You are on page 1of 17

Capitalizing on Tandem Learning i

Capitalizing on Tandem Learning in 2- and 3-D Virtual Environments:

An Investigation of LiveMocha and Second Life

Beth Wilkerson

English 839

Dr. Jan Holmevik

June 23, 2009


Capitalizing on Tandem Learning ii

Abstract

Broadly defined, tandem learning is a process whereby two people who speak different languages
learn each other’s language through bilingual conversation sessions. Within the last 15 years, tandem
learning has emerged in virtual environments, particularly in object-oriented multiple-user domains
(MOOs). Although MOOs have been found effective in promoting second language acquisition (SLA),
they are now being replaced with new technologies, such as tandem learning websites and virtual worlds.
This proposal suggests a historical study of the evolution of tandem learning in the MOO, followed by a
comparative study of tandem learning in LiveMocha, a 2-D social networking website, and Second Life, a 3-D
virtual world. It first outlines recent research concerning language learning in virtual environments,
focusing specifically on tandem learning and briefly discussing some of its current applications and
results. It then includes a methodology for undertaking the proposed thesis along with a tentative
schedule of completion and possible chapters and structure. Finally, it explains potential benefits of the
research and offers a working bibliography.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 1

Introduction
The summer before my senior year of college, I studied in Salamanca, Spain where I lived with a host
family. As I communicated with my host brother in Spanish, something unexpected happened: he began
to learn more English! Whenever I failed to comprehend something he said in Spanish, he would explain
the concept in the few English words he knew from college, and I would ―correct‖ any mistakes he made
in grammar or syntax. He returned the favor when I fumbled in Spanish, and through this dialogue, we
both improved our ability to communicate verbally in the other‘s native language. This idea of mutually
beneficial language improvement is at the heart of tandem learning, and my personal experiences with
language learning in this way will serve as a framework on which I base the research for my thesis.

Broadly defined, tandem learning is the process whereby two people with complementary language skills
learn the other‘s language through mutually beneficial interaction (Chung, Graves, Weshce, & Barfurth,
2005). Thus, an Irish learner of Spanish may be combined with a Puerto Rican learner of English so that
the two can learn from each other, ―alternating between the role of L2 learner and L1 expert either face-
to-face, by e-mail, via chat systems or the MOO, [or] by audio- or video-conferencing‖ (Schwienhorst,
2003, p. 431). Tandem learning operates closely alongside the principle of learner autonomy, the capacity
of the learner to ―develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of his
learning‖ (Little, 1991, p. 4). In other words, learner autonomy stems from responsibility for one‘s own
learning and the subsequent capability of reflecting on that learning. Within tandem learning
environments, learner autonomy is closely aligned with the concept of reciprocity, the idea that ―each
learner has to support their partner as much as they wish to support themselves‖ (Schwienhorst, 2003, p.
431).

Since the early 1990s, tandem learning has been studied extensively in virtual environments, particularly
in object-oriented multiple-user domains (MOOs) (Schwienhorst, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2003;
Schwienhorst, 2004 and Chung et al., 2005). While this research has provided a rich body of knowledge
about tandem learning, much territory remains to be explored in virtual environments that have emerged
within the last few years. To expand on current literature on tandem learning, I propose to write a thesis
that first provides a historical perspective of tandem learning in the MOO and then builds on that
research by examining two specific environments in which tandem learning can be employed today:
Second Life, a three-dimensional online virtual world; and LiveMocha, a two-dimensional social networking
site. My intent with this research is to examine whether three-dimensional tandem environments
are necessarily more conducive to second language acquisition (SLA) than two-dimensional
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 2

environments and to provide implications for foreign language instructors who wish to incorporate
these and similar technologies in their classrooms.

In order to accomplish this, I will conduct a literature review that traces the history of tandem learning
in the MOO and then complete qualitative case studies on both Second Life and LiveMocha. Next, I will
provide an analysis of my results, including implications for foreign language instructors and future
researchers. In the rest of this proposal, I further outline recent research concerning language learning in
virtual environments, focusing specifically on tandem learning and briefly discussing some of its current
applications and results. I then present my methodology for undertaking the proposed thesis along with
a tentative schedule of completion and possible chapters and structure. Finally, I explain potential
benefits of my research.

