammar was
created by non-Arabs so that they might be able to read the sacred text
correctly, rhetoric for the emphasizing of its beauties. The tradition was
assembled in order to explain it and supply its omissions.
Jurisprudence was drawn up as a system of principles for moral and
social life and finally theology to defend against the sceptics, or even to
demonstrate, the truths taught by the Book.
It would have been surprising if this taste of knowledge had not been
extended to the 'profane sciences' when the Muslims came into contact
with these peoples who had inherited them. Even if there were, here
and there and at certain periods, theologians of a narrow and defensive
orthodoxy who forbade them, it must be said that Muslims in general,
led by their Caliphs and princes, showed great thirst for instruction and
were eager to assimilate the treasures of ancient science when it came
within their reach.
________________________________________________________
10
The original religious flavour still remained, for the Muslim scientists,
whether astronomers, mathematicians or physicians, were not seeking
any less to work for than the Glory of God and the service of religion
when they devoted themselves to the sciences derived from Greece,
Persian or India.
1.2.2 The importance of nature in Islam
Islam takes nature seriously. A large portion of the Qur'an deals with
nature, whether directly or indirectly. The nature is determined by five
principles: profanity, createdness, orderliness, purposiveness and
subservience
Profanity
Islam, so as Judaism and Christianity see nature as profane (not scared)

and ephemeral (in itself, it is good but with reference to what man
makes of it, it can become either good or evil). Generally, this is the
substance of the agreement among the transcendentalist religions in the
matter of nature. Certainly, differences among them qualify their
transcendentalist position, diluting and compromising, or
strengthening and emphasizing it. Islam stands at the extreme end of
the spectrum where profanity of nature is complete and absolute.
Nothing is sacred but God, and everything else is profane, totally
profane in all its aspects. This is the meaning of the Islamic profession of
faith, La ilaha illa Allah (3:18)
Createdness
Nature in Islam is a creature of God, created ex nihilo, by the sheer

commandment of God for it to be. It is absolutely different and other
than God, who is defined as "the totally other" or laysa ka mithlihi shay
(42:11). The otherness of God, meaning that reality is dual, one realm
being occupied exclusively by God, the transcendent Creator and the
ojther by all else, the creation, is the most emphatic lesson Islam had
taught.
"If there were more than one unique creator, heaven and earth, Creator
and creature would have fallen to the ground and dissolved (21:22)
________________________________________________________
11
Orderliness
Islam holds nature to be an orderly realm: an event occurs as a result of

its cause; in turn, its occurrence is the cause of another event. The same
events point to the same causes, and the same causes point to the same
consequences (65:3, 36:12). The causal efficiency of each creature is
measured, and so are its effect and time. Nature is thus a complete and
integral system of causes and effects without flaw, without gap,
perfectly patterned by its Creator.
"Look into His creation for any discrepancy. And look again! Your sight,
having found none, will return to you humbled" (67:3-4)
Purposiveness
Each of the objects that constitute nature has been assigned a purpose
which it must, and will, fulfil.
"God created everything and assigned to it, its qadar or measure, destiny,
role and purpose" (25:2, 87:3)
Such purpose is built into the object as its nature, towards which it
moves with exorable necessity. It may be obvious and well known or
hidden and almost unknowable. But it is certainly there, a "qadaran
maqdura" specific and precise (33:38). As object in nature, man is, in the
Islamic view, equally purposive for he is an integral part of the finalistic
system, the creation. Indeed, Islam declares him to be the purpose of all
the finalistic chains of nature. This constitutes his ecological
interdependence with all that is in nature.
Subservience
Islam further affirms that the purposiveness is not only an attribute of
every object in nature but it also a predicate of the totality of nature. The
subservience of nature to man means that the purpose that God
assigned to each object is ultimately to lead to man's good, that man can
use it to achieve felicity. It also means that God has made nature
malleable, capable of receiving the causal efficacy of man, of keeping its
causal threads open to further determination by him, and to make his
input successful in bringing about the desired objective of human
action. This is what the Qur'an has expressed by the idea of Taskhir.
Sun, stars and moon, heaven and earth, animals, plants and things,
clouds, air and all the elements are all subservient to man (13:2, 31:20).
________________________________________________________
12
Furthermore taskhir of nature is not only for survival but also for the
pleasure (zinah) as well (37:6)
Implications of these principles to the Islamic scientific civilization
All the foregoing qualities of nature, therefore, are necessary for science.
On the one hand, the necessity of profanity and regularity are obvious.
Without them, there may be myth, but no science. On the other,
purposiveness and subservience are necessitated by morality. The
processes of nature were so interrelated as to provide for nature's
continuity and regularity.
With this, Islam strongly affirms that a continuing and regular nature
such as we find creation to be, is indeed possible as object of human
knowledge. Nature, since it functions according to the laws or patterns,
is observable and measurable. This was repeatedly affirms in the Qur'an
that the patterns of God are immutable (30:30,33:62). Human knowledge
of these external patterns may be immediate through revelation, or
painstakingly slow, tentative, and always incomplete, through rational
examination.
Islam also maintains that the will of God is legible in either of the two
books: First, the Qur'an revealed by God to His Prophet in clear Arabic,
and second, the book called 'nature' for anyone to 'read' through
observation, measurement, nazar or intellection and consideration, and
testing in experience.
Nature will not fail to yield its secrets - the eternal divine patterns - to
anyone seriously applying himself to the task and allowing nature to
speak for itself through experience. The law of nature are hypothesis
reached through observation and experimentation. This involves
isolation of factors or causes and effects operating in a phenomenon,
their observation and measurement, and the amendment or
confirmation of the hypotheses in experience.
1.2.3 The unity in faith
One of the important aspects taught by Islam is the concept of Muslim

________________________________________________________
13
brotherhood (ukhuwah Islamiyyah) which deterred in totality the

discrimination based on races, social status, skin colour or nationality.
Faith in Islam has bonded them far stronger than the blood relation
itself. This concept was applied to every aspect of life, more so ever
when it comes to dissemination of knowledge. This era had witnessed
the emergence of Muslims knowledge seekers and scientists in
Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova and Samarkand, so as of the Persian and the
Arab, the Turk and the Andalusian, the Berber and the Sabaean. They
travelled from the one end of the empire to the other end without any
objection. The gained their knowledge from their teacher without any
reservation. They were not restricted by geographic or racial
boundaries. This unity in faith did not only expand the Islamic empire
geographically but more importantly had expanded the horizon of
knowledge.
1.2.4 The expansion of the Islamic empire and the Arabic conquest
The actual course of Arab conquests was from the beginning a

conducive factor. Leaving a 'canton isolated from the world', to use
Pascal's phrase, the Arabs at once found themselves in contact with
Syria and its Byzantine culture; with Egypt, the heir to the ancient
world of the Pharaohs; with Persia of the Sasanids; with India and
before long with North Africa and Spain. Various peoples (Persians,
Turks, Berbers, Andalusians, Egyptians etc) embraced Islam. Other
elements, 'the People of the Book' (Christians, Jews and Sabaeans)
remained in the midst of the Muslim community, second -class citizens
but protected by the law and taking active part in the cultural life. All
contributed to the development of sciences in Islam, and all or nearly all
of them wrote their works in Arabic, so that for the Medieval Western
Europe 'Arab' was synonymous with 'Muslim' and not surprisingly
both terms are used indiscriminately in dealing with Islamic scientific
civilization.
1.2.5 The superiority of the Arabic language as a language of science
The Muslim welcomed the great work of Greece, Persian and some
from India, with avidity, with love and with infinite respect, and,
________________________________________________________
14
instigated by powerful patrons, a succession of translator rendered into

Arabic the works of Plato and Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen,
Ptolemy, Euclid and Archimedes, Apollonius and Theon, Menelaus and
Aristharcus, Hero of Alexandria, Philo of Byzantium and many others.
The admirable flexibility of the Arabic language made it possible for

them to coin an exact philosophical and scientific vocabulary, capable of
expressing the most complicated scientific and technical terms. On this
subject, Louis Massignon explicitly confirmed how helpful the Arabic
language is to the internal exploration of thought, and for this reason it
is 'particularly suitable for the expression of the exact sciences and for their
development along the lines of the historical progress of mathematics: the
transition from an arithmetic and a geometry which were intuitive and almost
contemplative…to a science of algebraic constructions in which arithmetic and
geometry were ultimately united'
1.2.6 The attitude of the Churches toward scientists in Europe
The persecution imposed by the Church to the European scientists had

make them ran away and found refuge in the buffer states between
Persia and Byzantium. It was reported number of Christian and Sabaean
doctors settled down in centers such as Ruha, al-Hirah, Jundishapur
and Harran. The Muslims employed them, sat at their feet to learn from
them, and commissioned them to translate their books and records into
Arabic. Jurji bin Bakhtishu (died 830) was employed by al Mansur as
court physician. Taught by their father, Bakhtishu's sons continued in
the same employment. Yuhanna ibn Masawayh (died 857), a physician
was asked to teach his profession to Muslims. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (died
873) was appointed by al-Ma'mun as head of Dar al Hikmah, and was
commissioned with his colleagues and pupils to procure and translate
the whole legacy of medical and scientific knowledge into Arabic
language.
1.3 The significant contributions and prominent figures during the

glorious era
From being enthusiastic and industrious disciples, the Muslim

________________________________________________________
15
proceeded to the second stage of becoming masters, enamoured of

research and experienced, exploring not only the book of the ancients,
but nurtured also nature itself. Islam was soon to produce original
scientists in various branches of study such as astronomy, mathematics
and medicine, and made many important innovations in a great
majority of the sciences. Besides that, they were three major institutions
that were significantly developed during this era and became the
reference even until today. These were the establishment of the libraries
and translation centres, the hospitals and the instruments for
observation, especially the astronomical observatories.
1.3.1 ASTRONOMY
Perhaps the most distinguish characteristic of the Muslims'

contribution to the exact science was their vision of correspondence
between mathematics, geometry and astronomy. This vision was
imparted to them by the Qur'an, which affirmed "the heavens and the
earth were ordered rightly, and were made subservient to man,
including the sun, the moo, the stars, and day and night. Every
heavenly body moves in an orbit assigned to it by God and never
digresses, making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life and
existence, diminution and expansion, are totally determined by the
Creator (30:22)
A Greek book on astronomy attributed to Hermes Trismegistus was the

first to be translated into Arabic in 742. Al Mansur, the second Abbasid
caliph, had developed deep interest in this field that he asked the
Persian astronomer Nawbakht to be his constant companion. When the
latter died, he appointed the son in his place along with Ibrahim al
Farazi, his so Muhammad, 'Ali ibn Isa al Astrolabi and others. In 772,
the caliph commissioned Abu Yahya al Batriq to translate into Arabic
the work of Ptolemy and other Greek sources which he had requested
from the Byzantine emperor. He also appointed Muhammad al-Fazari
to translate the Sind-Hind book which contained the knowledge of
India in the same field. These translations were used by al Khawarizmi
to produce his famous zij or Table of Calculations Indexing the Position
of the Heavenly Bodies.
________________________________________________________
16
Muslims thinkers made important advancements following on the heels

of Ptolemy, in discussing the laws governing the periodic motions of the
celestial bodies. One of the famous Islamic astronomers was al-Battani
(Al Batequius). He compiled a catalogue of the stars for the year 880, in
which he determined the various astronomical coefficients with
renowned accuracy. He was also responsible for discovering the motion
of solar apside. In additions, he also wrote an important introductory
treatise that was used in the European universities until the sixteenth
century.
One of the most significance achievement was reached by Fakhr al Din

al Razi (died 1209) who questioned Aristotle's claim that the star was
immobile and equidistant from the earth, as well as the claim that the
movements of other heavenly bodies were all like and similar. In his
commentary of the Qur'anic passage 2:258, al Razi affirmed that there is
no evidence that the contrary may not be the case, that the real
movement of the heavenly bodies may be different from what is
observable by the unaided senses. The classical statement, however,
belongs to al Biruni who said "In these and similar matters (of astronomy)
one must resort to experimentation, and rely only on close examination of the
data or results". In the thirteenth century, at the observatory in
Maraghah, Muslim scientists explained the motions of the heavenly
spheres as the combination of uniform circular motions. This is the
model that was eventually adopted by European astronomers, such as
Copernicus.
Islam also brought a drastic change to pre Islamic astronomy in which

mythology was pervasive. This field of pseudo-science- called
astrology- which regarded man as the mere instrument of cosmic forces
emphasized the role of the stars, the signs of zodiac, the effect of horizon
and meridian in determining what has, can and will happen in the
future. Islam had to purge it clean of myth and established astronomy
as an empirical science.
1.3.2 MATHEMATICS
Muslims had contributed extensively in the mathematical sciences,

mainly in arithmetic, geometry, algebra and trigonometry.
________________________________________________________
17
Arithmetic (al-hisab) was, as Ibn Khaldun observed in his 'Prolegomena',

the first of the mathematical sciences to be used by the Muslims, being
indeed a means of solving such material problems which present
themselves in daily life as assessment of taxes, reckoning of legal
compensation, and division of inheritances according to Qur'anic law.
Thabit bin Qurrah departed from the Euclidean legacy by proposing a
theory of infinite numbers being part of another infinite numbers.
'Umar Khayyam (died 1130) and Nasir al Din al Tusi (died 1247)
succeeded in constructing formulation in which magnitudes were
expressed by numbers. Muslims acquired from the Indian a number of
forms for expressing numbers. They combined some, and reorganized
them into two series, naming one series 'Indian' and the other 'Ghubari'.
They used both but the latter were adopted by the West on account of
its wide usage in Spain and North Africa and were called by the
Westerners 'Arabic numerals'.
More important was the Muslims' invention of a symbol for zero (the
Indians used to leave the place blank!), and gave it name sifr (cipher,
zero). They then organized the number into decimals system where
digital location acquired a numerical value inside the intrinsic value of
its own. This development was crucial importance to the progress of all
sciences of nature. Before it, numbers were expressed in words with
recourse to the fingers to complete an operation. Muhammad ibn Musa
al Khawarizmi (died 850) was the mathematician who introduced the
system of symbols representing the nine numbers and the inventor of
sifr or zero to represent the absence of any. He was also the first to
express numerical value by digital position. The two systems, the one
expressing number by symbol rather than a word and the other
expressing value by digital position, wee continued in the work of
Ibrahim al Uqlidisi, and were popularized by Ghiyath al Din Jamshid al
Kashi. It then spread to Europe.
Algebra, as the form of the name indicates, is an Arabic word: al-jabr,

which signifies the restoration of something broken, the amplifying of
something incomplete. Khawarizmi, the latinized distortion of whose
name has produced the name 'algorithm', was chiefly responsible for
laying the foundations of Islamic algebra. He called the new discipline
al Jabr wal Muqabalah ('linkage and juxtaposition') to describe what
happens in an algebraic. He began his treatise on the subject with a clear
________________________________________________________
18
if long-winded exposition of equations of the second degree, after which

he discussed algebraic multiplication and division, then the numerical
measurement of surfaces, the division of estates and other legal
questions. Such problems were always presented in the form of
numerical examples.
Muslims also invented the symbol to express any unknown quantity,

namely x (or s, standing for the Arabic shay'), which was adopted by
Europe from the Spanish who had simply transliterated it from the
Arabic.
Arabic geometry was founded on the deep knowledge of prior Greek

works, particularly those of Euclid, Archimedes and Appolonius, and it
was also influenced by the Indian Siddhanta. The Arabic has shown
great interest in construction of interrelated figures (especially Banu
Musa) and using geometry in making calculation. Abu'l-Layth used the
meet of a hyperbola and a parabola to construct a regular nine sided
polygon. Also to be noted are the works of Ibrahim b Sinan on the
quadrature of the parabola, of Abu'l-Wafa (died 997) on the construction
of regular polygons which led to the equations of the third degree, of
Abu Kamil (ninth century) on the construction of the pentagon and
decagon, also by the means of equations. The commentary of 'Umar
Khayyam (died 1131) on Euclid is an important precursor of non-
Euclidean geometry, which may also have been inspired by Nasir al-Din
al-Tusi.
The applications of geometry during the period were numerous:

problems of surveying, studies of mechanical tools in 'Iraq and in Persia
in the tenth century, the construction of improved mills, of norias (from
Arabic, na'ura, wheels with scoops for continuous drawing of water
from a watercourse), mangonels (stone-throwing machines) and others.
As for trigometry, the Arabs were, according to Carra de Vaux

unquestionably the inventors of plane and spherical trigonometry. With
the Arabs, the trigonometrical function of sine, tangent, cosine and
cotangent became explicit. They adopted for 'sine' the name jayb which
signifies an opening, bay, curve of a garment, specifically the opening of
an angle. The Latin term 'sinus' is a mere translation of the Arabic jayb.
It appears in the twelfth century in the translation of De motu stellarum
________________________________________________________
19
of al-Battani (died 929), the Albategnius of the Latins. Al-Battani also

presented an important formula in spherical trigonometry (uniting the
three sides and one angle of a spherical triangle) which has no
equivalent in Ptolemy:
cos a = cos b cos c - sin b sin c cos A .
A further advance was made with Abu'l-Wafa, and he was probably the
first to demonstrate the sine theorem for the general spherical triangle.
Indeed, Carra de Vaux has demonstrated, following Moritz Cantor, that
it was Abu'l-Wafa and not Copernicus who invented the secant: he
called it the 'diameter of the shadow' and set out explicitly the ratio (in
modern form)
tan a / sec a = sin a / 1
1.3.3 OPTICS
The application of the principles of geometry to light made possible the

construction of mirror and lens. The most remarkable practitioner of
this science is Hasan b al-Haytham (died 1039), well known to the West
under the name of Alhazen. A native of Basra, he came to Cairo, and
entered the service of the Caliph al-Hakim, the Fatimid caliph known
for his eccentricities, who set him to find a means of regulating the
annual inundation of the Nile. His failure, despite his brilliant yet
unimaginable proposal of building a mountain at Aswan which would
dam the waters and raise their level to increase the area under
irrigation, nearly cost him his life. It however, cast no doubt on al
Haytham's scientific ability in the field of optics, and his book Kitab al-
manazir (The Visual World) exercised an important influence in the
Middle ages, prompting the studies of Roger Bacon and of Witello.
He laid down a new theory of visual perception, based on the eye's

absorption of light rays issuing from the object, passing through the
pupil, and reaching the brain through vision or eye nerves. Ibn al
Haytham laid down the basis of explanation of the rainbow and of the
camera obscura, elaborated later by Kamaluddin al Farisi, by observing
the behaviour of light passing through spheres of glass, of the light of
________________________________________________________
20
an eclipsed sun and of a crescent, and light through a small aperture of

a dark room. Explanation through observation and experimentation and
the crystallization of results through mathematical formulae made his
work the best prototype of the Islamic scientific method.
1.3.4 PHYSICS AND MECHANICS
The first textbook of mechanics dates from 860 and is the Book of
Artifices of the Banu Musa, the mathematicians Muhammad, Ahmad
and Hasan, sons of Musa b. Shakir, who were all scientists and
enlightened patrons of learning. It contains about a hundred technical
constructions, some twenty of which are of practical value such as the
apparatus for hot and cold water, wells of a fixed depth, the lifting of
weights by machinery, a whole series of the scientific and automatic
toys so much beloved by the courts of princes in the Middle Ages.
In the thirteenth century al-Jazari , a native of 'Iraq, wrote a Kitab fi

ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya, 'a great book on mechanics and clocks', the
best extant in the Islamic world, as decribed by Meyerhof. An engineer,
Qaysar, who dies in Damascus in 1251, constructed irrigation wheels on
the Orontes, as well as fortification, for the prince of Hamah. It was he
who set uo the celestial globe which is today in the National Museum at
Naples.
With regard to measuring devices, al-Khazini, making use the works of

the ancient scientists, expounded a detailed theory of balance in his
book 'Mizan al-hikma' (The balance of wisdom) in which he defined the
centre of gravity of a body and conditions for various types of
equilibrium. Al-Biruni (died 1050), ascertained experimentally a certain
number of specific gravities, by means of a 'conical instrument' which
may be regarded as the earliest pycnometer.al-Khazini, in dealing with
liquids, used a hydrometer similar to those used by the Alexandrians.
The results obtained by these two scientists constituted one of the finest
achievements attained by the Arabs in the realm of experimental
physics, as mentioned by Mielli in his book La science arabe.
1.3.5 GEOGRAPHY
________________________________________________________
21
The geographical knowledge was popularized during this period partly

because of the rituals which necessitated its use in determining the
direction of Qiblah, the obligations of performing hajj in Mecca, and
partly because the facts that the Muslim was avid traders and travellers,
undaunted by the usual perils and risks of long trips. They were even
commanded by God to explore the earth and to ascertain the
geographical realities for the benefits of the mankind.
Al-Kawarizmi was the first to produce a global geography, and Abu al

Qasim 'Abdullah Ibn Khurdadhbih (died 912) gave a full map and
description of the main trade routes of the Muslim world in his Al
Masalik was Mamalik. Later, the Muslims began to produce atlases of
their countries for popular and professional use such were the works of
Ishaq al Istarfi (died 934), Ahmad al Balkhi (died 934), Muhammad Ibn
Hawqal, and Muhammad al Maqdisi (died 1101). Al Maqdisi was the
first to produce maps in natural colours in order to bring geographical
knowledge closer to human understanding.
One of the most outstanding work was of al Sharif al Idrisi (died 1166)
who was invited by Roger II, the Norman king in Sicily, to produce an
up-to-date world map. Al Idrisi asked for a ball of silver 400 rotols in
weight (approximately 400 kilograms) and drew on it the seven
continents, their lakes and rivers, cities, routes, mountain and plains,
and trade routes, and noted in each the distance, height, or length as
measured. Al Idrisi wrote a book, Nuzhat al Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al Afaq, to
accompany the first globe ever built.
The same period witnessed a surge of great travellers who left a rich
legacy of geographical contributions. Among them were Ibn Jubayr
(died 1217), Yaqut al Hamawi (died 1229),'Abdul Latif al Baghdadi
(died 1283), al Qazwini (died 1283), Abu al Fida (died 1331) and Ibn
Bathutah (died 1377).
1.3.6 MEDICINE
Medicine is one of the most famous and best-known facets of Islamic

civilization, and in which the Muslims most excelled. The Muslims
________________________________________________________
22
were the great torchbearers of this art for centuries, even after the
cessation of the Islamic territorial dominancy. Some of the best and most
eloquent praises of science ever written came from the pens of Muslim
scientists who considered their work to be acts of worship. They hit the
source ball of knowledge over the fence to Europe. In the words of
Campbell "The European medical system is Arabian not only in origin
but also in its structure. The Arabs are the intellectual fore-bearers of
the Europeans. "
As for historical interest, medicine, long practised by Hippocrates,

Galen, Dioscorides and the doctors of the school of Alexandria, finally
became concentrated during the sixth century in the city of
Gondeshapur. This city of south-western Persia had in fact been
accepting a succession of refugees-the Netorians of Edessa when their
school was closed in 489, followed by the NeoPlatonic philosophers of
the school of Athens, when in turn this latter school was closed by
Justinian in 529.
In 638 the city was taken by the Arabs. In view of its nearness to the
Arab city of Hira it is probable that Arabic was spoken there even before
the conquest. At all events doctors must have been speaking the
language very soon afterwards, since Ibn Abi Usaybi'a, the famous
historian of Arab medicine, recounts that on occasion of the visit of the
physician Jurjis b. Jibril of Gondeshapur to the caliph al Mansur, Jurjis
addressed the caliph in Arabic. In this city there were actual dynasties
of medical families, who handed down their scientific knowledge,
enriched by personal experience, from father to son. And it was the
physicians of Gondeshapur who became the teachers of the soon to
emerge Muslim medical geniuses.
One of the most eminent physicians, perhaps the greatest clinical doctor
of Islam, was without question Abu Bakr Muhammad al Razi (died
932), the Rhazes of the medieval Latins. He began his career as a
musician (a lutanist), then switch to study philosophy under Abu Zayd
al Balkhi and finally to medicine at the Baghdad hospital. There, he
wrote his book Al Mujarrabat. In 902, at the call of Mansur ibn Ishaq, he
moved to Al Rayy to head its hospital. There, he wrote most of his
medical books and dedicated them to his patroon, entitling one of them
Al Tibb al Mansuri in his honor. He also wrote a book on psychiatry,
________________________________________________________
23
which he entitled Al Tibb al Ruhani. He was the first to insist that his
students to continue with postgraduate studies in medicine in order to
enrich the discipline. His crowning work was Al Hawi fi al Tibb, an
encyclopedia of all the medical knowledge of his age. It was translated
into Latin by Faraj ibn Salim and known as the Continens. It was printed
in 1486, the first medical book ever printed in Europe. He was the first
to make use of music to heal his patients. He arranged his students in
concentric circles around patients so all could participate and to enable
the newer students (outer circle) to learn from the older (inner circle).
His most famous medical observations was his ability to distinguish

between small pox and measles, works which was known in the
medieval Latin translations as De variolis et morbilis or sometimes Liber
de pestilential. This book is not simply an outline of Hippocrates or of
Galen, but truly original, based on detail elicitation of symptoms and
signs. He also enjoined precautions for protecting the eyes, face and
mouth and for avoidance of pork-marks. In fact, it is the first treatise in
existence on infectious diseases.
The leading representative of Arab surgery was Khalaf ibn 'Abbas al

Zahrawi (died 1013). He was born, raised and educated in Qurtubah
(Cordova). He was called to al Zahra', the new royal city built by Al
Nasir, grandson of 'Abdul Rahman, founder of Umawi dynasty in
Spain. There, al Zahrawi lived and worked till he died. It is unfortunate
that only one of his works had survived, yet it has made a significant
impact to the surgical world. His work Al Tasrif Liman 'Ajiza 'An al Ta'lif
had the same authority in surgery as the Canon of Ibn Sina had in
medicine.
The thirtieth dissertation of this work was devoted to surgery and he

included in it more than 200 drawings of surgical instruments and of
surgical operations he has conducted. It was the first medical work to
contain diagrams of surgical instrumentation.The first part of the work
concerned with cauterization and its indications, used generously in the
Arab medicine since being recommended by the Prophet. The second
part contained descriptions of surgical procedures and its
armamentarium, and the third part dealt mainly with fractures and
dislocations, even mentioning paralysis resulting from fracture of the
spine. It is not surprising that al Zahrawi was extensively quoted by
________________________________________________________
24
European surgeons down to the end of the sixteenth century.
The Muslim medicine reached its peak of achievement with Abu 'Ali
Husayn Ibn Sina (died 1037), who was famed both as a physician and
as philosopher. He left behind him a lively autobiography, from which
it emerged that he had been a precocious genius, who at the age of
sixteen had already mastered the medical science of his time. His great
philosophical work, al-Shifa', has had a resounding effect on Christian
thinkers of the Middle age. As for medicine, his great medical works, al-
Qanun fi'l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), was the Arabic replica in the
Middle Ages of the great works of Hippocrates and Galen. It consisted
of five books which represented complete medical knowledge of his
time covering from the basic anatomy and description of diseases to
general treatment and pharmacotherapy. Wherever he travelled, Ibn
Sina conducted experiments and examined medical records and live
cases to confirm his older finding. He diagnosed cancer and urged an
early treatment through surgical removal. He discovered that stomach
ulcers may be formed by either of two causes: a physic cause such as
worry or depression, and a material or organic cause acting on the
stomach itself.
The Canon of Ibn Sina remained the ultimate reference in medicine for
centuries and did not cede its place of superiority until the nineteenth
century, being the standard textbook of medicine the world over for
over 700 years. It was also studied enthusiastically and lavishly
annotated over the centuries by Muslim physicians, who also made
summaries of it. One of the most celebrated, al-Mujaz, as that of the
thirteenth-century physician Ibn al-Nafis, a native of Damascus who
practised in Cairo. He was appointed as leading physician in Egypt and
died there in 1288. In 1924, Dr Tatawi, a young Egyptian doctor at the
University of Freiburg, who was working on the unpublished text of the
commentary of Ibn al-Nafis on the anatomy of Ibn Sina, demonstrated
in his medical thesis that Ibn al-Nafis took the opposite standpoint to
that of Galen and Ibn Sina, and that he had given an almost exact
description of the small or pulmonary circulation nearly three centuries
before its discovery by Michael Servetus (1556) and Rinaldo Colombo
(1559).
________________________________________________________
25
1.3.7 CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY
Closely related with the medical sciences, pharmacology and chemistry

became very fashionable and later became a speciality of its own among
Muslim authors. Muslim pharmacists began with the Materia Medica of
Dioscoriades, followed by knowledge absorbed from India, Persia, and
Mediterranean world. Al Biruni (died 1050) produced a book, Kitab al
saydala fi'l tibb (The science of drugs). The Muslim pharmacists gave
Arabic names to those plants or medicines which they came to know for
the first time, and many are still known by their Arabic names. The
work of Dioscoriades remained unchallenged in its authority until Ibn
al Baytar of Malaga, who lived in the middle of the thirteenth century.
After completing his own researches, which included visits to
Byzantium, Greece, Italy and other European regions, Ibn al Baytar
produced his Al Mughni fi al Adwiyah, which he presented to King Salih
al Ayyubi in Cairo. He followed this book with two other works- Jami'
Mufradat al Adwiyah wal Aghdiyah and Mizan al Tabib.
Another great pharmacologist, who was a contemporary of Ibn al

Baytar, was Rashid al Din Ibn al Suri (died 1241), who lived in the
eastern provinces. He was so meticulous in his research that he took
with him an experienced painter and went to the fields and mountains
recording every important species of medicinal plants.
The interest in chemistry was first aroused, according to the Fihrist of

Ibn al Nadim by the Umayyad prince, Khalid b Yazid, who died in
704. He learned and adopted the medicinal preparations of the Greek
School of Alexandria. Ja'far al Sadiq (died 757) learned this Greek
tradition from Khalid. It was Jabir Ibn Hayyan (died 808) who put the
ground firmer for this field. Born in about 721 at Tus in Persia (whence
his by-name of al-Tusi), he led the life of an ascetic Sufi and spent most
of his time at his home in Damascus, where he also had his laboratory.
He contributed so much to chemistry that the discipline was itself
nicknamed 'the craft of Jabir'. Among his written testimonies were Al
Khawass al Kabir (The Great Book of Chemical Properties), Al Ahjar (The
Mineral), Al Sirr Al Maknun (The Secret of the Elements), Al Mawzazin
(Weights and Measures) and Al Mizaj (Chemical Combination).
Jabir built a precise weighing scale which was capable of weighing

________________________________________________________
26
items 6,480 smaller than the ratl (which is approximately one kilogram).
He defined chemical combination as union of the elements together in
small particles too small for the naked eye to see without loss of their
character, as John Dalton was to discover ten centuries before. In
response to Ja'far al Sadiq's wishes, he invented a kind of paper that
resisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night. He invented an
additive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust and
when applied to a textile, would make it water repellent. He was
concerned with the production of steel and even counselled that
chemical laboratories should be located far away from populated places.
It was 'Izz al Din al Jaldaki (died 1360) who first noted the potential
dangerous gases arising out of chemical reactions and proposed the
application of protective masks. He also able to proof that silver can be
separated from gold by dissolving it in nitric acid without affecting the
gold. He emphasized the important role of puryfing suspected water
with means of evaporation and condensation, and not mere filtration.
Among his numerous books were two volumes of over 1,000 pages
each, entitled Nihayah al Talab and Al Taqrib fi Asrar al Tarkib.
With al-Razi, alchemy became more scientific with a more precise

desciptions of apparatus and experiments. The interest of al-Razi
however lies particularly in the practical chemistry. His Sirr al-asrar
(Secretum secretorum) gave for the first time a lucid classification of the
chemical substances and his great merit was that he rejected magical
and astrological practices, while adhering to what could be proved by
experiments. Al Razi's insistence on promoting research work in the
laboratory did not fail to bear fruit in pharmacology, and Abu'l-Mansur
Muwaffaq, a Persian of the tenth century, mentions chemical details
about certain medicaments which show real progress in this field. Facts,
observe with so much care demonstrate, as Holmyard says: 'that a by-
product of alchemy was a steadily increasing body of reliable chemical
knowledge, a trend which Razi did most to establish and for which he
deserves the gratitude of succeeding generations'
1.3.8 ESTABLISHMENT OF LIBRARIES
During this era, the mosques were put at the disposal of scholars. They
________________________________________________________
27
were able to teach not only religious sciences but also related discipline,
and even the profane sciences of the ancients. Gradually the libraries
bequeathed by scholars came to be housed in buildings specially
intended for the purpose, and soon the scholars themselves were
lodged in dwellings reserved for their use.
In 833 al-Ma'mun founded the famous 'House of Wisdom' (Bayt al

Hikma), which was bound to have an important influence on the
transmission of ancient learning to the Islamic world, and to stimulate
a burst of intellectual activity. This academy was reminiscent of the one
which had existed at Gondeshapur. It contained an important library
and was soon enriched with numerous translations.
A later 'Abbasid caliph, al Mu'tadid (died 902) installed in his new

palace lodgings and rooms for all branches of science, and professors
were paid salaries for teaching there. Private individuals followed the
example of the caliphs, among them 'Ali b Yahya known as al-
Munajjim (died 888) who possessed a palace and a library called
Khizanat al-hikma which he placed at the disposal of scholars. The study
of astronomy was being especially favoured there.
In Mosul there exited a Dar al-'ilm with a library, where students were
not only able to work without payment, but were even supplied with
paper. At Shiraz a great Khizanat al-kutub was administered by a
director and his assistant. Yaqut recounts in his Mu'jam al-udaba that at
Rayy a Bayt al-kutb contained more than four hundred camel-loads of
books, catalogued in a Fihrist of ten volumes.
However, it was in Cairo, under the Fatimids that the richest libraries
of Islam were established. Al-Maqrizi describes in his Khitat that a
Khizanat al-kutub was directed by the minister of Caliph al-Mu'izz. It
consisted of forty store-rooms containing books on all branches of
science, 18,000 of which dealt with the 'sciences of the ancients'. But the
library which surpassed all others was the Dar al-hikma founded by the
Caliph al-Hakim in 1005, which contained a reading room and halls of
courses of study. Efficient service was secured by means of paid
librarians, and scholars were given pensions to enable them to pursue
their studies. All the sciences were represented there. Other similar
institutions were founded at Fustat. In the year 1043 a traveller saw a
________________________________________________________
28
library in Cairo containing 6,500 books on astronomy, geometry and

philosophy.
1.3.9 ESTABLISHMENT OF HOSPITALS
Hospitals in Islam initially were institutions inspired by charity for

pious purposes, but they made it possible for medical science to develop
experimentally. These hospitals, called by the Persian name bimaristan,
were designed both to care for the sick and to provide theoretical and
practical medical training. Special buildings were erected, and
considerable funds were assigned to them in waqf.
The first hospital was built by Walid ibn 'Abdul Malik, the Umawi
Caliph, in 706, according to al Maqrizi. One of the famous hospitals was
built by Ahmad ibn Tulun in Cairo in 872. It opened its doors to all
patients whatever the ailments inflicting them. The patients were
divested of clothing, jewellery, and any other personal possessions
carried on the body, and these were kept for him in the hospital safe
until departure from the hospital. Dar al Shifa' Hospital, built in Cairo
in 1284 by Sultan Qalawun, remained in operation up to the Napoleon
invasion of Egypt in 1798, when it was turned into a psychiatric hospital
exclusively. It is still in existence today.
Al Muqtadir built a new hospital in Baghdad in 915 which became

famous because of the medical expertise of its director, Sinan ibn Thabit.
Later in the same century, Baghdad saw the construction of another
great hospital, Al 'Adudi, which had twenty-four resident physicians, a
huge medical library, lecture halls, and hundreds of students from all
corners of the Muslim world. Other important and large hospitals
during this era were al-Kabir al-Nuri in Damascus (which bear the
names of its founder) and al-'Atiq founded by Saladin in Cairo.
Each hospital contained one section for men and another for women.
Initially, each section contained several wards: one for internal diseases,
a second for surgery, a third for ophthalmology and finally a fourth for
orthopaedics. Later, Muslims hospital were divided into those dealing
with either mental or physical diseases, the latter being divided between
contagious and non contagious diseases. In every hospital there was a
________________________________________________________
29
pharmacy under the direction of a head-pharmacist which made up the

prescriptions of the doctors. The director of the hospital was assisted by
the heads of sections, each a specialist in his own branch. Servants of
both sexes watch over the sick, under the supervision of nurses and
administrative staff who received fixed salaries paid out of
endowments.
The physician had complete freedom for his experiments there, and
was able to advocate new treatments. He wrote up the results of his
experiment in special reports, which could be consulted by members of
the public. Physicians gave courses of instruction to their pupils, and,
on the completion of teaching and practical work confirmed by an
examination, granted them ijaza which allowed them to practise
medicine. Several hospitals had libraries, and students used to travel in
pursuit of instruction from celebrated teachers. Spanish sources
mention that a physician of Cadiz established a botanical garden in the
park of the governor, where he cultivated the rare medical plants which
he had brought back from his travels. Even Baghdad counted 869
physicians who presented themselves to the licensing examinations set
up by the government of Caliph al Muqtadir in 931.
The Muslim also invented the ambulant hospital: a hospital carried on

camelback in caravan style complete with beds, food, water, medicines,
operating and isolation rooms, and a crew of doctors, nurses,
attendants, officers and servants. The ambulant hospital travelled from
city to city or village to village, to attend to epidemics and victims of
natural catastrophes.
Hospitals were built, maintained, and operated either at the expense of

government or of perpetual endowments (waqf) by individual donors.
Their services were always free. The resident physicians and their
students were regarded, like all other college professors and students,
as public servants dedicating their time and energy to the pursuit of
knowledge in fulfilment of a major commandment of God.
Ultimately the Muslim scientists surpassed their masters in powers of

observation and care in verification. When studying the Materia Medica
of Dioscorides, for example, they succeeded in identifying, from
observation of nature, the botanical terms which the original translation
________________________________________________________
30
had left obscure. The faith that every disease has its antidote, as
affirmed by the Prophet Mohammad: "Do take medicines for your ills, God
created no ailment but established for it an antidote except old age. When the
antidote is applied, the patient will recover with God's permission", urged the
Muslims to scan the world of minerals, plants and animals in search of
an antidote, which led to the development of a sophisticated science of
pharmacology.
1.3.10 ESTABLISHMENT OF OBSERVATORIES
Observatories were another outstanding contribution of Islam to the

world. Some of the observatories took place under the Umawis. Al
Ma'mun completed one on Mount Qaysun near Damascus, and another
at al Shammasiyyah in Baghdad. Later, Muslim observatories
proliferated throughout the provinces and were responsible for a
number of significant discoveries and measurements. The greatest
observatories during that era was built at Maraghah in 1258, under the
direction of Nasir al Din al Tusi,
Most of the observatories founded by caliphs and princes were

provided with important collections of instruments. Al Battani in
Damascus, for example, made use of astrolabes, tubes, a gnomon
divided into twelve parts, a celestial sphere with five rings (of which he
was perhaps the inventor), parallactic rules, a mural quadrant,
horizontal and vertical solar quadrants. These instruments were of
considerable size-in fact the Arabs enlarged their instrument as much as
possible in order to reduce margin of error.
Other prominent observatories based on their discoveries and precision

of their calculations were those of Ibn al Shatir in Damascus, al Dinawari
in Isfahan, al Biruni at Ghaznah, and Ulug Beg at Samarqand.
1.4 The 'Golden Era' of knowledge and civilization
In summary, after Prophet Muhammad's death in 632, the Muslims

swept out of the Arabian Peninsula and expanded the borders of Islam
east and west. By 711, the Muslims had reached Spain, and they ended
________________________________________________________
31
up dominating the region. They absorbed not just land, but also
scientific knowledge from India and Greek learning, planted centuries
earlier by the armies of Alexander the Great. Muslims translated into
Arabic the treasures of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Archimedes and other
great physicians, philosophers and scientists.
By 711, the Muslims had reached Spain, and they ended up dominating
the region until Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella drove out
the last of them in 1492.
The impact of Islam's discoveries during this period went far beyond
individual innovations like algebra or the establishment of models for
modern hospitals and universities. The spread of Islamic knowledge to
Europe sparked, or at least helped to spark, the Renaissance and
scientific revolution of the 17th century as explicitly written by Sir
Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume in their 1997 classic, 'The Legacy
of Islam.' mentioning "It is highly probable that, but for the Arabs,
modern European civilization would never have arisen at all,".
This was further emphasized by Robert Briffault who wrote in the

'Making of Humanity' in 1938 that "Spain, not Italy, was the cradle of the
rebirth of Europe. After steadily sinking lower and lower into
barbarism, it had reached the darkest depths of ignorance and
degradation when cities of the Saracenic world, Baghdad, Cairo,
Cordoba, and Toledo, were growing centers of civilization and
intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose which was to
grow into a new phase of human evolution."
History has bear witnessed the truth of these events and it is very
important for the Muslims and non-Muslims to know and appreciate
those chronological achievements, not just as an academic references to
the future events to come but to understand the positive implications
the Muslim's scientific re-emergence would be to the humanity.
2 The Stagnation
Period of
Muslim
Scientific
Achievements
________________________________________________________
33
THE STAGNATION PERIOD OF MUSLIM SCIENTIFIC

ACHIEVEMENTS
2.1 The end of the glorious era
Things started to go awry in the early thirteenth century, when the