Literature Review
In recent years, a surge in academic studies of computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies
has greatly improved our understanding of their potential for enhancing learning. In many cases, CMC
has been shown to improve interaction among students and teachers by facilitating an online
environment in which students feel free to express themselves openly, without fear of judgment.
Overbaugh and Lin (2006), for instance, found that CMC can lead to lower anxiety and increased
participation among students who feel uncomfortable participating in traditional, face-to-face classroom
settings. In addition, such technologies have demonstrated benefits ranging from improved critical
thinking abilities (Jin, 2005) to constructive knowledge gains (Benbunan-Fich & Hiltz, 2003). Specific
CMC technologies such as chat rooms, instant messaging, MOOs, and massively multiplayer online role-
playing games (MMORPGs), have been studied in increasing depth within the last 15 years, and their
emergence in classroom environments is growing rapidly.

Primary Language Learning through CMC


Much of the research on CMC in educational settings has focused specifically on language learning
(Campbell, 2003; Bryant, 2006), with most research in this area falling into the category of writing
instruction in students‘ first language. Through CMC technologies, it is argued, students are able to take
advantage of emerging technology while also enhancing their ability to learn language in a social context
(Bryant, 2006; Markus, 2003). Synchronous CMC technology especially, which is ―time and place
dependent,‖ has been shown to produce ―a marked increase in students‘ interactivity‖ and a willingness
to ―interact and ask questions‖ (Newlin & Wang, 2002, p. 326). As advances in CMC educational
technology have grown, educators have begun taking advantage of new media such as virtual worlds to
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 3

encourage language learning. Through such study, researchers have identified several benefits of virtual
learning, including the capability of building language skills through reflection of exploratory action as
well as interaction with other users. Legenhausen and Kotter (2000), for instance, discovered that MOOs
allow students to improve linguistic abilities because they ―can ask each other about the meaning of an
unknown word or phrase, request clarification, or open up a dictionary in a separate web browser while
communicating‖ (p. 2). Similarly, Bryant (2006) found that MMORPGs ―create a simulated environment
of language immersion where students are given the opportunity to apply their language skills toward
‗real life‘ goals within an extensive context‖ (p. 1).

Foreign Language Learning through CMC


Despite growing literature on computer-assisted language learning (CALL), little research has focused
specifically on foreign language acquisition and its relationship to CMC technologies that employ
tandem learning. A possible explanation for this is that many educators fear losing control of the
classroom by placing their students in a potentially chaotic virtual environment in which they learn
language skills that are less than ideal (Bryant, 2008). Because of such fears, tandem language learning ―is
an underexploited but potentially very powerful use of computer-mediated communication in second-
language pedagogy‖ (Rourke, 2005, p. 432). This is a shame because tandem learning‘s ability to promote
both individual and collaborative interaction makes it ideal for second language acquisition (Bryant,
2006; Vassallo & Telles). Because students must contribute to their partner‘s learning in order to receive
instruction themselves, they become responsible for the extent of their foreign language learning
(Vassallo & Telles). Furthermore, tandem learning ―offers the benefits of authentic, culturally grounded
interaction, while also promoting a pedagogical focus among participants‖ (Vassalo & Telles, p. 432).

Tandem Learning in Virtual Environments


In recent years, tandem learning has emerged through interactive websites and 3-D virtual worlds. In
tandem, students work together with a language learning partner from another country—by telephone,
email, or another electronic media (―eTandem learning,‖ n.d.). LiveMocha, a tandem website developed by
CEO Shirish Nadkarni in 2007, is considered one of the most popular tandem websites today (Naone,
2007). Central to LiveMocha are the three basic principles of tandem learning: reciprocity, bilingualism,
and autonomy (Campbell, 2003, para. 9). After creating a free account on the site, users can indicate
which language(s) they speak fluently and which they would like to learn. They are then paired with
other users who speak their target language and who would like to learn their partner‘s native language.
Both the student and his/her language partner have the ability to then evaluate each other‘s language
ability in the target language through various written language exercises. Participants are also able to
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 4

communicate via microphone so that they can practice their verbal skills in the target language before
receiving constructive feedback.