Muslim world began to stagnate and Europeans surged ahead. Even
revisionist historians who challenge this date as the time that decline set
in do accept that decline eventually took place. Thus, Marshall
Hodgson -- who argues that the eastern Muslim world flourished until
the sixteenth century, when "the Muslim people, taken collectively,
were at the peak of their power" -- acknowledges that by the end of the
eighteenth century, Muslims "were prostrate."
Whatever its timing, the decline in science has been attributed to many
factors, including the erosion of large-scale agriculture and irrigation
systems, the Mongol and other Central Asian invasions, political
instability, and the rise of religious intolerance.
2.2 Factors contributing to the stagnation
2.2.1 Break-up of the Muslims empires
Political stability had played an important factor in assuring the

continuity of the Muslim scientific dominancy. History bear witnesses
that the caliphate had never been really free from continuous assault,
where its political stability was strongly challenged.
The Crusaders has been in continuous confrontation with the Muslims

from the start. As the Muslims began to feel comfortable with their
worldly achievements and great empire, Christianity woke up in
Europe. It gathers its troop and pushed on the Muslims eastern state of
Africa and Asia. Nine crusades, one after the other was instigated and
these consisted of the best riders and kings and were fully armed. At
last these invasions and powers gained such preponderance that they
successfully established a Christian government in Jerusalem and
________________________________________________________
34
began to threaten the Islamic nations. They began to invade the most
powerful Islamic country at that time, Egypt. The Caliphate had their
first bitter taste of their negligent of their faith.
Fortunately for the Muslims, under the leadership of Sultan Salahuddin

al-Ayubi (1137/1138-1193), Egypt succeeds in her efforts collecting and
uniting the small defeated states and offered their sacrifices. Salah al-
Din Yusuf b Ayyub who became known in the West as Saladin was a
Khurdish warrior reknown for his victories over the Crusades and as a
founder of the Ayyubid dynasty in Eqypt, Syria and northern Iraq.
Salahuddin defeated the Crusader at the Horns of Hattin/Hutain (4th
July 1187) in Northern Palestine and this led to Muslim re-conquest of
Jerusalem and the near elimination of the Franks in Levant.
Salahuddin's career began in the armies of Nur al Din b Zangi, ruler of

Aleppo and Damascus, and himself a famous counter Crusader.
Salahuddin went to Egypt in early 1169 in a contingent of Nur al Din's
army sent to assist the Fatimid Caliphate, which in late 1168 had been
attacked by Crusader forces. Salahuddin subsequently removed the
Fatimids from power, and made himself ruler in Egypt, subservient to
Nur al Din. Upon the latter's death in 1174, Salahuddin moved against
Nur al Din heirs and began to bring the Muslim cities of Syria under his
command. He then used the combined resources of Egypt and Syria to
attack the Crusaders. By forcibly uniting Muslim territories prior to
assaulting the Franks, he followed the pattern of Nur al Din and Zangi.
In the 13th century, The Tartars under Genghis Khan and his successors
start to establish the most extensive continuous land empire known to
history. They invaded the Khwarazm-Shah's empire in 1216-1223 and
sacked the great cities of Khurasan, Harat and Nishapur. The effect of
the Mongolian invasion on Persian agriculture which was heavily
dependent on irrigation by means of underground water was
disastrous. They proceeded forward like a violent flood and descended
on the Islamic state like lightning. They uprooted it and massacred the
Muslims and reached Baghdad in 1258, the Abbasid capital and overran
it.
In this way, the Islamic government was broken up and for the first time
the string of Caliphate was snapped and the nation got distributed in to
________________________________________________________
35
small states. As a result, the 'Abbasid Caliphate had to move their

capital to Cairo. It was again a bitter lesson for the Muslims that make
them woke up to face the reality. Under the leadership of Zahir Babrus,
the Muslims faced the Tartars and threw them back very gracefully.
The victory of the Muslims at 'Ayn Jalut (Spring of Goliath, a village
near Nazareth in Israel) in 1260 was a memorable one. The Mongols of
the Hulegu, led by the Christian Turk Kitbuga Noyon were defeated by
the Mamluks of Sultan Qutuz, led by the future Mamluk Sultan,
Barbars I. The Arabic chronicles regard the battle as a decisive victory,
which save the Syro-Eqyptian Empire and indeed Islam itself from the
Mongol menace.
Once again the Caliphate is re-established and a vast, strong and

powerful Islamic state comes into being, which unites all the Muslims,
and gather them under its flag. The next period was the era of the
Ottoman Empire. Interestingly, only one family reigned over the
Ottoman Empire for seven centuries, and, unlike most dynasties, they
ruled in an unbroken line, thirty-six of them altogether, from the 13th
century until the 20th century. Yes there were abdications and
depositions but never a hiatus. They were never overthrown by a
foreign power and no usurper ever gained the throne. The Western
world called them Ottoman, but their Turkish name is Osmanli, taken
from the first ruler of the Ottoman state, Osman.
Then with a very great courage, it waged war against Crusaders, in the
latter's home and conquered the Byzantine capital, Constantinople in
1453. Its authority further extends to Vienna city in the Central Europe.
Under Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottomans rebuilt the devastated
city of Constantinople into the fabulously wealthy capital they renamed
Istanbul, with large warehouses, the Covered Bazaar, Topkapi Palace,
and several mosque complexes.
Unfortunately, again the Islamic state under the flag of the Usmanis got
contented with its authority. Such was the intoxication of tranquillity
and contentment that it did not care as to what happening around it.
The European, which in the west was connected to Spain and in the east
was contiguous to the Islamic realm by the means of the crusades, did
not allow the opportunity to slip. In the land of Gaule, it began to rally
under the English flag and gathered strength. It was successful in
________________________________________________________
36
checking the flood of Western Islamic wars. It spread the net of its
conspiracies in the files of the Spanish Muslims and was successful in
mutually rousing them against one another, which in the end under the
Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella , in 1492 the last of them was
threw across the sea on the shores of Africa. A strong Spanish
government was established there. In this way, Europe continued to
unite and strengthened itself.
Despite the defeat in Spain, the Ottoman is yet to reach it ultimatum. It

was Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent however, who brought the
Ottoman Empire to its zenith. The fourth Ottoman sultan to reign, from
1520 until 1566, he presided over the most powerful state in the world.
A remarkable military strategist, he more than doubled the Ottoman
land holdings he inherited from his father. He also brought a profusion
of elegant mosques, baths, schools, fountains, and gardens to Istanbul.
A virtual renaissance occurred in literature, the arts, the sciences, and he
set a new standard of jurisprudence. Upon Süleyman's demise, the
gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire began.
The scientific revolution in Europe in the 16th century led to mass

discoveries and 'invasion' of new lands. The Spain succeeded to get hold
of America while India's sea route came to light through the efforts of
Portugal. These materials and ideological invasion, in the name of
reformation and industrialization successfully penetrated the countries
under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Caliphate. One after the other went
out of hand into the clutches of Europe. The last decision of this tussle
was made clear by the First World War (1914-1918) which ended with
the defeat of Turkey and her allies.Britain, France and under their
protection Italy, got full opportunity to capture this great and precious
heritage of the Muslim nation under the name of various excuses called
'mandate', 'subjugation', 'colonialism' or 'guardianship'.
Muslims lands were divided amongst themselves: Morocco, Algiers,

Tunis and Syria became the colonies of France; Tripoli and Barqa were
the colony of Italy; Egypt, Sudan, Iraq and India were directly under
British; Turkistan and its neighbouring states were Russian colonies,
which were badly taken into task by the Bolsheviks. The remaining
parts of Arabia, comprising of small states and whose rulers remained
under the supervision of British embassies came into solemn
________________________________________________________
37
agreements with the Emperor of the Peninsular that they would help in
getting Arabia free and for the consolidation of Arabian Caliphate.
Finally, in 1924, Mustapha Kemal Ataturk abolished the Muslim
caliphate and founded the Republic of Turkey.
In this way, Europe was fully victorious in its political design. It

succeeded in its resolve to shatter the Muslim Empire to pieces, to
uproot the Muslim Commonwealth and to have its name removed from
the list of influential governments.
2.2.2 Partisanship, political differences and power politics
Islam had clearly prohibited such a tendency from the start. It had
forewarned that partisanship, desire of power and political agitation eat
up a nation, as termite eats up wood and shatters the chandelier of
nations and governments: "And do not quarrel amongst yourselves in order
that you may not become timid and forfeit your prestige. And be patient. No
doubt Allah is with those who are patient" (8: 46).
One of the important milestones in Islamic history is the Battle of Siffin.

While some of the religious scholars regard the decisions taken by both
parties were a form of ijtihad, undoubtedly, lot of subsequent political
events has aroused from that particular incident.
There were two major factors leading to partisanship and power

politics during this era. The weaknesses of the Muslim themselves was
the first contributing factor. As the empire expanded, the
administration load increased. The appointment of the administrators
became less stringent to accommodate the demand. Some of them had
their own materialistic agenda, abusing power and public funds. The
level of faith and respect to the Caliph deteriorated, sometimes initiated
by the conduct of the caliph themselves. The essence of amana (trust) of
God assigned for the Caliphate was not fulfilled and as consequence,
the nations of the conquered lands were not given the true picture of
Islam as it should be and of no support value for the stability of the
empire. This enhanced the second factor to come in, the intelligent
enemy of the Muslim empire. They penetrated them gracefully and
spread the net of its conspiracies in the files of the Spanish Muslims and
________________________________________________________
38
were successful in mutually rousing them against one another. They

brought into the Muslim nations the narrow-minded concept of
tribalism, patriotism and nationalism which divide the nation into
different groups and parties. This further led to mutual conflict, mutual
enmity and envy, abuses and disparagement, rumours, hearsay and
conspiracies ending with civil wars. They take advantage of the
selfishness, self interest, temptations and personal consideration which
has became the prime motivating factor in the weak Muslims to fan the
flames of hatred, enmity and unites people for the sake their patriotic
grouping.
Islam had never put an end to the sentiments of racial, tribal or national
patriotism. The Prophet eyes were filled with tears, when he heard the
praise of Mecca from Aseel, due to eagerness and love and he said to
Aseel 'Let the hearts gain peace'.
Islam has always seen patriotism in its elevated and noble sense. As
long the objective of the respective patriotisms is to produce the
generation who are proud of the faithfulness and courage of their
ancestors and want to determine the continuity of this honoured and
blessed traits in their predecessor, and as long they understand that this
patriotism will not lead to the usurpation of the right of others,
oppression on them, burning desire to gulp down all others, it is
doubtlessly commendable and well encouraged in Islam.
There were some arguments on the non-effectiveness of the Caliphate

system itself. Without doubt the Muslims had observed the ups and
downs of the Caliphate and it was directly related to the individual held
responsible and the nation or community involved. The caliphate
system itself is of great benefit for the humanity, provided that it is
practice in the real Islamic understanding and this has been proven by
its credibility to stand strong for at least 700 years after the prophet hood
of Mohammad. The persons and community involved is a major
determinant of the success of the caliphate system.
2.2.3 Religious and theological differences
Islam had always encouraged healthy discussion on the matter of daily

________________________________________________________
39
living. The Muslims were asked to use the most precious faculty given,
the ability to think to optimize the resources and to solve approaching
problems in their life. However these discussions should be well
guided and in case of indifferences, they should go back to the ultimate
source of consultation, the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet.
We know that difference in small matters and minor commandments of

the religion is unavoidable. Sagacity differs, the power of individual
perceptions differs and there is lot of difference in the grasp of
arguments. This is even the temperament of Islam which desires that it
should be always live firmly and eternally. It should never recede back,
but always continue along with the times. This is why the religion of
Islam is very soft, elastic and easy. There is not a little frigidity or
harshness in it.
Despite that, this was not the case during that era. The differences crept
up and there were a leaning toward dead and lifeless words and
spiritless term. The books of Allah and the Traditions of the Holy
Prophet were neglected. One's own views and opinions were insisted
on unduly leading to argumentations and debates. As the Prophet
Mohammad had said: "No nation went astray after following guidance,
unless it got entangled in the calamity of misguided argumentation"
2.2.4 The intoxicants of pleasures and enjoyment.
The Muslims drowned themselves in the intoxicants of pleasures and

enjoyments. Sensual gratification and delicacies of mouth and taste
became their aim of life. Many of the Muslim rulers went into extreme
in search of pleasure. They have left behind such examples or
profligacy, as do not find and equal amongst the others. They were not
unaware of the following injunction of Allah: "And when we intend to
destroy a locality,We order its rich and wealthy people. They make
transgressions in it. Thus the decision of punishment is justified and We make
it topsy turvy" (17: 16)
2.2.5 The governmental ruling by the non Arabs

________________________________________________________
40
It has been argued that the transition of the leaderships either at the
local administrative level or even at the governmental level to the non-
Arabic speaking Muslims contribute to the weakening of the Islamic
empire and subsequent downfall of science. This includes the political
ruling by the Iranians or the Turks. Even though this is debatable, some
authors strongly concern on their inability to master the Arabic
language, which obviously a disadvantage in understanding the Holy
Qur'an.
2.2.6 Negligence of practical knowledge and world realities.
The Muslims intellectual started to leave aside practical knowledge and

world realities. They began to waste their lives and valuable energies on
profound speculative philosophies and unwieldy abstract arts, although
Islam kept persuading them to think over this world, to find out the
secrets of life and to study the Nature and the Kingdom of Allah. There
were continuous occasions where the theologian exhausted their time
and effort to even arguing in non practical thing and some even beyond
their given faculty such as whether the Qur'an is a creature or not. On
the other hand some of them used the tools of the philosophers to
undermine philosophical and scientific inquiry. This had not only
brought a conflict between the philosophers and the scientists but had
initiated the extremist in both groups which only hampered the
scientific progression.
2.2.7 Internal Conflict among scholars
In 700 CE a movement of Muslim scientists and scholars, known as

Mutazillites, who believed that both the mysteries of nature and the
religious belief could be explained and expressed in terms of human
reason, provoked the emergence of a counter-movement called the
Asharites who emerged in 900 CE. They contested the over-zealous use
of reason and condemned bidah or innovation in religious belief. In the
end the Asharites won but gave rise to taqlid - the tyrannical attitude to
passive acceptance. When taqlid was accepted as the dominant
paradigm, Islamic science and technology truly became a matter of
history and the practice of Islamic science and technology disappeared.
________________________________________________________
41
2.2.8 High esteem and unduly proud rulers
At the peak of the glorious era, the Muslims especially their rulers had
too high an esteem of their power and achievements. They became
unduly proud of their authority, and became negligent of the
resentment, heart-burning and grudge of the defeated nations, while
the Qur'an had insisted on their ever remaining wide-awake, and
always avoid carelessness.
The Muslims failed to learn the social and physical development

happening around them especially in Europe. In Bernard Lewis's
phrasing, "The Renaissance, Reformation, even the Scientific
Revolution and the Enlightenment, passed unnoticed in the Muslim
World." Instead, Muslims keep on relying on religious minorities
(Armenians, Greeks and Jews) as intermediaries; they served as court
physicians, translators, and in other key posts. Once known as a
knowledge-thirst nations, the Muslim world seem contented with their
accomplishment and start to become lazy and equally satisfied with just
a limited transfer of science and technology from their neighbourhood.
2.2.9 The rise of European economic, political and cultural

imperialism.
The European nations which during the crusades in the East and in
Spain in the west were closed to the Muslims, due to their contacts with
Muslim neighbours, Muslim nations and Islam itself, did not only take
the lesson of political unity and national sense from the contact, but also
acquired the benefit of mental awakening and tremendous wisdom.
They learnt many arts and gained a very vast knowledge, and made
enormous literary progress, which is a natural reaction for any nations
who felt inferior or threatened of conquest over them.
The Church fought out this new tendency with its full might, and began
to trouble the standard bearers of progress that is the literates and the
learned ones. The investigation departments belaboured them severely
and instigated the governments and organizations against them. But all
these efforts proved abortive. The oppression by the church could not
subdue the realities of knowledge and discoveries and the progress of
________________________________________________________
42
knowledge emerged victorious from this fight. The governments too

received an incentive from it and it stood up against the church and
ultimately defeated it. In this way Europe was free from the over
lordship of the Church and the clerical staff took refuge in the
monasteries and churches. Pope was confined to a small state known as
Vatican and the activities of the religious people got confined to a very
narrow circle, to think beyond which was a crime for them.
Thus, there was an open and vast atmosphere of knowledge and

wisdom before the people of Europe and a broad field of research and
discovery. The establishment of a strong Spanish government further
strengthened the European dominancy. They became very competitive
in searching new knowledge throughout the world and kept
discovering countries. Thus the discovery of America was the
achievement of Spain and India's sea route came to light through the
effort of Portugal. Thus, progress and reform continued to go ahead and
many reformers were born. Their attention remained concentrated on
temporal arts and useful inventions.
The industrial and mechanical progress further accelerated the speed of

discoveries. Many countries were in its circle of control and the entire
world started to lean towards the western nation. Simultaneously, the
resources began to move towards them. It was the flood of wealth and
riches which was moving from all sides. However, this civilization
opened its eyes, in the lap of materialism, which nurtured it and in
whose cradle it was reared. The logical result of this was that religion
was thrown overboard from most walks of collective life, specially the
government offices and schools. The materialistic mind and
materialistic point of view got to the forefront and it became a measure
and standard for everything. Although the new culture, opened the
gateways of knowledge and wisdom, brought tremendous wealth and
grandeur and raised the standards of its power and authority on earth,
it seems lack the element of tranquillity and virtue.
2.2.10 Deception of Western achievements and values
The Muslim nations were later deceived by the flattering and fawning
advancement and achievement of the Western counterpart. They
________________________________________________________
43
became enamoured of their outward appearance and their activities,

and starts to imitate them without evaluating the profit or loss resulting
from this blind imitation. Scientific development was based and
referred to the westernized value, which in majority of the cases
weighing towards materialism.
2.3 The critical era of Islamic science
Strolling back the historical lane of this era, one must come back to the
important question. What really happened to the Islamic or the Arabic
science during this period of political turmoil and socio-economic
depreciation? Is the grand heritage of scientific knowledge had totally
diminished from the hand of the Muslim nation or it is still hidden
somewhere in the cloud of ignorance and demoralised nature of the
Muslim nation?
It is quite unfair to totally agree with the connotation that the scientific
civilization in the Muslim world were at the downfall. The following
facts might justify this ambitious statement.
The tremendous amount of new material science inventions and the

expansion of western empire if not colonization, had introduced
important consequence to the Arabic science. First, the Muslim
scientists, with their socio-politic and economic disadvantage situation
could not keep in pace with the rapid progression of western scientific
development. As a result any achievement in the Muslim world is
relatively insignificant globally. It has become diluted in the ocean of
scientific discoveries and directly masks the Muslim scientific
contribution.
Furthermore, it had been proven that in some cases the integrity and
credibility of Muslim scientist either their inventions or their books, still
hold the test of time. They were still being used as major references
even after the scientific revolution in the Western world. Unfortunately,
they were not given the appropriate recognition in the modern
historical education for obvious reasons, in particular to undermine the
Muslim great ancestral reputation if not to wash it out from the mind of
the future generation. In order to do full justice to the importance of
________________________________________________________
44
their work, contemporary Western scientists must put into their

historical context those who were, in former times, the teachers of their
ancestors.
Lastly, but not the least important, the future of the current scientific
invention and civilization is still uncertain. As mentioned earlier,
science is only a tool in explaining, answering and improving the
phenomenal of life, and it is up to the carpenter to manoeuvre its
destiny. Here is where the issue of virtue and morality are of essential
in producing the beneficial outcome of science. Materialistic scientific
civilization neglecting the essence of humanity not only will tarnish the
image of science itself but disastrously will lead to the downfall of the
civilization itself. Industrial revolution has produce the capitalist
ideology which in the begin seems attractive enough for the developing
nations with its investment capitalism However, as time past and its
materialistic attitude become more obvious, the practice of plundering
capitalism became the name of the game.
The Current 3
State of
Muslim
Scientist
________________________________________________________
46
THE CURRENT STATE OF MUSLIM SCIENTIST
3.1 Science in Muslim world during the recent centuries
3.1.1 The scientific development in the Muslim world post-

Renaissance
The massive scientific revolution in the 16th century Europe has

transformed the world both intellectually and materially. Traditional
belief systems were challenged by the paradigm of the new culture
based on experimentation, prediction, quantification, and control.
Power relations between countries became increasingly defined by their
mastery of technology, ultimately leading to the colonization by
European nations of much Islamic world.
The combination of the Enlightenment and French Revolution had

made European science accessible to the Muslims, hence the revival of
science in the Muslim world. The former detached science from
Christianity, thereby making it palatable to Muslims. The latter, and
especially Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, with its entourage of
scholars and supplementary mission of knowledge, imposed European
power on and brought European science to a Muslim people. Within
years, some rulers led by Muhammad Àli of Egypt, recruited European
technicians and sent students to Europe.
An extraordinarily rapid diffusion of Western technologies throughout

most of the Middle East took place in the period 1850-1914. With the
approval of local elites, European colonial authorities imposed public-
health measures to contain cholera, malaria, and other contagious
diseases. The Suez Canal opened in 1869, reduced shipping time and
distance and generated new trade. Railways, telegraphs, steamships
and steam engines, automobiles, and telephones all appeared. Much of
this technology transfer took the form of Middle Eastern governments'
granting monopoly concessions to European firms. Muslim rulers had
little concern about developing indigenous capabilities in technology
adaptation, design, or maintenance.
________________________________________________________
47
Science was an afterthought, at best embedded in scientific technologies

but not transferred explicitly as knowledge or method. Instead,
members of minority communities continued to intermediate by
providing clerical and skilled labour. Minorities also helped to establish
the first Western education institutions in the region, such as the Syrian
Protestant College in Beirut (founded in 1866) and the Jesuits' St.
Joseph's College (founded in 1875). These schools and others in
Istanbul, Tunis, Tehran, Algiers, and elsewhere primarily served
minority communities and Europeans, though some elite Muslims also
attended. Middle Eastern medical schools quickly accepted and taught
the medical discoveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others concerning
microbes and bacteria. The schools contributed to the translation and
publication in Arabic of major scientific works and to the organization
of the first scientific societies in the region. Such societies were founded
in Beirut, Cairo, Damascus, and Istanbul in the late nineteenth century,
often sponsoring journals that featured translations. Thus, Charles
Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, was translated in
Arabic journals by 1876, though not in book form until 1918.
Throughout this period, Muslim intellectuals presented minimal
resistance to the diffusion of Western scientific ideas. For example, the
major opposition to Darwinian ideas of evolution came not from
Muslim scholars but from Eastern-rite Christians.
Between the year 1914-1945, Muslims slowly showed, even often in

frustration, attempt to strengthen indigenous science against the
imported variety. New universities with an emphasis on engineering
and medicine sprang up in Egypt, Turkey, Syria, and the Sudan. During
the depression years, however, reduced employment for graduates and
increased discontent over the dominant role of expatriates and
minorities constrained science and technology.
The nationalist politicians who arose after World War I mainly

concentrated on gaining political independence; science and technology
hardly concerned them. The one exception was Turkey, which under
Kemal Mustafa Atatürk after 1922 launched an ambitious program of
industrialization and an expansion of engineering education.
Elsewhere -in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Iran- politicians made only
faltering attempts at industrialization to serve small local markets.
Turnkey, off-the-shelf projects prevailed, especially in engineering. This
________________________________________________________
48
meant that few scientific inputs existed, most technologies were

imported, maintenance was a persistent problem, and limited shop-
floor learning took place. Only in the petroleum industry, which after
1914 took on major proportions in Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, did the
pattern differ, for multinational firms subcontracted locally such tasks
as maintenance engineering and geological surveying.
Colonization, internal cultural beliefs, combined with global inequities

in the distribution of power and wealth, may be an important factor in
explaining the disproportionately small representation in science and
technology of Muslims, who constitutes about 20 percent of the world's
population.
Despite the period of 'hibernation', history has witnessed enormous

attempts by the Muslims to re-instil the spirit of scientific development
in the community. The following are worth of mentioning, despite the
ultimate aim in some of the scientific and industrial movement in the
Muslim countries is still questionable and in some instances even
challenged the fundamental Islamic norms.
3.1.2 Development in Arabic-African continent
In Egypt, following the Napoleonic occupation, Muhammad 'Ali (1769-

1849) seized state power and rule from 1805 through 1848. An Albanian
officer in the Ottoman army, he made Egypt virtually independent of
Istanbul and who attempted a major modernisation of the country.
Pasha Muhammad Ali who came to power in 1805 almost single-

handedly dragged the backward province into the modern world. But
the brutality of his method showed how difficult it was to modernise at
such breakneck speed. He massacred the political opposition -
thousands of peasants are said to have died in the conscripted labour
bands that improved Egypt's irrigation and water-communications. To
secularise the country, Muhammad Ali simply confiscated much
religiously endowed property, systematically marginalised the ulama,
and divested them of any shred of power. As a result, the ulama, of who
had experienced modernity as a shocking assault, became even more
insular, and closed their minds against the new world that was coming
________________________________________________________
49
into being in Egypt. The history of Egypt for the first half of the 19th
century is virtually the history of Pasha Muhammad Ali who was also
known as the founder of modern Egypt.
He founded the first school of engineering in 1816, the first school of

medicine 1821 and also the first Arabic newspaper in 1828.During this
period he made bold attempts to transfer French and British technology
into the country, relying principally on European expatriates. He
introduced the first printing press - a device initially condemned by
some of the ulama for having a belt of pigskin. This resistance was
overcome, and the Bulaq press in Cairo published eighty-one Arabic
books on science between 1821 and 1850.
Technology for irrigation, textile manufacturing, surveying,

prospecting and mining for coal and iron, and military hardware
received high priority. Major earthmoving and civil engineering
projects were begun. Even more significantly, technical schools with
foreign teachers were established with the aim of generating
manpower. More than four thousand students were sent to Europe to
study various branches of science, including military tactics. However,
the success of Muhammad 'Ali's industrialization policies was mixed.
The quality of domestic products such as textiles was poor. Technical
schools provided insufficient exposure to the theoretical science and
failed to create a base technicians or engineers of sufficiently higher
calibre. After Muhammad 'Ali's death in 1849 these schools were closed
down under the rule of Kjedive 'Abbas and Khedive Sa'id, and scientific
momentum ground to a halt.
In Oman, Sultan Sa'id ibn Sultan (1806-1856) was notable for his interest
in acquiring European technology. He made numerous attempts to
have sugar refineries installed in Zanzibar, an Omani possession, as
well as unsuccessful attempts at shipbuilding. Similarly in Algeria,
Amir 'Abd al-Qadir, the ruler between1832-1847, engaged various
experts to build small ordnance factories and appears to have
understood the importance of technology for progress.
In perhaps the most influential modernist effort vis-à-vis science, the

Egyptian Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905) developed a belief system
based on reason. He argued that "religion must be accounted as a friend to
________________________________________________________
50
science, pushing man to investigate the secrets of existence, summoning him to

respect the established truths and to depend on them in his moral life and
conduct." A loyal disciple of Jamal al-Din al Afghani, he was born in a
village in Gharbiyya province, Egypt and educated at the Ahmadi
mosque in Tanta and at Al Azhar University. Despite his interest in
philosophy and sufism, which can be witnessed by his best known work
in theology, 'Risalat al Tawhid'(Treatise of Unity) published in 1897, his
effort to reconcile Islam with modernization was well recognised. He
and his well known disciple, Muhammad Rashid Rida advocated
reforming Islam by restoring it to its original condition, modernizing the
Arabic language and upholding people's right in relation with their
rulers. Muhammad Abduh remains a towering figure in Eqypts
intellectual history.
3.1.3 Development under the Turkish Ottomans Caliphate
The Turkish Ottomans established an extensive and magnificent empire

in the sixteenth century and soon recognized the utility of military
technology, particularly cannons, which they readily borrowed from the
West. Strong religious taboos, however, prevented the use of such
innovations as the printing press or public clocks. Travellers to Turkey
in this period remarked on the lack of interest in matters of science and
learning.
Sweeping changes in civil administration and education came with

Sultan Selim III (1761-1808), the most radical of the Ottoman reformers.
Selim established a new military corps armed and organized in the most
modern European techniques of warfare. Gun-founding was
introduced, printing presses were set up, and the works of Western
authors were translated into Turkish. To sustain the modern army, the
subjects of algebra, trigonometry, mechanics, ballastics and metallurgy
were introduced into the teaching curriculum. Like Muhammad 'Ali,
Selim had no choice but to import teachers from Europe for these
subjects. The importance of theoretical science as a basis for continued
development appears not to be recognized.
The major impetus to the scientific development came after the

revolution in 1924, brought about by Mustafa Kemal Atartuk (1881-
________________________________________________________
51
1938) at the expense of introduction of secularism in Turkey. Before this

education had been limited to the cities and controlled by religious
authorities, but after the secularization of Turkey, control was taken
over by the state and curricula revised to include modern science,
mathematics, world history, and other secular subjects. Fortunately, 80
years after the revolution, the light of Islam is glaring again in Turkey,
and despite the label 'sickman of Europe', Turkey today among the
Muslim countries, is the leader and the most advance of scientific
research and in terms of the quality of its universities.
3.1.4 Development in Indian subcontinent
The modern scientific ideas and techniques came in the wake of the
English conquest. After the banishment of the last Mughal emperor,
Bahadur Shah Zafar, in 1857, the English consolidated their rule and
introduced modern education. A combination of shame, pride,
defiance, and conservatism led Muslims to resist Western learning.
Consequently, Muslims wre at a substantial disadvantage relative to
Hindus, for example between 1876-1877 and 1885-1886, 51 Muslims and
1,338 Hindus took the B.A degree at Calcutta.
The resistance of Muslims of the subcontinent to modern ideas

motivated Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) to become a forceful
proponent of modern science and thought. He devoted much of his life
to convincing Muslims in India "that western scientific thought was not
antithetical to Islam." He reinterpreted the Qur'an to find passages
consistent with reason and nature, and insisted that "Muslims have in
the Koran the source of a rational religion attuned to modern man's
scientific interests." He was convinced that the subjugation of Muslims
to the west was a result of their scientific backwardness, and that in turn
was a consequence of the dominance of superstitious beliefs and of
rejection of reason in favour of blind obedience to the tradition. He
therefore set about the monumental task of reinterpreting Muslim
theology, making it compatible with post-renaissance scientific ideas.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Aligarh Muslim University, which
provided Muslims of the subcontinent a unique opportunity for higher
education. His articles in the periodical Tahzib al-akhlaq, which included
translations and explanations of scientific tracts as well his
________________________________________________________
52
interpretations of religious issues, were highly influential among the

Muslims.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897), also a supporter of Western science

and modern ideas, was a determined anti-imperialist who inspired
Muslims in Turkey, Egypt, Iran and India. He was of belief that Islam
encouraged rational thought and discouraged blind imitation. In 1870,
because of the pressure from the clergy, he was expelled from Istanbul
for advocating the setting up of a Dar al- Funun, a new university
devoted to the teaching of modern science. He is known for his vitriolic
critism of those ulama' who opposed modern ideas and science.
3.1.5 Progression after 1945
In the aftermath of World War II, for the first time, a perceived need for
indigenous science and technology spread in the Muslim world. Such
events as the creation of Pakistan and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war made
Muslims very acutely aware of their deficiencies in science and
technology. The attainment of independence fostered a technological
(but not a scientific) nationalism. States took responsibility for
managing technology as an instrument of national power and made
relatively ample resources available for technology (though, again, not
science).
More than sixty new universities and technical schools opened during
this period in the Arabic-speaking countries alone. Science and
engineering programs received the most resources and so attracted the
finest students; further, they have grown to the point that hundreds of
thousands of students now graduate annually in the Muslim world. In
addition, several hundred thousand Muslim students have since the
1950s studied science and engineering in the West, the former Soviet
Union, India, and elsewhere, and a majority have returned home.
Trouble is, these results have been more impressive quantitatively than
qualitatively.
The implementation of science and technology policy takes place at the

national, not regional, level during this period. Most governments have
established councils to oversee science and technology, drafted some
________________________________________________________
53
sort of national plan, and made an attempt at implementation. National

science policies vary widely. Turkey has achieved the most research
cooperation between the public and private sectors, especially in
hydrology, textiles, and agriculture. Egypt has a cumbersome,
centralized research bureaucracy and policy with little diffusion or
practical results. Pakistan pursues a comprehensive, government-
directed research effort with a priority for nuclear energy and other
highly centralized projects, but implementation has been slow and
expensive. Malaysia has a sophisticated applied-research policy
focused on getting local private investors to work together to expand
the export of electronic items. Indonesia has opted for a high-tech
policy based on a national aerospace industry with high-cost risks.
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates have poured vast
amounts of money into science and technology. But the research output
has not matched the state-of-the-art facilities. The prevailing mentality
continues to be that of buying science and technology rather than
producing it. Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia each operate its own
modest version of French-style centralized research policies but their
lack of linkages to the private sector or ability to diffuse results limits
their productivity. Iran and Iraq concentrate on petroleum and
weapons research to the detriment of other sectors. Other countries,
such as the Sudan, Yemen, or the newly independent Central Asian
republics, lack a critical mass of researchers or have experienced
extensive emigration, or both. Political repression has crippled science
in Afghanistan, Libya, and Syria.
Fundamentalist governments in Iran and the Sudan suffered the

emigration of so many scientists and engineers abroad. This problem in
Iran, coupled with the devastating effects of the war with Iraq, had led
the authorities to concentrate more towards nurturing the remaining
research community. Indeed, the priority to reconstruct the war-
damaged petroleum and petrochemical industries has dictated
generous treatment of scientists and engineers. The science curriculum
in the schools and universities has been largely retained along pre-1979
lines. Iranian scientists have preserved international contacts; even
Abdus Salam, the Pakistan particle physicist and the only Muslim
Nobel Prize winner in physic, has visited Iran.
________________________________________________________
54
Sudan has experienced one of the most severe instances of brain-drain

anywhere in the world. It appears that a half-million Sudanese
technicians and professionals have emigrated, primarily to Saudi Arabia
and the Persian Gulf, since 1960. Scientists, engineers, and physicians
have left, primarily to the Persian Gulf countries. The Sudanese
government that came to power in 1989 has been concerned to slow
down this exodus of talent and to retrieve what remains of Sudanese
scientific and technological capabilities. Hasan at-Turabi, philosopher-
theologian of the regime, envisions a moral, democratic, Islamic state
with ample room for research.Unfortunately, enormous internal
problems has hampered the progress of science there.
Nor do fundamentalist movements in opposition aspire to Islamize

science. Movements in Algeria and Tunisia, for example, demand the
replacement of French with Arabic at all educational levels, but their
objectives are political and cultural rather than anti-scientific. In
Pakistan, due to internal political pressures and the particularly
influential role of the mullahs (clergy), the government of Zia-ul Haq in
1987 introduced fundamentalist doctrines in the teaching of science at
all levels, from primary schools to universities.
3.1.6 Why does the Muslim still lag behind in science
Aaron Segal, in 1976 concluded that 'After nearly fifty years of would-be
institution-building, the Muslim world has failed to provide a satisfactory home
for science'. He attributed the low level of achievement was due to
cumulative effect of multiple factors, and not from a single dominant
cause.
Islam, according to him, even though not the key factor, contributes to
the Muslim world's lagging behind in science insofar as its tenets have
not satisfactorily been reconciled with those of science. Islam's most
deleterious effect may be to remove most Muslims from direct contact
with science. Except for a brief exposure in school, there is little science
in Islamic popular culture.
Fortunately, this perception of Islam can easily be argued as we had

explicitly described earlier, in so far the completeness of Islam is
________________________________________________________
55
concerned and its openness to scientific discovery .It is pretty immature

to blame Islam based on the act of some deviated theologians, scholars
or even scientists.
Nevertheless, it is important to pay attention to the rest of his

constructive comments at that time, which rather true and of benefit for
the progress of the Muslims in science. Basically it can be divided into
four groups:
a. Education
Language still forms a barrier not only to science but to education

generally. The fact that an estimated 80 percent of the world's scientific
literature appearing first in English, the literature in Arabic, Persian,
Urdu, and other languages is inadequate for teaching students as well
as researchers.
Ineffective science education was also obvious at all level, primary,

secondary and higher institutions. There is too much rote learning and
emphasize was given to teaching instead of research. Overcrowded,
under-funded, and turbulent universities have been unable to protect
space and resources for research.
b. Government
The Muslim governments lack of accountability and inability to diffuse

scientific research in state-owned corporations, as the case in Algeria
and Syria. This has led to wasted sources. At the same time industrial
import substitution often continues to rely on turnkey projects and
foreign maintenance. Multinational firms active in the respective region
prefer to conduct research at European or North American sites. Except
for Algeria, Iran, and Iraq, state oil companies are more managers of
concessions than operators with strong technical capabilities.
In some countries, authoritarian regimes deny freedom of inquiry or

dissent, cripple professional societies, intimidate universities, and limit
contacts with the outside world. A horrific detailed account by the U.S.
National Academy of Sciences documents the long-term destruction of
the scientific community in Syria by a nationalist regime, not a
________________________________________________________
56
fundamentalist one. Authoritarian regimes also reinforce the prevailing

pattern of relying on technology transfer. Distrustful of their own elites
and institutions, the rulers prefer to buy rather than generate
technology. The oil-exporting countries especially see science and
technology as commodities to be purchased, an outlook that has a
pernicious effect on the development of indigenous research capabilities
c. Research and development
Demographically, the number of research scientists and engineers in the

Muslim world remains well below that of rich countries as well as Latin
America and South and East Asia. The Muslim world suffers an acute
scarcity of career researchers. This resulted from lack of in-house ability
to train young researchers, promotion to bureaucratic post, inadequate
research facilities and lack of incentive to scientific publications. One of
the obvious consequences of this is the brain drain of whatever scientist
left in those countries.
A lack of financial resources and incentives has been a major barrier to

research except in some oil-rich states. Whereas Japan, the United States,
Germany, and other Western countries spend 2 percent or more of their
gross domestic product (GDP) annually on research, no Muslim country
spends more than .50 percent of its (much lower) GDP on research. Even
where funds are available, research-management capabilities are in
short supply. The prospects for stable research funding and effective
institution-building are both poor.
Within government agencies or ministries themselves, applied-research

units, such as agriculture or construction, have often become sinecures
for political appointees with little or no interest or capabilities for
research.
d. International collaboration
Broad-based interdisciplinary professional societies for science and

engineering have been slow to develop in the Muslim world. Regional
cooperation in science and technology has a less promising history in
the Muslim world. It makes eminent sense in principle, for a handful of
countries (like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia) are oil-rich and short of
________________________________________________________
57
researchers, while other countries (Egypt and Pakistan) export them.

Also, the similarity of applied-research needs and priorities, such as
solar energy, desertification, and desalination, should produce shared
interests. Unfortunately, meetings held over two decades to coordinate
regional research have produced much rhetoric and little action.
Much development has emerged ever since these 'pessimistic

assessment' (in Segal's word) were made. In one aspect, it has portrayed
the optimistic future of the Muslims world as far as the scientific
advancement is concern, provided these commentaries has gone into
brain cells of the Muslims and transformed into the other aspect, the
long awaiting struggle and steps for re-emergence which will be
discussed in the later chapter.
3.1.7 The challenge
So why is much of today's Islamic world a "scientific desert," to use the

stark language of a 2002 article in the journal Nature? Why do many
predominantly Muslim countries, home to 1.3 billion people and 75
percent of the world's oil wealth is not at the fore front of science and
technology? And how might they recapture their amazing scientific
heritage?
These questions and many other have resounded at international, Arab

and Islamic scientific conferences and have made headlines in science
journals. Here's how the Nature article summed up the situation in the
Middle East, for instance:
"The region is, for the most part, a scientific desert. In some states, oil
wealth has allowed the construction of fabulous cities, magnificent
mosques and sumptuous shopping malls. But little scientific
infrastructure has emerged. Collectively, the Arab nations spend only
0.15 per cent of their gross domestic product on research and
development, well below the world average of 1.4 per cent."
Muslims account for 20 percent of the world's population, but less than
one percent of its scientists. Scientists in Islamic countries now make
barely 0.1 percent of the world's original research discoveries each year.
________________________________________________________
58
It is interesting to welcome back the term 'desert' which is not strange to

Islamic civilization. In fact, Islam itself originated in the dryness and
dullness of the desert of Arabia, and with much hardness and
unpopularity it crawled, stand, walked and in the end it ran over the
world disseminating its nourishing spirit and irresistible physical
appearance to the envisage of the great nation and civilization at that
time. This eagerness of the demoralised material civilization to see the
re- emergence of Islam and science particularly is as great as the time
when the Arabian people waiting the appearance of the Prophet who
will save them from darkness of life. Furthermore the condition of the
Muslims today is much better and in advantage compared to the earlier
time. They were nourished with spiritual, physical and historical assets.
Yet the challenge is in themselves, the Muslim, both their attitude and
their acts.
3.2 The Noble prize and its implication to Islam
Much had been said of this prestigious award since its inception in 1901.
It is an international award given yearly since 1901 for achievements in
physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and for peace. In 1968, the Bank
of Sweden instituted the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of
Alfred Nobel, founder of the Nobel Prize.
Generally it had become the landmark of scientific achievement of the

last decade. For the scientific community it is an important recognition
of the individual, team or institutional credibility. For the other, it has
been useful to measure the socio-economic and political influences on
science advancement in society. Even for the layman, it had become a
motivational subject for the young one to pursue scientific career.
For the past 100 years there were only two Muslim scientists who had
the honoured to hold the 'flag' of the Muslim nation in this scientific
podium. This in one hand has again raised the questions on the
credibility of the Muslim nations in the scientific arena. On the other
hand it has raised the doubt in certain quarters of the reliability of the
selection process.
________________________________________________________
59
Whichever direction it will be, since it is going to be the 'household' talk

for the next decade to come, it is of benefit for us to understand the
philosophy behind this award and the effect it will bring to our future
generation.
3.2.1 Life and philosophy of Alfred Nobel
Alfred Nobel was born in Stolkholm in 1833 into a family of engineers.