According to a recent software review by Jee and Park (2009), ―the design of LiveMocha and its suggestive
activities are rooted in several…theoretical backgrounds, specifically sociocultural theory by Vygotsky
(1978)‖ (para. 6), which presupposes that human development is highly tied to a social dimension. With
its focus on community learning, LiveMocha provides ―interaction-rich communication‖ (Long, 2000) as
well as serves as ―a strong motivational tool (Holec, 1981) in foreign language learning‖ (as cited in Jee &
Park, 2009, para 7.). In this virtual learning environment, learners can check their progress regularly,
connect to the broader community, and receive ongoing constructive feedback on their foreign language
progress. In particular, ―text, audio, and video chat with like-minded learners in LiveMocha contributes to
several benefits consistently emphasized in literature about CMC: an opportunity to produce
comprehensible output to make oneself understood (Leahy, 2004), heightened noticing of problematic
language production…and ultimately increased input, output, and negotiation of meaning in the SLA
(Kern, 1995)‖ (as cited in Jee & Park, para. 7).

Another environment in which tandem learning is possible, but not the central focus, is Second Life, a
three-dimensional virtual world in which users are free to communicate, build, and explore. According to
the Second Life website (2009), hundreds of educational institutions are currently using this platform.
Since its creation by Linden Lab in 2003, Second Life has experienced a surge in foreign language
instruction, and several educators have created virtual foreign language classrooms and laboratories to
promote foreign language learning through the program (EXAMPLES HERE). Although many
researchers acknowledge Second Life’s potential to enhance foreign language instruction through
simulations, however, little research has focused specifically on tandem learning within the environment
or compared its effectiveness in SLA to 2-D environments like LiveMocha or to foreign language MOOs.
Therefore, a gap exists among the literature. Research that comparatively addresses the relationship
among a social networking site like LiveMocha, a virtual world like Second Life, and foreign language MOOs
could pave the way for future tandem applications that literally combine the best of virtual worlds by
identifying which elements of each medium contribute most effectively to SLA.

Moving Forward: Examining Tandem Learning in 2-D and 3-D Virtual Environments
Although a few studies have investigated foreign language learning in LiveMocha, Second Life and foreign
language MOOs independently, none has directly compared these three specific environments to evaluate
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 5

which, if any, is more effective in promoting SLA through tandem learning. If left unexplored, educators
may be missing out on the incredible benefits of these learning tools in creating learner autonomy and
promoting SLA. As Schwienhorst (2002) suggests, foreign language learners ―should be given the choice
of working with a wide range of authentic and personally meaningful language materials, in a number of
media‖ (p. 136). Furthermore, learners should be given means of exploiting these materials in a variety of
ways. ―As language learners,‖ Schwienhorst posits, ―students should be enabled to plan, monitor, and
evaluate their learning process‖ (p. 136). An evaluation of different media such as LiveMocha, Second Life,
and foreign language MOOs can help educators and students make informed decisions about which
media they choose to employ when learning a second language.

Methodology
In order to complete my thesis, I propose a four-step qualitative process in which I will define all
terminology related to my research, conduct a literature review on the history of tandem language
learning in MOOs, complete two separate case studies on LiveMocha and Second Life, and finally develop an
analysis of my results and provide implications for future researchers and educators. My goals with
these steps will be to provide a history of tandem learning in virtual environments, to demonstrate
how tandem learning can be employed effectively in both 2-D and 3-D environments, and to
provide implications for foreign language instructors and future researchers.

1. Define existing terminology:


In order to begin my research, I will conduct a literature review that defines common terms
related to foreign language instruction and online environments, using electronic, empirical, and
print sources. Specifically, I will define terms such as computer-assisted language learning
(CALL), tandem learning, e-tandem, virtual worlds, virtual reality, massively multiplayer online
role-playing games (MMORPGs), and second language acquisition (SLA). I will collect
information from electronic journals and books, accessed through the Clemson University library
databases. I will also look at recent print magazine, newspaper, and journal articles related to
these terms. Lastly, I will interview a few experts who have written some of the electronic and/or
print sources I locate. For example, I plan to interview Klaus Schwienhorst, who has written
several books and journal articles related to tandem learning in virtual environments. By
gathering information through electronic, print, and empirical means, I hope to triangulate my
information, providing a richness of data that could not come from simply one type of source. As
the bulk of work from this step will form the introduction section of my thesis, it is imperative
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 6

that I triangulate to avoid a narrow view of the current state of tandem learning in virtual
environments (Johnson-Sheehan, 2008).

2. Outline the history of tandem learning in the MOO:


Before delving into tandem learning in Second Life and LiveMocha, I will examine the roots of
tandem learning in virtual environments by conducting a historiographical analysis of foreign
language learning in MOOs. In this stage, I will once again triangulate my sources, relying on
electronic, empirical, and print means. Using a variety of references will help ensure that I
provide more than a simple play-by-play of the MOO‘s development. Instead, it will help me to
create a thorough description of how the MOO has paved the way for tandem learning in virtual
environments today. As in Step 1, I will interview experts in the field, such as Klaus
Schwienhorst. Lonnie Turbee, Cynthia Haynes, and Jan Rune Holmevik, as a way to demonstrate
the evolution of foreign language instruction in the MOO. Through this step, my main goal will
be to provide a historical context for the case studies that follow in Step 3. The bulk of the work
from this step will contribute directly to chapter three of my thesis.

3. Conduct case studies of LiveMocha and Second Life:


In order to demonstrate the potential of both 2-D and 3-D environments for tandem
language learning, I plan to conduct case studies of a 2-D environment, LiveMocha, and a 3-D
environment, Second Life. I have purposely chosen environments that have different levels of
tandem learning integrated into them. LiveMocha, for example, is based entirely around the
principle of tandem learning while Second Life has the capability to incorporate tandem learning
but has not thus far seen this as a central feature. For each separate case study, I will employ a
combination of empirical and descriptive means to provide a thick description of the
environment. For the empirical portion, I will examine conversation logs of students in each
environment while taking field notes. Notes will be informal, but I will aim to provide in my
notes a detailed description of the interaction between participants. I will note any particularly
interesting contributions and interactions within these logs. In addition, I will interview the
students responsible for the logs to gauge their feelings on the quantity and quality of learning
they are receiving in the environments. In addition to interviewing students and examining chat
logs for the two environments, I plan to interview instructors and students who currently use
them. I will analyze why they choose to use each particular environment, what they think are the
most beneficial features of each, and where they think the technology is headed. The data
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 7

collected from these two case studies will contribute most directly to chapters four and five of
my thesis.

4. Conduct analysis of results:


After providing a historical context for my study and gathering sufficient interview and
observational data from the case studies, I will begin analyzing the data from the case studies.
My aim with this step is to determine how tandem learning plays out in both the 3-D
environment, Second Life, and the 2-D environment, LiveMocha. Through this analysis, I will
discuss whether 3-D virtual environments are necessarily more conducive to SLA than 2-D
environments. My aim with this final step is not to elevate one type of environment over the
other but to demonstrate how each can be uniquely beneficial to foreign language instruction.
This portion of the research will, once again, be largely qualitative as this approach seems to lend
itself best to thick description (Lauer & Asher, 1988). Since Second Life and LiveMocha are such
highly interactive, content-rich environments, a thick description is necessary to truly represent
the complexity of their potential for learning a foreign language; a merely quantitative approach
might neglect to account for the complexity of factors that contribute to SLA. When comparing
the data from each case study, I will draw mainly on anecdotal evidence to guide my analysis of
how tandem learning evolves in the environments and how it contributes to SLA. This final step
will contribute directly to chapter six of my thesis.

Proposed Project Plan and Chapter Outline

DELIVERABLE DESCRIPTION OF DELIVERABLE LENGTH DUE TO


CHAIR

Proposal to Chair 10 pages 07/15/09

Proposal to Committee With Chair‘s permission 10 pages 08/01/09

N/A 09/01/09
IRB Approval This will be necessary to obtain chat/email
logs and to use interview transcripts for the
case studies on LiveMocha and Second Life.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 8

Chapter Two: This chapter will detail the historiographical


Methodology approach I will use when completing a 10 pages 09/01/09
literature review on the history of the MOO in
foreign language learning. It will also detail the
qualitative and empirical methods I will use
when conducting case studies in LiveMocha and
Second Life (interviews, chat logs/email
conversations) to evaluate foreign language
learning in a 2-D and a 3-D environment.