His family was descended from none other than Olof Rudbeck, the
best-known technical genius of Sweden's 17th century era as a Great
Power in Northern Europe. Having gone through a recent bankruptcy,
when Alfred was five years old, his father Immanuel Nobel moved to
St. Petersburg, where he started a mechanical workshop for the
manufacture of land mines. In 1842, when Alfred was nine years old,
the rest of the family also moved to St. Petersburg. By then his father's
fortunes had improved, enabling the family to live in high bourgeois
style. At the time, St.Petersburg was a world metropolis, alive with
scientific, social, and cultural life.
Immanuel Nobel's sons did not attend school, but were instead
educated at home by outstanding teachers at the level of university
professor. The instruction they provided focused on both humanities
and natural sciences. Aside from Swedish, Alfred and his brothers were
taught Russian, French, English and Germany, as well as literature and
philosophy. In the natural sciences, they were guided by two professors
of chemistry who taught them mathematics, physics and chemistry.
Considering the specialty of his teachers, it was perhaps no coincidence
that Alfred took a liking to chemistry. He learned to conduct chemical
experiments, an activity that seemed to fascinate him from the very
beginning. Alfred spent his most important formative years in the
Russian capital. With his five languages, which he seemed to have
mastered well, he laid the foundation for the cosmopolitan nature that
would later become so prominent in his life.
During the years 1850-52, Alfred was allowed a few study-oriented

stays abroad. He spent one year in Paris with the famous chemist Jules
Pelouze, a professor at the College de France who had just opened a
private training laboratory. Pelouze, who incidentally had been a good
________________________________________________________
60
friend of the Swedish chemist Berzellius, had also taught Nikolai Zinin,
one of Alfred Nobel's private teachers. During that year, Alfred
completed his training as a chemist. But somewhere around the same
time was the inception of what would become the greatest inventions of
his life. For it was then, if not earlier, that he must have heard about the
remarkable explosive called nitroglycerine. Strangely enough, this has
not been pointed out by many scholars, who have dated the crucial
moment 10 years later.
The background of the story was, in 1847, in Turin, Ascanio Sobrero- an

Italian student of Pelouze- had discovered a new explosive that he
initially called pyroglycerine (later known as nitroglycerine). However,
Sobrero, both in letters to Pelouze and in a subsequent journal article,
issued a warning about the new compound, not only because it had
incredible explosive power, but also because it was impossible to
handle. Sobrero's discovery did not come as a bolt from the blue. As
early as the 1830s, Pelouze himself and others had conducted important
preliminary work by making guncotton. Since Alfred was extremely
interested in explosives-it was of course a family interest- and since
Pelouze had both first-hand knowledge of how explosives were
manufactured and was familiar with Sobrero's discovery, Alfred must
have learned about nitroglycerine at that time. However, any
excitement he might have felt was immediately dampened by the
difficulties of both manufacturing and handling the new compound.
The end of the Crimean war (1856) spelled disaster for Immanuel
Nobel's factor, which had lived off the manufacture of war material. The
factory went bankrupt, and Alfred's parents and their youngest son
Emil moved back to Sweden. The three older sons stayed in St.
Petersburg to put the family affairs in order and restructure the
company. Faced with this situation, Alfred and his brothers discussed
various conceivable projects with their former teachers. That was when
Nikolai Zinin reminded them of the potential of nitroglycerine.
Professor Zinin is said to have demonstrated the power of
nitroglycerine by pouring a few drops of the fluid an anvil, and striking
it with a hammer, and producing a laoud bang. But only the liquid that
came into contact with the hammer exploded. The rest of the liquid was
not affected. The problem, as Sobrero had already realized, was two-
fold. First, it was difficult to manufacture the compound, because at
________________________________________________________
61
excessive temperatures the whole batch exploded. Second, once

manufactured, the liquid was equally difficult to explode in a
controlled fashion.
During the years around 1860, Alfred conducted repeated experiments

involving great risks. First, he succeeded in manufacturing sufficient
quantities of nitroglycerine without mishaps. Then, he mixed
nitroglycerine with black gunpowder and ignited the mixture with an
ordinary fuse. After several successful explosions outside St.Petersburg
on the frozen Neva river, Alfred travelled back to Stockholm. There, his
father had begun similar experiments (though with less success) after
reading about Alfred's tests in his letter. Immanuel Nobel even insisted
that the new mixture was his own idea, but he backed off from this
assertion after a sharp letter from Alfred that set matters straight in no
uncertain terms. Instead, he even helped Alfred apply for a patent in his
own name. In October 1863, Alfred Nobel was granted a patent for the
explosive that he aptly called 'blasting oil'.
With his first patent, Alfred had also reached his first milestone.
Although he was only 30 years old, this was the start of an exciting
adventure that would unfold with great speed. During the following
spring and summer, Alfred continued his experiments. He soon
obtained a new patent related to the manufacture of nitroglycerine
(using a simplified method) as well as the use of a detonator, or what
was called the 'initial igniter', in other words a hollow wooden plug
filled with black gunpowder (later called a 'blasting cap'). The
determination and self confidence that later would become more
pronounced features all Alfred's personality were already apparent. He
wrote "I am the first to have brought this subjects from the area of
science to that of industry' and he had successfully arranged a large
loan from a French bank.
Around the same time, another personality trait began to assert itself-
the inventor also became an entrepreneur. Alfred dealt with failures in
the same resolute manner as he did successes. In September 1864, a
major explosion at the Nobel factory in Stolkholm claimed the lives of
Alfred's brother Emil and four other people. Just month later, Alfred-
resolutely and without sentimentality- founded his first joint stack
company. Despite the accident or perhaps because of it, since no one
________________________________________________________
62
could now doubt the explosive power of the new compound, orders
began rolling in. the Swedish State Railways ordered blasting oil for use
in building the Soder Tunnel in Stolkholm. A year later, in 1865, Alfred
improved his blasting cap (now made of metal rather than wood) which
in principle is still the same type used today. He then left for Germany.
Set up a company there and bought land outside Hamburg where he
built a factory. In the summer of 1866, Alfred travelled to America there
he struggled against political bureaucracy, popular fear of accidents
caused by explosives and, not least, dishonest business associates. In the
end, he received patents, form companies and built factories there.
Despite slow communications, everything now happened very quickly.

Events literally assumed explosive force. While Alfred was in America,
his factory in Germany exploded. When he returned to Germany in
August, he had to supervise the clean-up of the debris and plan a new
building. At the same time, he continued to brood over the safety
problems of nitroglycerine and he conducted new experiments. He
realized that nitroglycerine had to be absorbed by some kind of porous
material, forming a mixture that would be easier to handle. On the
German moorlands very close to where he was staying, he found a type
of porous, absorbent sand or diatomaceous earth known in German as
Kieselguhr. When nitroglycerine was absorbed by Kieselguhr, it formed
a paste that was easy to knead and shape. This paste could be shaped
into rods that were easily inserted into drilling holes. It could also be
transported and subjected to jolts without triggering explosions. It could
even be ignited without anything happening. Only a blasting cap would
cause the paste to explode. The disadvantage of this new substance was
its somewhat reduced explosive force - the Kieselguhr did not
participate as an active substance in the explosion. But this was the price
one had to pay. In short, that was how Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.
Incidentally, Alfred himself coined the word dynamite from the Greek
dynamis, meaning power. One of his German colleagues had proposed
the term "blasting putty" because it had the same consistency as putty.
But Alfred thought this sounded like something meant to be used for
blasting window panes, which was certainly not his intention. In 1867,
he was granted patents for dynamite in various countries, notably
Britain, Sweden and the United States. Production was now set to begin
on a large scale, and demand grew rapidly. It was an era of large
infrastructure projects like railways, ports, bridges, roads, mines and
________________________________________________________
63
tunnels, where blasting was necessary. For example, dynamite was of

vital importance in the construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel through
the Swiss Alps in the 1870s.
In 1868, the year after the first patent for dynamite, Alfred Nobel and
his father were awarded the Letterstedt Prize by the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences. This prize, which Alfred valued highly, was
awarded for "important discoveries of practical value to humanity." We
can hear an echo of this wording in Nobel's will, where he stated the
criteria for awarding his own prizes.
He had taken the decisive steps that led to honour and fame. Let us
pause a moment at the year 1873, when Alfred Nobel was 40 years old.
All these events had taken place during the preceding 10 years. At age
30, Alfred had received his first patent. Now, by age 40, he had already
made his greatest discoveries, he had built up a worldwide industrial
empire, he had become wealthy, and he had bought a large house in the
center of Paris. The foundation was in place. He later made new
discoveries - primarily blasting gelatin and ballistite - and his industrial
enterprises, as well as his fortune, grew. His distinguishing quality was
his versatility. He was an inventor, an industrialist and an
administrator. He had to safeguard his patent rights, develop products,
establish new companies, and conduct business in five languages with
the rest of the world - without the help of a secretary and before the
telephone and fax made people's lives easier. He frequently travelled by
train or boat, since this was before the advent of the airplane. His
factories exploded, he had to withstand negative publicity campaigns,
and he unmasked deceitful business partners. He had to deal with all of
this himself. In addition, he seldom felt well - he viewed himself as
sickly and frail, often complaining of migraines, rheumatism and an
unsettled stomach. His life was hectic and stressful. In letters he wrote
from Paris, he complained of being constantly hounded by people,
which he described in his own words as "pure torture." People are
crazy, he wrote - they rushed in and out of his office, everyone wanted
to see him, and his presence was required everywhere. But despite
everything, he managed to cope. In the role of the entrepreneur, he was
unbeatable.
________________________________________________________
64
It is incomplete if we do not touch another level of Alfred Nobel's

personality, that of the humanist and philosopher. We know that he had
literally interest and ambitions. He was an avid reader of fiction and
wrote his own dramatic works and poems. In addition, he was attracted
to philosophical issues. He read certain philosophical work with such
interest that he underlined important passages. Among the papers that
he left behind is a black notebook on philosophy that his biographers
have not taken an interest in. Although not constituting profound
original thoughts, these pencilled notes reflect his serious interest in
philosophical questions. Nobel went through philosophy from antiquity
to modern times, pointing out what he perceived to be vital issues. He
made his own comments, which in a morose way showed his
detachment from the subject. He commented on Plato, Aristotle and
Democritus, but also on Newton and Voltaire as well as contemporary
biologists such as Darwin and Haeckel. Nobel noted, for example, that
it was unclear what caused people to form a conception of a God:
"Aristotle attributes it to fear, Voltaire to the desire of the more clever to
deceive the stupid." He spoke with respect of the philosophical doubts
of Descartes and Spinoza, adding that doubt must surely be the starting
point for all philosophical thinking. Theories of knowledge were of
special interest to Nobel. Consequently, he returned several times to
Locke's thesis that all knowledge arises from sensory impressions,
declaring that the "brain is a very unreliable recorder of impressions."
This led him to reflect further on the methodology of science and to

develop a line of reasoning that, aside from being inspired by Locke's
thesis, also seemed to have been influenced by Alexander von
Humboldt's theory of knowledge. Nobel wrote that all science is built
on observations of similarities and differences. He continued:
"A chemical analysis is of course nothing other than this, and even
mathematics has no other foundation. History is a picture of past
similarities and differences; geography shows the differences in the
earth's surface; geology, similarities and differences in the earth's
formation, from which we deduce the course of its transformations.
Astronomy is the study of similarities and differences between celestial
bodies; physics, a study of similarities and differences that arise from
the attraction and motive functions of matter. The only exception to this
rule is religious doctrine, but even this rests on the similar gullibility of
________________________________________________________
65
most people. Even metaphysics - if it is not too insane - must find

support for its hypotheses in some kind of analogy. One can state,
without exaggeration, that the observation of and the search for
similarities and differences are the basis of all human knowledge."
Nobel could have completed this train of thought with Humboldt's

words that "from observation one goes on to experimentation....based
on analogies and inductions of empirical laws." Nobel did not espouse
any grand theory of knowledge, but rather an empirical method. Alfred
Nobel himself seemed to think that he had accomplished quite a lot by
applying this method in his work.
Alfred Nobel also viewed himself with detachment, or shall we say,

philosophical skepticism. He often described himself as a loner, hermit,
melancholic or misanthrope. He once wrote: "I am a misanthrope and
yet utterly benevolent, have more than one screw loose yet I am a
super-idealist who digests philosophy more efficiently than food." Even
from this description, it is clear that this misanthrope was also a
philanthropist, or what Nobel called a super-idealist. It was the idealist
in him that drove Nobel to bequeath his fortune to those who had
benefited humanity through science, literature and efforts to promote
peace.
For Alfred Nobel, the idea of giving away his fortune was no passing
fancy. He had thought about it for a long time and had even re-written
his will on various occasions in order to weigh different wordings
against each other. Efforts to promote peace were close to his heart,
largely inspired by his contacts Bertha von Suttner (herself a Nobel
Peace Prize winner in 1905). He derived intellectual pleasure from
literature, while science built the foundation for his own activities as a
technological researcher and inventor. On November 27, 1895, Nobel
signed his final will and testament at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in
Paris.
Alfred Nobel had many different homes during the final decades of his
life. In 1891, he had left Paris to live in San Remo, Italy, after
controversies with the French authorities. Four years later, he
purchased the Bofors ironworks and armaments factory in Sweden and
established his Swedish home at nearby Björkborn Manor. He equipped
________________________________________________________
66
all his residences with laboratories where he could continue his

experiments. He was apparently homesick for Sweden but complained
of the Swedish winter weather. His health began to falter. He visited
doctors and health resorts more frequently, but never had time to heed
their most important advice - "to rest and nurse my health," as he put it
himself. On December 10, 1896, Alfred Nobel passed away at his home
in San Remo.
Nobel's will was hardly longer than one ordinary page. After listing
bequests to relatives and other people close to him, Nobel declared that
his entire remaining estate should be used to endow "prizes to those
who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest
benefit to mankind." His will attracted attention throughout the world.
It was unusual at that time to donate large sums of money for scientific
and charitable purposes. Many people also criticized the international
character of the prizes, saying they should be restricted to Swedes. This
would not have suited the cosmopolitan Alfred Nobel. Some of his
relatives contested the will. Complicated legal and administrative
matters also had to be sorted out. All this took time, but eventually it
was all settled.
In 1901, the first Nobel Prizes were awarded. The donor himself could
hardly have dreamed of the impact that his benevolence would have in
the future.
The excerpt from Nobel's will is as the following:
"The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following
way: the capital, invested in safe securities by my executors, shall constitute a
fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes
to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest
benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts,
which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have
made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one
part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery
or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important
discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person
who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work in
an ideal direction; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or
________________________________________________________
67
the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of
standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses. The
prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of
Sciences; that for physiology or medical works by the Karolinska Institute in
Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm, and that for
champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the
Norwegian Storting. It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no
consideration be given to the nationality of the candidates, but that the most
worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not."
3.2.2 Alfred Noble's life and philosophy from the Islamic perspective
One might questions the rational of writing the vast elaboration of

Nobel's biography as mentioned above. Yet there are a lot of lessons
that can be learned and be clarified from such a great and famous man.
First of all let us look at the milieu that brought up such a charismatic
person. This will help us to modify and rethink of our approach in
upbringing our future scientific generation.
Alfred came from a generation of intellectual and practical thinkers,

which is self explanatory to his success story. He was educated in a
most fortunate way at home, taught by teacher with credibility and
mastered several foreign languages. In other words, he was brought up
in a conducive- environment. A lesson to learn is that to produce a
charismatic person we need a good environment and that might be
missing in the Muslim nation. Our future generation should be given
the appropriate stimuli to nurture interest in learning particularly in
science.
Continuity of the chain of knowledge within family is no stranger to the

Muslims, who not only obliged to pass down any knowledge they have
to their descendant, but also to the other Muslims without any
reservation. Once the Muslims have a solid educational platform to
start with, the next steps will be much easier and promising for them to
excel.
Secondly, let us study the philosophy behind his success. He was a man
________________________________________________________
68
with courage, unshaken with incoming obstacles and never satisfied

with his discoveries. He was an inventor, an entrepreneur and a thinker.
In short, he is a dynamic, self confident and full of determination to
move forward. This is the attitude a good scientist should have and it is
the attitude the Qur'an and the Prophet had instilled in the earlier
generation of Islam. And such an attitude does not only belong to the
Muslim alone, it belongs to anyone who strived for it. It is just
unfortunate if the Muslim neglect these prime motivators (Qur'an and
Hadith) that can change their attitude towards life and humanity.
Noble's great observational capabilities brought him to the conclusion

that the basis of human knowledge was the observations of similarities
and differences. His love for science manifests in his residence-
laboratorium and his unbelievable donations at that time. Yet he was
still unclear of the conception of God despite agreeing to the fact that
'the brain is a very unreliable recorder of impressions'.
His observational talent reminded us of the capabilities of al-Razi in

differentiating between smallpox and measles, so as Ibn al-Haytham in
explaining the phenomenon of rainbow. His residence-laboratory
reminded us of the great in-house laboratory of Jabir Ibn Hayyan in
Damascus. His love to science and generous contribution reminded us
of 'Ali b Yahya who possessed a palace and a library called Khizanat al-
hikma which he placed at the disposal of scholars and not least, the
contribution of Caliph al Hakim (1005) who built the Dar al Hikma with
its invaluable sponsorships of scholars. Unfortunately, the question of
the sovereignty of God was left unanswered for Noble since it is
absolutely not something that can be read from books or learned from
past history. It is a unique gift of Him to whosoever He wants.
Thirdly, his scientific invention was mainly within the scope of blasting
industry and the Letterstedt Prize won in 1868 was for the patented
dynamite. However, it was not clearly stated whether the success of the
industry were coming mainly from which part of the business
contribution- the destructive war or the building of infrastructure itself.
Nevertheless, we noted that during his life time, the family industry
went bankrupt following the end of the Crimean war which signified its
great contribution and dependent to the war.
________________________________________________________
69
For the historical note, the Crimean war itself was another milestone in
the downfall of the Ottoman Caliphate. In July 1853 Russia occupied
territories in the Crimea that had previously been controlled by Turkey.
Britain and France was concerned about Russian expansion and
attempted to achieve a negotiation withdrawal. Turkey, unwilling to
grant concessions declared war on Russia.
After the Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope in the Black Sea
in November 1853, Britain and France joined the war against Russia. On
the 20th September 1854 the Allies, under the joint commands of
General Lord Raglan, Marshal St. Arnaud and General Omar Pasha,
reached the Alma and met the Russians. The Allied army defeated the
Russian army at the battle of Alma River (September 1854) but the
battle of Balaklava (October 1854) was inconclusive. At the end,
Sevastopol fell to the Allied troops on 8th September 1855 and the new
Russian Emperor, Alexander II, agreed to sign a peace treaty at the
Congress of Paris in 1856.
It is not the scope of this discussion to determine which side Nobel was
in favour during the war, neglecting the fact that his factory was located
in St. Petersburg itself. What is more important is to understand his
philosophy of science itself. It seems a contradictory philosophy when
someone who willingly agreed to the usage of the scientific invention to
cause harm to the humanity, is the same person who awarded a prize
for peace. Perhaps, it might be the conscience of guilt that led him to
this decision.
In conclusion, generally there is nothing spectacular or new in the

philosophies of Alfred Noble as seen from the Islamic point of view.
Conscious or unconsciously those philosophies had been borrowed
from Islamic philosophy of science mastered by the Muslims during the
6th to the 13th century.
The younger Muslim generation should be made aware of this fact.

While there is nothing wrong in having such a great person like Alfred
Noble as our motivator in intellectual advancement, yet it should not
blinded our eyes and worse still our mind of the fact that the great
scientific philosophies has been instilled by the Muslims scientific
ancestor into the western scientist.
________________________________________________________
70
In the end, as determine that we want the origin of the scientific

invention to be put back in its proper historical context, so it should be
to the scientific philosophies that had become the key to their successful
discoveries.
3.2.3 Muslim Noble prize winner
To date, there were only two Muslim scientists who became the
recipient of this prestigious award. This section has been allocated to
them with the intention to motivate the reader and the future
generation. Their biography and banquet speech serve for the rest to
understand the struggle, philosophy and their wish in future scientific
undertaking.
3.2.3.1 Prof Dr Abdus Salam
Abdus Salam - Biography
Abdus Salam was born in Jhang, a small town in what is now Pakistan,
in 1926. His father was an official in the Department of Education in a
poor farming district. His family has a long tradition of piety and
learning.
________________________________________________________
71
When he cycled home from Lahore, at the age of 14, after gaining the
highest marks ever recorded for the Matriculation Examination at the
University of the Punjab, the whole town turned out to welcome him.
He won a scholarship to Government College, University of the Punjab,
and took his MA in 1946. In the same year he was awarded a
scholarship to St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took a BA
(honours) with a double First in mathematics and physics in 1949. In
1950 he received the Smith's Prize from Cambridge University for the
most outstanding pre-doctoral contribution to physics. He also
obtained a PhD in theoretical physics at Cambridge; his thesis,
published in 1951, contained fundamental work in quantum
electrodynamics which had already gained him an international
reputation.
Salam returned to Pakistan in 1951 to teach mathematics at

Government College, Lahore, and in 1952 became head of the
Mathematics Department of the Punjab University. He had come back
with the intention of founding a school of research, but it soon became
clear that this was impossible. To pursue a career of research in
theoretical physics he had no alternative at that time but to leave his
own country and work abroad. Many years later he succeeded in
finding a way to solve the heartbreaking dilemma faced by many
young and gifted theoretical physicists from developing countries. At
the ICTP, Trieste, which he created, he instituted the famous
"Associateships" which allowed deserving young physicists to spend
their vacations there in an invigorating atmosphere, in close touch with
their peers in research and with the leaders in their own field, losing
their sense of isolation and returning to their own country for nine
months of the academic year refreshed and recharged.
In 1954 Salam left his native country for a lectureship at Cambridge,

and since then has visited Pakistan as adviser on science policy. His
work for Pakistan has, however, been far-reaching and influential. He
was a member of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, a member
of the Scientific Commission of Pakistan and was Chief Scientific
Adviser to the President from 1961 to 1974.
Since 1957 he has been Professor of Theoretical Physics at Imperial

College, London, and since 1964 has combined this position with that of
________________________________________________________
72
Director of the ICTP, Trieste.
For more than forty years he has been a prolific researcher in theoretical
elementary particle physics. He has either pioneered or been associated
with all the important developments in this field, maintaining a
constant and fertile flow of brilliant ideas. For the past thirty years he
has used his academic reputation to add weight to his active and
influential participation in international scientific affairs. He has served
on a number of United Nations committees concerned with the
advancement of science and technology in developing countries.
To accommodate the astonishing volume of activity that he undertakes,

Professor Salam cuts out such inessentials as holidays, parties and
entertainments. Faced with such an example, the staff of the Centre
found it very difficult to complain that they are overworked.
He has a way of keeping his administrative staff at the ICTP fully alive
to the real aim of the Centre - the fostering through training and
research of the advancement of theoretical physics, with special regard
to the needs of developing countries. Inspired by their personal regard
for him and encouraged by the fact that he works harder than any of
them, the staff cheerfully submit to working conditions that would be
unthinkable here at the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna
(IAEA). The money he received from the Atoms for Peace Medal and
Award he spent on setting up a fund for young Pakistani physicists to
visit the ICTP. He uses his share of the Nobel Prize entirely for the
benefit of physicists from developing countries and does not spend a
penny of it on himself or his family.
Abdus Salam is known to be a devout Muslim, whose religion does not

occupy a separate compartment of his life; it is inseparable from his
work and family life. He once wrote: "The Holy Quran enjoins us to
reflect on the verities of Allah's created laws of nature; however, that
our generation has been privileged to glimpse a part of His design is a
bounty and a grace for which I render thanks with a humble
heart."(Abdus Salam died in 1996)
The biography was written by Miriam Lewis, now at IAEA, Vienna, who was at one time on the
staff of ICTP (International Centre For Theoretical Physics, Trieste).From Les Prix Nobel 1979.
________________________________________________________
73
Abdus Salam - Banquet Speech

Abdus Salam's speech at the Nobel Banquet, December 10, 1979
Your Majesties, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen,
On behalf of my colleagues, Professor Glashow and

Weinberg, I thank the Nobel Foundation and the Royal
Academy of Sciences for the great honour and the
courtesies extended to us, including the courtesy to me of
being addressed in my language Urdu.
Pakistan is deeply indebted to you for this.
The creation of Physics is the shared heritage of all

mankind. East and West, North and South have equally
participated in it. In the Holy Book of Islam, Allah says
"Thou seest not, in the creation of the All-merciful any

imperfection, Return thy gaze, seest thou any fissure. Then
Return thy gaze, again and again. Thy gaze, Comes back to thee
dazzled, aweary."
This in effect is, the faith of all physicists; the deeper we

seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the
dazzlement for our gaze.
I am saying this, not only to remind those here tonight of

this, but also for those in the Third World, who feel they
have lost out in the pursuit of scientific knowledge, for
lack of opportunity and resource.
________________________________________________________
74
Alfred Nobel stipulated that no distinction of race or colour

will determine who received of his generosity. On this
occasion, let me say this to those, whom God has given His
Bounty. Let us strive to provide equal opportunities to all
so that they can engage in the creation of Physics and
science for the benefit of all mankind. This would exactly
be in the spirit of Alfred Nobel and the ideals which
permeated his life. Bless You!
From: Les Prix Nobel 1979.
3.2.3.2 Prof Dr Ahmed Zewail
Ahmed Zewail - Autobiography
On the banks of the Nile, the Rosetta branch, I lived an enjoyable

childhood in the City of Disuq, which is the home of the famous
mosque, Sidi Ibrahim. I was born (February 26, 1946) in nearby
Damanhur, the "City of Horus", only 60 km from Alexandria. In
retrospect, it is remarkable that my childhood origins were flanked by
two great places - Rosetta, the city where the famous Stone was
discovered, and Alexandria, the home of ancient learning. The dawn of
my memory begins with my days, at Disuq's preparatory school. I am
________________________________________________________
75
the only son in a family of three sisters and two loving parents. My
father was liked and respected by the city community - he was helpful,
cheerful and very much enjoyed his life. He worked for the government
and also had his own business. My mother, a good-natured, contented
person, devoted all her life to her children and, in particular, to me. She
was central to my "walks of life" with her kindness, total devotion and
native intelligence. Although our immediate family is small, the
Zewails are well known in Damanhur.
The family's dream was to see me receive a high degree abroad and to
return to become a university professor - on the door to my study room,
a sign was placed reading, "Dr. Ahmed," even though I was still far
from becoming a doctor. My father did live to see that day, but a dear
uncle did not. Uncle Rizk was special in my boyhood years and I
learned much from him - an appreciation for critical analyses, an
enjoyment of music, and of intermingling with the masses and
intellectuals alike; he was respected for his wisdom, financially well-to-
do, and self-educated. Culturally, my interests were focused - reading,
music, some sports and playing backgammon. The great singer Um
Kulthum (actually named Kawkab Elsharq - a superstar of the East) had
a major influence on my appreciation of music. On the first Thursday of
each month we listened to Um Kulthum's concert - "waslats" (three
songs) - for more than three hours. During all of my study years in
Egypt, the music of this unique figure gave me a special happiness, and
her voice was often in the background while I was studying
mathematics, chemistry... etc. After three decades I still have the same
feeling and passion for her music. In America, the only music I have
been able to appreciate on this level is classical, and some jazz. Reading
was and still is my real joy.
As a boy it was clear that my inclinations were toward the physical

sciences. Mathematics, mechanics, and chemistry were among the
fields that gave me a special satisfaction. Social sciences were not as
attractive because in those days much emphasis was placed on
memorization of subjects, names and the like, and for reasons unknown
(to me), my mind kept asking "how" and "why". This characteristic has
persisted from the beginning of my life. In my teens, I recall feeling a
thrill when I solved a difficult problem in mechanics, for instance,
considering all of the tricky operational forces of a car going uphill or
________________________________________________________
76
downhill.
Even though chemistry required some memorization, I was intrigued

by the "mathematics of chemistry". It provides laboratory phenomena
which, as a boy, I wanted to reproduce and understand. In my bedroom
I constructed a small apparatus, out of my mother's oil burner (for
making Arabic coffee) and a few glass tubes, in order to see how wood
is transformed into a burning gas and a liquid substance. I still
remember this vividly, not only for the science, but also for the danger
of burning down our house! It is not clear why I developed this
attraction to science at such an early stage.
After finishing high school, I applied to universities. In Egypt, you send

your application to a central Bureau (Maktab El Tansiq), and according
to your grades, you are assigned a university, hopefully on your list of
choice. In the sixties, Engineering, Medicine, Pharmacy, and Science
were tops. I was admitted to Alexandria University and to the faculty of
science. Here, luck played a crucial role because I had little to do with
Maktab El Tansiq's decision, which gave me the career I still love most:
science. At the time, I did not know the depth of this feeling, and, if
accepted to another faculty, I probably would not have insisted on the
faculty of science. But this passion for science became evident on the
first day I went to the campus in Maharem Bek with my uncle - I had
tears in my eyes as I felt the greatness of the university and the
sacredness of its atmosphere. My grades throughout the next four years
reflected this special passion. In the first year, I took four courses,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology, and my grades were
either excellent or very good. Similarly, in the second year I scored very
highly (excellent) in Chemistry and was chosen for a group of seven
students (called "special chemistry"), an elite science group. I graduated
with the highest honors - "Distinction with First Class Honor" - with
above 90% in all areas of chemistry. With these scores, i was awarded,
as a student, a stipend every month of approximately £13, which was
close to that of a university graduate who made £17 at the time!
After graduating with the degree of Bachelor of Science, I was

appointed to a University position as a demonstrator ("Moeid"), to carry
on research toward a Masters and then a Ph.D. degree, and to teach
undergraduates at the University of Alexandria. This was a tenured
________________________________________________________
77
position, guaranteeing a faculty appointment at the University. In

teaching, I was successful to the point that, although not yet a professor,
I gave "professorial lectures" to help students after the Professor had
given his lecture. Through this experience I discovered an affinity and
enjoyment of explaining science and natural phenomena in the clearest
and simplest way. The students (500 or more) enriched this sense with
the appreciation they expressed. At the age of 21, as a Moeid, I believed
that behind every universal phenomenon there must be beauty and
simplicity in its description. This belief remains true today.
On the research side, I finished the requirements for a Masters in

Science in about eight months. The tool was spectroscopy, and I was
excited about developing an understanding of how and why the spectra
of certain molecules change with solvents. This is an old subject, but to
me it involved a new level of understanding that was quite modern in
our department. My research advisors were three: The head of the
inorganic section, Professor Tahany Salem and Professors Rafaat Issa
and Samir El Ezaby, with whom I worked most closely; they suggested
the research problem to me, and this research resulted in several
publications. I was ready to think about my Ph.D. research (called
"research point") after one year of being a Moeid. Professors El Ezaby (a
graduate of Utah) and Yehia El Tantawy (a graduate of Penn)
encouraged me to go abroad to complete my Ph.D. work. All the odds
were against my going to America. First, I did not have the connections
abroad. Second, the 1967 war had just ended and American stocks in
Egypt were at their lowest value, so study missions were only sent to
the USSR or Eastern European countries. I had to obtain a scholarship
directly from an American University. After corresponding with a
dozen universities, the University of Pennsylvania and a few others
offered me scholarships, providing the tuition and paying a monthly
stipend (some $300). There were still further obstacles against travel to
America ("Safer to America"). It took enormous energy to pass the
regulatory and bureaucratic barriers.
Arriving in the States, I had the feeling of being thrown into an ocean.
The ocean was full of knowledge, culture, and opportunities, and the
choice was clear: I could either learn to swim or sink. The culture was
foreign, the language was difficult, but my hopes were high. I did not
speak or write English fluently, and I did not know much about
________________________________________________________
78
western culture in general, or American culture in particular. I

remember a "cultural incident" that opened my eyes to the new
traditions I was experiencing right after settling in Philadelphia. In
Egypt, as boys, we used to kid each other by saying "I'll kill you", and
good friends often said such phrases jokingly. I became friends with a
sympathetic American graduate student, and, at one point, jokingly said
"I'll kill you". I immediately noticed his reserve and coolness, perhaps
worrying that a fellow from the Middle East might actually do it!
My presence - as the Egyptian at Penn - was starting to be felt by the

professors and students as my scores were high, and I also began a
successful course of research. I owe much to my research advisor,
Professor Robin Hochstrasser, who was, and still is, a committed
scientist and educator. The diverse research problems I worked on, and
the collaborations with many able scientists, were both enjoyable and
profitable. My publication list was increasing, but just as importantly, I
was learning new things literally every day - in chemistry, in physics
and in other fields. The atmosphere at the Laboratory for Research on
the Structure of Matter (LRSM) was most stimulating and I was
enthusiastic about researching in areas that crossed the disciplines of
physics and chemistry (sometimes too enthusiastic!). My courses were
enjoyable too; I still recall the series 501, 502, 503 and the physics courses
I took with the Nobel Laureate, Bob Schrieffer. I was working almost
"day and night," and doing several projects at the same time: The Stark
effect of simple molecules; the Zeeman effect of solids like NO2- and
benzene; the optical detection of magnetic resonance (ODMR); double
resonance techniques, etc. Now, thinking about it, I cannot imagine
doing all of this again, but of course then I was "young and innocent".
The research for my Ph.D. and the requirements for a degree were
essentially completed by 1973, when another war erupted in the Middle
East. I had strong feelings about returning to Egypt to be a University
Professor, even though at the beginning of my years in America my
memories of the frustrating bureaucracy encountered at the time of my
departure were still vivid. With time, things change, and I recollected all
the wonderful years of my childhood and the opportunities Egypt had
provided to me. Returning was important to me, but I also knew that
Egypt would not be able to provide the scientific atmosphere I had
enjoyed in the U.S. A few more years in America would give me and my
________________________________________________________
79
family two opportunities: First, I could think about another area of

research in a different place (while learning to be professorial!). Second,
my salary would be higher than that of a graduate student, and we
could then buy a big American car that would be so impressive for the
new Professor at Alexandria University! I applied for five positions,
three in the U.S., one in Germany and one in Holland, and all of them
with world-renowned professors. I received five offers and decided on
Berkeley.
Early in 1974 we went to Berkeley, excited by the new opportunities.

Culturally, moving from Philadelphia to Berkeley was almost as much
of a shock as the transition from Alexandria to Philadelphia - Berkeley
was a new world! I saw Telegraph Avenue for the first time, and this
was sufficient to indicate the difference. I also met many graduate
students whose language and behavior I had never seen before, neither
in Alexandria, nor in Philadelphia. I interacted well with essentially
everybody, and in some cases I guided some graduate students. But I
also learned from members of the group. The obstacles did not seem as
high as they had when I came to the University of Pennsylvania
because culturally and scientifically I was better equipped. Berkeley
was a great place for science - the BIG science. In the laboratory, my aim
was to utilize the expertise I had gained from my Ph.D. work on the
spectroscopy of pairs of molecules, called dimers, and to measure their
coherence with the new tools available at Berkeley. Professor Charles
Harris was traveling to Holland for an extensive stay, but when he
returned to Berkeley we enjoyed discussing science at late hours! His
ideas were broad and numerous, and in some cases went beyond the
scientific language I was familiar with. Nevertheless, my general
direction was established. I immediately saw the importance of the
concept of coherence. I decided to tackle the problem, and, in a rather
short time, acquired a rigorous theoretical foundation which was new
to me. I believe that this transition proved vital in subsequent years of
my research.
I wrote two papers with Charles, one theoretical and the other
experimental. They were published in Physical Review. These papers
were followed by other work, and I extended the concept of coherence
to multidimensional systems, publishing my first independently
authored paper while at Berkeley. In collaboration with other graduate
________________________________________________________
80
students, I also published papers on energy transfer in solids. I enjoyed

my interactions with the students and professors, and at Berkeley's
popular and well-attended physical chemistry seminars. Charles
decided to offer me the IBM Fellowship that was only given to a few in
the department. He strongly felt that I should get a job at one of the top
universities in America, or at least have the experience of going to the
interviews; I am grateful for his belief in me. I only applied to a few
places and thought I had no chance at these top universities. During the
process, I contacted Egypt, and I also considered the American
University in Beirut (AUB). Although I visited some places, nothing was
finalized, and I was preparing myself for the return. Meanwhile, I was
busy and excited about the new research I was doing. Charles decided
to build a picosecond laser, and two of us in the group were involved in
this hard and "non-profitable" direction of research (!); I learned a great
deal about the principles of lasers and their physics.
During this period, many of the top universities announced new

positions, and Charles asked me to apply. I decided to send applications
to nearly a dozen places and, at the end, after interviews and enjoyable
visits, I was offered an Assistant Professorship at many, including
Harvard, Caltech, Chicago, Rice, and Northwestern. My interview at
Caltech had gone well, despite the experience of an exhausting two
days, visiting each half hour with a different faculty member in
chemistry and chemical engineering. The visit was exciting, surprising
and memorable. The talks went well and I even received some
undeserved praise for style. At one point, I was speaking about what is
known as the FVH, picture of coherence, where F stands for Feynman,
the famous Caltech physicist and Nobel Laureate. I went to the board to
write the name and all of a sudden I was stuck on the spelling. Half way
through, I turned to the audience and said, "you know how to spell
Feynman". A big laugh erupted, and the audience thought I was joking
- I wasn't! After receiving several offers, the time had come to make up
my mind, but I had not yet heard from Caltech. I called the Head of the
Search Committee, now a colleague of mine, and he was lukewarm,
encouraging me to accept other offers. However, shortly after this, I was
contacted by Caltech with a very attractive offer, asking me to visit with
my family. We received the red carpet treatment, and that visit did cost
Caltech! I never regretted the decision of accepting the Caltech offer.
________________________________________________________
81
My science family came from all over the world, and members were of
varied backgrounds, cultures, and abilities. The diversity in this "small
world" I worked in daily provided the most stimulating environment,
with many challenges and much optimism. Over the years, my research
group has had close to 150 graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and
visiting associates. Many of them are now in leading academic,
industrial and governmental positions. Working with such minds in a
village of science has been the most rewarding experience - Caltech was
the right place for me.
My biological children were all "made in America". I have two

daughters, Maha, a Ph.D. student at the University of Texas, Austin,
and Amani, a junior at Berkeley, both of whom I am very proud. I met
Dema, my wife, by a surprising chance, a fairy tale. In 1988 it was
announced that I was a winner of the King Faisal International Prize. In
March of 1989, I went to receive the award from Saudi Arabia, and there
I met Dema; her father was receiving the same prize in literature. We
met in March, got engaged in July and married in September, all of the
same year, 1989. Dema has her M.D. from Damascus University, and
completed a Master's degree in Public Health at UCLA. We have two
young sons, Nabeel and Hani, and both bring joy and excitement to our
life. Dema is a wonderful mother, and is my friend and confidante.
The journey from Egypt to America has been full of surprises. As a

Moeid, I was unaware of the Nobel Prize in the way I now see its impact
in the West. We used to gather around the TV or read in the newspaper
about the recognition of famous Egyptian scientists and writers by the
President, and these moments gave me and my friends a real thrill -
maybe one day we would be in this position ourselves for achievements
in science or literature. Decades later, when President Mubarak
bestowed on me the Order of Merit, first class, and the Grand Collar of
the Nile ("Kiladate El Niel"), the highest State honor, it brought these
emotional boyhood days back to my memory. I never expected that my
portrait, next to the pyramids, would be on a postage stamp or that the
school I went to as a boy and the road to Rosetta would be named after
me. Certainly, as a youngster in love with science, I had no dreams
about the honor of the Nobel Prize.
For more updated biographical information, see:
Zewail, Ahmed, Voyage through Time. Walks of Life to the Nobel Prize. American University in
Cairo Press, Cairo, 2002.
________________________________________________________
82
Ahmed Zewail - Banquet Speech

Ahmed Zewail's speech at the Nobel Banquet, December 10, 1999
Your Majesties, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen,
Let me begin with a reflection on a personal story, that of a

voyage through time. The medal I received from his
Majesty this evening was designed by Erik Lindberg in
1902 to represent Nature in the form of the Goddess Isis -
or eesis - the Egyptian Goddess of Motherhood. She
emerges from the clouds, holding a cornucopia in her arms
and the veil which covers her cold and austere face is held
up by the Genius of Science1. Indeed, it is the genius of
science which pushed forward the race against time, from
the beginning of astronomical calendars six millennia ago
in the land of Isis to the femtosecond regime honored
tonight for the ultimate achievement in the microcosmos. I
began life and education in the same Land of Isis, Egypt,
made the scientific unveiling in America, and tonight, I
receive this honor in Sweden, with a Nobel Medal which
takes me right back to the beginning. This
internationalization by the Genius of Science is precisely
what Mr. Nobel wished for more than a century ago.
In visionary words, Mr. Nobel summed up the purpose of

the Prize: "The conquests of scientific research and its ever
expanding field awake in us the hope that microbes - of the
soul as well as of the body - will gradually be exterminated
and that the only war humanity will wage in future will be
war against these microbes". Mr. Nobel saw clearly what
he wished for the world and the value of scientific
discovery and advancement. Although there exist in the
world today some microbes of the soul, such as
discrimination and aggression, science was and still is the
core of progress for humanity and the continuity of
civilization. From the dawn of history, science has probed
the universe of unknowns, searching for the uniting laws
of nature. The world applauds your Majesties and the
Swedish people for your appreciation, recognition, and
________________________________________________________
83
celebration of discoveries of the unknown, which,

according to Alfred Nobel will "leave the greatest benefit
to mankind". I know of no other country that celebrates
intellectual achievements with this class and passion.
To the world, the Nobel Prize has become the crowning

honor for two reasons. For scientists, it recognizes their
untiring efforts which lead to new fields of discovery, and
places them in the annals of history with other notable
scientists. For Science, the Prize inspires the people of the
world about the importance and value of new discoveries,
and in so doing science becomes better appreciated and
supported by the public, and, hopefully, by governments.
Both of these are noble causes and we thank you. To me,
there is a third cause as well.
If the Nobel Prize had existed 6,000 years ago, when