Chapter Three: This chapter will delve into the history of 15 pages 10/15/09
History of the MOO in foreign language instruction and learning in
Tandem Learning the MOO. It will create a context for tandem
learning in virtual environments currently in
use. Specifically, it will provide a framework
for my case studies of Second Life and LiveMocha,
which I will examine in depth in the following
two chapters.

Chapter Four: This chapter will explore the use of LiveMocha, 20 pages 11/30/09
Tandem Learning in 2-D: a social networking website geared toward
The Case of LiveMocha tandem learning. It will examine LiveMocha’s
potential for SLA based on findings from chat
and email logs as well as interviews with users
on the site.

Chapter Five: This chapter will explore the use of Second Life, 20 pages 01/15/09
Tandem Learning in 3-D: a 3-D virtual world that is increasingly being
The Case of Second Life used for educational purposes. It will examine
its current use of foreign language instruction
in the platform and explain its potential for
tandem learning in particular.

Chapter 6: This chapter will analyze the data collected 15 pages 02/15/09
Analysis: Is 2-D Better Than from the case studies conducted on LiveMocha
3-D? and Second Life, comparing and contrasting the
results. It will aim to squelch the idea that 3-D
virtual environments are necessarily more
conducive to foreign language learning than 2-
D environments by demonstrating the benefits
of each. This chapter will also provide
implications for foreign language instructors
and future researchers.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 9

Chapter 1: This chapter will briefly preview the topic, 10 pages 3/01/09
Introduction methodology, and overall structure of my
thesis.

Chapter 7: This chapter will wrap up the previous six 10 pages 3/15/09
Conclusion chapters by highlighting the overall structure
and main conclusions of my thesis.

Draft to Chair Approx. 3/15/09


100 pages

Full Thesis to Committee With Chair‘s approval N/A 3/31/09

Thesis Defense With Chair and Committee‘s approval Approx. Early


100 pages April

Research Outcomes
In summary, I believe a close analysis of tandem learning in a historical context as well as in a new 2-D
environment and 3-D environment will provide valuable information for foreign language educators who
wish to provide virtual instruction for their foreign language students. After completing my data analysis,
I will be able to discover and expand on the relationship between virtual tandem learning and students‘
SLA, and I will have information on ways to effectively incorporate tandem learning into my classroom if
I choose to pursue a career in foreign language instruction in the future. Overall, my findings will provide
implications for future research in foreign language instruction, virtual environments, and tandem
learning. In addition, my research should result in the following outcomes:
 Most students will feel their foreign language skills are enhanced by tandem learning, but the
ways in which the tandem learning is carried out in Second Life and LiveMocha will differ
depending on the student‘s personality, their language partner(s), their motivation to learn the
target language, their level of previous experience with the technology, and their willingness to
learn through new media.
 Each virtual environment studied—Second Life and LiveMocha—will contain features that help
facilitate tandem learning. By the same token, they will each have some features that will not
yield themselves to effective tandem learning and that can be improved upon.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 10

 Through interviews and class observations, I will identify the attributes of each platform that
seem to benefit students the most, thereby providing useful suggestions for other teachers who
wish to incorporate these technologies in their foreign language classrooms.
 For researchers of foreign language pedagogy, my study will build on current knowledge of
tandem learning in virtual environments. It will also, for one of the first times, comparatively
examine the specific platforms of Second Life and LiveMocha. In this way, it will hopefully serve as a
building block for future research related to virtual environments and SLA.
 In addition, students may benefit themselves by learning an approach that helps them become
more autonomous learners, thereby taking more control of their SLA. If implemented correctly,
virtual tandem learning may also help such students improve transfer of communication skills to
other classes and the workplace in which they might interact with people who speak different
languages.
 For readers of my thesis, my study will provide a thick description of virtual tandem
environments that will hopefully inspire them to conduct similar studies of their own, whether
about tandem learning, foreign language acquisition, virtual environments, or another similar
topic. It will also provide them with general guidelines for implementing tandem learning in
their classrooms.

In addition to the educational benefits described above, for me this research will provide an opportunity
to satisfy the thesis requirement for the Masters of Professional Communication program at Clemson
University, thus allowing me to graduate. The eventual thesis may also result in future publication,
which would further shed light onto the use of tandem learning in virtual environments and bring
recognition to the MAPC program, the graduate school, and Clemson University.

***
Overall, I believe my strong interest in foreign language acquisition, coupled with previous research in
CMC and foreign language learning, make me uniquely qualified to conduct research on tandem learning
in virtual environments. Thank you for taking the time to read my proposal. I look forward to
hearing from you and taking the necessary steps to begin the proposed research.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 11

Bibliography
An, Y., & Frick, T. (2006). Student perceptions of asynchronous computer-mediated communication in face-
to-face courses. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 485-499.
Atkinson, T. (2008). Myths and realities. TechTrends, 52(5), 26-29.
Baker, S. C., Wentz, R. K., & Woods, M. M. (2009). Using virtual worlds in education: Second Life as an
educational tool. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 59-64.
Basu, S. (2008). LiveMocha – smell the coffee and learn the lingo. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/livemocha-smell-the-coffee-and-learn-the-lingo/
Bell, D. (2009). Learning from Second Life. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 515-525.
Benbunan-Fich, R., & Hiltz, S. R. (2003). Mediators of the effectiveness of online courses. IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication, 46(4), 298-312.
Bryant, T. (2006). Using World of Warcraft and other MMORPGs to foster a targeted, social, and cooperative
approach toward language learning. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://www.academiccommons.org/commons/essay/bryant-MMORPGs-for-SLA.
Bryant, T. (2008, June 10). [Interview with Von Lorenz Matzat]. Language learning in World of Warcraft (Babbel-
Blog - Oct. 08). Retrieved June 14, 2009, from Medienkombinant Berlin Web site:
http://medienkombinat-berlin.de/node/14
Bump, J. (1990). Radical changes in class discussion using networked computers. Computers and the Humanities,
24, 49-65.
Campbell, N. (2007). Bringing ESL students out of their shells: Enhancing participation through online
discussion. Business Communication Quarterly, 70(1), 37-43.
Campbell, P. (2003). Foreign language exchange in a virtual world: An international task-based learning event.
Paper written during a workshop in partial fulfillment of an MEd in e-Learning at the University of Sheffield, U.K.
Retrieved May 31, 2009, from http://e-poche.net/files/flevw.html
Chung, Y., Graves, B., Wesche, M., & Barfurth, M. (2005). Computer-mediated communication in Korean-
English chat rooms : Tandem learning in an international languages program. The Canadian Modern
Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 62(1), 49-86.
Coniam, D. (2008). Evaluating the language resources of chatbots for their potential in English as a second
language. ReCALL, 20(1), 98-116.
de Freitas, S., & Neumann, T. (2009). The use of ‗exploratory learning‘ for supporting immersive learning in
virtual environments. Computers & Education, 52, 343-353.
Dembo, S. (2008, October). Second Life creates a new dimension for K12 learning and collaboration. 21st Century
Learning – Technology, 48-52.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 12