Egypt's civilization began, or even 2,000 years ago, when
the famous library and university (museum) at Alexandria
were established, Egypt would have scored very highly in
many fields. In recent times, however, Egypt and the Arab
World, which gave to Science Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn-
Rushd (Averroës), Ibn-Hayan (Geber), Ibn-Haytham (Al
Hazen), and others, have had no Prizes in science or
medicine. I sincerely hope that this first one will inspire the
young generations of developing countries with the
knowledge that it is possible to contribute to world science
and technology. As expressed eloquently in 1825 by Sir
Humphrey Davy: "Fortunately, science, like that nature to
which it belongs, is neither limited by time nor by space. It
belongs to the world, and is of no country and of no age."
There is a whole world outside the boundaries of the
"West" and the "North" and we can all help to make it the
microbe-free world of Mr. Nobel. I also hope that the Prize
will help the region I came from to focus on the
advancement of science, the Science Society, and on
dignity and peace for humanity.
Your Majesties, I do not know how to express my own

________________________________________________________
84
personal feelings and those of my family about this

recognition. Behind this recognition, there exists a larger
community of femtoscientists all over the world who
tonight declare themselves proud. My own science family
at Caltech of close to 150 young scientists represents the
true army that marched to victory and made the
contribution possible; they, too, must be proud of their
effort. Personally, I have been enriched by my experiences
in Egypt and America, and feel fortunate to have been
endowed with a true passion for knowledge. I am grateful
that this highest crowning honor comes at a young age
when I can, hopefully, enjoy and witness its impact on
science and humanity. The honor comes with great
responsibilities and new challenges for the future, and I do
hope to be able to continue the mission, recalling the
thoughtful words of the great scholar, Dr. Taha Hussein:
which can be paraphrased in the following words: "The

end will begin when seekers of knowledge become
satisfied with their own achievements."
Thank you, Your Majesties. Thank you, all who are

celebrating science and scientists.
The inscription reads: Inventas vitam juvat excoluisse per artes, loosely
translated: "And they who bettered life on earth by new found mastery"
(literally stated, "inventions enhance life which is beautified through
art").
From: Les Prix Nobel 1999.
________________________________________________________
85
3.2.4 Noble prize: Is there a selection bias?
The rarity of Muslims in the list of Nobel Prize winner had alarmed
certain quarters on the realibility of the Nobel Prize selection process. In
science, some has postulated the possibility of selection bias, in
particular to the Jewish scientific community in view of their
outstanding representative of the award. The other felt that even Noble
Prize award could not fully dissociates itself from considerable political
influences. Well quoted was the questionable absent of Mahatma
Gandhi in the list of Noble Price for peace. To draw a conclusion from
assumptions is very easy, yet the credibility and the benefit can be
better appreciated when a scientific evaluation was added, even though
the end result is pain-staking for certain quarters to shallow.
Philip Brooks in his book 'Extraordinary Jewis America' quoted 'One

hundred and fifty years ago there were barely 50,000 Jews in America.
Today there are more Jews in America than in any other country. A
large number of Jewish Americans are distinguished writers, scholars
and composers. Although Jews have never represented more than 3.5
percent of America's total population, more than one-third of America's
Noble Prize winners have been Jews'.
A brief survey at the list of the Noble Prize winners shows interesting
facts.
The percentage of the Jewish prize winners in comparison with the

Muslims are as the following:
_______________________________________________________
Jewish (%) Muslim (%)
_______________________________________________________
Economy 40 0
Peace 8 3
Physics 26 0.5
Chemistry 18 1.2
Medicine 28 0
Literature 11 2
_______________________________________________________
From the figure above, even though the Jews overceded the Muslims in
all categories of awards, in general they have not constituted more than
30% of the total winner except in economy. At least the Noble Prize for
science doesn't look like pro-Judaism compared to economy, which
________________________________________________________
86
seems relevant with the current mode of capitalistic world dominated

by the Jewish economists.
Up to the year 2000 there were 19 Jewish winners of the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry, 37 winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics and this was further
enhanced by the addition of no less that 44 Jewish winners of the Nobel
Prize in the Biomedical Sciences. To understand further the success
story of the Jewish scientific community, let us go back to their historical
background.
Jews were prominent in the biomedical sciences throughout the ages. It

is well documented that Jewish doctors were retained for their
knowledge and expertise by royalty and noblemen through the ages
even at times when Jews were otherwise suffering the severest
ostracism and oppression.
As in the case of the disciplines of chemistry and physics, Germany's

brutal racial policies drained Europe of a host of its most distinguished
scientists. The Nazis ignored the fact that Jews were prominent in and
were even at the head of some of the Germany's greatest scientific
institutions. Meyerhof, for example, had been the Director of the newly-
formed Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Research in Medicine, and later
Warburg became the Director of its Center for the Study of Cell
Physiology.
Nine winners of the biomedical Nobel Prize were among the escapees
from Hitler's horrors and the Jewish community even presumed more
would be if not because of the genocidal pyres of the Nazi regime.
England and the United States were the main beneficiaries of Central
Europe's "brain drain," the exodus of distinguished scientists from both
Nazi Germany and eastern Europe. As many as twelve prize winners
were born of parents who had fled the pogroms in Eastern Europe.
Three other Nobel Prize winners had emigrated to the USA directly
from the "Pale of Jewish Settlement."
Emigration to England and the USA did not begin nor end with the
Nazis. Agencies like the Rockefeller Institute and many universities
were eager to capture the products of Europe's most scientifically
fecund educational institutions. Six biomedical Nobel Prize winners
________________________________________________________
87
joined the many other Jewish scientists who were benefitted by or

found refuge in the Rockefeller Institute in the USA. Lederberg, in fact,
was appointed President of Rockefeller University.
Likewise, the Pasteur Institute in Paris could count six biomedical

Nobel Prize winners in its distinguished roster. Prize winner Lwow
was appointed Head of the Department at the Institut Pasteur, and later
served on its board of directors. Lwow also won France's highest honor
for his courageous participation as a partisan in the underground
struggle against the Nazis. Switzerland was likewise blessed with three
biomedical Nobel Prize winners.
The Jewish scientists had started from a stable broad based chain of
intellectual platform. The fact that they have the same 'vision'after
struggling through the same'experiences' if not 'tribulations' and
dominated credible scientific 'positions' had make them strong and
competent in dominating the scientific world. This should not detered
the Muslims nation.
The very fact that the ancestor of our scientific progeny during the
golden era used to sit at their feet and learn, and then conquered the
arts should became a catalyst for us to advance. So as the fact that
actually we are not lack of scientists and intellectuals which will be
revealed later in the chapter, should be a good motivating factor. So it
seems that the nagging problem now is that the Muslims themselves do
not have the same 'vision'and could not accept the fact that they have to
undergo the same 'experience' and 'tribulations' to achieve the 'ultimate
rewards'. This should be pondered by everyone, the Muslim scientist in
particular. Otherwise at the end of the day their efforts will be a
scattered effort, their success will be an individual success and their
'positioning' is of little or no benefit to the development of the Muslim
nation.
As for the case of Mahatma Gandhi, the Nobel Committee records

reveal that he was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947 and, finally, a
few days before he was murdered in January 1948. The omission has
been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee.
When the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the
chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the
________________________________________________________
88
memory of Mahatma Gandhi". However, the committee has never

commented on the speculations as to why Gandhi was not awarded the
prize, and, until recently, the sources that might shed some light on the
matter were unavailable.
Oyvind Tonnesson, Peace Editor, Nobel e- Museum, who has examined

and reported on the diaries of the committee advisors and chairpersons
of the Nobel Committee, confirms that Gandhi was nominated five
times and that his candidature was considered and rejected thrice when
it was on the short list in 1937, 1947, and 1948.
The Nobel Committee´s adviser, historian Jens Arup Seip, wrote a

report, which was "favorable and yet not explicitly supportive". The
basis for this duality, according to Tonnesson, is that there was
ambiguity about Gandhi's non-violent role in the Partition, "should
Gandhi be selected for being a symbol of nonviolence, and what
political effects could be expected if the Peace Prize was awarded to the
most prominent Indian leader".
Historians and chroniclers of the Noble Peace Prize now admit that it
was a "curious omission" when men like Martin Luther King Jr. (the
1964 laureate who acknowledged Gandhi as his mentor) and 1960 Nobel
Prize winner Albert Luthuli (who applied Gandhi´s principles in South
Africa) and the 1989 winner, the Dalai Lama, were duly honored, but
Gandhi, the first to employ nonviolence in a political context, was never
awarded the Peace Prize.
Scholarly critics of the Nobel Peace Prize agree that the exclusion of
Gandhi has been a serious setback to the integrity of the prize. Prof.
Irwin Abrams makes the point that there has been a conspicuous and
unjustifiable absence of war-resisters and non-violent activists among
the laureates and concludes that éven less defendable is the parochial
neglect for so long of the non-western and non-Christian world´. In
other words the Nobel Committee is open to the charge of religious and
racial bias
Attempts to determine the reasons for Gandhi´s omission from the

ranks of laureates is plagued by procedural difficulties.
________________________________________________________
89
According to Statute Eight of the Nobel Foundation ´The deliberations,

opinions and proposals of the Nobel Committee in connection with the
award of prizes may not be made public or otherwise revealed´, and
Statute Ten adds that Ńo protest shall lie against the award of an
adjudicating body. If conflicts of opinion have arisen, they shall not be
recorded in the minutes or otherwise revealed.´ Thus the Nobel statutes
forbid public revelation of the deliberations of the Committee or the
disclosure of the list of nominees for any given year.
Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948, two days before

the closing date for that year Nobel Peace Prize nominations. The
Committee received six letters of nomination naming Gandhi; among
the nominators were the Quakers and former prize winners such as
Emily Greene Balch and the American friends Service Committee, five
professors of philosophy from New York´s Columbia University, five
professors of law from the University of Bordeaux, and Norwegian
professors Fedge Castberg and Kristian Oftedal. For the third time
Gandhi came on the Committee´s short list - this time the list only
included three names - and Committee adviser Jens Arup Seip wrote a
report on Gandhi´s activities during the last five months of his life. He
concluded that Gandhi, through his course of life, had put his profound
mark on an ethical and political attitude which would prevail as a norm
for a large number of people both inside and outside India.
Nobody had ever been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize posthumously.
But according to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation in force at that
time, the Nobel Prizes could, under certain circumstances, be awarded
posthumously. Thus it was possible to give Gandhi the prize. However,
Gandhi did not belong to an organization and he left no will; who
should receive the Prize money? The Director of the Norwegian Nobel
Institute, August Schou, asked another of the Committee´s advisers,
lawyer Ole Torleif Røed, to consider the practical consequences if the
Committee were to award the Prize posthumously. Røed suggested a
number of possible solutions for general application. Subsequently, he
asked the Swedish prize-awarding institutions for their opinion. The
answers were negative; posthumous awards, they thought, should not
take place unless the laureate died after the Committee´s decision had
been made.
________________________________________________________
90
On November 18, 1948, the Norwegian Nobel Committee decided to

make no award that year on the grounds that "there was no suitable
living candidate". Chairman Gunnar Jahn wrote in his diary: "To me it
seems beyond doubt that a posthumous award would be contrary to the
intentions of the testator." According to the chairman, three of his
colleagues agreed in the end, only Mr. Oftedal was in favor of a
posthumous award to Gandhi.
Thus it seems reasonable to assume that Gandhi would have been

invited to Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, had he not been felled
by an assassin's bullet, says Tonnesson.
________________________________________________________
91
3.3 Prominent Muslim scientific figures in the twentieth

century.
3.3.1 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS
3.3.1.1 PROF. DR FAROUK EL BAZ
Dr. Farouk El-Baz is Research Professor and Director of the Center for
Remote Sensing at Boston University, Boston MA, U.S.A. He is Adjunct
Professor of Geology at the Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt. He is also a Member of the Board of Trustees of the
Geological Society of America Foundation, Boulder CO
He was born on 1 January 1938 in the Nile Delta town of Zagazig.

Twenty years later, he received a B.Sc. in chemistry and geology from
Ain Shams University, followed by a scholarship for graduate study. In
1961, he received a M.S. degree in geology from the Missouri School of
Mines and Metallurgy; his performance won him membership in the
honorary society of Sigma Xi. In 1964 he received a Ph.D. in geology
from the University of Missouri after conducting research in 1962-1963
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge MA. In
1989, he received an Honorary Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree from the
New England College, Henniker NH.
Dr. El-Baz taught geology at Assiut University, Egypt (1958-1960) and

the University of Heidelberg, Germany (1964-1965). He joined the Pan
________________________________________________________
92
American - U.A.R. Oil Company in 1966, where he participated in the

discovery of El-Morgan, the first offshore oil field in the Gulf of Suez.
From 1967 to 1972, Dr. El-Baz participated in the Apollo Program as

Supervisor of Lunar Science Planning at Bellcomm Inc., a division of
AT&T that conducted systems analysis for NASA Headquarters in
Washington DC. During these six years, he was Secretary of the
Landing Site Selection Committee for the Apollo missions to the Moon,
Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography, and
Chairman of the Astronaut Training Group. His outstanding teaching
abilities were confirmed by the Apollo astronauts. While circling the
Moon for the first time during Apollo mission 15, Alfred Worden said,
"After the King's [Farouk's nickname] training, I feel like I've been here
before."
During the Apollo years, Dr. El-Baz joined NASA officials in briefing
members of the press on the results of the lunar missions. His appeal
rested in a unique ability to simplify complex issues in clear, succinct
and easily understood words. His remarks on the scientific
accomplishments were regularly quoted by the media during the
Apollo missions. As the Apollo program progressed through its
projected series of human orbits of the moon and the landings, Dr. El-
Baz became mentor to the participants, instructing lunar-bound
astronauts on every aspect of the geology and geography of the moon.
Training sessions on orbital science and photography went on during
odd moments the astronauts could spare almost until the moment of
blast-off.
After the Apollo Program ended in 1972, Dr. El-Baz joined the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC to establish and direct the
Center for Earth and Planetary Studies at the National Air and Space
Museum. At the same time, he was elected as a member of the Lunar
Nomenclature Task Group of the International Astronomical Union. In
this capacity, he continues to participate in naming features of the Moon
as revealed by lunar photographic missions.
El-Baz is certainly looking to the future. But he has made sure too that
some aspects of the past will not be forgotten: he's officially named one
area of the moon Arabia, because it "looks like sand dunes and
________________________________________________________
93
approximates the shape of Arabia." He's named another one Necho, to

honor the Egyptian pharaoh who launched a naval expedition to prove
that Africa was surrounded by water. "Moon craters have from the
beginning been named for contributors to astronomy, mathematics and
other sciences," he says. "There already are craters named for ancient
Arab scientists, and I wanted to continue that practice. There were, after
all, so many great Arab scientists at the height of the Islamic civilization
who were not fully honored." El-Baz is doing his part, too, to spread the
Arabic language. Along with several books on geology and lunar
exploration, he has published a little phrase book, "Say It in Arabic," for
use by English-speaking tourists. It grew out of Arabic phrases he'd
compiled to help his American-born, Irish-descended wife on their trips
to Egypt.
In 1973, NASA selected him as Principal Investigator of the Earth

Observations and Photography Experiment on the Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project (ASTP), the first joint American-Soviet space mission of July
1975. Emphasis was placed on photographing arid environments,
particularly the Great Sahara of North Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula, in addition to other features of the Earth and its oceans.
In May 1974. Dr. El-Baz had an audience with His Majesty King Faisal
in Riyadh, during which the late monarch gave his enthusiastic support
for continued studies of the Arabian Desert from space. El-Baz returned
to the Saudi Arabian capital in March 1976 to attend the Islamic
Conference on Science - and Technology. The five-day parley, held
under the auspices of Riyadh University and opened by His Majesty
King Khalid, brought together 160 distinguished scientists, educators
and engineers from all over the Muslim world. While there Dr. El-Baz
met with Amir Fah'd, the Crown Prince, who spoke of his desire to
establish a scientific research institution in Saudi Arabia. In Dr. El-Baz's
opinion, the Arabian Peninsula is not only an ideal desert laboratory,
but also offers optimum conditions for a whole spectrum of solar
energy studies.
Emphasizing the study of the origin and evolution of arid landscapes,

he collected field data during visits to every major desert in the world.
One of his significant journeys took place, soon after the United States
and China had normalized relations in 1979, when he coordinated the
________________________________________________________
94
first visit by American scientists to deserts in northwestern China. The

six-week journey was chronicled in National Geographic and the
Explorers Journal. His research on the origin and evolution of the desert
resulted in his election as a Fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS).
His desert research, spanning over 25 years, helped in dispelling the

public misconception that deserts were man-made and explained how
arid lands originated and evolved in response to global climatic
variations. His research methods are now commonly replicated in
desert studies throughout the world.
From 1982 to 1986, Dr. El-Baz was Vice President of Science and
Technology at Itek Optical Systems, Lexington MA. He oversaw the
application of data from the Space Shuttle's Large Format Camera. The
photography of this advanced system assisted greatly in El-Baz's
program of desert study from space. He was elected Fellow of the Third
World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) in 1985, and became a member of
its Council in 1997. He represents the Academy at the Non-
Governmental Unit of the Economic and Social.
In 1986 Dr. El-Baz joined Boston University as Director of the Center for
Remote Sensing to promote the use of space technology in the fields of
archaeology, geography and geology. Under his leadership, the Center
has grown to become a leading force in the applications of remote
sensing technology to environments around the world. In 1997, NASA
selected it as a "Center of Excellence in Remote Sensing."
Research at the Center has particularly pushed forward the frontiers of

applying remote sensing in archaeology. For example, Dr. El-Baz
developed a methodology for nondestructive investigation of a sealed
chamber containing a disassembled boat at the base of the Great
Pyramid in Giza, Egypt. He reported the results of this unique
investigation in National Geographic and American Scientist, as well as
many print, radio and television interviews. He also contributed an
article on worldwide applications of remote sensing to archaeology in
the "1991 Yearbook of Science and the Future" of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, and another to the August 1997 issue of Scientific American.
________________________________________________________
95
Dr. El-Baz is well known as a pioneer in the application of space-borne

data to ground-water exploration. He utilizes satellite images to
identify fracture zones, and radar data to reveal sand-buried courses of
former rivers. He successfully applied these methods in the arid lands
of Egypt, Somalia, Sudan and Oman. His findings alleviated shortages
of ground water in areas of dire need. This won him the M.T. Halbouty
Human Needs Award of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists (AAPG). He was also appointed Senior Advisor to the
World Bank/UN World Commission on Water for the 21st Century.
He is an accomplished author or editor of twelve books, including Say

it in Arabic, The Moon as Viewed by Lunar Orbiter, Apollo Over the
Moon, Egypt as Seen by Landsat, Deserts and Arid Lands, The Gulf
War and the Environment, and Atlas of the State of Kuwait from
Satellite Images. He has contributed over 200 scientific papers to
professional journals, supervised numerous graduate students, and
lectured in academic institutions and research centers worldwide.
Dr. El-Baz is a member of the United States National Committee for

Geological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences. He serves on
the Board of Trustees of the new Alexandria Library, the Arab Science
and Technology Foundation, the Egyptian Center for Economic
Studies, the Egyptian-American Affairs Council, the Moroccan-
American Council, the World Affairs Council of Boston, as well as the
editorial boards of several international professional journals. He is a
member of many national and international professional societies and a
Fellow of the Geological Society of America, the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Astronomical Society
(London), and the Explorers Club (New York).
He has won numerous honors and awards, including NASA's Apollo

Achievement Award, Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal, and
Special Recognition Award; the University of Missouri Alumni
Achievement Award for Extraordinary Scientific Accomplishments; the
Certificate of Merit of the World Aerospace Education Organization;
the Golden Door Award of the International Institute of Boston; the
Award for Public understanding of Science and Technology of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Arab
Republic of Egypt Order of Merit - First Class. He also serves as
________________________________________________________
96
President of the Arab Society for Desert Research.
In 1999, the Geological Society of America (GSA) established the

"Farouk El-Baz Award for Desert Research," an annual award aimed at
encouraging excellence in arid land studies.
Dr. El-Baz travels often to the Middle East and North Africa in search of
knowledge about the desert. He and his wife, Patricia, have four
daughters: Monira (Mika), Soraya, Karima, and Fairouz. They also have
four grandchildren: Yasmeen Grace, Alia Nisreen, William Jr. and Ian
Shuler.
Years since leaving his Cairo classrooms Farouk El-Baz has

accomplished more than many gifted men and women have succeeded
in doing in long lifetimes and attained a reputation in his field of the
highest order. Conceding that the West has given him a great deal of
knowledge in the space-science field, El-Baz talks feelingly about the
debt he is convinced he owes to the other side of the world: "I have not
forgotten my link with the Arab world, and I cannot. I came from there.
I continually ask myself how I can contribute to scientific development
there. And I believe one of the best ways I can pay back some of the
knowledge I have gained is to use it, particularly for those who need it
most."
Farouk is the fourth in line of nine talented El-Baz brothers and sisters.
His father was a "relatively poor" teacher of religion and Arabic,
undogmatic but fiercely ambitious for his children, who gave each of the
older ones unstinting aid in their homework. It was not long before the
older children, as is the custom in Arab families, were tutoring the
younger ones and taking enormous pride in their scholastic
achievements. Farouk remembers well how his father, a graduate of al-
Azhar University and a very devout man, would often say, "I wish that
God will help me get at least one of my boys through high school."
Farouk's mother married in her early teens. With her husband's help she
taught herself the rudiments of reading and writing after her older
children were half grown. But what the senior Mrs. El-Baz still lacks in
formal education she more than compensates for, according to son
Farouk, with "fantastic common sense and native intelligence."
________________________________________________________
97
In 1972, after repeated entreaties from those of her children living in the
West, and by then a widow with no travel experience-even on a bus-the
mother flew from Cairo to visit her U.S. daughter and two sons. Special
reason for her second trip to the United States, in 1975, was to witness
the Apollo-Soyuz launch at the Kennedy Space Center. At the launch
site this visitor from far-off Nile country was accorded well-deserved
treatment as a V.I.P.
________________________________________________________
98
3.3.1.2 DR FAZLUR RAHMAN KHAN
Fazlur Rahman Khan was "the father of modern-day tall buildings." His
creative yet realistic designs helped make high-rise construction
possible in the 1960s and 1970s and are a legacy to today's engineers.
In step with the abounding vitality of the time, structural engineer

Fazlur Rahman Khan (1929 - 1982) ushered in a renaissance in
skyscraper construction during the second half of the 20th century.
Fazlur Khan was a pragmatic visionary: the series of progressive ideas
that he brought forth for efficient high-rise construction in the 1960s and
'70s were validated in his own work, notably his efficient designs for
Chicago's 100-story John Hancock Center and 110-story Sears Tower
(the tallest building in the United States since its completion in
1974).These projects utilize a tubular system method of construction
that Khan popularized. The Hancock Center features a braced tube and
the Sear Tower uses a bundled tube.
One of the foremost structural engineers of the 20th century, Fazlur

Khan epitomized both structural engineering achievement and creative
collaborative effort between architect and engineer. Only when
architectural design is grounded in structural realities, he believed -
thus celebrating architecture's nature as a constructive art, rooted in the
earth - can "the resulting aesthetics … have a transcendental value and
quality."
________________________________________________________
99
He introduced a groundbreaking structural system, the "bundled tube."

This design for Chicago's 110-story Sears Tower was structurally
efficient and economic: at 1,450 feet, it provided more space and raised
higher than the Empire State Building, yet cost much less per unit area.
Equally important, the new structure type was innovative in its
potential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficient
towers no longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take on
various shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts of
groupings.
When one looks at a text on tall-building design today, one finds these
recognizable structure types: the framed tube, the shear wall frame
interaction, the trussed tube, the bundled tube, and the composite
system (also developed by Fazlur Khan). Though Khan developed
structural systems for particular project needs, he based his innovations
on fundamental structural principles that allowed them wide
application. His developments are among today's "conventional"
systems for skyscraper design.
His ideas for these sky-scraping towers offered more than economic
construction and iconic architectural images; they gave people the
opportunity to work and live "in the sky." Hancock Center residents
thrive on the wide expanse of sky and lake before them, the stunning
quiet in the heart of the city, and the intimacy with nature at such
heights: the rising sun, the moon and stars, the migrating flocks of
birds.
The cornerstone of Khan's approach; science and durability in fusion
with creativity, endures also in the less affluent parts of the world. Until
his death in 1981, Fazlur Rahman Khan was profoundly concerned with
the rapid urbanisation of developing countries and called for the
application of workable and appropriate forms of technology.
Fazlur Khan was always clear about the purpose of architecture. His
characteristic statement to an editor in 1971, having just been selected
Construction's Man of the Year by Engineering News-Record, is
commemorated in a plaque in Onterie Center (446 E. Ontario,
Chicago),the last buiding he designed: The technical man must not be
lost in his own technology. He must be able to appreciate life; and life
is art, drama, music, and most importantly, people.
________________________________________________________
100
After completing undergraduate coursework at the Bengal Engineering

College, University of Calcutta, Fazlur R. Khan received his bachelor's
degree from the University of Dacca in 1951 while placing first in his
class. A Fulbright Scholarship and a Pakistani Government Scholarship
subsequently enabled him to travel to the United States in 1952 where
he pursued advanced studies at the University of Illinois, Urbana. In
three short years Khan earned two masters' degrees - one in structural
engineering and one in theoretical and applied mechanics - and a PhD
in structural engineering.
He received an Alumni Honor Award from the University of Illinois,

Urbana (1972), an Honorary Doctor of Science from Northwestern
University (1973), and an Honorary Doctor of Engineering from Lehigh
University (1980).
In 1961, Fazlur Khan was made a Participating Associate in Skidmore,

Owings & Merrill; in 1966 he became an Associate Partner and in 1970 a
General Partner - the only engineer partner at the time.
In 1973 he was honored with the top accolade for an engineer in the
United States, election to the National Academy of Engineering.
He was cited five times among "Men Who Served the Best Interests of
the Construction Industry" by Engineering News-Record (for 1965,
1968, 1970, 1971, and 1979); and in 1972 he was named "Construction's
Man of the Year." He was posthumously honored with the International
Award of Merit in Structural Engineering from the International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering and a Distinguished
Service Award from the AIA Chicago Chapter (both in 1982).
In 1983 the American Institute of Architects recognized Fazlur Khan's

contributions with an AIA Institute Honor for Distinguished Achievement.
That same year he was honored with the Aga Khan Award for Architecture
"for the Structure of the Hajj Terminal, An Outstanding Contribution to
Architecture for Muslims," which was completed over the last years of
his life.
________________________________________________________
101
The Structural Engineers Association of Illinois recognized his

achievements with the John Parmer Award in 1987. The SEAOI also
commissioned a sculpture in Fazlur Khan's honor by the Spanish artist
Carlos Marinas. The sculpture is located in the lobby of the Sears
Tower.
In 1998 the city of Chicago named the intersection of Jackson and

Franklin Streets (located at the foot of the Sears Tower) "Fazlur R. Khan
Way."
Other honors include:
· Chicagoan of the Year in Architecture and Engineering, Chicago Junior

Chamber of Commerce (1970);
· Special Citation Award, American Institute of Steel Construction
(1971);
· Wason Medal for the most meritorious paper, American Concrete
Institute (1971);
· Thomas A. Middlebrooks Award, American Society of Civil
Engineers (1972);
· Chicago Civil Engineer of the Year, Illinois Section, ASCE (1972);
· J. Lloyd Kimbrough Medal, American Institute of Steel Construction
(1973); Khan was only the fifth recipient of AISC's highest tribute
to professional achievement in the award's 35-year history;
· Alfred E. Lindau Award, American Concrete Institute (1973) "for
outstanding contributions in advancing the art of reinforced
concrete construction in high buildings";
· Oscar Faber Medal, Institution of Structural Engineers, London
(1973);
· State Service Award, Illinois Council, American Institute of
Architects;
· Ernest E. Howard Award, American Society of Civil Engineers
(1977);
· G. Brooks Earnest Award, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Cleveland Section.
He passed away on the 27 March 1982 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In

rememberance of his excellent contributions to the world of sctructural
engineering the Departments of Civil and Environmental Engineering
________________________________________________________
102
and of Art & Architecture at Lehigh University, Pennsylvania had

created the Fazlur Rahman Khan Chair, reserved for candidate with a
world-class research reputation in Structural Engineering and those
expected to bring innovative ideas to the classroom and design studio
with a focus at the intersection of Structural Engineering and
Architecture.
________________________________________________________
103
3.3.1.3 DR ABDUL QADEER KHAN
Abdul Qadeer Khan is a Pakistani engineer widely regarded as the

father of Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme. Born in 1935 into a
middle-class Muslim family in Bhopal, India, Khan migrated to
Pakistan in 1952 following the country's partition from India five years
earlier. He trained as an engineer at the University of Karachi before
moving after graduation to West Germany and Belgium for further
studies, earning a doctorate from the Catholic University of Leuven in
Belgium in 1972.
That same year, he joined the staff of the Physical Dynamics Research
Laboratory, or FDO, in Amsterdam. FDO was a subcontractor for the
URENCO uranium enrichment plant at Almelo in the Netherlands,
which had been established in 1970 by the United Kingdom, West
Germany and the Netherlands to assure a supply of enriched uranium
for European nuclear reactors. The URENCO plant used highly
classified centrifuge technology to separate fissionable uranium-235
from U-238 by spinning a mixture of the two isotopes at up to 100,000
revolutions a minute. The technical complexity of this system is the
main obstacle to would-be nuclear powers developing their own
enrichment facilities.
In May 1974, India tested a nuclear bomb, to the great alarm of

Pakistan's government. Around this time, Khan had privileged access
to the most secret areas of the URENCO plant as well as to
documentation on centrifuge technology. A subsequent investigation
________________________________________________________
104
by the Dutch authorities found that he had passed highly classified

material to a network of Pakistani intelligence agents, although they
found no evidence that he was sent to the Netherlands as a spy, nor
were they able to determine whether he approached his government or
whether it was the other way around. He left the Netherlands suddenly
in January 1976 and was put in charge of the Pakistani nuclear
programme with the support of then prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
Khan established the Engineering Research Laboratories at Kahuta in

July 1976, subsequently renamed as the Dr. A.Q. Khan Research
Laboratories (KRL), as the focal point for developing a uranium
enrichment capability. KRL also took on many other weapons projects,
including the development of the nuclear-capable Ghauri ballistic
missiles. KRL occupied a unique role in Pakistani industry, reporting
directly to the Prime Minister's office, and having extremely close
relations with the military: former prime minister Benazir Bhutto has
said that during her term of office, even she was not allowed to visit the
facility.
Pakistan very rapidly established its own uranium enrichment

capability and was reportedly able to produce highly enriched uranium
by 1986. This progress was so rapid that international suspicion was
raised as to whether it had had outside assistance. It was reported that
Chinese technicians had been at the facility in the early 1980s, but
suspicions soon fell on Khan's activities at URENCO. In 1983, he was
sentenced in absentia to four years in prison by an Amsterdam court for
attempted espionage, although the sentence was later overturned on
appeal on a legal technicality. Khan rejected any suggestion that
Pakistan had illicitly acquired nuclear expertise: "All the research work
[at Kahuta] was the result of our innovation and struggle," he told a
group of Pakistani librarians in 1990. "We did not receive any technical
know-how from abroad, but we can't reject the use of books, magazines
and research papers in this connection."
During the 1980s and 1990s, Western governments became increasingly

convinced that covert nuclear and ballistic missile collaboration was
taking place between China, Pakistan and North Korea.The activities of
the Khan Research Laboratories led to the United States terminating
economic and military aid to Pakistan in October 1990, following which
________________________________________________________
105
the Pakistani government agreed to a freeze in the nuclear programme.
The American clampdown may have prompted an increasing reliance

on Chinese and North Korean nuclear and missile expertise. In 1995, the
U.S. learned that the Khan Research Laboratories had bought 5,000
specialized magnets from a Chinese government-owned company, for
use in uranium enrichment equipment. More worryingly, it was
reported that Pakistani nuclear technology was being exported to other
aspirant nuclear states, notably North Korea. In May 1998, Newsweek
magazine published an article alleging that Khan had offered to sell
nuclear know-how to Iraq, an allegation that he denied. A few weeks
later, both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests that finally
confirmed both countries' development of atomic weapons.Pakistan
exploded six nuclear weapons in the desert of Baluchistan, in May 1998,
(two weeks after India's re-tested theirs. The event was greeted with
jubilation in both countries and Khan was feted as a national hero.
President Rafiq Tarrar awarded him a gold medal for his role in
masterminding the Pakistani nuclear programme. The United States
immediately imposed sanctions on both India and Pakistan and
publicly blamed China for assisting the Pakistanis.
Khan's open promotion of Pakistan's nuclear and missile capabilities

was really worrying The United States government who became
increasingly convinced that Pakistan was trading nuclear technology to
North Korea in exchange for ballistic missile technology. In the face of
strong American criticism, the Pakistani government announced in
March 2001 that Khan was to be dismissed from his post as chairman of
KRL, a move that drew strong criticism from the religious and
nationalist opposition to President Pervez Musharraf. Perhaps in
response to this, the government instead appointed Khan to the post of
special science and technology adviser to President Musharraf, with
ministerial rank. While this could be presented as a promotion for
Khan, it removed him from hands-on management of KRL and gave the
government an opportunity to keep a closer eye on his activities.
In January 2004, Khan confessed to having been involved in an

international network of clandestine nuclear proliferation from
Pakistan to Libya, Iran and North Korea. However on February 5, 2004,
president Pervez Musharraf announced that he had pardoned Khan.
________________________________________________________
106
Despite that ,Khan remains an extremely popular figure in Pakistan. He

is known as an outspoken nationalist and for his belief that the West is
inherently hostile to Islam.
Dr Khan was awarded with Pakistan's countless official decorations

including 13 solid gold medals and many more public honours - the
only Pakistani to have twice received the Nishan-I-Imtiaz, the country's
highest civilian honour. His image - wreathed in roses or electron rings
- is a common sight on billboards and the sides of lorry that rumble
down the roads of Pakistan. Ordinary Pakistanis revere Dr Khan as a
great patriot and innovator who put himself at risk to obtain the nuclear
grail.
________________________________________________________
107
3.3.1.4 DR AVUL PAKIR JAINULABDEEN ABDUL KALAM
Born on 15th October 1931 at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu, Dr. Avul

Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam is known as the 'Father of India's
missile programme' and brain behind the 1998 Pokharan nuclear tests.
He specialized in Aeronautical Engineering from Madras Institute of
Technology. In his early career he went to NASA (the American
National Aeronautics and Space Administration) for a short training. At
NASA's flight Facility's reception lobby, Kalam's eyes caught a painting
prominently displayed; of the 'Tipu Sultan's army fighting the British'.
Tipu Sultan (1750-1799), a ruler of Mysore, South India, was the pioneer
of warfare rocketry. The painting inspired Kalam to develop Indian
rocket, 'a revival of the eighteenth century dream of Tipu Sultan.' Space
is the limit insofar as Kalam's own vision is concerned.
Dr. Kalam made significant contribution as Project Director to develop

India's first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) which
successfully injected the Rohini satellite in the near earth orbit in July
1980 and made India an exclusive member of Space Club. He was
responsible for the evolution of ISRO's launch vehicle programme,
particularly the PSLV configuration. After working for two decades in
ISRO and mastering launch vehicle technologies, Dr. Kalam took up the
responsibility of developing Indigenous Guided Missiles at Defence
Research and Development Organisation as the Chief Executive of
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). He was
responsible for the development and operationalisation of AGNI and
PRITHVI Missiles and for building indigenous capability in critical
technologies through networking of multiple institutions. He was the
________________________________________________________
108
Scientific Adviser to Defence Minister and Secretary, Department of

Defence Research & Development from July 1992 to December 1999.
During this period he led to the weaponisation of strategic missile
systems and the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in collaboration with
Department of Atomic Energy, which made India a nuclear weapon
State. He also gave thrust to self-reliance in defence systems by
progressing multiple development tasks and mission projects such as
Light Combat Aircraft.
As Chairman of Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment

Council (TIFAC) and as an eminent scientist, he led the country with the
help of 500 experts to arrive at Technology Vision 2020 giving a road
map for transforming India from the present developing status to a
developed nation. Dr. Kalam has served as the Principal Scientific
Advisor to the Government of India, in the rank of Cabinet Minister,
from November 1999 to November 2001 and was responsible for
evolving policies, strategies and missions for many development
applications. Dr. Kalam was also the Chairman, Ex-officio, of the
Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) and piloted India
Millennium Mission 2020.
Dr. Kalam took up academic pursuit as Professor, Technology &

Societal Transformation at Anna University, Chennai from November
2001 and was involved in teaching and research tasks. Above all he took
up a mission to ignite the young minds for national development by
meeting high school students across the country.
In his literary pursuit four of Dr. Kalam's books - "Wings of Fire", "India
2020 - A Vision for the New Millennium", "My journey" and "Ignited
Minds - Unleashing the power within India" have become household
names in India and among the Indian nationals abroad. These books
have been translated in many Indian languages.
His humble background, born as a son to a boatman is a testament to

how education can raise people from poverty. He refuses to be
distracted by fame and glory, but remain totally modest. Prayer "acts as
a stimulus to creative ideas," so he writes in Wings of Fire, an
autobiographical work. His simplicity and his almost ascetic lifestyle
have helped bolster the myth of the selfless, patriotic scientist who has
________________________________________________________
109
devoted his entire life to a mission - making India into a major military
power.
Dr. Kalam is one of the most distinguished scientists of India with the
unique honour of receiving honorary doctorates from 30 universities
and institutions. He has been awarded the coveted civilian awards -
Padma Bhushan (1981) and Padma Vibhushan (1990) and the highest
civilian award Bharat Ratna (1997). He is a recipient of several other
awards and Fellow of many professional institutions.
Dr. Kalam became the 11th President of India on 25th July 2002. His
focus is on transforming India into a developed nation by 2020.
________________________________________________________
110
3.3.1.5 GENERAL KERIM KERIMOV
Kerim Kerimov was born in November 14, 1917 in Baku, Azerbaijan.A

son of an engineer, he was known as the shadowy scientist whose
leading role shaped the Soviet space programme. He has been involved
in Soviet aeronautics from its inception after World War II. During his
career, he rose to the highest position as Chairman of the State
Commission, and supervised every stage of development and operation
of both manned space complexes as well as unmanned interplanetary
stations for the entire former Soviet Union.
Kerim, chairman of the Soviet Aeronautics Commission, had a leading

role behind the Soviet space programme over several decades. He was
one of the architects of the string of Soviet successes that stunned the
world from the early 1960s - from the launch of the first human in space,
Yuri Gagarin's 108-minute trip around the world to Mir space station in
1986. In 1967, Cosmos 186 made history by successfully completing the
first automated link-up between two unmanned spacecraft. For this
achievement, Kerim was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General.
He took a leading role in overseeing the numerous launches from Soviet
Union's secret cosmodromes. His career in space industry expanded
from Commander of TsUKOS 1964-1965 to Directorate Chief of Ministry
of General Machine Building 1965-1974 before being appointed as the
Chairmen for the State Commission for Soyuz 1966-1991.
Kerim Kerimov identity has remained a secret for most of his career
until 1987- when he was first mentioned in Pravda during Mikhail
Gorbachev's era of glasnost and perestroika. Even Azerbaijanis did not
________________________________________________________
111
know that the man holding the Number One position in aerospace was
an Azerbaijani. At televised space launchings, cameras always focused
on the cosmonauts and not the person to whom they reported their
readiness to carry out the mission. As Karimov was a "secreted
general", he was always hidden from the camera's view; only his voice
was broadcast.
The following are few excerpts from an exclusive interview with Betty
Blair, revealing this 'unknown' great contributor to the Soviet space
mission:
About the space missions:
I haven't counted. But I was in that position 25 years and I launched all
of them during that period. I almost didn't have a personal life. I used
to work Saturdays and Sundays. I couldn't fall ill. I didn't have the right
to get sick. Despite all this, I'd have to admit I'm satisfied with my life
except for the fact that I lost my wife very early on. She was only 50
when she died and, afterwards, I never remarried. I had met her at
school; we had studied together.
About his being kept secret from public:
First of all, I was a "secret" general. Previously, I had been in the sphere
of strategic rockets (hydrogen bombs). Later, after being transferred to
aeronautics (we had given that division the non-descript name of
"Ministry of General Machinery"), they continued the tradition of
keeping me secreted. My name was first mentioned publicly in the
newspaper, "Pravda", on August 7, 1987. After that, everybody started
interviewing me. That was during Gorbachev's "Glasnost" and
"Perestroika". Prior to that, I was known as the "nameless" or
"anonymous" Chairman of the Commission
About his book published in 1995:
It's called "The Way to Space: The Notes of the Chairman of the State
Commission." Frankly speaking, much of the information that was
made public was produced as propaganda. But after 1988, it became
possible to write about me as I had been in the position to have
________________________________________________________
112
participated in all the space flights. It was then that I was asked to write
about what actually happened behind the scenes-many events had not
been made known. People were curious about space missions so I
offered to write about my activities and to document everything that I
had experienced.
The book is very technical. In fact, it's my first published work. I wanted
to write about each space flight with all its shortcomings as well as its
benefits. Not a single flight went smoothly. The descriptions in the book
are based on reports that I made to the State Commission. If anyone
wants to discover any information about the dates, time of flights, their
landings, it's all there. I tried not to hide anything. There had been
rumors that Gagarin was not the first cosmonaut to go into space, but
that wasn't true. I write about these kinds of things.
About life:
I've had incredible experiences in my life time, most of which I wouldn't

trade for anything in the world.
He was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labour and the Order of
Lenin. He died in March 2003 in Moscow after a brief illness at the age
of 85.
________________________________________________________
113
3.3.1.6 PROF DR SEEYED MAHMOUD HESSABY
Professor at the University of Tehran, Dr. Mahmoud Hessaby was an

important Iranian and Muslim scientist.He is also known as the 'Father
of Modern Physic in Iran'.
He was born in Tehran in 1903.At the age of seven he moved to Beirut

where he began attending school. At the age of seven he memorized the
Qur'an by heart and later he started to read great books of Persian
literature, which are regarded as very sophisticated. At the early age of
seventeen he obtained his Bachelor's in Arts and Sciences from the
American University of Beirut. Later he obtained his BA in civil
engineering while working as a draftsman. After a short period of time
he obtained a BA in Mathematics and Astronomy.
He continued his studies and as a graduate of the Engineering school of

Beirut he was admitted to the "École Superieure d'Electricité". In 1925
he graduated from this school at the same time he was hired by the
French Electric Railway Co. He had a scientific mind and continued his
research in Physics at the Sorbonne University and obtained his Ph.D in
Physics from this University at the age of twenty-five.
According to the Professor Hessaby Institute, the following were some

of his accomplishments:
Founding the Highway Engineering school and teaching there from

1928
Survey and drawing of the first coastal road-map between Persian
________________________________________________________
114
Gulf ports
Founding the "teachers college" and teaching there from 1928
Construction of the first radio-set in Iran (1928)
Construction of the first weather-station in 1931
Installation and operation of the first radiology center in Iran in 1931
Calculation and setting of Iranian time (1932)
Founding the first private hospital in Iran (Goharshad Hospital) in
1933
Writing the University charter and founding Tehran University
(1934)
Founding the Engineering school in 1934 and acting as the dean of
that school until 1936 and teaching there from then on
Founding the faculty of science and acting as its dean from 1942 to
1948
Commissioned for the dispossession of British Petroleum Company
during government of Dr. Mossadegh and appointed as the first
general manager of the National Iranian Oil Company
Minister of Education in the cabinet of Dr. Mossadegh from 1951 to
1952
Opposing the contract with the consortium while in the senate
Opposing the membership of Iran in CENTO (Baghdad Pact)
Founding the Telecommunication Center of Assad-Abad in
Hamedan (1959)
Writing the standards charter for the standards Institute of Iran
(1954)
Founding the Geophysical Institute of Tehran University (1961)
Title of distinguished professor of Tehran University from 1971
Founding the atomic research center and atomic reactor at Tehran
University
Founding the atomic Energy center of Iran, member of the UN
scientific sub-committee of peaceful use of member of the
international space committee (1981)
Establishment of Iran's space research committee and member of the
international space committee (1981)
Establishment of the Iranian music society and founding the Persian
language Academy.
He continued lecturing at University for three working generations,

teaching seven generations of students and professors. He spoke four
________________________________________________________
115
living languages: French, English, German and Arabic and he also

knew Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Pahlavi, Avestan, Turkish and Italian
which he used for his etymological studies.
In the scientific field: twenty-five research papers, articles and books
have been put to print by professor Hessaby. His theory of "Infinitely
extended particles" is well-known among the world scientist. The
medal of the commandeur de la legion d honneure, France's greatest
scientific medal, was awarded to him for his theories.
Professor Hessaby was the only Iranian student of professor Albert

Einstein, he was known to be his favourite student, and during his
years of scientific research he had meetings with well-known scientists
such as Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac, Aage
Niels Bohr ....and scholars such as Russel and Andre-Gide.
During the congress of "60 years of physics in Iran" the services

rendered by him were deeply appreciated and he was entitled "the
father of physics in Iran". He passed away on September 3, 1992, at the
University hospital of Geneva.
As Hesabi had wished he was buried in his mother-land Tafresh.