Deutschmann, M., Panichi, L., & Molka-Danielsen, J. (2009). Designing oral participation in Second Life – a
comparative study of two language proficiency courses. ReCALL, 21(2), 206-226.
Diehl, W. C., & Prins, E. (2008). Unintended outcomes in Second Life: Intercultural literacy and cultural
identity in a virtual world. Language and Intercultural Communication, 8(2), 101-118.
Donaldson, R. P., & Haggstrom, M. A. (Eds.). (2006). Changing language education through CALL. New York:
Routledge Press.
eTandem learning autonomous language learning with a partner (n.d.). Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
www.languages.dk/methods/tandem/eTandem_syllabus_en.pdf
Fance, C. (2008). Livemocha: Learn a new language online while social networking. Retrieved May 31, 2009,
from http://socialwebtools.info/2008/07/02/livemocha-learn-a-new-language-online/
Guest, T. (2008, Fall). Second lives: A journey through virtual worlds. The LLI Review, 120-121.
Hansson, T. (2005). English as a second language on a virtual platform—tradition and innovation in a new
medium. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(1-2), 63-79.
Holmevik, J. R., & Haynes, C. (2000). MOOniversity: A student's guide to online learning environments. Beedham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Hrastinski, S., & Keller, C. (2007). Computer-mediated communication in education: A review of recent
research. Educational Media International, 44(1), 61-77.
Jee, M. J., & Park, M. J. (2009). Livemocha as an online-language-learning community. CALICO Journal, 26(2),
448-456. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from https://www.calico.org/p-416-
Livemocha%as%an%online%langauge-learning%community%(012009).html
Jin, S. H. (2005). Analyzing student-student and student-instructor interaction through multiple
communication tools in Web-based learning. International Journal of Instructional Media, 32(1), 59-67.
Johnson-Sheehan, R. (2008). Writing proposals. 2nd ed. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Kaplan, D. (2007). LiveMocha uses social networks to teach you languages online. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://venturebeat.com/2007/09/24/livemocha-uses-social-networks-to-teach-you-new-languages-
online/
Kern, R. G. (1995). Restructuring classroom interaction with networked computers: Effects on quantity and
characteristics of language production. The Modern Language Journal, 79(4), 457-476.
Khine, M. S., Yeap, L. L., & Lok, A. T. C. (2003). The quality of message ideas, thinking and interaction in an
asynchronous CMC environment. Education Media International, 40(2), 115-25.
Langham, D. (1994). The common place MOO: Orality and literacy in virtual reality. Retrieved June 14, 2009,
from http://www.ibiblio.org/cmc/mag/1994/jul/moo.html
Leblanc, M. C. (2001). Do students really learn a foreign language through role-playing? Academic Exchange
Quarterly. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3325/is_3_5/ai_n28877279/
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 13

Lauer, J. M., & Asher, J. W. (1988). Composition research: Empirical designs. New York: Oxford UP.
Lee, L. (2002). Enhancing learners‘ communication skills through synchronous electronic interaction and
task-based instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 35(1), 16-24.
Legenhausen, L., & Kötter, M. (2000). Virtual classrooms in foreign language learning – MOOs as rich
learning environments. Pilgrims Ltd. Retrieved May 31, 200, from
www.hltmag.co.uk/jan05/mart02.rtf
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy I: Definitions, issues, and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
LiveMocha. (2009). Wikipedia. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livemocha
Luppicini, R. (2007). Review of computer mediated communication research for education. Instructional Science,
35, 141-185.
Markus, K. (2003). Negotiation of meaning and codeswitching in online tandems. Language, Learning &
Technology. International Tandem Network. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/115103453
Naone, E. (2007). Learning languages in context. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://www.technololgyreview.com/biztech/19484/?a=f
National School Boards Association (2008, September). For ‗digital natives,‘ educational games stimulate
thinking, interests. American School Board, p. 55.
Needleman, R. (2007). The social network where you can’t understand anyone: LiveMocha. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-9783260-2.html
Nike, A. (2007). Reducing foreign language communication apprehension with computer-mediated
communication: A preliminary study. System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied
Linguistics, 35(4), 469-486.
Overbaugh, R. C., & Lin, S. (2006). Student characteristics, sense of community, and cognitive achievement in
web-based and lab-based learning environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2),
205-223.
ParisTech. (2000). Language learning in tandem. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from http://www.telecom-
paristech.fr/tandem/learning/idxeng11.html
Pérez, L. C. (2003). Foreign language productivity in synchronous versus asynchronous computer-mediated
communication. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 89-104.
Perkins, C., & Murphy, E. (2006). Identifying and measuring individual engagement in critical thinking in
online discussions: An exploratory case study. Educational Technology & Society, 9(1), 298-307. Retrieved
June 8, 2009, from http://www.ifets.info/journals/9_1/24.pdf
Peterson, M. (2001). MOOS and second language acquisition: Towards a rationale for MOO-based learning.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, 14(5), 443-459.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 14