________________________________________________________
116
3.3.1.7 PROF DR ZAKARIA ERZINCLIOGLU
Dr. Zakaria, also known as Dr. Zak, was Britain's leading forensic
entomologist Britain's leading forensic entomologist (an expert in the
application of insect biology to criminal investigations) with three
decades' experience in solving all manner of grisly crimes.
He was also the author of the fascinating, if gruesome, Maggots, Murder

and Men (2000).In this book Erzinçlioglu, who described himself as a
"maggotologist", explained the scientific basis of his work: "When a
body begins to decompose, it releases volatile compounds with
particular chemical compositions. These are the odours that attract a fly
to a corpse." Once the odours disappear, usually within a few weeks of
death, flies ignore the corpse, so by calculating the age of the flies and
fly larvae found on the body, a forensic entomologist can determine
with a degree of confidence how long ago (and often in what sort of
environment) the person died.
Erzinçlioglu, or "Dr Zak", as he was affectionately known, was a

professed admirer of the methods of Sherlock Holmes and, like his hero,
was unsqueamish about death. He observed that "viewed
dispassionately a dead human body is a magnificent and highly
nutritious resource," and claimed to find "a great deal of beauty" in the
blowflies and other insects whose maggots thrive on decaying flesh.
During his career, Erzinçlioglu helped to solve more than 200 murders,
including those committed by Robert Black, alias "Smelly Bob", who
was convicted in 1994 of the murders and rapes of three young girls. He
was also consulted in 1985 during the investigation of the murder of 14-
________________________________________________________
117
year old Jason Swift by members of a paedophile ring. Erzinçlioglu's

evidence in this case showed that Jason had been killed indoors and not
in the woods where his body was discovered.
In 1984, Erzinçlioglu's evidence helped to convict Dr Sampson Perera, a

dental lecturer at Wakefield accused of murdering a 13-year old girl he
had adopted illegally and kept as a slave. Perera had chopped his
victim in pieces and hidden her remains round his house, laboratory
and garden. When the remains were found, he claimed they were sterile
bones he used in his medical research. But by identifying a particular
fly which was still present on some of the bones, Erzinçlioglu was able
to prove the bones had been recently dismembered, a crucial piece of
evidence in the prosecution.
Despite his evident relish for his subject, Erzinçlioglu was a soft-spoken
man of immense compassion and integrity who never forgot the human
tragedy behind the forensic evidence, believing that "the last aspects of
your life have to be dealt with as well".
Zakaria Erzinçlioglu was born on December 30 1951 in Hungary to

parents of Turkish origin. He was partly brought up in Egypt and the
Sudan and partly in England, where, as a child, he contracted polio, and
as a result developed a limp.
He started out an as entomologist interested in how insects transmit

diseases and obtained a degree in Applied Zoology at Wolverhampton
Polytechnic in 1975. From 1976 to 1981 he worked for the Zoological
Society of London as a compiler for the Zoological Record.In the early
1970s, he was telephoned by police who needed someone who knew
something about maggots. They came back to him again and again and,
as he recalled, "soon I thought, 'well, this is an interesting area'." In 1981
he moved to Durham University to study for a doctorate with Lewis
Davies. His thesis was on blowfly eggs and larvae and their
development.
Not all his forensic investigations were grisly. On one occasion he was
consulted by a firm of vintners accused of negligence by an aggrieved
customer in Scotland who had found a spider in one of their bottles of
wine. Erzinçlioglu identified the spider as Clubonia diversa, a species
________________________________________________________
118
which does not occur indoors but is common in boggy areas of the
north. He concluded that it was difficult to see how the spider could
have entered the wine during bottling and since the complainant lived
in a marshy area of lowland Scotland, it was likely that it had entered
after the bottle had been opened, probably during an alfresco party.
In 1984, as an employee of the Field Studies Council, he moved to

Cambridge University, where he worked with Henry Disney in the
Zoology department. Among other publications this resulted in
Blowflies (1996 - volume 23 in the Naturalists' Handbook series). He
was then funded by the Home Office to undertake research in forensic
entomology and was later appointed director of a new Forensic Science
Research Centre at Durham University.
Erzinçlioglu fought constant battles for funding, and in 1995, shortly
after the Royal Army Medical College had awarded him their John
Grundy Medal for medical entomology, the centre was forced to close.
He returned to Cambridge as an affiliated researcher at the Department
of Zoology and continued to do case work for the police.
In 1997, however, he announced that, in future, he would only carry out

forensic work if paid by the judiciary. Explaining his decision in an
article in Nature in 1998, Erzinçlioglu claimed that incompetent and
dishonest forensic scientists were undermining Britain's criminal justice
system. The Government's decision to make the forensic science service
an agency of the Home Office, he argued, had led to the development of
an unregulated market in which lawyers acting for one side or the other
in criminal trials could effectively buy the evidence most favourable to
their cause.
Erzinçlioglu recommended that a fully-staffed statutory body should be

set up, answerable solely to the judiciary and not dependent on the
"goodwill" of its customers. Much of Erzinçlioglu's later forensic work
was concerned with miscarriages of justice - work he often carried out
for nothing.Dr Erzinclioglu said: "Forensic scientists should not be
subject to financial or emotional pressures and their independence must
be guaranteed and defined in law so that, like judges, their neutrality
and objectivity can be upheld in every way. "Unfortunately at the
present time forensic science evidence is paid for by people who are, by
the very nature of the system, biased, even if they are sincerely trying to
________________________________________________________
119
arrive at the truth. Police officers and lawyers are interested but not,
with the best will in the world, disinterested, parties."
In the last years of his life, Erzinçlioglu spent much of his time working
from home writing books. Maggots, Murder and Men was the runner-
up in the Crime Writers' Association 2001 Silver Dagger Award for non-
fiction. He also wrote Every Contact Leaves a Trace (2001), as well as a
children's story, Ivo of the Black Mountain, and a thriller, Jackdraw
Crag, which have yet to be published.
Erzinçlioglu served, variously, on the council of the Linnean Society

and of the Zoological Society and as a member of the National Trust
Wicken Fen Management Committee and the advisory committee of
the Centre for Albanian studies. He was a trustee of the Bosnia-
Herzegovina Rescue Foundation.
At the time of his death he was working on books on poisons and on

miscarriages of justice as well as a play. He participated in television
programmes on forensic science, including the documentary The
Witness was a Fly, which was shown on the BBC.
Zakaria Erzinçlioglu married Sharon Wynne Davies in 1984 and they

had a son and two daughters. They met while both were studying for
zoology PhDs at Durham University. Her research was into the
underwater foraging behaviour of mink. Dr Zak was developing ways
to identify flies from their maggots, a skill he would use regularly in his
later career as a forensic scientist.Dr Zak's last effort was to set up an
independent forensic science centre, which he named the Solon
Institute, after the Greek sage who reformed Athenian law.
Unfortunately,in September 2002, before he could get the idea off the
ground, he had an unexpected and fatal heart attack, aged 50.
________________________________________________________
120
3.3.1.8 PROF DR SAMIRA IBRAHIM ISLAM
Prof Dr Samira Ibrahim Islam of Saudi Arabia was she was the first
Saudi woman to complete a basic education; the first Saudi woman to
obtain a BA and PhD degree; also with respect to all specialties she was
the first Saudi woman to become a full professor. While in the field of
Pharmacology she was the first Saudi, man or woman, to become a full
professor. Her successful working career was not limited to pure science
research projects only; with considerable devotion to, and a sincere
interest in the field of girl's higher education which was in its infancy in
the early 70s - Professor Islam's contribution branched into many
separate areas.. She is also the first to introduce formal university
education for girls in the Kingdom and the first woman vice dean in a
Saudi university.
Professor Islam started her academic career in 1971 by volunteering to

lecture at the College of Education, King Abdulaziz University, Makkah
Branch (now Umm Al Qura University). In 1972, Dr Ahmed
Muhammad Ali, the university President, appointed Dr Islam as an
official member of the teaching staff in the position of Lecturer. With the
encouragement and support of Dr Mohammed Abdu Yamani, then the
Rector of King Abdulaziz University, in 1973 Dr Islam was assigned as
Academic Advisor for the girl's section in both the Jeddah and Makkah
branches. She introduced formal university education sections for girls;
prior to 1973 girls were enrolled as external students only, and those
interested were allowed to attend limited evening classes only.
At the expense at time of furthering her own scientific career and

________________________________________________________
121
research Professor Islam dedicated her time to starting official, regular

daytime university education for girls. Dr Islam established many new
educational programs for women and she was also assigned as the
Head of the Science Departments. During 1973, Departments of
Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Biology were founded in the
College of Education Makkah branch with Dr Islam at their Head. This
was the first time girls were enrolled into science subjects and allowed
to carry out practical studies in laboratories.
In 1974 the Faculty of Medicine was established; Professor Abdullah

Basalamal became the Dean of the Faculty and Professor Islam was the
Vice Dean, the first time such a title had been given to a woman in
Saudi Universities. In 1975 she was the second person to be assigned as
one of the founders of the Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences. In
1975 male and female students were enrolled in the medical program,
Nursing and Medical Technology programs followed in 1976. The
Nursing Program was opened for girls only, with no male staff;
Professor Islam took the full responsibility of developing its program
faculty and in 1978 became the Dean of that program.she was
responsible for the establishment, together with the Faculty of Medicine
and Allied Sciences Facilities, a BA degree program in Natural Sciences
for girls and the first group were also enrolled in 1975. Professor Islam
took charge of this college for the following three years and participated
in the required planning to develop its faculty and facilities until it
became an independent college of Kind Abdul Aziz University. With
support of the Health Sector of the Armed Forces and Aviation between
1981 and 1984 she also established the specialized secondary school
program for girls 'School of Health Sciences' which grants a secondary
school certificate in specialized areas of the health profession.
Whilst achieving so much on behalf of women in her country in terms

of higher education, Professor Islam also managed to combine her
academic work with a successful career as a research scientist - never
losing touch with her dream of conducting research that would
eventually benefit the whole of Saudi society.
Professor Islam received strong support and co-operation from
colleagues and assistants which enabled her to develop her prime
interest in research. With their encouragement and due to her
dedication to scientific research she would travel to Britain to complete
________________________________________________________
122
her research in Pharmacology, as there were no research laboratories in

her own country during the seventies.
"It was with considerable difficulty. I used to collect samples for my

experiments in those days and hand carried them to the UK to my
Medical School at Paddington," recalls Professor Islam. At that stage she
focused on pharmacogenetic studies, and managed to phenotype the
Saudi population; she defined the polymorphism traits with respect to
some metabolic pathways; 'acetylation' and '4-hydroxilstion' reactions,
which some drugs undergo when taken into the body of patients.
"Our country is an open market for imported drugs from East and West
and none of the producers have studied the ethnic influences on the
effects of these drugs. With regard to medication, we were vulnerable in
not having enough specific information about the normal biological and
physiological constitution of our population, with the consequence that
physicians would used the empirical values for calculating drug doses,
which may be extremely risky when prescribing certain drugs because
there are many hereditary factors which distinguish the different
populations of the world and consequently their needs for specific drug
doses, these differences are not critical for all drugs. In any event my
research is the first of its kind in the international literature which
defines the Saudi profile in drug metabolism and is an important
contribution to drug safety," she observes.
Professor Islam achieved recognition in her field and she became the
first Saudi full professor in Pharmacology in 1983. She focused her
research on the effect of drugs on the Saudi population through the
Drug Monitoring Unit at King Fahd Medical Research Canter of King
Abdulaziz University. She founded the Drug Monitoring Unit from the
research funds she was granted where the blood of patients undergoing
medication is analyzed, thus helping physicians to decide on accurate
doses. Professor Islam remarked that she publicized the need for every
organization and individual to support scientific research in this
country, especially concerning the drug safety which includes treatment
of illnesses and curing of diseases.
Her groundbreaking research and contributions to science in her home

country were finally recognized when Professor Samira Ibrahim Islam
________________________________________________________
123
became the first Muslim and Arab woman to be nominated by

UNESCO as a distinguished Scientist of the World for the Year 2000, at
their For Women in Science Awards.
The award, first instituted in 1998, selects female scientists who have
made a major contribution to their area of expertise. Of the 100 women
scientists nominated globally, the UNESCO award committee in Paris
chose 32 in late 1999 as final nominees. Saudi Arabia was one of the six
Asian counties shortlisted along with China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea and
India.
Professor Islam established collaborative links of mutual benefit with

several international academic institutions internationally. From 1996
to '98 Professor Islam became the first Saudi woman and the second
Saudi Arab to hold an official staff position in the World Health
Organization (WHO); she was appointed to the post of Regional
Advisor (Essential Drug Program in the Regional Office for the Eastern
Mediterranean), which covers 23 countries of the Region.
Denying herself an international career Professor Islam resigned from

the WHO in 1998, and returned to Jeddah in response to the request
which she was deeply honored to receive from the late Queen Effat to
establish the first private university college for girls - Effat National
College. For this remarkable effort,she was conferred the title of
Establishing Dean. Professor Islam manages to combine her scientific
interests at the Pharmacology Department and the Drug Monitoring
Unit at King Fahd Medical Research Canter, King Abdulaziz University
with her work at Effat College, continuing to make huge advances in
the sciences and in women's education in Saudi.
________________________________________________________
124
3.3.1.9 PROF. DR HAROON AHMED
Professor Haroon Ahmed is a distinguished electrical and electronics

engineer. He is the Master of Corpus Christi College, University of
Cambridge (the first Muslim master of an Oxbridge College) and
Professor of Microelectronics at the Cavendish Laboratory. Haroon
Ahmed first came to the Engineering Department, Cambridge
University in 1959 having graduated at Imperial College London. He
worked for his PhD with Charles Oatley and Bill Beck. He then
continued to work with Charles Oatley, until Oatley retired, before
moving into the new research area of electron beam lithography in 1970.
He taught electrical engineering at the Department for twenty-two

years, until 1984, and saw the electronics courses change from valves to
transistors and eventually to modern microelectronics. His two text
books, one with Beck and the other with Spreadbury, have been used to
teach many generations of students.
His research group eventually became so large that he moved it to the

Science Park, although it still remained part of the Department. This
group left the Engineering Department in 1984 when Haroon moved to
the Cavendish to set up the Microelectronics Research Centre with the
aid of a large donation from Hitachi. As the Head of the
Microelectronics Research Centre he has carried out many projects in
collaboration with well-known industrial companies. He is non-
Executive Chairman of the Board of Smartbead Ltd which is a start-up
company in biotechnology and he has served as an advisor to electronic
companies and to Government bodies nationally and internationally.
________________________________________________________
125
In August 2000 he was elected as the Master of Corpus Christi College,

Cambridge.Haroon Ahmed has worked at the University of Cambridge
in the Engineering and Physics Departments for more than 30 years. He
is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and a Fellow of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers and of the Institute of Physics. He
retired from Cambridge in September 2003.
Haroon Ahmed has lived in Cambridge for 42 years. His wife Anne,
also a graduate of the University of Cambridge, worked for many years
as a Research Assistant on the Addenbrooke's site.
________________________________________________________
126
3.3.1.10 PROF DR AHMED SHAMMIN SIDDIQUI
Dr Ahmed Shamim Siddiqui was a brilliant physicist whose original

contributions to the fields of optical communications stimulated what
was a paradigm of collaboration between academe and industry. His
peculiar talent was to envisage novel applications of the physics of the
infra-red to photonics.
He gained international recognition for his work in optical

communication systems and particularly for his pioneering research on
polarisation effects in fibre-optic transmissions. During the early 1990s
his research focused on the fundamental polarisation properties of
optical fibres. His work contributed greatly to the understanding of
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD). This is an important limiting
factor for transmitting high-speed and high-volume information
through optical fibres over very long distances.
He demonstrated the first two-channel optical transmission using

polarisation division multiplexing. This work led to the invention of the
first real-time optical polarimeter, which was granted a US patent in
1992. The understanding and management of PMD in fibre-optic links
has been a major step for achieving today's global information society
based on the huge capacity that only optical fibre can provide.
Siddiqui worked closely with Nortel (Northern Telecom), British

Telecom, STC submarine systems and later Alcatel Submarine
Networks searching for solutions for greater transmission capacities
over their long-haul undersea fibre networks. Siddiqui's more recent
________________________________________________________
127
pioneering achievements in the field include the development of the

first fully polarisation-sensitive optical time domain reflectometer as
well as the novel polarisation mode dispersion compensation
techniques.
Shamim Siddiqui was born in Patna, India in 1942, the son of a

Professor of Zoology at the University of Lucknow, and grew up in
Pakistan. He came to Britain after taking a first degree in Karachi, and
became a British citizen shortly after completing his education in
Physics at Heriot-Watt University, in Edinburgh, in 1972.
He then embarked on the uncertain life of a post-doctoral research

assistant, which took him into the physics departments of Bristol, Essex
and Queen Mary College, London, and eventually, in 1983, to a
lectureship in the Department of Electronic Systems Engineering at
Essex. In 2001, he was awarded a Professorship at Essex University. He
has published more than 100 papers and was a holder of three patents.
He had a daughter from previous marriage with Elizabeth Noble in

1967. In 1977 he married Cora van Helfteren. He died in Cholchester on
22 August 2001.
As a tribute to his extensive contribution the University of Essex has

introduced the Shamim Siddiqui Award. This prize is awarded
annually to an outstanding student in the Department of Electronic
Systems Engineering who submits the best essay on a theme of general
intellectual interest, including topics that reflect Professor Siddiqui's
interests including the philosophy of science and ethical and social
issues arising from science and technology.
________________________________________________________
128
3.3.1.11 PROF. DR ALI JAVAN
Prof Dr Ali Javan currently is the Professor Emeritus in Physics, at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. He is internationally
known as the inventor of the 'gas laser'.
He was born in 1928 in Tehran of Azerbaijani parentage. His mother and

father were born in Tabriz (Iran). Javan came to the United States in 1949
and received the Ph.D. degree in physics in 1954 from Columbia
University in New York City under the direction of Charles Townes.
Following a postdoctoral fellowship at Columbia University, he joined
the research staff of Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New
Jersey in September, 1958. In 1961 he joined the MIT faculty, where he
has continued to teach and conduct research up to the present.
Professor Javan conceived of the gas laser principle in 1958, while a

member of the Bell Laboratories technical staff, and in 1960 he brought
this concept to fruition, successfully operating the well-known and
widely used helium-neon laser. This invention, the first laser to operate
continuously, attracted immediate international attention and laid the
foundation for a great deal of subsequent work.
Prior to his work on the laser, Professor Javan developed the theory of
the three level lasers and showed the importance of phase coherence in
this microwave device. This work introduced the concept of lasers
without population inversion, and he further extended this idea to the
use of the stimulated Raman effect to achieve gain, a concept that
subsequently led to novel extensions in the optical regime.
________________________________________________________
129
Professor Javan's continued contributions over the years have advanced

diverse frontiers in the field of quantum electronics. At MIT, he
established a major research laboratory and developed it into the
largest university laser research laboratory throughout the 1960's and
1970's. Many of the early breakthroughs in the scientific uses of lasers
took place there. These include the many developments in laser
spectroscopy at sub-Doppler resolution, which defined the field of gas
phase nonlinear spectroscopy; the first use of lasers to accurately test
the special theory of relativity and the isotropy of space; the
introduction of absolute frequency measurement technology into the
optical region, and the first development of laser atomic clocks.
Professor Javan has continued to be active in novel areas of research,

including his recent work exploring the effects of coupling light by an
optical antenna into a nanoscale volume of matter. A number of active
fields of research have emerged from his work. His contributions have
also extended to applied research areas, from the development of high
energy gas lasers and multistatic laser radars, controlled by accurate
optical clocks, to lasers for medical diagnostic use. He has supervised
the doctoral thesis research of a large number of physics graduate
students. In addition, he has served as an active consultant to
government and industry.
For his work on gas lasers, Professor Javan was awarded the 1964
Stewart Ballentine Medal of the Franklin Institute, the 1966 Fanny and
John Hertz Foundation Medal, the 1975 Fredrick Ives Medal of the
Optical Society, and the 1993 Albert Einstein World Medal of Science of
the World Cultural Council. He is a Fellow of the National Academy of
Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, an Associate
Fellow of the Third World Academy of Sciences, and an Honorary
Member of the Trieste Foundation for the Advancement of Science. In
1966 he was named a Guggenheim Fellow, and in 1979 and 1995 a
Humbolt Foundation Fellow. He's been with the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) since 1962.
Prof Javan, known as a person who always pre-occupied with the

future of science, yet the following excerpts can summarise the vision
and perception of this great scientist:
________________________________________________________
130
On science and discovery:
"In the scientific world, they always say that when the time comes for an
invention or a discovery to be made, if you don't do it, someone else
will. To a large extent, that's true. But it's not always the case. People can
miss a good idea."
"Science always develops on the strength of work done in the past.

When Newton discovered gravity, he admitted that he had "stood on
the shoulders of giants and that's how he had seen farther." Nothing
ever develops on its own, isolated from the past. There's always a
foundation for our knowledge that others have laid and that we build
upon"
"It's difficult to pinpoint the moment when a creative idea is born. Oh, I
suppose there's a beginning somewhere along the line. But who knows?
At some moment you know everything about your invention even
though you're not aware that you do. And then suddenly it all fits
together and the discovery is made"
As a child:
"As long as I can remember, I've always been interested in science. I

never hesitated to get involved in science……. I remember playing a lot
with gadgets. My first attempt to invent something was for an idea that
could never have worked out. Conceptually, it was impossible.But I
tried anyway…."
________________________________________________________
131
3.3.1.12 PROF DR KARIMAT EL-SAYED
Prof Dr Dr. Karimat EL-SAYED is currently the Professor of Solid State

Physics, Department of Physic, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
As a high school girl, Karimat EL-SAYED was overwhelmed by the

glorious biography of Marie Curie, the scientist and the woman. Thus
she majored in physics for her first university degree. After graduating
from Ain Shams University with honor, she acquired her Ph.D. under
another distinguished woman scientist: Kathleen Lonsdale of
University College, London University. In her thesis, which could be
considered innovative at the time, Dr. EL-SAYED correlated the
thermal vibration of each individual atom in the structure with the
thermal expansion of the studied material. Returning home, she was
appointed to the physics department of the science faculty of Ain
Shams University in Cairo, at a time when the discovery of the
transistor began to show that small amounts of impurities (doping)
could profoundly change the properties of many materials.
Dr. EL-SAYED undertook and published most of her work concerned

with structures (finding the distribution of atoms and impurities in
atoms inside materials), microstructural properties and application of
low concentrations of constituents in materials relevant to industrial
metallurgy, and semi-conducting materials. For example, Dr. EL-
SAYED has diagnosed that aluminum foils were weakened by cracks
resulting from the presence of a particular form of silica (sand) impurity
and that oxygen atoms were poisoning certain semiconductors exposed
to the air.Thanks to the expertise she acquired regarding crystal growth,
________________________________________________________
132
Dr. EL-SAYED has analyzed the formation of urinary stones. These

grow epitaxially layer upon layer, alternately calcium oxalate and
organic material consisting of proteins.
Dr. EL-SAYED's efforts also relate to the on-going training of students,

teachers and researchers in Egyptian universities through workshops
and seminars, and she is a sought-after speaker at international
conferences. She also has devoted a significant part of her time to
describing the condition of women scientists in Egypt. Her findings
show that the low number of female researchers in physics does not
arise from a lack of talented students or from discrimination on the part
of the teaching staff, but from social attitudes. And she puts much effort
too, into educating, encouraging and inspiring female scientists in
Egypt and abroad.
Dr. EL-SAYED has successfully managed her academic and private

lives, overcoming technical, academic, and institutional challenges. "I
liked to teach the young students, but now the percentage of students
who are studying science is less than in my time. All teachers should try
to make teaching materials that are easy for students to learn and to
play…. Many professors my age stop doing science, but I'm still doing
it because I love it. We want to take part in developing our country, and
we have good people and good scientists"
Her academic credibility and invaluable contribution to science were

internationally acknowledged when she was awarded the prestigious
2003 L'Oreal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science in 2003.(The
L'Oreal-UNESCO Award distinguishes five remarkable women
researchers representing the five continents - Africa, Asia-Pacific,
Europe, Latin America and North America. Professor Pierre-Gilles de
Gennes, Nobel Prize in Physics 1991, presided over an international jury
of 10 eminent scientists for 2003.)
Karimat EL-SAYED is blessed with a family of an understanding

husband, two sons, one daughter, and four grand children. She is also
blessed with a fine group of graduate students and colleagues. The
following are few excerpts of the philosopies behind her success:
About life as a working mother:

________________________________________________________
133
"I was studying under a great lady there (in UK).She had been a
housewife, and then later a mother and scientist. She taught me how to
balance the three roles, because she discovered that she was looking
after her children much better when she was working. When you work,
your time with your children is limited. So it becomes quality time. You
stop taking their day for granted and you want to know every detail.
You want them to fill you in on what you've missed.And in return, they
miss out on nothing either."
"The children of a working mother do better in life. A working mother

gains experience. She learns what life is about and learns to deal with
the challenges one faces. Children, in turn, learn to accomplish many
things and juggle responsibilities and activities because their mother
passes this experience on to them. A working mother works at the
office, works to take care of her children, works to take care of the
house, and works to take care of her husband -- who is also like a child."
On research:
"It was a real struggle to do research.I had to travel a lot.To be a good

researcher you have to interact with advanced countries, and I made
sure I married another solid state physicist.He understands the
requirements of research, so he's not like the other husbands who tell
their wives that they can't travel.He used to look after the children with
the help of my mother and mother-in-law
On her passion to science:
"Think of a human body. As humans, we have cells. They are repeated

in everyone, but with individual arrangements. These individual
arrangements give us our characteristics.God created materials similar
to the way he created humans.Think of a fingerprint.Every material,
every substance, has a fundamental structure -- its unit cell. This
structure is made out of atoms, which are arranged in a certain way.
This arrangement gives each material its characteristics. So each
material has a fingerprint. And no material is similar to another, so each
has its own fingerprint."
________________________________________________________
134
"Materials are like humans.Substances become ill too. And when they
are sick, their properties changed and they became deformed - their
character changes. And the substance as you knew it - with its particular
properties - transforms, changes, and dies. If you try to compress, or
heat, or put a material in unfriendly conditions, it transforms to another
material.Its fingerprint changes. If you were burnt, you would change
too."
The problem with scientific research in developing countries:
"The problem, unfortunately, is that scientists' hours of enigmatic

research remain incomprehensible to most citizens, and the importance
of such work remains significantly, outside of the national grasp. We're
not like abroad. Abroad, research is used to address a specific problem,
to develop it in a certain way. Take India, the only research they do is
for the purpose of development (she points to the example of India's
prowess in the global software industry). I do research because I love it,
but if we use it for the country we would be in a very different place."
On women capability in science:
"Women are naturally suited to research.Women like details, they notice

them, their eye falls across them. The success of women in science - in
particular material sciences - is universal. Our concern in this field is
mapping the arrangement of atoms three dimensionally
[crystallography]. That's depth. Women can see things in three
dimensions much better than men. The pioneers of the field, the Nobel
Prize winners, are women."
"Women are better observers.We notice the details; in homes and in

science. We are also more intuitive and far-sighted. We sense things.
That helps us see the depth in the structures and look for the three
dimensional element to them." (According to UNESCO, 12 research
centres in France, Asia and America, approximately 2,700 scientists are
responsible for the registration of hundreds of patents annually. About
55 per cent of those scientists are women)
"There is an American expression 'green thumb', describing the ability

to make plants grow. Like gardeners, women researchers have this
________________________________________________________
135
ability; they know how to make a colony of bacteria grow, how to

extract a protein cleanly; they have a heightened sensitivity to living
things.They see not just the life in elements, but also the depth."
"We must work together with men," El-Sayed says, dispelling any
suspicions that she is anti- male. "God created both to be integrated in
the world. We need to capitalise on the individual skills and talents and
God-given gifts to fully exploit this integration."
On the role of government:
"The government needs to be a part of this process of educating women

and letting them move ahead in their fields. To start with, they need to
provide nurseries in the workplace. They need to have laundromats
and ready-to-go meals. They need to make it easy for women to run
both a household and career."
"The poet Ahmed Shawqi said 'A mother is like a school. If you know
how to let her do her job in that school, you will educate a nation', and
Prof El-Sayed added; "Its very much like the African proverb that when
you educate a man you educate an individual, but when you educate a
woman, you educate a family, a nation."
________________________________________________________
136
3.3.1.13 PROF DR AYSE ERZAN
Dr Ayse Erzan is currently the Professor of Physics at Istanbul Technical

University, Turkey. She is one of the five recipients of the 2003 L'Oreal-
UNESCO Women in Science Award, representing European Continent.
A native of Ankara, Turkey, Erzan was home-schooled until third

grade, when her parents enrolled her in private school. She went on to
secondary school at the American College for Girls, where, she recalls,
"A lot of subjects came naturally, but physics was the hardest for me, so
I decided to do physics." At the urging of her physics teachers, Erzan
applied to Bryn Mawr and was accepted, a placement exam placing her
in junior year. "Bryn Mawr on the whole was a very positive
experience," she says. Upon graduation, "Like other young people
coming to physics, I had this slightly starry-eyed, romantic idea that I
would do particle physics and explore the basic building blocks of the
physical world."
At the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where she earned
her doctorate in 1976, Erzan became interested in critical phenomena in
phase transitions. "Phase transitions are very special," she explains.
"When water freezes, for example, this occurs at a very sharp
temperature point. On each side of that point, the compounds are
qualitatively different and their symmetry is different. In the liquid
form, the molecules are spaced randomly, whereas in the solid or
crystalline form they form a perfectly regular periodic structure. How
this change comes about as you lower the temperature is a very
beautiful question, and also a philosophical question. That fired my
________________________________________________________
137
imagination."
During the 1970s, Cornell physics professor Kenneth G. Wilson

published a series of influential papers on his theory of critical
phenomena in phase transitions, for which he received the Nobel Prize
for physics in 1982. His research clarified how many different systems
can show identical behavior at the critical point, as had been
experimentally observed. "People like me, who graduated in 1976, were
drawn naturally into the area of fractals, self-organized critical points
and pattern formation in the 1980s," Erzan says.
After graduation she returned to Turkey and joined the Middle East
Technical University in Ankara, and a year later the Istanbul Technical
University. "At this time I was active in the women's and peace
movements," she says "Thus, after the military coup in 1980, I left the
country and worked at various universities and research institutions,
among which are the University of Geneva, University of Porto in
Portugal, University of Marburg in Germany (as an Alexander von
Humboldt fellow, with Siegfried Grossmann) and the University of
Groningen.
After a brief stint at the ICTP in Trieste she went back to her home
institution, the Istanbul Technical University, in 1990. Since then she
have been teaching and doing research at the ITU as well as at the Feza
Gursey Institute for Fundamental Research, sponsored by TUBITAK,
the Turkish equivalent of the NSF.
Over the course of her career, Erzan has studied phase transitions and
scaling behavior in a slew of complex systems: spin glasses, fractal
growth models, sand piles, charge density waves, surface catalysis,
earthquakes, and, recently, biologically motivated problems such as
protein folding and the evolution of sexual reproduction.
On her passion to science:
"I am just a theoretical physicist who works in her corner and worries
about such things as how complexity arises spontaneously, from
interactions between simple building blocks. Contrary to the
reductionist approach, this means investigating certain global features
that display a great deal of universality: cracks work similarly to
________________________________________________________
138
earthquakes; the sudden flash of lightning is in fact very similiar, in its

growth mechanism, to the spread of dampness in plaster, or to the
growth of bacteria in a Petri dish, and forms similar patterns- in which
the common denominator is a geometric effect called percolation, the
formation of paths spanning a random network of clusters at a
threshold concentration."
"All of these phenomena may happen at many different scales, but

nevertheless they follow the same patterns that can be described by the
same geometrical concepts," she says. "They display certain universal
mathematical relationships."
"Lately I have been working more on biologically motivated problems-
after all, the greatest challenge is to try to understand how life started!"
Recently Erzan and her colleagues have submitted a paper about their
research into the origin of the unique folding configurations of proteins.
Their calculations and modeling suggest that proteins with big energy
gaps between their folded and unfolded states could have acted as
refrigerants, enhancing the replication rates of those RNA which coded
them. Their work is in line with the increasingly popular view that
thermal and chemical gradients must have played an important role in
prebiotic evolution, and casts doubt on a widely held theory that
proteins' form followed biological function. Instead, Erzan concludes,
"Those proteins with a deeply folded native state would, in effect, have
been selected in an evolutionary sense before specific biological
functions came into being."
Erzan, who was among five female scientists honored with the 2003
L'Oreal-UNESCO Awards, delights in the challenges and rewards of
science. "It is like a race against time," she says. "You know other people
are pursuing similar types of problems, and you try to do better, to get
there first. That race is very much part of the fun."
Erzan was elected a full member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences in

1997 and awarded the TUBITAK Science prize in 1997. She is on the
editorial boards of the European Physical Journal B and The Journal of
Statistical Physics.
________________________________________________________
139
3.3.1.14 PROF. DR SALIM AL-HASSANI
Dr Salim al-Hassani is an Iraqi-born Professor of Mechanical

Engineering at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology. He is a world expert on the responses of materials,
structures and systems to impact and blast loading.
He was born in Iraq, educated in Stoke-on-Trent, UK to University

level. He received BSc first class Honours in Mechanical Engineering at
UMIST (1962 to 1965), MSc in Mechanical Engineering at UMIST (1966-
1967) andPhD in Mechanical Engineering at UMIST (1967-1969).
He was the assistant and later lecturer at UMIST (1968-1975),Assistant

Professor and Associate Professor, College of Engineering, University
of Riyad (1974-1975), Senior Lecturer (1976-1983) and Reader (1983-
1992). In 1991 he was appointed as a Professor.
His professional affiliations includes the Institute of Petroleum, Deputy

Head of the Impact and Explosion Engineering Group (IMPEX),
Director of Computing Dept. of Mechanical Engineering and Chairman
of FLAIR Industrial Unit
He served as an expert witness in the Piper Alpha oil rig disaster of

1988. He is well known in the field of impact engineering and publishes
and lectures all over the world.
His extra-curricular expertise is in the history of science, particularly

the contribution of the Islamic civilization. He is also actively involved
________________________________________________________
140
in Manchester's Muslim community, and helped to set up Manchester

Central Mosque, the Muslim Youth Foundation and student Islamic
societies at UMIST and Manchester University. Despite his
intellectuality, he is a humble person, well potrayed when receiving the
2001'Fazlur Rahman Khan Award'from the Muslim News saying: It was
a very useful occassion with a very positive outcome. It is a great
Honour to receive this award, but a greater reward is from Allah.
________________________________________________________
141
3.3.2 MUSLIM ASTRONOUTS AND COSMONAUTS
Sending humans into space is often considered a dual monopoly of the

United States and Russia, with their junior partners in allied nations.
But even the Western public would be surprised to learn that seven
men from Islamic cultures are among the 400-odd humans who have
voyaged into orbit. These men need to be recruited as spokesmen for
the values that their space missions represent. Their achievements, if
more widely advertised in the Muslim world, would inspire millions of
their cultural compatriots.
Modernist and moderate Muslims the world over have never had any
problems with the concept of humans walking on the moon, since
Mohammed himself denounced pagan moon worshippers. And the
scientist in charge of teaching Apollo astronauts about lunar geology
was a devout Muslim named Farouk El-Baz, now at Boston University.
El-Baz sent the first chapter of the Koran to the moon aboard Apollo-15,
with an inscribed prayer to protect the mission and its crew. This
illustrates the friendship and mutual respect between him and the
Apollo astronauts.
For those misled into disbelieving space travel on supposedly religious

grounds, the evidence of their own eyes should be enough to convince
them that it is truly occurring, as claimed. Western radio broadcasts
should make more effort to announce the dawn and dusk over flights
of easily visible space vehicles such as the international space station,
which is brighter than any star in the sky.
The lesson should be stressed that such man-made facilities are

available to all nations who seek to progress into the future together
rather than recede into a mythical past. There is a place for modernist
Islamic societies on this new frontier, and history has proven this even
as most of the world remains ignorant about it.
Actual Islamic space travelers include a Saudi Arabian businessman

who flew on a space shuttle in 1985 as a representative of his
communications satellite company, which had booked a launching of
one of its payloads, and an Afghan pilot who was taken on a Soviet
space flight as a propaganda show but whose sharp eyes caught a
________________________________________________________
142
potentially fatal flaw during the return to Earth, and thereby saved the
lives of the entire crew.
The Saudi was Sultan Salman al-Saud, a minor royal prince; the Afghan
was Abdul Ahad Mohmand, now in exile in Stuttgart, Germany, after
death threats from the Taliban government. Another guest-cosmonaut
aboard a Soviet space mission in 1987 was Syrian pilot Muhammed
Ahmed Faris.
Two pilots from Kazakhstan, with the 'russified' last names of

Aubakirov and Musabayev, have been aboard the space stations, and
Talgat Musabayev has commanded both a Mir space station crew and
the first-ever 'space tourist' mission. Another Soviet cosmonaut, Musa
Manarov, is from Daghestan in the Caucasus; he was on the first space
station crew to spend a full year in outer space. Russian pilot-cosmonaut
Salizhan Sharipov, an Uzbek from Kirghizia in Central Asia, flew
aboard an American space shuttle in 1998 and is slated to command a
new mission again.
These men were raised in Islamic cultures but have joined the select
cadre of the symbol of the future, space travelers. They should be called
upon to speak out widely about how Muslim people can enter the future
successfully, and how valuable such an activity can be. These 'space
aces' have been hidden away, unrecognized and unused, for too long.
The Challenger disaster in 1986 denied the Muslim world an even better
role model, a female space traveler. She was Dr. Pratiwi Sudarmono, a
physician with a doctorate in microbiology, who had been designated to
accompany an Indonesian communications satellite into orbit. She also
had developed plans for performing a classic Indonesian dance in zero
gravity. Dr. Sudarmono was also selected by the Fulbright Foundation
to take part in a global health issues project.
There is no lack of other highly-educated Muslim women, perhaps from
Egypt, Bangladesh, Turkey or elsewhere, who could perform worthy
space experiments and even more high-value public relations back on
Earth.
________________________________________________________
143
3.3.2.1 SULTAN SALMAN ABDULAZIZ AL-SAUD
Prince Sultan ibn Salman ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz Al Sa'ud of Saudi Arabia, is
the first Arab, the first Muslim and the first member of royalty in space.
Prince Sultan was born in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia on June 27, 1956. He
completed his elementary and secondary education in Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia. He later went on to study communications and aviation in the
United States.
He was a 28-year old graduate of the University of Denver - with a

degree in mass communications - and a trained pilot, when picked to be
the first Arab in space after a search of several months. Because the
Arabsat organization was to have its second satellite launched by
NASA during the June 1985 flight, its 22 member countries were
permitted to select a payload specialist to travel aboard Discovery, and
Saudi Arabia won the slot.
Payload specialist refers to individuals selected and trained by

commercial or research organizations for flights of a specific payload on
a space flight mission. These payload specialists may be cosmonauts or
astronauts designated by the international partners, individuals
selected by the research community, or a company or consortia flying a
commercial payload aboard the spacecraft. Payload specialists are not
involved in the launch or operation of the space shuttle; they begin to
function only when the spacecraft commences its orbit around the
earth. Nonetheless, their training schedule is intense.Arriving in the
United States, Prince Sultan and Major al-Bassam, a back-up pilot
began the 114 hours of what NASA calls "habitability" training, or - in
________________________________________________________
144
layman's language - learning to adapt to the routines of daily life in a

space shuttle.
Initial tasks at the Johnson Space Center in Houston covered such

ordinary, down-to-earth chores as choosing what clothing selected from
NASA's list of possibilities and what food - again from NASA's
proposed menu - they would desire while aloft. For the launch and
landing procedures, light blue jumpsuits, decorated with various
mission-related patches, were required, but once the shuttle reached
orbit, the astronauts were free to wear whatever suited their individual
taste. Obviously the Saudi national dress-the flowing thwb and ghutra -
is not appropriate in zero gravity, but one traditional food of Saudi
Arabia was stowed in the fresh food locker aboard the orbiter and
consumed by the Arab astronaut: dates from Medina.
Prince Sultan, French scientist Patrick Baudry, and Americans Daniel

Brandenstein, commander; John Creighton, pilot; John Fabian, mission
specialist, Steven Nagel, the 100th American in space, and Shannon
Lucid, the sixth woman in space, worked hard for the success of the
historical mission which started on June 17 and end on June 24,1985.
They launched three communications satellites - including one for the
Arab Satellite Communications organization (Arabsat) - deployed and
retrieved a scientific platform to probe the Milky Way, and their space
ship served as the target for a laser in the first "Star Wars" space shuttle
test.
In addition, Prince Sultan carried out a series of in-cabin experiments

designed by Saudi scientists, talked to his uncle, King Fahd, by
telephone from space, gave a guided tour of the space shuttle's interior
in Arabic, which was beamed back to Arab television viewers on earth,
and also found time to pray and to read the Koran.
Prince Sultan also performed three scientific experiments and two

remote observation tasks during the mission; these experiments and the
training of the specialists in the procedures were the responsibility of
the Arabsat Scientific Experiments Team led by Dr. Abdallah Dabbagh,
director of the Research Institute of the University of Petroleum and
Minerals (UPM) in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
________________________________________________________
145
Of the three scientific experiments performed by Prince Sultan, the

most complex was an Ionized Gas Experiment designed by another
member of the Saudi Royal Family, Prince Turki ibn Sa'ud ibn
Muhammad Al Sa'ud, as part of his Ph.D. dissertation at Stanford
University.
The purpose of this experiment was to obtain measurements which

might help explain the extent of the chemical combination of the atoms
of gas discharged from rocket engines with the atoms composing the
earth's ionosphere - 50 to 1,000 kilometers up (30 to 620 miles). Though
most scientists believe rocket-exhaust gases do not combine with
ionospheric gases, some have noticed recently that there are ions and
electrons in proximity to space vehicles as a result of the ignition of
rocket engines.To record the experiment, Prince Sultan used the
shuttle's television cameras, which register changes in the gases
discharged by the engines, such as temperature change, structure of
chemical makeup, the mechanism of gas diffusion and the time
required for dissipation; this was done by augmenting the strength of
the television signals which will be interpreted with the help of
computers.
For Arab and Muslim scientists, with their proud memories of the
Golden Age and the House of Wisdom, the opportunity of working at
the leading edge of science is an exciting challenge.
"The Arab world," says Prince Sultan "is at a turning point. We have
gone through the phases of oil, money and early technological
development. The new generation is looking forward to joining the rest
of the world by obtaining the most important things in that turnaround:
opportunity and education. Together they are the keys that open the
door for our future. My space flight is just a crack in that door."
Later, Prince Sultan told a television interviewer that another big

moment was when he had first glimpsed Saudi Arabia from space.
"Once," he said, "I was woken up by some crew members who said:
'Come and see your country.' I was looking from the upper deck
window. The earth was above us, and I saw the Eastern Province with
its lights. It was a very moving sight." But the "happiest moment,"
Sultan said "was coming back - re-entering the earth's atmosphere.
________________________________________________________
146
Whatever distance we travel away from earth, man always feels that
this is his home, not space or anywhere else."
At the same interview, Prince Sultan praised the team of Saudi

scientists, who had been monitoring his experiments from earth. "We
don't lack talent in the Arab world. We have plenty of it," the prince
said. "All we need to do is give people the chance to prove themselves"
Prince Sultan also displayed the small Koran he had carried into space;
inside was a prayer dictated by his mother asking God to take care of
travelers - and the prince's Saudi pilot's licence. "I was saying the prayer
during take off," said Sultan. "And the pilot's license?" he was asked. "I
took that with me in case we had to land somewhere and I needed to
hire an areoplane."
Upon conclusion of his space flight, he helped in founding the

Association of Space Explorers, an international organization
comprising all astronauts and cosmonauts who have been in space, and
served on its Board of Directors for several years.In 1985 he was
commissioned as an officer into the Royal Saudi Air Force. He holds the
rank of Lieutenant Colonel, and is qualified in several military and
civilian aircraft.
________________________________________________________
147
3.3.2.2 ABDUL AHAD MOHMAND
Abdul Ahad Mohmand (b. January 1, 1959) was the first Afghan
cosmonaut and spent nine days in space aboard the Mir space station in
1988. He currently lives in Stuttgart, Germany.
Along with Commander Vladimir Lyakhov and Dr. Valery Polyakov,

Mohmand was part of the Soyuz TM-6 three-man crew, which
launched at 04:23 GMT August 29, 1988. Mohmand's inclusion in the
mission was a significant symbol during the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan.
During his brief time on the Mir, Mohmand took photographs of

Afghanistan, participated in astrophysical, medical and biological
experiments, spoke to Afghan president Najibullah and brewed Afghan
tea for the crew.
The September 6 landing of Soyuz TM-6 was delayed because of

mechanical complications on the Mir. Radio Moscow reassured
listeners that Lyakhov and Mohmand were fine and in touch with
Mission Control. A recording was played of them laughing. The British
media jumped on the story and incorporated words like "marooned"
and "lost in space" into their headlines. They even suggested
(erroneously) that the cosmonauts had run out of food. With each
passing orbit, the danger for the crew became more and more serious.
Fortunately, a day later the retro-fire was successful, and at 00:50 GMT
Soyuz TM 5 landed near Dzhezkazgan. During touchdown there was
no live radio coverage, only live television pictures of Mission Control.
________________________________________________________
148
Born in Sardah, Afghanistan, Mohmand graduated from the

Polytechnical High School in Kabul and then the Air Force Academy.
He served in the Afghan Air Force and later trained in the USSR as a
pilot.
________________________________________________________
149
3.3.2.3 TOKTAR ONGARBAEVICH AUBAKIROV
Toktar Ongarbaevich Aubakirov (born on July 27, 1946, in Karaganda,

Kazakhstan) is a Kazakh military pilot, and the first Turkic man in
space.
Aubakirov graduated from Air Force Institute and was parachutist and
test pilot with the rank of Major General in the Kazakh Air Force before
he was selected as cosmonaut.
On October 2, 1991 he started together with the Austrian cosmonaut

Franz Viehböck and the Russian cosmonaut Alexander A. Volkov in
Soyuz TM-13 from the Baikonur cosmodrome spaceport, and spent
over eight days in space. He was also the first Soviet citizen to go into
space without being fully certified as a cosmonaut, as his flight was
hurried forward - several commercial international cosmonauts were
already booked, but the flight of a Kazakh cosmonaut was part of the
Baikonur rental agreement between Kazakhstan and Russia.
Since 1993 he is the general director of the National Aerospace Agency

of Republic of Kazakhstan and a member of Kazakhstan parliament.
________________________________________________________
150
3.3.2.4 TALGAT AMANGELDYEVICH MUSABAYEV
Talgat Amangeldyevich Musabayev is a cosmonaut who flew on the

following space missions:
1 Soyuz TM-19 Flight Engineer - 04.11.1994 (125d 22h 53m)

2 Soyuz TM-27 Commander - 25.08.1998 (207d 12h 49m)
3 Soyuz TM-32 Commander - 06.05.2001 (7d 22h 04m)
Currently he is the Russian Federation Air Force Major General,

working for the Russian State Scientific Research Institute "Gagarin
Cosmonaut Training Center"
Born 7th January 1951 in Kargaly, Dzhambul District, Alma-Ata Region,

Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan), he graduated from the Riga Civil Aviation
Engineers Institute as a specialist in aircraft radio equipment. His career
tenure ranging from aircraft
equipment & radio avionics engineer, instructor of the Kazakh Civil
Aviation Head Office Personnel Department to deputy commander in
charge of personnel at the Alma-Ata United Civil Aviation Operations
Division.
He completed training in the civil aviation training team and received a

civil aviation pilot certificate in 1986. From July 6th 1989 he was the AN-
2 airplane commander at the Burundaisk United Civil Aviation Division
and had one memorable experience where in one of the flights Talgat
Musabaev made a forced landing on a field because of an engine failure
________________________________________________________
151
(he was commended for his courage and high level of his professional
skills). Later he graduated from the Aktyubinsk-based Civil Aviation
Advanced Flying School with an engineer-pilot's certificate in 1993.
In 1990 by decision of the State Interdepartmental Commission, he was

recommended to take a general space flight training course at the
Ministry of Civil Aviation and subsequently was called up for military
service and placed as a candidate on the list of researcher cosmonauts
of the 4th cosmonaut detachment at the Cosmonauts Training Center
where on finishing the course he was given a test cosmonaut
qualification
Beween the 1st July - 4th November 1994 he achieved his first space
flight on the Soyuz-TM-19 spacecraft and MIR orbital space station as a
flight engineer of the EO-16 crew together with Y. Malenchenko and V.
Polyakov. He performed two spacewalks for the total duration of 11 hrs
7 min. The flight duration was 126 days.
Subsequently on the 29th January 1998 to 25th August 1998 he was a

commander of the Soyuz TM-27 spacecraft and MIR space station
under the EO-25 Program (NASA-7/"Pegasus") together with N.
Budarin and L. Eyharts (France, till 19th February 1998), and E. Thomas
(U.S.A., till 8th June 1998).During these flights they emerged into outer
space five times for the total duration of 30 hrs 8 mins.
The flight duration was 207.5 days
From 28th April to 6th May 2001 he participated again in a space flight
as a commander on the Soyuz-TM32 spacecraft together with Y.
Baturin, a flight engineer, and the world's first space tourist Dennis
Tito.
He received various awards and honors to commemorate his extensive

career in space. Amongst them were the Hero of the Russian Federation
(1994),Space Pilot of the Russian Federation (1994) and People's Hero of
Kazakhstan (1995). He was later promoted to major general.
Musabayev was married to Musabaeva (maiden name: Latsis) Victoria

Voldemarovna, (born 1952), who worked as a dentist in a hospital in the
town of Zvyozdny. They had a son Musabaev Daniyar Talgatovich
________________________________________________________
152
(1975), a serviceman of the Kazakhstan Ministry of Internal Affairs and

a daughter Musabaeva Kamilya Talgatovna (1981), a student of the
Russian State Humanitarian University.
The following are few excerpts of his personal view and experiences:
About fear in space:
I am a normal person. All normal people feel and should feel fear. I
don't believe those, who say that they don't fear anything. It'sa bravado
or they are just insane... The other thing is to overcome fear, to
reasonably evaluate circumstances and potential danger and take an
immediate decision.
As our attitude regarding reliability of space technology, do we,
cosmonauts, resemble insane people? Only an insane person can fly to
work in space not being assured of equipment reliability...
About UFO:
I think it is still a good dream of people. There may be something, but I

must say that nobody of those who has been out in space saw anything
of the kind...
...I cannot say definitely because during my first flight I experienced

something very unlikely. More precisely, I saw for 10 to 15 minutes a
luminous object moving in parallel with our spacecraft slightly
overtaking us. I seized a video camera and filmed. But when I replayed,
it contained nothing...
About relationship among people of different ethnic origin:
It is unwise, ridiculous and in some cases even tragic to divide people

by their ethnic origin. How can it be possible to tear a family apart if a
husband is of one ethnic origin while a wife - of another? What about
children then? My family is international. We have two children... My
wife who is Latvian gave them Kazakh's names. We have nothing to
quarrel about, but each nation should preserve its distinctive features.
Our family is harmonious. We understand and support each other. I am
pleased to have such a companion in my life. What is then a problem of
________________________________________________________
153
the ethnic origin? ... Most likely, it is an internal problem of each

individual. I am Kazakh, I work in Russia and I serve to the entire
mankind. Because, regardless of the "port of registry", cosmonautics
works for the entire mankind in the long run. And I consider myself a
happy man.
I call upon everybody... to adhere more to the truth that our fathers and
grandfathers communicated to us. We live today in a totally different
time, in a totally different country, in a totally different w orld
community... Our next generation and, naturally, we all... have one
opinion: we must do everything to get united for the mankind as a
whole to pioneer cosmic space.
On what he brought to space:
There was a special container on the ship where the Flag of Kazakhstan,
a book by Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, his portrait, the
Constitution of Kazakhstan, a capsule with the soil from Astana and the
Koran were kept. All these things were in space with us and returned
to the Earth.
________________________________________________________
154
3.3.2.5 MUSA MANAROV
Musa Manarov is a cosmonaut who was born on March 22, 1951, in

Baku, Azerbaijan. He was a civil engineer affliated to Energia NPO. He
has spent over 541 days in space on two spaceflights.
Manarov made his first spaceflight in 1987, aboard Soyuz TM-4. The
spacecraft docked with the Mir space station where Manarov remained
for one year. He was the first person to spend a year in space.
In 1990, Manarov stayed on Mir for a second time. During his 176-day
stay, Manarov observed the Earth and worked in space manufacturing.
He also performed 20 hours of spacewalks.
He has spent over 541 days in space on two spaceflights.
He was married with two children at the time of embarkation.

________________________________________________________
155
3.3.2.6 SALISZAN SHAKIROVICH SHARIPOV
Saliszan Shakirovich Sharipov is the first Uzbek astronaut.
He was born August 24, 1964 in Uzgen, Oshsk region, Kirghizia.
Saliszan graduated from the Air Force Pilot School in 1987. After
graduation, he worked as a pilot-instructor and taught 8 cadets. He has
logged over 950 hours flying time. He has experience flying on MIG-21,
L-39 aircraft.
Selected by the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (GCTC) Sharipov

became a cosmonaut-candidate in 1990. In 1992, he completed general
space training and became a cosmonaut. As a member of the group he
has completed a full course of training for OC MIR space flights as a
crew commander. In 1994, he graduated from Moscow State University
with a degree in cartography.
Sharipov has flown one mission and has logged over 211 hours in
space. He served as a mission specialist on the crew of STS-89 (January
22-31, 1998), the eighth Shuttle-Mir docking mission during which the
crew transferred more than 8,000 pounds of scientific equipment,
logistical hardware and water from Space Shuttle Endeavour to Mir. In
the fifth and last exchange of a U.S. astronaut, STS-89 delivered Andy
Thomas to Mir and returned with David Wolf. Mission duration was 8
days, 19 hours and 47 seconds, traveling 3.6 million miles in 138 orbits
of the Earth.
________________________________________________________
156
Sharipov was assigned as Soyuz Commander and Flight Engineer on

ISS Expedition-10 which just completed their mission in early October
2004.
He is married to Nadezhda Mavlyanovna Sharipova. They have one

daughter and one son. He enjoys football, likes to read books. His father,
Mr. Shakirzhan Sharipov, resides in Uzgen, Oshsk region, Kirghizia.
________________________________________________________
157
3.3.2.7 MUHAMMED FARIS
Muhammed Faris was born May 26 1951 in Aleppo, Syria. He was the
first Syrian cosmonaut. He was a pilot in the Syrian Airforce with the
rank of a colonel. He specialized in navigation when he was selected as
a cosmonaut on September 30 1985.
He flew as Research Cosmonaut on Soyuz TM-3 in July 1987, spending

7 days 23 hours and 5 minutes in space together with Soviet
cosmonauts Alexander Viktorenko and Alexander Alexandrov.
After his spaceflight he returned to the Syrian Air Force and lives now
again in Aleppo. He is married and has three children.
During a celebration in Damascus in 2003 to commemorate the 40th

anniversary of the space flight of Valentina Tereshkova, the world's
first woman-cosmonaut, he was asked about his space experience and
his response was:
"I know how difficult is a space flight and admire the first woman who
successfully made it," stressed the Syrian cosmonaut.
________________________________________________________
158
3.3.3 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS CUM POLITICAL LEADERS
'Abdullah bin Mas'ud, may Allah be pleased with him, reported:

Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: There should be no envy
but only in case of two persons: one having been endowed with wealth and
power to spend it in the cause of Truth, and (the other) who has been
endowed with wisdom which he uses for judging and teaches it (to others).
(Sahih Muslim)
The beauty of Islam is that it never dissociates the world with the
hereafter, the material well-being with the inner spiritual need and the
knowledge of science and religion. They are all inter-related and act
harmoniously in the eyes of the believers.
Islam gave high respect to scholars and intellects, irrespective of the

branches of their speciality as explicitly described in the hadith
above.The religious scholars, the material or social scientists, the
administrators and the legal experts were all considered 'alim (scholars)
in the widest sense. Past history of Islam has shown Caliphs who were
not only interested but directly involved with scientific development,
scientists who were as influential as the leaders and in some instances
much more popular than the administrators.
The nature of responsibilities in Islam goes to the extent that everybody

is a leader irrespective of the number of their follower. It covers from the
king of a kingdom to the head of a family. So, it is not a strange
phenomenon to witness the modern scientists or scholars taking the
leadership role in the community, within their professional bodies, in
political or non political organization, or even becoming the head of a
state.
Their scientific upbringing might offer several advantages to them,

since in some way science management seems to be no different from
political scenario. A good scientist is the one who can produce the most
creative, insightful, ground-breaking scientific work, and had this work
accepted by peer review. He has to work within his financial limitation
and time constraint.Further, he must have the courage and capability to
defence the innovation. And the utmost important is that it should be of
great benefit for humanity. He should foresee the coming obstacles of
________________________________________________________
159
his idea, either by a better innovation by other collegue or even by

intentional condemnation by his opponents. He should be prepared
with various steps of implementation and survival if idea. If he is a
physician, he should be able to diagnose the illness, administered the
proper medication and even much better if he can anticipate it before it
occurs and implement the preventive approach ahead.
Irrespective of which countries or organizations they represented, these

scientists cum politician had themselves potrayed the true sense of
science in Islam.Yet despite their obligation to prepare the necessary
platform for scientific re-emergence in the Muslim world, the political
gameball seems to challenge their existence in reality.
________________________________________________________
160
3.3.3.1 PROF. DR. NECMETTIN ERBAKAN
Born in1926, he was the former prime minister in Turkey, leader of

coalition between the Welfare Party (his own) and the True Path Party
(1996- 1997). Academically he was a professor in physics and lived in
Germany for many years, where he worked as a scientist. His career in
politics started as a minister in coalition government under Bülent
Ecevit in 1974.
Erbakan was one of the founders of the Welfare Party, which started to
grow tremendously in the recent few years. In 1980 Erbakan was the
leader of pro-Islamic protests which resulted in a military coup.
Erbakan's party was banned and he was excluded from politics for 7
years. It is believed that the Welfare Party's politics had less support
than the actual election results, which was 21% in the elections of
December 24, 1995. But people cast their ballots for it, as it has a high
reputation for honesty in municipal governments. Many have also
supported the Welfare Party because it has a polity that help the least
fortunate in the Turkish society. Erbakan raised the wages for civil
servants with 50% shortly after taking office.
As prime minister, Erbakan chose a moderate line, but still oriented

himself more in direction of other Muslim states without cutting any ties
to the West, which many observers had expected. In Western media, his
improved relations with Iran and Libya's leader Mu'amar Ghadafi have
been hard to accept. During his period of being prime minister, Erbakan
changed from opposition to, into supporting Turkey's application for
membership in the European Union (EU).
________________________________________________________
161
Erbakan's Welfare Party was outlawed in 1997 after a long campaign

led by the Turkish military and forces afraid of a disintegration of the
country by its possible Islamization and the chances of an escalation of
the conflict with Khurdish nationalists. Necmettin Erbakan, who has
sought for years to integrate Islam into mainstream politics and who
has become in the process one of the country's best-known Islamic
leaders, has already had several of his organizations banned by
Turkey's Constitutional Court. Erbakan's first party, the National Order
Party, was banned in 1972. Undeterred, Erbakan formed the National
Salvation Party, which was dismantled in 1980 after Gen. Kenan Evran
seized power in a bloodless coup and imposed martial law.
The Welfare Party followed, and as its leader, Erbakan was elected
Turkey's first Islamist prime minister in 1995. Three years later,
however, the Constitutional Court banned the Welfare Party as well, on
the grounds that it was engaged in fundamentalist activity and was
violating the secular principles of the Turkish constitution. The verdict
barred Erbakan from politics for five years, but, as has happened to the
Virtue Party today, most of party's deputies kept their seats in
Parliament and simply formed a new party under a new name with a
new party program. This new incarnation, the Virtue Party,
immediately did very well, capturing nearly a fifth of the seats in
Parliament in the 1999 elections.
One of the important contributions of Erbakan to the Muslim worlds is

the initiation of D-8 Group. The D-8 is a grouping of eight Muslim
countries with diverse economic and political outlooks. They are
geographically not contiguous. It is a slight improvement on the
Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) which groups together
Turkey, Iran and Pakistan with the Central Asian Republics as well as
Azerbaijan and Afghanistan. The ECO, too, has not taken off as its
members had hoped. In April 1996, during the meeting of its foreign
ministers in Tehran, president Hashemi Rafsanjani of Iran complained
that the organisation had not made much progress despite its vast
potential.
The D-8, first mooted on January 1,1997 in Istanbul, has far greater
potential. It has a market of 800 million people compared with the 300
________________________________________________________
162
million in ECO, although the three major players - Turkey, Iran and
Pakistan - are common to both. The D-8 brings together Bangladesh,
Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan and Turkey to
develop trade, industry and financial projects. Its strength is that it
brings in some of the leading economic movers of Southeast Asia. Its
weakness lies in geography. Bangladesh and the Southeast Asian tigers
are separated from the D-8 core countries by a hostile India while Egypt
and Nigeria lie on a different continent with no direct links to the rest.
Erbakan had been very optimistic with D-8 as elicited in his opening
address of the First Summit meeting 'The D-8 will take on an important
role in solving the problems of humanity in our globalizing world'. He
described D-8 as 'a turning point in human history' and 'an organization
of the new world. God willing, this group will play a big role in bringing
peace and security.' Erbakan visited all D-8 countries except Bangladesh
soon after coming to power last June. He fostered economic links with
projects such as a $23 billion gas deal with Iran. His opponents have
continued to run down the whole scheme.
Erbakan, however, continued to talk enthusiastically about major D-8

projects to build passenger aircraft, helicopters, cars and computers.
Among planned areas of cooperation, Egypt will oversee trade, Turkey
will coordinate industry proposals, Pakistan will be responsible for
agriculture, Nigeria will oversee energy plans and Indonesia will be
responsible for human resources. Iran will oversee telecommunication
projects, Bangladesh will deal with rural development and Malaysia
will focus on privatization, banking and Islamic insurance or takaful.
________________________________________________________
163
3.3.3.2 PROF. DR BACHARUDDIN JUSUF HABIBIE
Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie was the former and the third president of
Indonesia (1998-1999). He was born on June 25, 1936 in Pare-Pare,
Sulawesi,Indonesia.
In 1954, after graduating from Bandung Institute of Technology,

Habibie was given a scholarship by the Ministry of Education and
Culture to study aircraft construction engineering at RWTH
(Rheneisch-Westfalische Technische Hocschule) in Aachen, Germany.
After receiving his diploma in 1965 and doctorate in 1965, he joined the
Hamburger Flugzeugbau (HF) aircraft industry and later the
Messerschmitt Boelkow Blohm (MBB) aircraft manufacturer, where he
became a vice-president.
In 1974, Suharto (who came to know the young man and his family
during a military posting to the South Sulawesi) asked Habibie to
return to Indonesia, and placed him in charge of the strategic state-
owned oil company. He worked under President Suharto for 20 years,
first as minister of state for research and technology in 1978 and later as
vice president.
In his post as technology minister, Habibie was an aggresive advocate

for expensive state-funded economic projects aimed at making
Indonesia technologically self-sufficient.Using his connections with
German corporations, he began by assembling Messerschmitt
helicopters in a hangar at Bandung. The operation expanded to employ
20,000 workers in making small and medium-sized turboprop aircraft.
________________________________________________________
164
Ambitious plans were drawn up for an Indonesian-made commercial

airliner to rival the US and European aerospace companies.
His other projects included the costly purchase of the entire navy of the
former East Germany in the 1990s, and plans for a string of nuclear
reactors throughout Java.Critics point to the high cost of these industries
which rely heavily on huge tariff protection and guaranteed sales to the
armed forces and national airlines.
Habibie was central to the establishment of the Association of

Indonesian Moslem Intellectuals (ICMI) in 1990. The ICMI is a focus for
non-Chinese or pribumi businessmen.The association has its own bank
and daily newspaper Republika.
Habibie's days as vice president were few, however, as the economic

troubles that had been festering under Suharto's crony capitalism boiled
over just 10 weeks after Habibie's appointment. In May 1998, Suharto
resigned after 32 years as undisputed head of state, handing the reins
over to Habibie. Habibie quickly removed from office the most
egregious examples of Suharto's nepotism in an attempt to distinguish
himself from his predecessor and win favor with the emerging
opposition factions. In 1999 he lost a parliamentary vote of confidence
and he withdrew from the presidential race.
________________________________________________________
165
3.3.3.3 TUN DR MAHATHIR MOHAMED
Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad (born December 20, 1925 in Alor Star,
Kedah) was the Prime Minister of Malaysia from July 16, 1981 to 2003.
He had his early and secondary education in his home town. In 1947 he
gained admission into the King Edward VII College of Medicine in
Singapore Upon graduation he joined the Malaysian Government
Service as a Medical Officer. He left government Service in 1957 to set
up his own practice in Alor Setar.
He was first elected to Parliament in 1964 as a member of the UMNO,

the dominant party within the ruling governmental coalition. In 1969,
however, Mahathir was expelled from the UMNO after his forceful
advocacy of ethnic Malay nationalism brought him into conflict with
Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. After Tun Abdul Razak became
prime minister in 1970, Mahathir rejoined UMNO and was reelected to
its Supreme Council in 1972.
During his term in office, Mahathir forcefully guided Malaysia's

development as a regional high-tech manufacturing, financial, and
telecommunications hub through his economic policies based on
corporate nationalism, known as the National Economic Policy, which
remained in effect almost to the end of his tenure in office. His pet
projects have included Perwaja Steel, an attempt to emulate South
Korea and Japan, the Proton car company, and ASTRO, a satellite
television service. He is credited with spearheading the phenomenal
growth of the Malaysian economy, now one of the largest and most
powerful in South East Asia. Growth between 1988 and 1997 averaged
________________________________________________________
166
over ten percent and living standards rose twenty-fold, with poverty
almost eradicated and social indicators such as literacy levels and infant
mortality rates on a par with developed countries.
During this period, Mahathir embarked on various enormous

construction projects, such as the North-South highway, which has cut
transport times in half on the West Coast of Malaysia, the Multimedia
Super Corridor, a flagship project based on Silicon Valley designed to
enable Malaysia's foray into information technology (it includes
Malaysia's new capital Putrajaya), Port Tanjung Pelepas, a project to
rival Singapore's SPA port, the glittering Kuala Lumpur International
Airport in Sepang, an adjacent Formula One circuit, the Bakun Dam,
meant to supply all of the electricity needs of the East Malaysian states
of Sabah and Sarawak and which has enough capacity to enable
exportation of power to Brunei, Olympic-class stadia in Bukit Jalil, and
the buildings which have become symbolic of modern Malaysia, the
Petronas Twin Towers, the tallest buildings in the world from 1997 to
2003.
While most Malaysians are justifiably proud of these projects, their

extreme costs have made Malaysians reluctant to engage in more such
ventures until such time as the economy can afford it. He has been
criticised for the failures and horrendous inefficiency of some of his pet
projects.
During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Mahathir was strongly criticized
by the international financial community for contravening IMF policies
by keeping interest rates down and slowing the flow of foreign capital.
Mahathir blamed currency speculators for the crisis, foremost among
them George Soros. Critics said his accusations were "tinged with anti-
semitism." Banks were forced to merge and to write off bad debts,
consolidating the financial system. The Ringgit, which stood at RM2.50
to the US Dollar prior to the crisis but plunged to RM4.97 during the
worst part of the recession, was pegged at RM3.80. Initially this was
seen as a move to keep the currency from falling further, but is now seen
as keeping the currency artificially low in order to boost exports. As a
result of these policies, Malaysia's economy recovered much faster than
comparative countries which did follow IMF prescriptions, the
repercussions of which are still felt in those countries, and more prudent
________________________________________________________
167
fiscal and monetary policies have ensured that the Malaysian economy,
while not growing yet as spectacularly as before, is well balanced and
not built on rotting foundations. As the Malaysian economy recovered,
the IMF and George Soros released statements saying that Mahathir's
policies had indeed been the right ones. However, long term structural
considerations, such as the uncompetitiveness of Malaysian firms, the
failure of Malaysian industry to move up the value chain in the face of
increasing costs and competition from other countries in the region
(most notably China) and a total lack of R&D, still cloud the horizon
and yet to be addressed accordingly.
During twenty-two year grip on power, Mahathir was seen as a

political "strongman", despite being criticised for his authoritarian
policies. His charismatic leadership and strong political wills help him
to survive several controversial issues. These include removal of the
royal veto and royal immunity from prosecution (1983 &1991), the
dismissal of the Lord President of the Supreme Court, Tun Salleh Abas,
and three other supreme court justices(1988), and the dismissal of his
deputy, Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim in 1997.
Among developing and Islamic countries, however, Mahathir remains

greatly admired, particularly for Malaysia's impressive economic
growth. Foreign leaders such as Kazakhstan's President Nursultan
Nazarbayev praised him and have been trying to emulate Mahathir's
developmental formulae. He was one of the greatest spokesmen on
Third World issues, and strongly supported the bridging of the North-
South divide, as well as exhorting the development of Islamic nations.
He was dedicated to various Third World blocs such as ASEAN, the
G77, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Nations
and most recently, the G22 at the latest WTO talks at Cancun.
In 2003, shortly before leaving office, Mahathir sparked off a fierce

controversy when he called on Muslim leaders at the 57-member
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) summit to "fight back
against their Jewish oppressors" who "ruled the world by proxy". His
comments were widely criticized in the West, but the issue was ignored
in Asia and Islamic countries, which felt that his remark had been taken
out of context. Mahathir later defended his remarks, saying "I am not
anti Semitic ... I am against those Jews who kill Muslims and the Jews
________________________________________________________
168
who support the killers of Muslims." He tagged the West as "anti-

Muslim", for double standards by "protecting Jews while allowing
others to insult Islam."
Largely due to the economic development of the country, which by and

large has benefited all races, Mahathir left behind a peaceful,
prosperous, and self-confident Malaysia. On his retirement he was
granted Malaysia's highest honour, which entitles him to the title Tun.
Dr Mahathir is married to a doctor, Tun Dr Siti Hasmah Mohamed Ali,
and they both have seven children and ten grandchildren.
Basically, Mahathir achieved his objective to place him as the Malaysia
Modernization Father.
________________________________________________________
169
3.3.4 MUSLIM SCIENTIST AND PHILOSOPHER
3.3.4.1 PROF DR SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, currently University Professor of Islamic Studies

at the George Washington University, Washington D.C. is one of the
most important and foremost scholars of Islamic, Religious and
Comparative Studies in the world today. Author of over fifty books and
five hundred articles which have been translated into several major
Islamic, European and Asian languages, Professor Nasr is a well known
and highly respected intellectual figure both in the West and the Islamic
world. An eloquent speaker with a charismatic presence, Nasr is a
much sought after speaker at academic conferences and seminars,
university and public lectures and also radio and television programs
in his area of expertise.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr was born on April 7, 1933 (19 Farvadin 1312 A.H.
solar) in Tehran into a family of distinguished scholars and physicians.
His father, Seyyed Valiallah, a man of great learning and piety, was a
physician to the Iranian royal family, as was his father before him. The
name "Nasr" which means "victory" was conferred on Professor Nasr's
grandfather by the King of Persia. Nasr also comes from a family of
Sufis. One of his ancestors was Mulla Seyyed Muhammad Taqi
Poshtmashhad, who was a famous saint of Kashan, and his mausoleum
which is located next to the tomb of the Safavid king Shah Abbas, is still
visited by pilgrims to this day.
________________________________________________________
170
As a young boy, Nasr attended one of the schools near his home. His
early formal education included the usual Persian curriculum at school
with an extra concentration in Islamic and Persian subjects at home, as
well as tutorial in French. However for Nasr, it was the long hours of
discussion with his father, mostly on philosophical and theological
issues, complemented by both reading and reaction to the discourses
carried on by those who came to his father's house, that constituted an
essential aspect of his early education and which in many ways set the
pattern and tone of his intellectual development. This was the situation
for the first twelve years of Nasr's life.
Nasr's arrival in America at the young age of twelve marked the

beginning of a new period in his life which was totally different and
therefore, discontinuous from his early life in Iran. He attended The
Peddie School in Highstown, New Jersey and in 1950 graduated as the
valedictorian of his class and also winner of the Wyclifte Award which
was the school's highest honor given to the most outstanding all-round
student. It was during the four years at Peddie that Nasr acquired his
knowledge of the English language, as well as studying the sciences,
American history, Western culture and Christianity.
Nasr chose to go to M.I.T. for college. He was offered a scholarship and

was the first Iranian student to be admitted as an undergraduate at
M.I.T. He began his studies at M.I.T in the Physics Department with
some of the most gifted students in the country and outstanding
professors of physics. His decision to study physics was motivated by
the desire to gain knowledge of the nature of things, at least at the level
of physical reality. However, at the end of his freshman year, although
he was the top student in his class, he began to feel oppressed by the
overbearingly scientific atmosphere with its implicit positivism.
Furthermore, he discovered that many of the metaphysical questions
which he had been concerned with were not being asked, much less
answered. Thus, he began to have serious doubts as to whether physics
would lead him to an understanding of the nature of physical reality.
His doubt was confirmed when the leading British philosopher,
Bertrand Russell, in a small group discussion with the students
following a lecture he had given at M.I.T, stated that physics does not
concern itself with the nature of physical reality per se but with
mathematical structures related to pointer readings
________________________________________________________
171
Upon his graduation from M.I.T., Nasr enrolled himself in a graduate

program in geology and geophysics at Harvard University. After
obtaining his Master's degree in geology and geophysics in 1956, he
went on to pursue his Ph.D. degree in the history of science and
learning at Harvard. Nasr wanted to study other types of sciences of
nature apart from the modern Western and also to understand why
modern science had developed as it had. He planned to write his
dissertation under the supervision of George Sarton, a great authority
on Islamic science. However, Sarton passed away before he could begin
his dissertation work and since there was not another specialist in
Islamic science at Harvard then, he wrote his dissertation under the
direction of three professors. They were I. Bernard Cohen, Hamilton
Gibb and Harry Wolfson.
It was also at Harvard that Nasr resumed his study of classical Arabic
which he had left since coming to America. He struggled with
philosophical Arabic while getting some assistance from Wolfson and
Gibb. However, the mastery of philosophical Arabic was only attained
after he studied Islamic philosophy from the traditional masters of Iran
after his return to his homeland in 1958.
At twenty-five, Nasr graduated with a Ph.D. degree from Harvard and

on the way to completing his first book, Science and Civilization in
Islam. His doctoral dissertation entitled "Conceptions of Nature in
Islamic Thought" was published in 1964 by Harvard University Press as
An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Although he was
offered a position as assistant professor at M.I.T., Nasr decided to
return permanently to Iran.
Back in Iran, Nasr was offered a position as an Associate Professor of

philosophy and the history of science at the Faculty of Letters in Tehran
University. A few months after his return, Nasr married a young
woman from a respected family whose members were close friends of
his family. Five years later at the age of thirty, Nasr became the
youngest person to become a full professor at the University. He used
his position and influence to bring major changes to strengthen and
expand the philosophy program at Tehran University which like many
of its other programs, was very much dominated by and limited to
French intellectual influence.
________________________________________________________
172
Nasr initiated the important move of teaching Islamic philosophy on the

basis of its own history and from its own perspective and to encourage
his Iranian students to study other philosophies and intellectual
traditions from the point of view of their own tradition. He maintains
that one cannot hope to understand and appreciate one's own
intellectual tradition from the viewpoint of another, just as one cannot
see oneself through the eyes of another person. He also created greater
awareness and interest in the study of Oriental philosophies among the
students and faculty members. Since Tehran University was the only
university in Iran to offer a doctorate in philosophy, these changes
introduced by Nasr had far reaching influence. Many universities in
Iran integrated these changes into their philosophical studies and until
today Nasr's perspective that Iranian students should study other
philosophical traditions from the view of their own tradition instead of
studying their tradition from the perspective of Western thought and
philosophy remains widely influential. The students he has trained and
who have become scholars and university professors of philosophy
have enabled this perspective to have enduring influence in Iran.
Apart from the philosophy program, Nasr was also involved in the
university's doctoral program in Persian language and literature for
those whose mother tongue was not Persian. He strengthened the
philosophical component of this program and had many outstanding
students from outside of Iran to receive training, not only in Persian
language, but also the rich treasury of philosophical and Sufi literature
written in Persian. Many of the students trained in this program have
since become important scholars in this field such as the American
scholar, William Chittick and the Japanese woman scholar, Sachiko
Murata.
Furthermore, from 1968 to 1972, Nasr was made Dean of the Faculty and
for a while, Academic Vice-Chancellor of Tehran University. Through
these positions, he introduced many important changes which all aimed
at strengthening the university programs in the humanities generally
and in philosophy, specifically. In 1972, he was appointed President of
Aryamehr University by the Shah of Iran. Aryamehr University was
then the leading scientific and technical university in Iran and the Shah,
as the patron, wanted Professor Nasr to develop the university on the
model of M.I.T. but with firm roots in Iranian culture. Consequently, a
________________________________________________________
173
strong humanities program in Islamic thought and culture, with a

particular emphasis upon an Islamic philosophy of science, was
established at Aryamehr University by Nasr. Nasr's pioneering effort
has led Aryamehr to create one of the first graduate programs in the
Islamic world in the philosophy of science based upon the Islamic
philosophy of science, some ten years ago.
In 1973, the Queen of Iran appointed Professor Nasr to establish a

center for the study and propagation of philosophy under her
patronage. Hence, the Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy was
established and very soon became one of the most important and vital
centers of philosophical activities in the Islamic world, housing the best
library of philosophy in Iran and attracting some of the most
distinguished scholars in the field, both from the East and the West,
such as Henry Corbin and Toshihiko Izutsu. The Academy also
organized important seminars and lecture series given by philosophers,
offered fellowships for short and long term research work in Islamic
philosophy, and comparative philosophy and undertook a major
publication program of works in this field in Persian, Arabic, English
and French.
Another very important dimension to Nasr's intellectual activities after

his return to Iran in 1958, was his program in re-educating himself in
Islamic philosophy by learning it at the feet of the masters through the
traditional method of oral transmission. He studied hikmah for twenty
years under some of the greatest teachers in Iran at the time, reading
traditional texts of Islamic philosophy and gnosis, three days a week at
the Sepahsalar madrasah in Tehran and also in private homes in
Tehran, Qom and Qazwin. Among his venerable teachers were Sayyid
Muhammad Kazim Assar, an alim who was an authority on Islamic
law, as well as philosophy, and a very close friend of Professor Nasr's
father; the great luminary and master of gnosis, Allamah Sayyid
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai and Sayyid Abul-Hasan Qazwini, a
great authority on Islamic law and the intellectual sciences who knew
mathematics, astronomy and philosophy extremely well. Nasr read and
studied several of the major texts of Islamic philosophy under these
masters such as the al-Asfar al-arbaah of Mulla Sadra and the Sharh-i
manumah of Sabziwari and benefited greatly from the invaluable
insights and commentaries provided by them orally. In this way, Nasr
________________________________________________________
174
had the best educational training both from the modern West and the
traditional East, a rare combination which put him in a very special
position to speak and write with authority on the numerous issues
involved in the encounter between East and West, and tradition and
modernity, as demonstrated very clearly by his writings and lectures.
During the years Professor Nasr was in Iran, he wrote extensively in
Persian and English and occasionally in French and Arabic. His doctoral
dissertation was rewritten by him in Persian and it won the royal book
award. Nasr also brought out the critical editions of several important
philosophical texts such as the complete Persian works of Suhrawardi
and of Mulla Sadra and the Arabic texts of lbn Sina and al-Biruni. Nasr's
great interest in the philosophy of one of the greatest later Islamic
philosophers, Mulla Sadra resulted in the publication of the Mulla Sadra
written by the traditional masters of Islamic philosophy. Nasr was also
the first person to introduce the figure of Mulla Sadra to the English
speaking world.
In 1979 at the time of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Nasr moved with
his family to the United States where he would rebuild his life again and
secure a university position to support himself and his family. By 1980,
Nasr began to write again. He started to work intensively on the
research and text of the prestigious Gifford Lectures at the University of
Edinburgh to which he received an invitation shortly before the Iranian
Revolution took place. Nasr had the honor of being the first non-
Westerner to be invited to deliver the most famous lecture series in the
fields of natural theology and philosophy of religion in the West. Thus,
Knowledge and the Sacred, one of Nasr's most important philosophical
works, one which had a great impact on scholars and students of
religious studies, came to be prepared amidst the strain of trying times
and the strenuous commute between Boston and Philadelphia.
However, Nasr discloses that the actual writing of the text of
Knowledge and the Sacred came as a gift from heaven. He was able to
write the texts of the lectures with great facility and speed and within a
period of less than three months, they were completed. Nasr says that it
was as though, he was writing from a text he had previously
memorized.
In 1982, Nasr was invited to collaborate on a major project to bring out

the Encyclopedia of World Spirituality together with Ewert Cousins,
________________________________________________________
175
chief editor and professor of Medieval philosophy at Fordham