Purushotma, R. (2007). Foreign language learning with new media and video games. Retrieved May 31, 2009,
from http://www.lingualgamers.com/thesis/
Rein, R. (1997). The purpose of MOOs. Retrieved June 14, 2009, from
http://cinemaspace.berkeley.edu/~rachel/moo.html
Rourke, B. (2005). Form-focused interaction in online tandem learning. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 433-466.
Salmon, G. (2009). The future for (second) life and learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 526-
38.
Sanchez, J. (2009). A social history of virtual worlds. In Implementing Second Life: Ideas, challenges, and innovations.
Library Technology Reports. 9-12. Chapter 2. (make sure this citation is correct)
Sanchez, J. (2009). Barriers to student learning in Second Life. In Implementing Second Life: Ideas, challenges, and
innovations. Library Technology Reports. 29-34. Chapter 5. (make sure this citation is correct)
Sanchez, J. (2009). Pedagogical applications of Second Life. In Implementing Second Life: Ideas, challenges, and
innovations. Library Technology Reports. 21-28. Chapter 4. (make sure this citation is correct)
Satar, H. M., & Ozdener, N. (2008). The effects of synchronous CMC on speaking proficiency and anxiety:
Text versus voice chat. The Modern Language Journal, 92, 595-613.
Schwienhorst, K. (2002). Evaluating tandem language learning in the MOO: Discourse repair strategies in a
bilingual Internet project. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(2), 135-145. Retrieved May 31, 2009,
from www.informaworld.com/index/5KL6EYYW4MWBE14U.pdf
Schwienhorst, K. (2003). Learning autonomy and tandem learning: Putting principles into practice in
synchronous and asynchronous telecommunications environments. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
16(5), 427-443.
Schwienhorst, K. (2004). Native-speaker/non-native speaker discourse in the MOO: Topic negotiation and
initiation in a synchronous text-based environment. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17(1), 35-50.
Shield, L., & Weininger, M. J. (1999). What is a MOO? Retrieved June 14, 2009, from
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-moo.htm
Thorne, S. L. (forthcoming). Transcultural communication in open Internet environments and massively
multiplayer online games. In S. Magnan (Ed.), Mediating Discourse Online. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Retrieved May 31, 2009, from http://www.personal.psu.edu/slt13/589_52007/Thorne_Magnan(ed).pdf
Totilo, S. (2007). Playing games. The Nation. June 2, 2007. Cited correctly??
Turbee, L. (1997). Educational MOO: Text-based virtual reality for learning in community. ERIC Digest.
Retrieved June 14, 2009, from http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-4/moo.htm
Turbee, L. (1999). Language learning: MOO theory and practical application. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from
http://lonniechu.com/LLMOOTPA.html
Twining, P. (2009). Exploring the educational potential of virtual worlds—some reflections from the SPP.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 496-514.
Capitalizing on Tandem Learning 15

Vassallo, M. L., & Telles, J. A. (2006). Foreign language learning in tandem: Theoretical principles and research
perspectives. The ESPecialist, 25(1), 1-37. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
www.teletandembrasil.org/site/docs/Tandem_Part_1_The_Specialist_Revised_10_identified.pdf
Vinagre, M. (2005). Fostering language learning via email: An English-Spanish exchange. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 18(5), 369-388.
von der Emde, S. et al. (2003). What is a MOO? Retrieved June 14, 2009, from
http://faculty.vassar.edu/jeschnei/moossiggang/moois.html
Wang, Z. (2007, May). Anonymity effects and implications in the social identity model of deindividuation: From crowd to
computer-mediated communication. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International
Communication Association, San Francisco, CA.
Warburton, S. (2009). Second life in higher education: Assessing the potential for and the barriers to
deploying virtual worlds in learning and teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 414-426.
Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom.
CALICO Journal, 13(2-3), 7-26.
Waters, J. K. (2007). On a quest for English. T H E Journal, 34(10). Retrieved June 3, 2009, from
http://www.thejournal.com/articles/21380
Wrench, J. S., & Punyanunt-Carter, N. M. (2007). The relationship between computer-mediated-
communication competence, apprehension, self-efficacy, perceived confidence, and social presence.
Southern Communication Journal, 72(4), 355-378.
Zha, S., Kelley, P., Park, M. K., & Fitzgerald, G. (2006). An investigation of communicative competence of ESL
students using electronic discussion boards. International Society for Technology in Education, 38(3), 349-
366.
Zhang, T., Gao, T., Ring, G., & Zhang, W. (2007). Using online discussion forums to assist a traditional
English class. International Journal on E-Learning, 6(4), 623-643.

You might also like