University, and many other leading philosophers and scholars of
religion. Nasr accepted to edit the two volumes on Islamic Spirituality,
which came out in 1989 and 1991. Both volumes have since become
invaluable reference material in English for those interested in this
subject. In 1983, Nasr delivered the Wiegand Lecture on the philosophy
of religion at the University of Toronto in Canada. He also helped in the
establishment of the section on Hermeticism and perennial philosophy
at the American Academy of Religion
Within the recent years, Nasr together with the British scholar of
Islamic and Jewish philosophy, Oliver Leaman, edited a two volume
work, History of Islamic Philosophy which consists of articles written
by important scholars in this field, discussing the different aspects and
schools of Islamic philosophy and its development in the different parts
of the Islamic world. Nasr's continued interest in science is made
evident by his latest book on this subject, The Need for a Sacred Science.
Also, together with one of his former students, Mehdi Amin Razavi,
Nasr is brought out a major four volume work, An Anthology of
Philosophy in Persia. Razavi also edited earlier, The Islamic Intellectual
Tradition in Persia, which is a collection of Nasr's articles on Islamic
philosophy in Persia written during the last forty years.
Over the years, Profesor Nasr has trained different generations of

students. This expanded since 1958 when he was a professor at Tehran
University and then, in America since the Iranian revolution in 1979,
specifically at Temple University in Philadelphia from 1979 to 1984 and
at the George Washington University since 1984 to the present day.
They have come from the different parts of the world, and many of
whom have become important and prominent scholars in their fields of
study.
The range of subjects and areas of study which Professor Nasr has
involved and engaged himself with in his academic career and
intellectual life are immense. As demonstrated by his numerous
writings, lectures and speeches, Professor Nasr speaks and writes with
great authority on a wide variety of subjects, ranging from philosophy
to religion to spirituality, to music and art and architecture, to science
and literature, to civilizational dialogues and the natural environment.
________________________________________________________
176
For Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr, the quest for knowledge,

specifically knowledge which enables man to understand the true
nature of things and which furthermore, "liberates and delivers him
from the fetters and limitations of earthly existence," has been and
continues to be the central concern and determinant of his intellectual
life.
At seventy, Seyyed Hossein Nasr leads an extremely active intellectual

life with a very busy schedule of teaching at the university and lecturing
at many institutions in America and around the world, writing scholarly
works, being involved in several intellectual projects simultaneously
and meeting individuals who are interested in traditional thought. At
the same time, he leads a very intense spiritual life spent in prayer,
meditation and contemplation and also providing spiritual counsel for
those who seek his advice and guidance. Exiled from his homeland,
Seyyed Hossein Nasr has found his home in the inviolable and sacred
Center which is neither in the East nor the West.
The Scientific 4
Reemergence
and Its Future
Directions
________________________________________________________
178
THE SCIENTIFIC REEMERGENCE AND ITS FUTURE

DIRECTIONS
4.1 Important Elements of re-emergence
Reality has shown us that what is true of weakness, energy, health and
disease, is also true with nations and civilization. We see a man who is
healthy, hale and hearty but all of a sudden he is attacked by diseases,
and illnesses overtake him from all sides to the extent that his strong
and sturdy building of his body is shaken up. He is constantly changing
sides restlessly and cries in anguish. At last Allah blesses him, and he
gets the services of an expert healer, who diagnoses the real malady,
precisely gets to the root-cause of the disease, and treats him sincerely
and painstakingly. After some days, you find that the energy and health
of the patients returns. Sometimes, it so happens that his health gets
better than before.
Similar is the case of the Muslim nation and its scientific civilization.
They face trials and tribulations. The edifice of the nation got
dilapidated, and all manifestations of power and glory come to an end.
Constant assaults of trouble and mishaps enervate them, and they get
absolutely weak, powerless and emaciated. Then they are neither in a
position to check the oppression of the tyrants, nor stop the mouth of the
avaricious. At that time, their power, well-being, existence and progress
depends on three things- diagnosis of the disease, treatment of the
sickness and an expert doctor, who should be their patron. The
treatment should continue till they get well, alright and full of health
and energy.
4.1.1 The correct diagnosis: What really happened to Islamic Science?
Abdus Salam, the only Muslim to have won the Noble Prize in physics,
once was asked the similar question 'what happened to Islamic Science?'
and he gave no suprising answer `Nothing. Instead what we cultivated
in Isfahan and Cordoba is now being cultivated in MIT, Caltech and at
Imperial College, London. It's just a geographical translation of place'.
________________________________________________________
179
Nasr, further validated this statement by saying 'The Muslims has been
studying the history of science from the Western perspective, and the
Westerner have their right to decide the era which is important and
which is not for them. If we are going to utilise their reference, then we
are overlooking 700 years, not 70 years, 700 years of Islamic intellectual
history during which the Muslims were supposed to have done
nothing. They were supposed to have been decadent for 700 years. Now
how can you revive a patient that has been dead for that long a time?
The idea [which] is propagated in the West [is] that Muslims are very
brilliant, that they did science and things like that, [and then] suddenly
decided to turn the switch off and went to selling beads and playing
with their rosaries in the bazaar for the next 700 years till Mossadegh
nationalized the oil and they came back on the scene of human history
are now living happily again. This, of course, is total nonsense and it
brings about a sclerosis, intellectually, which is far from being
trivial.Over [the] twenty years I have taught at Tehran University, I
always felt, [our students] could never overcome this very long
historical loss of memory. Somehow it was very difficult for them. They
wanted to connect themselves to Al-Biruni and Khawarizmi and people
like that, but this hiatus was simply too long. This hiatus has not been
created by history itself. It has been created by the study of history from
the particular perspective of Western scholarship, which is as I said,
perfectly [within] its right in its claim that Islam is interesting only till
the moment that it influences the West. The great mistake is when that
objective divides the history of Islam [into a period of productivity and
one of degeneration]. In the field of history of science, that is a very
important element.'
In the earlier chapter we have proven the facts that the Muslim
scientific community had continuously contributed to the development
and advancement of science within their geographical or institutional
platforms. Despite their achievements, surprisingly, some of them who
even honoured by the Western world were not significantly
acknowledged to the Muslim worlds in the true sense. They were the
'hidden scientific torch-bearers' for the Muslim, the 'unknown heroes'.
They supposed to be the motivators and the catalysts for the success of
the Muslim generation. Yet, their forceful voice couldn't be heard but
only to be seen in their written biography, some even after they have
________________________________________________________
180
left the world.
Overlooking the abundant Muslim scientists over the world today, the
first question that should be asked is, how many of them really care of
their collective status and how many of them really interested to know
their role in the scientific re-emergence. This will somehow bring into
challenge the aim of their intellectual existence, the role of their
academic positioning and the future direction of their ambitious career.
It might be bittersome for some who never thought of the important of
this religion throughout their successful academic journey.It might be
hard for some to readjust the preset future glooming status and it might
be difficult for some to sacrifice their profit-adjusted time just to
rekindle the light of scientific interest in future generation. It will take
time and time is always the good healer. Yet this issue had to be clarified
individually and in the best possible approach.
This is vital before we go to the next question, how many of them are
willing to work hand-in-hand to achieve the same objective and who
will play the leading roles manoeuvring the whole process of re-
emergence. There is a big difference between thinking and saying,
saying and acting, acting and struggling, and true struggle and wrong
struggle. This brought all of us back to the important elements in any
process of change: the right attitude, the correct and blessed objective
and the courage to sacrifice for the benefit of the Muslim ummah.
4.1.2 The proven treatment: Al-Qur'an
It is without doubt that the Qur'an was the prime motivating factor in
the success of the Muslims ….for centuries. This has been well
supported not only by the sequence of events and achievements
following the earlier generations of Muslims, but also well agreed by
even the non Muslims researchers in the field of Islamic sciences and
history. So, it is obvious that when the Muslims started to interpret the
Qur'anic teaching in their own perspective, if not losing interest in it,
they are embracing unavoidable defeat, spiritual and materially.
"The Koran actually forms one of the cornerstones of science in Islam in

a way unlike any other scripture of any other religion," said Glen M.
________________________________________________________
181
Cooper, a professor of the history of science and Islam at Brigham

Young University."The Koran enjoins the believer and the unbeliever
alike to examine nature for signs of the creator's handiwork, evidence
of his existence, and his goodness," Cooper said. "Reason is revered as
one of the most important of God's gifts to men. The examination of
nature led historically into a scientific perspective and program."
Farkhonda Hassan, a professor at the University of Cairo who has

written about barriers to science careers for Islamic women,
agreed."The teachings of the Holy Prophet of Islam emphasize the
acquiring of knowledge as bounden duties of each Muslim from the
cradle to the grave, and that the quest for knowledge and science is
obligatory upon every Muslim man and woman," she said. "One eighth
-that is, 750 verses - of the Koran exhort believers to study, to reflect,
and to make the best use of reason in their search for the ultimate truth."
Muslim should go back to the essence of the Qur'anic teaching. They

should be educated the way the Prophet had taught them. They should
be the 'living Al Qur'an'. They should be told that seeking knowledge
and exploring the nature was not a mere encouragement to whosoever
wanted to do so, but it is a religious obligation, not only for their own
inner faith but for the benefit of the humanity.
The spirit of unity amongst the Muslims scientists, Muslims countries

and amongst Muslims in general as propagated by the Qur'an is based
on the sincerity and good faith and not because of material gain or
economic and political privileges.
Qur'an should be embraced as the first generation embraced it and the

importance of it should be intilled in the very heart of the Muslims.
4.1.3 The expert doctors: The Muslim scientists and religious

scholars
The religious scholar (ulama') should come hand in hand with the
Muslim scientist in the real sense. They should be no gap between them
since there is nothing in the teachings of Islam that contends against
learning, against science, and against technology. The pursuit of
________________________________________________________
182
knowledge and scientific research is the birthright of every Muslim

woman and every Muslim man.
The rediscovery of Islamic science and technology in the 21st century

is an intellectually formidable task requiring a sustained effort over
several decades.It demands a strong cooperation between both of them.
The religious scholar should be updated of the development of the
modern science and technology so that they can give their input
especially on moral and legal aspect of such an innovation and
development. At the same time the Muslim scientists and technologists
should be aware of the importance to impart if not mastered the Islamic
knowledge so they are well guided in their development.
The combination of these efforts will not only witness a positive

scientific development flourished based on the essence of the Qur'an
and the Hadith but furthermore, it will enhanced the development for
healthy 'ijtihad which without doubt, is essential in the rapid changing
world of science and technology.
Muslim religious scholar and scientists should be united in their aim at

applying science and technology in the building of a new Islamic
civilization. This will prevent the imbalance, disharmony and
disintegration in almost every field of human endeavor such as social,
economic, cultural, political or any other.
4.1.4 The Islamic Unity
The secret of the Islamic unity, as was proven historically was the
establishment of the Caliphate. Not only that it is a special symbol of
Islam with its distinction, many of the orders of the Islam are directly
connected with the Caliph and cannot be completed in his absence. This
was the reason that before the burial of the Holy Prophet, the honoured
Companions were anxious about the matter and till they settled this
important work satisfactorily, they did not consent to his burial. It was
also under the directive of the Caliph that the centre of Islamic scientific
civilization was moved to Baghdad.
As explicitly explained by al-Faruqi, the content of the Divine amana,

________________________________________________________
183
and therefore of khilafa, is the development and establishment of

culture and civilization. To institute peace and assurance of life and
property, to organize humans into an ordered society capable of
producing food and of processing, storing, and distributing it to all in
adequate quantities and quality, to provide shelter, warmth and
comfort, communication and ease, to build and make available the tools
necessary to realize these goals, and, finally, to furnish opportunities for
education and self-realization, and for recreation and esthetic
enjoyment, this is the core content of khilafa. It is equivalent to the
making of culture and civilization, to the affirmation and promotion of
life and the world. Allah (SWT) commands all this to be done and
declares it to be the very reason for His creation of the world. The
Divine, anterior motive in all this is that humans may prove themselves
ethically worthy in doing it. They can do so by entering into their
routines of action for His sake and maintaining the balance of justice
throughout their actions.
Rightly, Muslims understand khilafa as predominantly political. The

Qur'an repeatedly associates khilafa with establishment of political
power (Surah al A'araf 7:73), the reassurance of security and peace
(Surah al Nur 24:55), the vanquishing of enemies and the replacement
of their regime by that of the vicegerents (Surah al A'araf 7:128 and
Surah Yunus 10:14 & 73). Political action, i.e. participation in the
political process as in election or bay'ah of the ruler, giving continual
counsel and advice to the chief of state and his ministers, monitoring
their actions, criticizing and even impeaching them - all these are not
only desirable but prime religious and ethical duties. Failure to perform
such duties is, as the Prophet (SAWS) said, to lapse into jahiliya.
On the other hand, to be part of the politico-religious body of Islam is

integral to the faith itself. Abu Bakr and the sahaba fought those who
wanted to secede from the body while keeping the faith, branding them
as apostates who had rejected the whole of Islam. Unlike Christianity,
large sections of which have always regarded the political process as
the depth of evil and counseled against involvement in it, Islam
considers it to be of the essence and prohibits withdrawal. The same is
true a fortiori of culture and civilization. Islam regards building them as
the very business of religion. All the more contrasting with the norms
of Islam therefore is the disengagement of the Muslim masses from the
________________________________________________________
184
political process in the period of decay in which we are still ensnared.
Revival of the Caliphate is essential, although it will take great pains for
Muslim and many difficult problems will have to be settled before the
last steps for the resuscitation of the Caliphate is taken. It is really
encouraging to witness steps taken towards economic, social and
cultural cooperation and liaison among all the Muslim nations and
groups.
The formation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) was

a first major step towards achieving that aim even though its direction
is still in vague. It was established in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco, on
12th Rajab 1389H(25th September 1969) when the first meeting of the
leaders of the Islamic world was held in this city in the wake of the
criminal arson perpetrated on the 21st August 1969 by Zionist elements
against Al-Aqsa Mosque, in occupied Jerusalem. It was indeed in order
to defend the honour, dignity and faith of the Muslims, to face this bitter
challenge launched in the holy city of Al-Quds so dear to them and
against the Mosque of Al-Aqsa, the first Qibla and third holiest Shrine
of Islam, that the leaders of the Muslim world, at their summit in Rabat,
to think together of their common cause and muster the force required
to overcome the differences, unite and lay the foundations of this large
grouping of states.
Six month after that historical meeting, the First Islamic Conference of
Ministers of Foreign Affairs held in Jeddah set up a permanent general
secretariat, to ensure a liaison among member states and charged it to
coordinate their action. The conference appointed its secretary general
and chose Jeddah as the headquarters of the organization, pending the
liberation of Jerusalem, which would be the permanent headquarters.
The charter of this organization which now consists of 57 member states,

was adopted in Muharram 1392H(February 1972) aiming to strengthen
Islamic solidarity among member states, to built cooperation in the
political, economic, social, cultural and scientific fields, and safeguard
the dignity, independence and national rights of all Muslim people. It
will coordinate action to safeguard the Holy places and support the
struggle of the Palestinian people and assist them in recovering their
rights and liberating their occupied territories. Politically, the chapter
________________________________________________________
185
also enumerates the principles of full equality among member states,

observation of the right to self determination and non interference in
the internal affairs of member states and observation of the sovereignty,
independence and territorial integrity of each state.
Unfortunately, despite 35 year of its establishment, Jerusalem is still

under the hand of Israel, and history had witnessed various events such
as Iraq-Iran war, Kuwait invasion and intervention of foreign forces in
the Islamic lands which do not in line with the spirit of OIC itself. This
signifies that even though the external frame of re-establishment of the
Caliphate was in the mind of the Muslims-conscious or subconsciously,
the internal content and implementation of it is still far from reality.
4.1.5 Review of educational approach
For several hundred years, Islamic countries were colonial countries

ruled by foreigners.The Muslim masses were not only left behind in
education and loosing their natural resources, but also lacked inspiring
and guiding leaders. Without these they could not struggle and could
not compete and keep pace with the rest of the world, which has been
developing fast. Awakening from its slumber, the Ummah is today
confronted with formidable problems on all fronts. It's economic, social
and political problems, which are overpowering by any standard, are
"tip of the icebergs" of its deeper-lying malaise on the education,
intellectual and moral level.
All or most of the Muslim countries are blindly following the western
science and technology without any modification or change. This will
again result in injury to the Islamic personality and culture at all levels
and also it will destroy the physical environment. Muslim scientists
and technologists who are in pursuit of building a new Islamic
civilization must understand and solve the Ummah's problems. They
must understand them correctly and analyze them critically. They
must assess with precision how their solutions will affect the life of the
Ummah.
The young Muslim generation should be taught of Islamic patriotism.

The objective is that the new generations should make their own the
________________________________________________________
186
modes of their Muslim scientific ancestor such as Ibn Sina, Ibn Khaldun
and many other as mentioned earlier, whom they regard as an example
worthy to be followed. In their heart should lay the foundation of
greatness, honour, elevation, dignity, courage and chivalry like them.
They should hug to their hearts the ancestral grandeur, regard it as a
heritage of honour, and feel in themselves an urge of valour and
boldness.It is obvious that if we do not revive the deeds of the
predecessors, do not talk of their greatness and honour, how valour
could be generated in the present and future generation.
History books have been ripped from the rich culture of Islam.
Professors have been reluctant to attribute any discovery or invention to
Muslims. As stated even by Prince Charles-
"If there is much misunderstanding in the West about the nature of

Islam, there is also much ignorance about the debt our own culture and
civilisation owe to the Islamic world. It is a failure, which stems, I think,
from the straight-jacket of history, which we have inherited. The
medieval Islamic world, from central Asia to the shores of the Atlantic,
was a world where scholars and men of learning flourished. But because
we have tended to see Islam as the enemy of the West, as an alien
culture, society, and system of belief, we have tended to ignore or erase
its great relevance to our own history." (Prince Charles, lecture at
Oxford University)
Many education systems teach that the world civilisation scientifically

passed through, Greeks Era (BC), Romans Era (500 AD), Dark Ages(600-
1600 AD) Renaissance(1600 AD), Industrial Revolution (1800/1900 AD),
Modern Civilisation (2000-)."Dark Ages" is the word some corrupt
historians used to convinced the mass that for 1000 years nothing
happened, no discovery, no invention, no progress ,every body was
somehow mentally dead and their brains stop working. While it was
true for the Western Civilisation which was asleep during this time,
across the western countries an exemplary civilization arose, yet
masked by the historical fallacy.
During these 'neglected'centuries many remarkable developments took

place including discovery of Pulmonary Circulation, first Complete
Medical Encyclopedia, first successful surgeries, founding of chemistry,
________________________________________________________
187
founding of algebra, discovery of the laws of refraction and

determination of the Solar Year. There were many more discoveries that
took place during the 6th-16th century that shaped up the world
immensely and without doubt should be renamed as the Golden Era of
the World.
4.1.6 Mastering the language of technology
Without doubt, the tedious translation works done by the earlier

Islamic generation has given a fruitful outcome to their dominancy in
science. The similar situation occurred when the western nation started
to dig the treasure of knowledge of the Islamic civilization. Even until
today, the Muslim Arabic transcripts are still being translated.
We have to agree that today the English language is considered the

language of technology besides German, French and Japanese
languages. Scientific work, therefore, requires a competence in reading,
writing, and comprehending English, an area in which Muslims overall
lag behind other peoples, such as Chinese, Indians, and Brazilians. Even
though the Arab League has systematically promoted scientific
translations and an updated Arab vocabulary, yet where English or
French are the language of instruction (the former in the Arabic-
speaking countries of the Persian Gulf, the latter in North Africa),
hostility often develops between students in science, who study in a
foreign language, and those in other disciplines, who work in Arabic.
Some Muslim countries, and Malaysia was one of them, has even gone
a step forwards by sending their students to various part of the world
studying in different languages beside English. To quote Malaysia
itself, in the early 80's has started sending students to Belgium,
Germany, France, Japan, Korea and of late to Russia. The effort was to
be applauded but yet the follow up of such a 'daring' initiative was
miserable. The brilliant students, after their 'torturous' years learning in
foreign languages and successfully came out 'the burning oven' in one
piece, found themselves back home struggling as the rest to find a good
job and life. The language of technology that they learnt fade as time
goes. It is much beneficial if they were gathered in scientific or
academic institutions so that their different experiences and
________________________________________________________
188
technological approaches or transmission can be fully utilized to

enhance scientific development in the respective countries.
4.1.7 Effective Scientific Learning
Effective science education at primary and secondary levels must be

available to everyone. Encouragement should be given towards
understanding principle of science and its application in day to day life.
Students should be encouraged to think, experiment and invent simple
scientific discovery. The concept of study for exam should be erased and
the curriculum should be less stringent on academic marks and not
'exam oriented'. Universities and technical schools should emphasize
research rather than teaching.Strong doctoral programs or research
centers of academic excellence must be brought into existence.
The approach to science should be from the Islamic perpective.

Understanding of the material science should come hand in hand with
the Islamic scientific philosophies. As well described by Syed Hossein
Nasr 'Modern science is successful in telling you the weight and
chemical structure of a red pine leaf, but it is totally irrelevant to what
is the meaning of the turning of this leaf to red. The ``how'' has been
explained in modern science, the ``why'' is not its concern. If you are a
physics student and you ask the question, `what is the force of
gravitation?' the teacher will tell you the formula, but as to what the
nature of this force is, he will tell you it is not a subject for physics. So
[science] is very successful in certain fields, but leaves other aspects of
reality aside'.
And the Muslim students should also be reminded and trained as

budding scientists, with ability to gather scientific informations, to
screening it, to assimilate it with the Islamic principle and
understanding before digesting or rejecting it. As explicitly quoted by
Nasr: 'symbolically, and the symbol is important, when the West
adopted Islamic science, it even adopted the gown of the Muslim
Ulema, but it never took the turban and put it on its head. The head-
dress of the European bishops of the Middle Ages, was kept on, whereas
at many Islamic universities today, we have taken both the gown and
the cap from the West. We cannot think of ourselves independently. The
________________________________________________________
189
whole thing has been taken over and has now been made our own.'
4.1.8 Promotion and Commercialization of scientific research
Muslims countries must develop the mechanisms not only to produce

but to sustain outstanding individual researchers and projects. Besides
steps taken to invite back local prominent scientist who is abroad,
adequate incentives and unconditional support for scientific projects
and publications should be given for the talented scientists at home.
Promotion, even to bureaucratic posts should be conditioned not to
hamper their scientific momentum.
Attempts to develop research capabilities should not only be limited to

the universities or research institutes but should expand to the
government ministries, non-profit foundations, multinational
corporations, or local corporations.
4.1.9 Recognition and award
Recognition of the contribution of the individual or group is important

not only for personal satisfaction but also to foster a healthy
environment for further scientific advancement. And it should not only
be limited to the universities or higher institutional learning centres, but
must go down to the school, community and family level.
The scientific bodies or academies in the Muslims countries should not

be carried over by prestigious awards in science such as the Noble Prize
and the L'oreal-Unesco Awards for 'Women in Science' and
concentrating only to the 'big gun' in science. They should be well
aware of the value attached to the recognition of the young talents
especially in their effort to nuture the budding scientific generation.
Each award has its own credibility, seen by individual from different
level of education and accepted by different strata of people.
Noble prize has little meaning for a farmer who is struggling to get
enough money to send his beloved children to school. For them a
financial award and a 'science scholarship' will not only lessened their
________________________________________________________
190
financial constraint but will open their eyes, broaden their mind and
enhance their encouragement to motivate the learning of science in the
family circle.
Teachers of science at the primary and secondary school played the

utmost important role in shaping the future generation, and they too
should be encouraged with appropriate recognition and awards. How
can we expect our future scientists to be born out from an institution
where the teacher themselves are not scientifically inclined and not
innovative enough. They should built the interest together with their
students to explore the scientific world of innovation,even to start with
the simplest project of thinking how to measure the amount of water
used for performing wudhu'(ablution) to a complex project of making a
fountain clock that splash water at certain hour.
4.1.10 Building up the 'scientific family, scientific community'
Islam recognizes the family as the constitutive unit of social order, and
buttresses its extended form with legislation regarding inheritance and
dependence in order to enable the largest possible family membership
to eat from the same kitchen and hence mutually and economically to
support the social, emotional, and mental health and prosperity of its
members. Beyond the family, Islam recognizes multiple levels of
community in humanity, and finally the universal social order of the
largest community, mankind. Man's membership in this order generates
interest in the social sciences, or should do so. Human groupings
without a moral basis between the family and humankind, such as
country, region, the "people," or "nation-state," Islam regards purely as
administrative units absolutely irrelevant to the definition of good and
evil and to the interpretation and application of the shari'ah. The arts,
the humanities, and the social sciences of the modern West must
therefore be totally recast.
The basic need to build up a scientific family is as emphasized by Islam,

the pursuit of knowledge. The Quran begins with the word "iqra" or
"read". Every Muslim family must be encouraged and guided to take
part in acquisition of knowledge. Reading habit should be instilled in
each member of the family starting from the parent themselves. Each
________________________________________________________
191
Muslim house should have its own library, irrespective of its size, and
each housing area should have its community library. The education
system must be orientated towards encouraging reading habits instead
of dumping children with endless 'copying'homeworks rather than
initiating self research and reading.
Important issues related to Islam and science in particular should be a

regular topic of discussion within the family circle. The issue can be
outsourced from journals, media or the reading of Qur'an and Hadith
itself. It has been a routine phenomenon nowadays that Islam has been
wrongly potrayed with multiple pictures and labels from 'poverty',
'starvation', 'war' to 'terrorism'. These disrecpectful issues should be
well explained to our children so that they are well repared to face the
true face of the world.
The understanding of Islam as our way of life should be translated in

reality within the family. The teachings of Qur'an and Sunna must be
activated in our houses, among our children and wives and all those
around us so that they may receive its guidance for implementation not
for mere knowledge. Thereafter we will notice a manifest change in
both individual and collective behaviors. This positive change should
be guided to the right direction in order to make of it a comprehensive
change incorporating the whole nation. This is not an imagination or
theoretical thinking but it is a reality that we can live and put into effect.
4.1.11 Credibility of muslims countries
Globally, Muslim countries are devoid of a common voice that is taken

seriously. They are known to be very consistent in arranging annual
international conferences beside regular regional meetings, discussing
important issues related to Muslim countries. They usually end up with
excellent resolutions and even credible steps to move forward. Yet
unfortunately, in general they are poor in implementations.
So many matters, from untouchable internal politics to 'mental' if not

'physical' non-deliberation from Western influences have stagnate the
progress of Muslim nations. It had become obvious that the moral
boostering speeches given by particular goodhearted leaders will be
________________________________________________________
192
repeated again and again in the subsequent meetings.
Many Muslim countries are synonymous with poverty, illiteracy and

malnutrition. Some stand out because of oppression, tyranny and
injustice. Statistic has shown that only a small minority of the 57
Muslim-majority countries, five to be exact, is deemed as having high
human development by the UNDP (United Nations Development
Programme); 24 countries are in the medium-developing category. The
remaining 28, or half the Muslim world, are classified as having low
human development. Only five countries in the Muslim world enjoy a
per capita GDP above US$10,000 (RM38,000).
The acquisition of knowledge in much of the Muslim world is still

lacking.Educational standards are low and illiteracy high in many
countries, due to poverty, poor management and allocation of
resources, war and conflict. In some countries more than half the adult
population is illiterate. The number of scholar produced could not
compesate the brain drain to other developed countries.
All this conditions led if not make worse with another disease in the
society, corruption.Corruption is another major problem in the Muslim
world. We fare extremely poorly in Transparency International's
corruption perception index. Of the 133 countries surveyed in 2003, the
Muslim country with the best record could only rank 26th. Four Muslim
countries occupied the last 10 rankings.
The Muslim countries are in need of credible leaders, who able to

observe, hear and think the pressing problems of their countries and the
Muslim nations.A leader who has the courage to move forward.A
leader who has the broad vision of the future not only for his country
but more importantly for the Muslim ummah and a leader who work
and implement things more than mere talking.
Gone should be the days of leaders who accommodated their time more
on the issue of their political survival, who accumulated their own
wealth at the expense of starvation of the'mind' and 'body' of the nation
and who had never thought of re-establishing the dominancy of Muslim
ummah in this world.
The Muslim countries has been so long 'isolated' in their 'mind' and
________________________________________________________
193
'vision' by their geographical boundaries, political egoism and worse

still religious illeteration or misunderstanding. Understanding this,
insy'Allah (with the will of Allah), we can be a credible nation.
4.2 The Assets
Understanding the pre-requisites for the re-emerging process and the

huge responsibilities awaiting the sincere Muslims, it is important for
us to reconsider the assets that we have to determine at which point
should we began, and at which level are our capabilities. For this we
need to evaluate those beneficial assets that we have or had been passed
down by the previous generations.
4.2.1 The Spiritual Assets
The formative period of Islamic civilization began with the revelation of

the Holy Qur'an, which laid down the basic principles of Islamic
teaching. This has been agreed upon by both the Muslim and non
Muslim scholars who had done extensive research on the history of the
Islamic nation. This is the key of the spiritual assets which is still in the
hand of the Muslims without any minute alteration. This was further
elaborated both by the words and the practical aspect of life of the
Prophet Mohammad which was preserved as the Tradition (Hadith) till
today with its stringent authenticity scrutiny.
The Holy Quran that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad By

Allah(God), is the only book who's content has not been altered or
changed a bit for more then 1400 years, and the book has been learnt by-
heart, word to word by millions of Muslims. This Book that was
revealed verse by verse in almost 23 years, explained to us each and
every aspect of the way our life should be, the way our life should not
be. It even explained many advanced scientific facts, including, The
Origin of the Universe, Human Embryonic ,Purpose of Mountains,
Origin of Rain and many other scientific and mathematical facts .
These are the two important spiritual elements that lit up the hearts of
________________________________________________________
194
the esteemed companions that they brightened up despite the deep

gloom which prevailed at that time. These are the drink of spiritualism
which Prophet Mohammad made them drink which sent a wave of life
and freshness in to them. Thereafter the flowers of wisdom blossomed
amongst them, the buds of emotions and sentiments bloomed into
fragrance and leaves of intelligence and insight budded.
These are the spiritual elements needed and should be instilled in the
heart of the current and future Muslim scientist, not only to motivate
them but more importantly to purify their ultimate aim of the scientific
innovations and achievements. And they are still in the hand of the
Muslims.
4.2.2 The Historical Assets
History has justified that the Muslims were at the forefront of human
and scientific civilization. History has witnessed that the expansion of
Islam was not dominantly spearheaded by oppression and swords but
by high moral upbringing and positive attitudes of the earlier
generations. History has also taught the human being, without fail that
given the appropriate time and processes, events will be repeated in the
same principle irrespective of the different geographical areas or time
frames. The fact is that if the Muslims willing to learn and stroll ahead
in the successful pathway of the earlier generations, the door of victory
will be widely opened for them.
Beside the authentic historical book and manuscripts, as we open our

eyes, we are not devoid of historical geographical landmarks
throughout the world. These physical remains of history should be
appreciated not only for the sake of its artistic or architectural values,
but should trickle the Muslims minds and woke them up of their
shameful laziness in continuing and benefiting the great heritage of
intellectuality and civilization of their ancestors.
Historically and till today the Muslim nation had never been exhausted
in producing scientific geniuses. This historical and 'to be historic'
figures is invaluable assets in shaping the minds of the Muslims and
motivating the younger generation, proving the intrinsic capability of
________________________________________________________
195
the Muslims. It is timely for them to become more extrinsic in their

appearances and their achievements.
With regards to the manuscripts of Muslim civilization, it is enough to

know that there exist at the present day, in spite of many losses by
destruction, nearly quarter of a million manuscripts in the various
libraries of the Muslim world, and in the great libraries of Europe and
America. A large part of this wealth deals with scientific subjects, and
includes both Arabic translation of Ancient Greek words, and original
works written by Muslim scholars themselves.
History, day by day kept on unveiling the impact of Islam's discoveries

during the 'Golden' period which went far beyond individual
innovations like algebra or the establishment of models for modern
hospitals and universities. The spread of Islamic knowledge to Europe
sparked, or at least helped to spark, the Renaissance and scientific
revolution of the 17th century which repeatedly elicited even by the
Western historians.
"It is highly probable that, but for the Arabs, modern European
civilization would never have arisen at all," Sir Thomas Arnold and
Alfred Guillaume wrote in their 1997 classic, "The Legacy of Islam."
Robert Briffault wrote in the 'Making of Humanity' that "Spain, not

Italy, was the cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After steadily sinking
lower and lower into barbarism, it had reached the darkest depths of
ignorance and degradation when cities of the Saracenic world,
Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Toledo, were growing centers of
civilization and intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose
which was to grow into a new phase of human evolution."
4.2.3 The Material and Physical Assets
Islam is the faith of over 1.25 billion Muslims, centered historically and
symbolically on the cities of Mecca and Medina in the Arabian
Peninsula, where the word of God was revealed to Muhammad ibn
'Abdullah from 610 until the Prophet's death in 632. Demographically,
________________________________________________________
196
the center of the Islamic world is well to the east of the Middle East.
Only one-fifth of Muslims are Arab, and the largest populations of
Muslims live in Indonesia, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Out of 191 countries of the United Nations, 57 are Muslim countries
which also represent the OIC. With over one fifth of the world
population and also possession of roughly one fifth of the world's land
mass, Muslim countries also had been blessed with great wealth. They
own some of the most abundant energy and mineral resources in the
world. They possess 70% of world's energy resources. And they supply
40% of the global exports of raw materials.
But, unfortunately, the OIC as a group has failed to convert their

abundant human and physical resources into economic achievement.
As a group the OIC has less than 5% of the world GDP; and, besides, the
others are growing faster. Therefore the per capita income o f the OIC
group is depreciating relative to other countries.
The GDP of the entire Ummah is roughly $1400 billion while that of
Japan alone is $4500 billion. The highest GDP of a Muslim country is $
185 billion while that of tiny European countries with no natural
resources is above $ 200 billion.
This disparity is because of the technological and human resource edge

they enjoy. The Ummah collectively can boast only of 500 universities
(leave the quality aside) and 1000 PhDs per annum. Japan alone has
more than 9000 universities and England alone produces more than
2000 PhDs.
Incomes within OIC are also skewed. Only 6 countries account for more
than half the OIC income. Rest of the 51 countries generate a meager
income of barely $ 600 billion. Out of the world's 48 least developed
countries, 22 are in OIC. 23 OIC countries are classified as severely
indebted by international institutions. In Trade and Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI), the OIC countries performance is again dismal. OIC
share in world trade is only 6 to 8 percent. Hardly $15 billion of FDI is
attracted by all the OIC countries. This figure is roughly that of Sweden
or Thailand alone. China atone has FDI of $50 billion. What is most
saddening is that lntra-OIC trade is a small fraction of its total trade
volume.
The Muslims world was granted abundant material assets and human
________________________________________________________
197
resources. And it might be one of the important reasons why they still
lack behind economically. Self contented with the pouring profit from
their energy resources and raw material, they became less innovative
compared to those without their own resources. It is just the repetition
of the history of the 17th century.
The Muslim nations should start thinking seriously on steps to generate
economic growth in their countries. They should invent practical
manouvers to increase intra OIC trade and investment so that their
citizens can share in the prosperity and superior technology through
better governance.
________________________________________________________
198
4.3 Future Direction
4.3.1 Centrally based scientific leadership
The importance of a central scientific leadership is unquestionable.The

formation of the Network of Academies of Science in Countries of the
Organization of Islamic Conference (NASIC) on the 17th March 2004 at
Islamabad was a happy augury for the future. Founded by 15 National
Science Academies of the OIC Member States, it has selected Prof. Atta-
ur-Rahman from Pakistan as its president with the Pakistan Academy of
Sciences as the secretariat of the network. They have agreed to establish
a formal network to provide each other with mutual support and to
discuss the scientific aspects of problems of common concern. Hopefully
the network could help to build a unified approach to capacity building
in science and technology within OIC member states.
Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, who is Pakistan's federal minister of science and

technology, is also the coordinator-general of COMSTECH, the OIC's
Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation.
NASIC is intended to be an autonomous, non-governmental, non-

political and non-profit organisation. Its tasks will include developing
scientific research collaborations between members of the network;
promoting cooperation between academies in OIC countries; assisting
in building the capacities of academies in OIC countries to improve their
role as independent expert advisors to governments; and assisting
science communities in OIC countries to set up national independent
academies where such bodies do not exist.
In pursuing its objectives, it was also agreed that NASIC should

collaborate with other academies both inside and outside the OIC, as
well as with regional and international organisations concerned with
problems in OIC countries.
It is our hope that through NACIS the linkages between the scientists in
OIC countries can be strengthened, leading to exchange of scientists,
initiation of programmes in education and training in various fields of
science and technology, together with promotion of joint research in
________________________________________________________
199
priority fields.
The flourishing numbers of international based association of Muslim

professionals were also an important development for a better future of
science. This includes the International Muslim Association of Scientists
and Engineers (IMASE) and the Federation of Islamic Medical
Association (FIMA).Futher collaboration with Internat….Social
Scientist and the Fatwa
The International Muslim Association of Scientists and Engineers

(IMASE) is a global networking organisation of researchers, scholars,
technologists and professionals that aims to nurture and exploit
knowledge, with an Islamic framework, for the benefit of mankind.
IMASE strives to achieve this by gathering and focussing the
knowledge, talents and experience of its members from around the
world, to identify and address the scientific and technological
challenges facing developing communities. They work to deal with
these challenges by delivering distinctive contributions through
research, action and publication. Their areas of focus include
technology for development, water issues, enterprise and Muslim
science policy.
IMASE aims to be a practical consulting and problem-solving

organisation that draws upon its network of members from the
scientific community's finest, in order to assist in the development of
individuals, organisations and nations across the world.Their Focus
Group aims to nurture and employ attitudes and practices of an Islamic
character towards science while their Islam and Science Forum aims to
research and deliver coherent and realistic seminars, discussions and
studies on matters related to science, technology, society and
development.
By pooling their disciplinary resources and engaging their collective

curiosity towards contemporary challenges, they hope to play a
beneficial role in building capability and confidence in Muslim
knowledge structures on an Ummah level.
The practical dimension of this group is in Translation, which refers to
the translation of an Islamic Philosophy of Science, to a deliverable
Science Policy for Muslim nations and institutions. Through
________________________________________________________
200
consultations, surveys and publications, they will work to identify and

build awareness amongst drivers of research priorities in contemporary
Muslim societies.
The Federation of Islamic Medical Association (FIMA), was

established in 1981, by a group of Muslim physicians and health care
professionals from Canada, United State of America, India, Pakistan,
Indonesia, Jordan, South Africa, Sudan, Nigeria, United Kingdom of
Eire, who first met in Orlando, Florida, USA. They discussed the need
for an organization to unite all Islamic Health Care association in the
world under one banner. Currently it has over 24 member organizations
from all over the world.
Amongst the major objectives of FIMA are to foster the unity and
welfare of Muslim medical professionals all over the world and to
promote Islamic medical activities including health services, education
and research, through cooperation and coordination among member
organization. It also strives to promote the understanding the
application of Islamic principal in the field of medicine, to mobilize
professional and economic resources in order to provide medical care
and relief to affected areas and people. It also has the role to promote
exchange of medical information and technical data among member
organization.
Over the years, Muslim medical professionals under FIMA banner,

were capable of making history in overcoming and bypassing
boundaries and divisions of politics, ethnicity and geography, and to
step forward as brothers in Islam, descendants of one great Islamic
civilization and culture.Over the past few years, Islamic Medical
Associations all over the world were able to develop their activities in
various areas of medical, educational, scientific, humanitarian and other
fields of action. FIMA, as an umbrella organization, became
instrumental in coordination, bridging and guidance, to bring about
sound cooperation and planning among member associations.
To fulfill the Aims and Objectives layed down in December 1982, FIMA
has embarked on major projects including medical relief work in
disaster areas, Islamic University Consortium, Islamic Hospital
Consortium, High Technology Center, Medical Professional Database,
________________________________________________________
201
international and regional scientific conventions, medical student

activities including scholarship summer and winter camps, and other
activities in collaboration with various member associations. Other
projects are awaiting genuine efforts, initiatives and leadership of
successive and devoted professionals.
'Organized Islamic medical work is in dire need for dedication and

diligent innovation from all of us, in our continuous strife to regain the
proper leading and dignified status of our Ummah in science, and all
walks of life' as once stressed by the past-president Dr. Aly Mishal, an
endocrinologists who he himself is the director of the Islamic Hospital
in Jordan.
The Islamic Academy of Sciences (AIS) establishment was proposed

by the Organisation of the Islamic Conference; (OIC) Standing
Committee on Scientific and Technological Co-operation
(COMSTECH), and approved by the Fourth Islamic Summit held in
Casablanca in 1984.Upon the invitation of Jordan, the Founding
Conference of the Academy was held in Amman (Jordan) in October
1986, under the patronage of HRH Prince Al-Hassan, who kindly
accepted the patronage of the Academy together with the President of
Pakistan.the secretariat is currently in Amman,Jordan.
IAS's mission is to provide an institutional set up for the utilisation of

Science and Technology for the development of Islamic countries and
humanity at large. It aims to increase interaction among scientists and
facilitate the exchange of views on development issues, and to function
as the Islamic Brain Trust helping the Islamic and Developing Worlds
in the field of science and technology.
The Annual Academy Conferences represent open fora at which

experts meet and discuss a particular topic, with the aim of arriving at
a common understanding of that topic and formulating core policies
that can help developing countries overcome their development
difficulties. In 2003, the thirteenth IAS Conference
was held in Malaysia (Kucing,Serawak) and at the conclusion of the
four-day conference the Academy adopted the IAS Kuching
Declaration on Energy for Sustainable Development and Science for the
Future of the Islamic World and Humanity.
________________________________________________________
202
The declaration re-iterated the fact that the teachings of Islam

emphasize the importance of prudently using all resources for Man's
lasting well-being, and explicitly emphasize that human-beings' relation
to nature should be one of stewardship and not of unrestricted mastery,
and that Islam promotes a balance between all living creatures and their
life-sustaining environment. It further called for the implementation of
an R&D policy that addresses the complex interconnections among
technological advance and societal responses and needs including
sustainability.
Through the declaration, the IAS re-iterated that science is a major asset
of humanity, an asset that in the 21st century offers new opportunities
and faces new challenges as well as old ones, challenges related to the
prevalence of sustainable development, justice, tolerance, dialogue
between civilisations and peace. It promulgated that the international
science/academic community must lead the way in bridging prevailing
civilisational, social, economic, even political divides between the
peoples of the world.
The Academy has been publishing the Journal of the Islamic Academy of
Sciences since August 1988.For the first ten years of its existence the
Journal was a broad-based scientific publication on average carrying
general scientific articles. However it has been re-launced in 1998 as a
specialised medical Journal thus becoming the Medical Journal of the
Islamic Academy of Sciences.
4.3.2 Identification of the expertise (Muslim Who's who in Science)
Despite the fact that there are bountiful of Muslim scientists in the
western countries, identification and bringing them together was not an
easy process. This can partly be attributed to the result of continuous
assault on Islam. The label given to Islam and Muslims, from 'poor,
underdeveloped countries', 'authoritarian religion and regimes' and
'terrorist' has been repetitively emphasized by the media and
popularity-gainer politicians. This has led to the inferior complex within
the Muslims themselves to their religion.
The consequences of this are variable. First, residing in foreign countries

________________________________________________________
203
which gave full support to their career advancement and their gifted
intellectuality, and working under great western scientists or
institutions, some of the Muslim scientists prefer to keep Islam within
their inner self, afraid it will be a hindrance to their future career
development. Their active involvement in their professional societies
far superseded their own contributions to promote scientific generation
to the Muslim community, if any.
Second, many previously prominent scientist or scholars prefer to take

a defensive stand when it came to Islamic issues. Not only that they
have to spent unnecessary time to re-explain Islam in the most
diplomatic way, they also feel that some attachment to the any Islamic
association or interest group not of utmost important. They prefer to
portray their scientific achievement as individual achievement rather
than representing a collective effort of Muslims.
Third and most unfortunate phenomenon is that some of the scientists

with Muslim name tag behind them do not even practised Islam in their
daily life. Islam has long been left behind back home, and it is
understandable that they do not appreciate the role of Islam in their
intellectual upbringing, if not an obstacle for their scientific
achievement in the Muslim world.
In general, despite their excellent scientific intellectualities, many of

Muslim scientists abroad are morally depressed, consciously or
subconsciously.Their moral should be boosted with proper approach
and encouragement. Individual effort is appreciated but the
organizational impact is much more effective.
Academy of Sciences of each Muslim country should identify and trace

all their scientists, locally and abroad. Those abroad should be invited
to join the academy of their respective countries so that they have the
sense of belonging to a Muslim organization. They should be invited to
give speeches of their speciality or appoint as honorary lecturer with
their local university. Student should be sent to them for attachment.
These kind of efforts will be much more appreciated by them and will
boost their moral to participate in further scientific programme for the
benefit of the Muslims.
________________________________________________________
204
Efforts should be made to produce Islamic Who's who in Science. This

will not only give the recognition to their works but will serve as a direct
source of networking among the Muslim scientists. Furthermore it will
motivate the young budding generation of Muslim scientists reading
through the journey of success of their older generations. Muslim
culture has a long tradition of biographical compilations. One of the
earliest biographical dictionaries was that of Ibn Khalikan, born in Erbil
in Iraq in 1211, who compiled the seven volume 'Wafayat al-A'yan wa
Anba' Abna' al-Zaman' (The Obituaries of Eminent Men).
During the course of this research, the author himself felt the difficulties
in identifying the prominent modern time Muslim scientists.
Uncountable days passed in order to search, select and authenticitate for
the prominent one. The problems are numerous. Some had their Islamic
name modified for some particular reason. Some with Muslim's name
had not potrayed or even hint in their formal or informal presentation
or life that they are Muslim. Some had to be reconsidered and re-edit for
because of their openedly exposed routine habit that is not inline with
Islam itself. In general, the author had taken the 'face' value of Islam for
everyone, as the rest is between them and God.
Despite that one obvious thing that every one should know is that we
are not lack of credible scientists. What we are in dire need is their
ability to come forward and let themselves to be known at least to the
Muslim world. No matter how uncomfortable it may make the Western
world, Muslim scientists are now as much a part of the West as the East.
In the future, an American-born Muslim scientist might win the Nobel
Prize and Muslim children would have a new type of Western role
model, far removed from the standard movie stars and sports figures.
This was explicitly pointed by Dr. Iqbal Unus, in his article, "Muslim
Scientists & Engineers: From Then to Now," confirming what as been
said earlier by Abdus Salam:"Strange as it may sound, there are more
highly qualified Muslim science and engineering professionals in North
America than in any one single Muslim Country. This unique science
and engineering community has become a source of much expectation
and hope in the Muslim world. Distinguished by the quality of its
achievements, and its access to the best in research and development
facilities, it holds the promise of a better tomorrow for a world stuck
________________________________________________________
205
seemingly forever in a 'developing?' phase. The promise is yet to be

fulfilled, but the potential is there, as is the challenge."
4.3.3 Reorganization of material and human resources
As for any successful organization the material assets should be well

invested and human resources should be efficiently utilized. The
abundant wealth scattered all over the Muslim world should neither be
wasted unnecessarily nor kept hidden unexplored. At the same time,
the excessive human resources should neither be neglected nor
exploited to benefit the others outside the nation.
Muslim world is facing economic inferiority complex because the lack

of effective implementor rather than economic gurus. Similar tragedy
occurred to the intellectual pool, the brain drain of the talented Muslim
scientists superceded the production capability of the intellectual
'factories' throughout the Muslim countries.The emigration of
scientists, disenchanted by factors ranging from a lack of investment in
research to social and political instability in the region, is threatening
the future technological and scientific development of the Muslim
world.
As for the material resources, The Organisation of Islamic Conference

(OIC) representing one-fifth of the world's population and possessed
rich natural resources and mineral reserves must create the necessary
'economic mass'in order to have influence over international trade
relations. The fact is that if the Muslim countries do not enter into some
form of economic co-operation within the OIC, they risk having to bear
the brunt of extreme competition from the global trading system.
Internal review of OIC found that a large portion of the wealth
generated in some member countries do not get invested in other OIC
countries. Even the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
report in 2003 pointed out that Arab rulers invest much of their oil
money in the United States and other foreign countries, rather than
using it to develop their own nations, and import technical know-how
instead of educating ample numbers of their own citizens to be
scientists and engineers.
The Muslim nations need to focus on the economic development of

________________________________________________________
206
Muslim countries to gain political clout and they must start by

understanding the causes and effects of economic backwardness in
some members so that specific programmes can be tailored to sustain
their future growth.Trade should be seen within the context of enriching
Muslims and developing their economies.
To start with, the domestic economic policies of the OIC countries

should be reform and the key areas of reform include foreign
investment laws, tax and trade regimes, currency and exchange control
systems, corporate governance, stock exchanges and the judiciary. The
final outcome should be an attractive and easy intra-OIC flow of
investments.
Further, active participation in regional economic groupings especially

amongst the OIC countries and their neighbourhood such as ASEAN,
African Union,and others should be encourage or activated, with the
view of benefiting the Muslim countries involved. While large business
groups can afford to conduct due diligence and make intelligent trade
and investment decisions, a concerted effort should be launched to
assist medium-sized enterprises.Support should be given to innovative
firms in emerging industries.
There is a huge potential for leveraging the cultural affinities within the
Muslim countries to build robust brands. The success of Al-Jazeera and
Mecca Cola are examples of the penetrative effect of successful brands,
learnt probably from the speed with which Nike and Starbucks have
expanded their businesses around the world as a testimonial to effective
branding. Another area of cooperation is the global market for "halal"
food, potentially worth up to 500 billion dollars a year with some 1.8
billion consumers. Even Malaysia had openly offered contract farming
or contract manufacturing arrangements with other OIC members to
bring it into reality.
Muslims should realize their strength in consumerism. With a better

understanding of playing the globalization game and a new awareness
of their own purchasing power, they can fight back with substitute
goods and services. Even in America the spectrum ranges from "Abu
Ammar" potato chips to local substitutes for DisneyWorld has shown
promising signs.And the purchasing power of Muslims has not gone
________________________________________________________
207
unnoticed, even in the US and and Britain. And in another sign of

creative flexibility, longtime economic pariah Iran is succeeding in its
efforts to market bonds in international markets. Western financial
markets have responded with Islamic indices and investment funds,
such as those by Dow Jones and HSBC Investment Bank. These are yet
the early potential of the Muslim economy.
The OIC's collective gross domestic product is less than five percent of
the global total, and trade among its members is estimated at 800 billion
dollars annually which constitutes only six to seven percent of world
trade.These numbers are relatively small given the total population size
of the OIC. As such, the Muslim countries should work hard to realise
the huge growth potential for trade and investment in the OIC, quickly
and effectively.
One of the effective measurements is by identifying a cluster of

industries for focused attention in promoting intra-OIC ventures
instead of dissipating our energies on too many sectors and industries.
To begin with the following four sectors had been suggested for their
synergies within the OIC: Energy, Agri-business, Financial Services,
Information and Communications Technology.
Other steps include developing investment funds to facilitate joint

ventures and accelerate direct investment within the OIC especially by
utilizing the experience of the Islamic Development Bank, exploring
mechanisms for allowing trading across the stock exchanges of OIC
countries and leverage of new technologies for the rapid transfer of
information about OIC business opportunities which include sharing
information on best practices and creating directories and data bases.
The abovementioned steps are actually not new to OIC, yet past efforts
to enhance economic relations within OIC failed because of two
fundamental reasons: a lack of an institutional framework for
implementation and a lack of involvement of the business and private
sector. And as proposed by the President Musharraf during a recent
meeting in Kuala Lumpur, a Joint Economic and Business Team
consisting of top officials and top businessmen from OIC countries
seems to be an acceptable remedy for the future.
Given the increasing links between science and technology, state-
________________________________________________________
208
owned corporations have a potentially important scientific role. Linkage

should be build with university and researcher institutes, locally or
within the OIC member countries. For example, adaptive research in the
petroleum and petrochemical industries can provide incentives for joint
ventures in research with state-owned companies. This will enhance
scientific progress while maximizing the available resources
The very fact that the Muslim nations can offer unlimited opportunities
in the oil, gas, mining and energy sectors, in tourism and infrastructure
development, in the IT and telecommunication sector, in privatization
of state enterprises and in small and medium enterprises confirmed that
physically they a fit for the future success. What left to be 'treated' or
'tuned' is their 'mind'and 'attitude'.The Muslim nation has to be
emancipated. They have to develop the capability to realise their
potential and purify their willingness to help each other in optimising
their strength.
As for the intellectual 'brain drain', the following figures is

alarming.According to a new study by Cairo's Gulf Centre for Strategic
Studies, the emigration of intellectuals from the Arab world accounts for
about one-third of the total 'brain drain' from developing countries to
the West. Arab countries lose half of their newly-qualified medical
doctors, 23 per cent of engineers and 15 per cent of scientists each year,
with three quarters of these moving to the United Kingdom, United
States and Canada. This is estimated to equate to annual losses to Arab
states of more than US$2 billion.
The study also found that 45 per cent of Arab students who study
abroad do not go back to their countries after graduating. As a result, it
says that Western states are the greatest beneficiaries of 450,000 Arabs
with higher scientific qualifications.
The study says that a range of political, economic, social and personal
factors are to blame for the brain drain. These include the slow
development in Arab countries, a failure to make adequate use of new
technologies in the productive sector, low salaries, and the relative lack
of opportunities for scientific research.
Broader factors include the political and social instability in many

________________________________________________________
209
countries in the region. Iraq, for example, is currently suffering a new

brain drain as intellectuals flood out of the country to avoid
unemployment and assassination attempts.
The study recommends an 11-fold increase in spending on scientific

research and preparation of a strategy for science development in the
Arab world as part of a strategy to counteract the impact of the brain
drain.
It points out that at present only 0.2 per cent of the Arab region's Gross
Domestic Product is spent on scientific research, compared to between
two and 3.6 per cent in Denmark, France, Japan, Israel, Switzerland and
the United States.
"If the 10,000 Egyptian experts who are working abroad in the medical
and biotechnology sector came back, it would be enough to start a new
technological revolution in Egypt," says Venice Kamel Gouda, former
Egyptian minister of scientific research. She urges Arab states to
support the Network of Arab Scientists and Technologies Abroad
(ASTA) to act as 'an emigrant think-tank' that would serve as a bridge
with Arab countries through consultancies, sabbaticals and the
exchange of information.
Malaysia's last national survey of research and development (R&D),

carried out in 2000, indicated that spending on R&D represented only
0.5 per cent of gross domestic product, and that there were 15.6
researchers per 10,000 of the labour force. The Second National Science
and Technology Policy, drawn up by Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation (MOSTI), aims to increase R&D expenditure to at least
1.5 per cent of GDP, and to achieve a competent work force of at least
60 researchers per 10,000 labour force by 2010. These goals fall into
Malaysia's broader objectives of achieving the status of a developed
nation by 2020.
The Prime Minister, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi has also instructed

MOSTI to review incentives to attract Malaysian scientists working
overseas to return home. The country's human resources ministry has
already agreed to make venture capital, financial assistance and
research development facilities more accessible. Reports in the
________________________________________________________
210
Malaysian press suggest that other moves being explored by the science
ministry may include the encouragement of more research collaboration
between Malaysians abroad and those at home. Such projects are a good
way of tapping into the knowledge of the former while allowing them
to continue working overseas.
In total, 30,000 Malaysian graduates are thought to work in foreign

countries. Some have held scholarships in top universities overseas like
those offered by the Public Service Department, but have decided to
stay at the end of their studies."It costs the government a lot of money
to send our students overseas," said former Prime Minister Mahathir
Mohamad."[Those countries] should pay [Malaysia] for having taken
away our graduates since, by right, the graduates' training and
knowledge should be called intellectual property."Other scientists have
left their country to pursue a research career in well-equipped
laboratories abroad.
In Indonesia, universities are calling for greater autonomy, which they

hope will help reverse the brain drain of science and technology
graduates from the country. According to government statistics, more
than 85,000 Indonesians study overseas each year. Many of these
emigrate permanently.Leading institutions, including the Bandung
Institute of Technology (ITB), the University of Indonesia, and the
science and technology campus of the Gadjah Mada University, are
calling for reform of the education system. They want improved
funding and more control over how they manage courses.The ITB,
which is slipping in international academic rankings, is already taking
steps to increase control over its activities. By the end of 2004, it will
have broken away from government funding and will be a semi-private
institution.
"The pendulum can swing back," wrote Ibrahim B. Syed of the

University of Louisville "Islamic countries have the opportunity and
resources to make Islamic science and medicine number one in their
world once again."
4.3.4 Selection and establishment of regional scientific centres

________________________________________________________
211
Regional scientific centres play an important role in ensuring the

implementation of scientific activities within the region. They should
function not only as a watchdog to the international scientific
committee but more importantly as a motivator to the continuity of
scientific endevours. In view of practicality, they can be divided into
continents and should identify their scope of scientific interest and
research. The collaboration between the regional centres is well
encouraged and should be adequately monitored by the international
scientific committee.
To date there are several excellent and 'state of the art' centres in the
Muslim countries, however their religional of merely national role are
yet to be clarified. The similar condition applied to the regional
association or foundation.
The Arab Science and Technology Foundation in Sharjah, United

Arab Emirates was form by a group of leading scientists in 2000. The
emirates are among a handful of countries - which include Egypt,
Pakistan and Jordan - that lately are investing more in science education
and research. Sheikh Sultan Bin Mohammed Al-Qassimi, the ruler of
Sharjah, donated $1 million from his own pocket to start the science
foundation and provided its $5 million headquarters building. The
foundation hopes to raise $100 million so it can provide research grants
and encourage Arab scientists in other countries to return home.
The Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community

Development, backed by the Emir of Qatar is building a vast
"Education City" featuring branch campuses of Carnegie Mellon and
Cornell Universities.
The Association of Muslim Scientists and Engineers (AMSE) based in

Indiana, USA is a non-profit scientific, educational and cultural
organization of Muslim scientists and engineers who are citizens of or
reside in North America. The objectives of the Association are:
encouraging Muslim scientists and engineers to direct their talents to
the betterment of humankind; providing encouragement, guidance and
assistance to Muslim professionals and students in science and
engineering and lastly gathering, distributing and disseminating
technical information. It carries out activities that are scientific,
________________________________________________________
212
educational, religious, cultural and charitable in service to the Muslim

community in North America.
It is very important to avoid redundancy in the activities of all these

regional or state-based institutions. The central body should take the
effort to identify and recognises their specific role so that there won't be
any repetition and waste of material and human resources. Effective
collaboration and periodic assessment and report should be the routine
quality control. The regional centers should be easily accessible without
much red-tape for other scientists within the region its represents. Short
or long term scholarstic exchanges should be maximised so that the
spirit of regionality for the benefir of the Muslim nation can be
maintained and their expertise can be fully utilised.
4.3.5 Preservation of scientific heritage
As mentioned earlier, knowing that there are over three thousand

manuscripts of medicine in India which have never been studied by
anybody and there are thousands of manuscripts in Yemen which we
don't even know about, and in addition to abundant treasuries of
Islamic manuscripts in Ethopia, many of them in the sciences, the
necessity to assemble Islamic manuscripts from all over the world is
unquestionable. Effort should be devoted to compile those manuscripts
and original surveys. Eventhough the process will take a long time,
steps has been taken and progress has been made.However continous
support from everybody should be maintained and the search should be
made obligatory in one mind.
Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation was established in London in

1988 by the Yamani Cultural and Charitable Foundation. It is housed in
a historic Jacobean manor: Eagle House. The Foundation has as its aim
the documentation and preservation of the Islamic written heritage. It is
pursuing this aim principally through its work in surveying,
cataloguing, editing and publishing Islamic manuscripts.
Islamic manuscripts are estimated to number three million, covering

subjects as diverse as the Quran, Prophetic traditions, jurisprudence,
logic and philosophy, as well as mathematics, botany, biology, poetry
________________________________________________________
213
and literature, and art and crafts. Nowadays these manuscripts are not
the exclusive preserve of Arab and other Muslim countries, or even of
countries with large Muslim minorities. Manuscripts are found
extensively in Europe, the Americas, Japan, Australia and Africa. There
is hardly a country that does not possess some manuscripts produced
under the aegis of the Muslim civilisation.
This large and important resource is, tragically, in great danger of being
damaged or even lost forever. Political conflict, social upheaval or
merely natural causes - whenever and wherever there is a lack of
resources essential for its maintenance and preservation, this heritage is
in danger. Al-Furqan Foundation is committed to mobilising every
available expertise to preserve these manuscripts and to restore their
content to the cultural mainstream.
Regional and international Islamic scientific community and

association have also shown their interest in collecting these invaluable
heritages especially the one related to their speciality. This has several
advantages. Besides the ability of focusing on the details of previous
innovations, they can relate it intelligently with the current
development and make it more digestable to the ever-eager fresh
generation of Muslim scientists. They can assimilate these historical
achievements into the present education making science a joyful,
memorable and spirit-enhancing subject for our children.
However, all these encouraging efforts can be effectively utilised if

these bodies can established formal linkage among themselves,
allowing proper monitoring and collection into a central established
body or foundation. Otherwise we will be occupied with redundant
activities which will delay if not hamper the progress of rebuilding our
scientific generation.
4.3.6 Awards and scholarship
Historically, Muslim societies have devoted considerable resources to

support science. The eighth-century Umayyad caliph 'Umar ibn 'Abd
al-'Aziz, known as pious, frugal and peaceful, in the early eighth
century established cash prizes of between 100 and 300 dirhams for
________________________________________________________
214
"scholarly works." The eighth to 10th centuries were times of intense

achievement in science, astronomy and medicine in the Islamic world
and translations into Arabic of scholarly works from other cultures were
supported by patrons who included royalty, ranking civil servants and
members of the political and religious elite.
"Until the rise of modern science, no other civilization engaged as many

scientists, produced as many scientific books, or provided as varied and
sustained support for scientific activity," wrote Ahmad Dallal in The
Oxford History of Islam. In distinction from religious knowledge, he
notes, the exact sciences were often called al-'ulum musbtarakatun bayna
al-'umam ("the sciences shared among all the nations").
To date, the King Faisal International Prize (KFIP) can be considered

the most prestigious award offered by the Muslim world. Founded in
1977, the KFIP is the first multidisciplinary, international prize
sponsored from the Arab world in modern times. Having now
recognized 139 laureates from 35 countries in five award categories-
science, medicine, Islamic studies, Arabic literature and service to Islam-
the KFIP is globally recognized. It is administered by the King Faisal
Foundation, a legacy of the third king of Saudi Arabia.
The prize rewards men and women who exceptionally contribute to the
preservation and promotion of Islamic heritage. It also recognizes
excellence in academic and scientific research. The cornerstones of the
KFIP are its prizes for service to Islam, Islamic studies and Arabic
literature, which were first awarded in 1979. Yet it was the prizes for
science, begun in 1982, and for medicine (1984) that brought the KFIP to
world attention by generous recognition of advances that benefit
humanity as a whole. These categories are assigned a theme each year:
The science prize rotates through the disciplines of chemistry, biology,
physics and mathematics in a four-year cycle; the medicine prize is
awarded for diverse, topical themes.
Next in line is the The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement in

Sciences Prize, organised by The Islamic Organization for Medical
Sciences under the The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of
Sciences (KFAS). They allocated two prizes to be awarded every
alternate year to support and promote scientific research in the field of
________________________________________________________
215
Islamic Medical Science in the following areas:
1. Medical practice, addressing professional and well-documented

clinical and laboratory experiments.
2. Appropriate documentation of Islamic Medical Heritage
including Medical Islamic Jurisprudence
Each Prize consists of a cash sum of K.D. 6.000/-(U.S.$ 20.000/-

approx.), a KFAS Shield and a Certificate of Recognition. The winners
will be invited to receive their prizes at the Prize Awarding Ceremony
during the commencement of the Organization's conference.
These are the 'hallmark' prizes for the prestigious group of scientists
and are much applauded without forgetting the other prizes and
awards that should be similarly initiated at different level of scientific
achievement and for different group of people.The Muslim
professionals, irrespective whether they belong or not to the scientific
fraternity should start giving such prizes or awards within their
capabilities. They can even individually sponsor an award at their
children's school or colleges or even in their community circle. The
award should be persistent on annually basis to build up the
momentum within their respective target group, and it should include
both the student and the teacher of science. The Muslims
organizations, besides giving prizes, can also award a sponsorship for
scientific books and material to the library in school, community centre
and mosques. The target group gets the useful material and
recognition, while the organization is able to build a scientific bridge
with them.
Conclusions
________________________________________________________
217
CONCLUSIONS
'The great task facing Muslim intellectuals and leaders is to recast the
whole legacy of human knowledge from the standpoint of Islam. The
vision of Islam would not be a vision unless it is a vision of something,
namely, life, reality, and the world. That vision is the object of study of
various disciplines. To recast knowledge as Islam relates to it, is to
Islamize it, i.e., to redefine and reorder the parameters and the data, to
rethink the reasoning and interrelationships of the data, to reevaluate
the conclusions, to re-project the goals, and to do so in such a way as to
make the reconstituted disciplines enrich the vision and the serve the
cause of Islam.' Those were the words of Al-Faruqi almost 20 years ago
which still valid up to this day.
The weakness of the Muslim nation and commonwealth is a major

contributing factor to the stagnation of the Muslim scientific
dominancy. Remedial measures should be taken to address this
problem in order to assure a successful scientific re-emergence.
Negligence to this important issue will only hamper the collective
progress of science in the Muslim nations despite the present of
individual achievers in their respective field. Muslim scientists are the
supporting brick in the house of Islam. The house and foundation
should be in existence or in progress for the brick to play into function.
The principles of Islam, namely, the unity of truth, the unity of

knowledge, the unity of humanity, the unity of life, the purposeful
character of creation, and the subservience of creation to man and of
man to Allah (SWT), must replace the Western categories and
determine the perception and ordering of reality. So too, the values of
Islam should replace Western values and direct the learning activity in
every field. These values, especially the usefulness of knowledge for
man's felicity, the blossoming of man's faculties, and the remolding of
creation so as to concretize the divine patterns, should be manifested in
the building of culture and civilization
The blessed spiritual, historical and physical assets given by Allah to

the Muslim nation should be maximally utilised in the most effective
way in order to prove the appreciation of the gift itself. It shouldn't be
wasted or left at the disposal and manipulated by the other nation.
________________________________________________________
218
The diring need of credible leaders in the Muslim countries similarly

applied to the scientific fraternity. The Muslim scientists and the
Muslim scientists cum politicians or philosophers, whoever and
wherever they are, should take the leadership role to steward this ship
of scientific geniuses who has unconsciously floating too long in the
ocean of tribulations. Their collegues should be waken up or even
resuscitated to take part actively so that this valuable ship can reach it
harbour of destiny without any significant casualties. More important,
is the task it has undertaken, to convey the treasure of knowledge
passed to them by their ancestor when they first sail to the awaiting
predecessor at the port where they anchor their ship.
This leadership role should expand beyond the Muslim dominated

countries to the international and regional forum, government or non
governmental organizations (NGO), and political parties both as
opponents or opposition to signify their understanding of the necessity
of re-building of the Muslim nation and commonwealth as a pre-
requisite to future scientific dominancy.
In summary, the success of scientific re-emergence is more of the

domain of the attitude and leadership of the Muslim world rather than
material restriction or insufficient human resources. Even the long term
'insults' to Islam are also facing ambivalences. 'The modernization of
Muslim societies, promoted by the Western allies as a buffer against
traditionalism, seems to wind up fueling Islamism. Modern schools
produce Islamists as well as liberals; modern businesses fund Islamist as
well as other causes; modern communications can broadcast Islamist as
well as other messages. Western culture, we are learning, is not the only
form that modernity may assume' as quoted by Kurtzman.
Lastly, we hope that Allah will keep the doors of knowledge and
intelligence open to us. The facts and recommendation laid throughout
this research are for everyone. This is a general invitation for all the
Muslims, which is neither connected to particular group and
community, nor it has a bias towards any such thinking or ideology as
may be known for a particular shade of opinion or for some special
attachments, but its attention and activities are always centred round
the spirit of the religion and its nerve centre.
________________________________________________________
219
It is strongly desired that the point of view of all of us should be one,

the target before our courage should be one, in order that our efforts
should not go waste, but should be most useful and effective. We
should encourage collectivism and abhors segregation since the denial
of the common highway is infidelity in its eyes. It is a fact that the
Muslims did not face any greater test than divisions into groups, a
liking for difference and mutual differences and conflict. It is the
malady which has eaten up the Muslim nation. If the Muslims were
disgraces and dishounoured, it was due to this. And if they were
victorious in any period, it was by virtue of love, affection and mutual
cooperation only. We should remember that the important thing, on
which the success of our ancestors and their welfare was based, would
be the basis of our prosperity and well being. This is the basic fact that
should have taken a firm root in our hearts and minds. Let the
transition of this beloved heritage of intellectuality and civilization be
accomplished before we met our final destiny.
________________________________________________________
220
REFERENCES
1. Adam, David. Waging war on courtroom cowboys: The widow of

a leading forensic scientist is continuing his fight for higher
standards, The Guardian (London), July 3, pg 7, 2003.
2. Al-Banna, Hasan. Our Past and Present.In Selected Writing of

Hasan Al-Banna, translated by Qureshi SA. International Islamic
Publishers, Karachi, 1983.
3. Al-Banna, Hasan. Our movement. In Selected Writing of Hasan Al-

Banna, translated by Qureshi SA. International Islamic Publishers,
Karachi, 1983.
4. Al Farabi. "The Enumeration of the Sciences" In Medieval Political

Philosophy. Edited by Ralph Lerner and Muhsin Mahdi. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press, 1963
5. Al Faruqi, Ismail R. The Cultural Atlas of Islam. Mac Millan

Publishing Company, New York, 1986
6. Al Faruqi, Ismail.R." Islamization of Knowledge: General

Principles and Workplan." International Institute of Islamic
Thought, Washington, D.C., pp. 43-48, 1982.
7. Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y and Hill, Donald. Islamic Technology: An

Illustrated History .Cambridge University Press, p. 282.,1986
8. Anawati G. 'Science' in The Cambridge History of Islam volume

2B: Islamic Society and Civilization. Edited by Holt PM, Lambton
AKS, Lewis B. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980
9. Bates, Brainerd S. Space-age Immigrant. Saudi Aramco World,Vol

27 No 6, 1976
10. Blair, Betty. Behind Soviet Aeronauts. Interview with General

Karim Karimov. Azerbaijan International, Autumn (3.3),1995
11. Blair, Betty.Scientist who make the difference: Ali Javan- The Gas
________________________________________________________
221
Laser and Beyond.Azerbaijan International, Summer (4.2),1996.
12. Briffault, Robert. Rational Evolution (The Making of

Humanity).McMillan Co New York, NY, 1930.
13. Brooks Philip. Extraordinary American Jews.Published by

Children's Press, 1998.
14. Campbell, D.: "Arabian Medicine", Vol. I, Paul, Trench, Trubner &
Co. Ltd., London, 1926.
15. Coffman, James. "Does the Arabic Language Encourage Radical

Islam?" Middle East Quarterly, pp. 51-57, Dec 1995.
16. Corbin H. Avicenna and the visionary recital, London, 1960
17. Dickson D. Islamic states form network of science academies.

News in SciDev.Net, March 2004
18. Donzel, Emeri van. Islamic Desk Reference. Compiled from the
Encyclopedia of Islam by E. van Dozel, published by EJ Brill,
Leiden, 1994
19. Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Saladin. Albany : State University of New

York Press, 1972
20. El-Rashidi, Yasmin. Dr Karimat El-Sayed: A Scientific Struggle.

Al-Ahram Weekly, 2003
21. Frangsmyr T. Life and Philosophy of Alfred Nobel: A Memorial

Address. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
22. Fuller, Thomas. News Analysis: Mahathir, a master of progress

and offense. International Herald Tribune, October 20, 2003
23. Gallagher, Nancy. Egypt's Other Wars: Epidemics and the Politics
of Public Health (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990);
idem, Medicine and Power in Tunisia 1780-1900 (London:
Cambridge University Press, 1983).
________________________________________________________
222
24. Gibb H.A.R. The Life of Saladin. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press,
1973
25. Goldschmidt, Arthur JR. Muhammad Abduh, Islamic Reformer

and Author. In Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East, Vol I.
edited by Simon RS, Matta P & Bulliet RW, Simon & Schuster
MacMillan, New York, 1996
26. Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco Arabic
Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society.
New York & London: Routletge, 1998
27. Harrigan, Peter. Ray of Light and Brightness: The King Faisal
International Prize. Saidi Aramco World. Vol 51,No 5,2000.
28. Harsham P, Azzi R. Arabs in America: The Transplanted One. Vol

26,No 2, 1975
29. Hassan, Farkhonda. IslamicWomen in Science.Science, Vol 290,

Issue 5489, 55-56, October, 2000.
30. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and

the Battle for Rationality, pp 140-54, (London: Zed, 1991)
31. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Science .In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the

Modern Islamic World, Vol 3. Edited by John L. Esposito,
published by Oxford University Press, 1995
32. Hourani, Albert. History of the Arab People, p.308 (Cambridge,

Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
33. Keddie, Nikki. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Influential and charismatic

Muslim leader. In Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East, Vol I.
edited by Simon RS, Matta P & Bulliet RW, Simon & Schuster
MacMillan, New York, 1996
34. Khan, Yasmin S. Biography of Dr Fazlur Rahman Khan. Dr Fazlur

Rahman Khan website (www.fazlurrkhan.com), 2004
________________________________________________________
223
35. Kurinsky, Samuel.Jewish Noble Prize Winners : Part I-IIIB, Fact

Paper 44.Hebrew History Federation Limited (updated to 2000)
36. Kurzman, Charles (editor). Liberal Islam: A Source-Book. New

York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
37. Lapidus, Ira. A History of Islamic Societies ,p 728 (New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1988)
38. Lawton J, Moody P.A Prince in Space. Saudi Aramco World. Vol
37, No 1,1986
39. Lewis, Bernard. Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University
Press), p. 183.,1993
40. Lowrie, Arthur L, ed., Islam, Democracy, the State, and the West:
A Roundtable with Dr. Hasan Turabi (Tampa: WISE Monograph
Series, University of South Florida, 1992).
41. Marshall G.S. Hodgson, Rethinking World History: Essays on

Europe, Islam, and World History (New York: Cambridge
University Press), pp. 103-04, 1993.
42. Martin RC. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world.

Volume 2, Publisher?2003
43. Massignon L and Arnaldez R, La science antique et medievale,

Paris, 1957
44. Meyerhof M. 'Science and Medicine' in Arnold TW and Guillaeme

A. The Legacy of Islam, p 342, Oxford, 1931.
45. Mieli A. La science arabe, p 101, Paris, 1938
46. Mohamad, Mahathir. Official Opening Speech to the Tenth Islamic

Summit Conference,Putrajaya, Malaysia, October 16, 2003
47. NASA Astronaut Biographies, Johnson Space Center, NASA,

________________________________________________________
224
(http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/.), 1995
48. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. An introduction to Islamic Cosmological

Doctrines. State University of New York Press, 1993.
49. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Science and Civilization in Islam." New

American Library, Inc., New York, 1968, pp. 184-229.
50. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein 'Islam and Science'. Speech delivered at

Harvard University, 1988.
51. Nauman Khan M, Mohiuddin G. Muslim men and women who

have left a mark in history.In section of Education.
www.salaam.co.uk
52. Salam, A.: IAEA Bulletin, 22(2), 81-83, and 1980
53. Sardar, Zainuddin. Science, Technology and Development in the

Muslim World (London: Croom and Helm, 1980);
54. Sardar, Ziauddin. Science, Technology, and Development in the

Middle East (London: Longmans, 1982).
55. Sarton G. Introduction to the History of Science Vols I-III,

Baltimore, 1931-1947
56. Sawahel, Wagdy. Brain drain threatens fture of Arab science,

SciDev.net June 3, 2004.
57. Segal, Aaron. Why does the Muslim world lag in science? The
Middle East Quarterly, Vol III, Number 2, June 1996.
58. Siddiqi, Asif A, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the
Space Race, 1945-1974, NASA SP-2000-4408, Washington, DC, 2000
59. Syed, Ibrahim B.: "Islamic Medicine-1,000 Years Ahead of its

Times". Journal of Islamic Medical Association (USA), 13(1): 6-13,
1981.
________________________________________________________
225
60. Syed, Ibrahim B. Transfer of Science and Technology to Muslim

Countries.Islamic Research Foundation International article
(www.irfi.org),last updated 2004
61. Syed, Ibrahim B. Muslim Unity through Science and Technology

in the 21st Century. Islamic Research Foundation International
article (www.irfi.org), last updated 2004.
62. Soysal, Mehmet. Turkish Generals rain on Erbakans's day of glory

at D-8 Summit. Muslim Media, July 1-15, 1997.
63. Woods, Michael. Arab once dominated science. Pittsburgh Post-

Gazette, Scripp Howard News Service, April 13, 2004
64. Wright, Dorothy. Dr Eysa Erzan: Elucidating Universal Principles

in Complex Systems. Science and Technology, July 2003
65. Zahlan A.B, Science and Science Policy in the Arab World
.London: St. Martin's, 1980.
66. Ziadat, Adel A. Western Science and the Arab World: The Impact
of Darwinism 1860-1930 .New York: St. Martin's, 1986.
Science and Faith
Once Science said to Faith:
"My eye can see all that is in this world;

The Entire world is within my net.
I am only concerned with material things,
What have I to do with spiritual matters?
I can strike a thousand melodies,
And openly proclaim all the secrets that I learn."
Faith said:
"With your magic even the waves in the sea are set ablaze,
You can pollute the atmosphere with foul, poisonous gases.
When you associated with me, you were light,
When you broke off from me, your light became fire.
You were of Divine origin,
But you have been caught in the clutches of Shaytan.
Come, make this wasteland a garden once again.
Borrow from me a little of my ecstasy,
And in the world set up a paradise.
From the day of creation we have been associates,
We are the low and high tunes of the same melody."
(Allama Iqbal)

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientists

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientists

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dr Wan Hazmy Che Hon was born in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan

and received his earlier education at Dato Klana Putra Primary

"The light of conscience is religious sciences. The light of mind is

DR WAN HAZMY BIN CHE HON

PROF DR KHALID AY BLANKINSHIP

The author acknowledges with deep gratitude the assistance and

1. The W. Fulbright Foundation, USA

Equally, the author acknowledges his enormous appreciation to his

May Allah reward them all.

1. The Glorious Era of Islamic Scientific Civilization

1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement

1.2 The essential factors of success

1.2.1. Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message

1.3 The significant contributions and prominent figures

1.4 The 'Golden Era' of knowledge and civilization

2. The Stagnation Period of Muslim Scientific Achievements

2.1 The end of the glorious era

2.2 Factors contributing to the stagnation

2.2.1. Break-up of the Muslim Empires

2.3 The critical era of Islamic science

3. The Current State of Muslim Scientists

3.1 Science in Muslim world during the recent centuries

3.1.1. The scientific development in the Muslim

3.1.7. The challenges

3.2 The Noble prize and its implication to the Muslim

3.2.1. Life and philosophy of Alfred Noble

3.3 Prominent Muslim scientific figures in the 20th

3.3.1. Muslim scientists

3.3.1.1. Prof Dr Farouk El-Baz

3.3.2. Muslim astronauts and cosmonauts

3.3.2.1 Sultan Salman Abdul Aziz Al Saud

3.3.3. Muslim scientists cum political leaders

3.3.3.1. Prof Dr Necmettin Erbakan

3.3.4. Muslim scientist and philosopher

3.3.4.1 Prof Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr

4. The Scientific Re-emergence and its Future Direction

4.1 Prerequisites for Muslims scientific re-emergence

4.1.1. The correct diagnosis: What really happened

4.2 The assets

4.2.1. The spiritual assets

4.3 The future direction

4.3.1. Centrally based scientific leadership

The Muslims were the global leaders and innovators of intellectual,

However, things started to go awry in the early thirteenth century,

2. To determine whether the increasing number of Muslim scientists

1. Library and archival research on articles related to the title. This

2. Interviews with prominent Muslim scientists in the selected

3. Comparative study on the Muslim scientist cum leader including

This research will be determine the current position of the Muslim

THE GLORIOUS ERA OF ISLAMIC SCIENTIFIC CIVILIZATION

1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement

A momentous impetus was given to the development of science in the

The Caliph Al Ma'mun (d 833) sent emissaries throughout the

A common ,though incorrect, assumption has it that the Greeks

Another argument which worth of discussing is the following: This

atmosphere quite independent of the religious authorities.

Al-Faruqi in explaining this matter had came to the following

The Muslims had a tendency to consider every potential discipline as a

During this era, many of the medieval philosophers compiled various

The importance of this 'Muslim' or 'Arab' science to the general progress

1.2 The essential factors of success

1.2.1 Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message

This glorious generation who just succeeded the generation of

It may be maintained, without paradox, that, with the possible