How to save energy and money Guide Book 4

REFRIGERATION

STRATEGY

ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
EARNINGS

3E STRATEGY

TSI
MI

Y
RG
N

RA
E
E

Netherlands Ministery of Economic Affairs LS EN Technical Services International

AND
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN REFRIGERATION

This booklet is part of the 3E strategy series. It provides advice on practical

ways of improving energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration applications.

Prepared for the European Commission DGXVII by:

The Energy Research Institute

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Private Bag
Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
South Africa
www.eri.uct.ac.za

This project is funded by the European Commission and co-funded by the

Dutch Ministry of Economics, the South African Department of Minerals
and Energy and Technical Services International (ESKOM), with the Chief
contractor being ETSU.

Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the
commission, nor NOVEM, ETSU, ERI, nor any of the information
sources is responsible for the use of the information contained in this
publication.

The views and judgements given in this publication do not necessarily

represent the views of the European Commission.
 HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN REFRIGERATION

3E STRATEGY
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN REFRIGERATION

Other titles in the 3E strategy series:

HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY:THE 3E STRATEGY

HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE
HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN BOILERSAND FURNACES
HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN COMPRESSEDAIR SYSTEMS
HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEMS
HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY INSULATION SYSTEMS

Copies of these guides may be obtained from:

The Energy Research Institute

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Private Bag
Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
South Africa
Tel No: +27 (0) 21 650 3892
Fax No: +27 (0) 21 686 4838
E-mail: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za
Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution
in the production of the guide:
Ÿ Energy Technology Support Unite (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information
from the ‘’Energy Efficiency Best Parctice’’ series of handbooks.
Ÿ Energy Conservation Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada,
for permission to use information from the ‘’Energy Management’’ series of manuals.
Ÿ TLV Co, Ltd, for permission to use figures from their set of handbooks on steam.
Ÿ Wilma Walden for graphic design work (walden@grm.co.za).
Ÿ Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
 Guide Book Essentials
QUICK 'CHECK-LIST' FOR SAVING ENERGY AND
MONEY IN REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

This list is a selected summary of energy and cost savings opportunities outline in the text. Many more
are detailed in the body of the booklet. These are intended to be a quick 'checklist'.

EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE (Chapter 3):

Ÿ Ensure that there is good and regular maintenance of all equipment.
Ÿ Avoid blockage of air flow through and around heat exchanges (e.g. evaporators and
condensers).
Ÿ Make sure that fouling of primary and secondary refrigeration circuits is kept to a minimum.
Ÿ Maintain isolation standards where appropriate.

EFFICIENT USE OF THE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM (Chapter 5):

Ÿ Keep operating hours to a minimum.
Ÿ Ensure that the cooling load is kept to a minimum.
Ÿ Avoid operating refrigeration plant under part-load conditions.
Ÿ Investigate the possibility of improving control functions.
Ÿ Reschedule production cycles to reduce peak electrical demand.

ALTERATIONS TO THE EXISTING PLANT (Chapters 3 and 5):

Ÿ Utilise waste heat where possible.
Ÿ Where appropriate, retrofit plant with more energy efficient components.
Ÿ Increase evaporator temperature to increase system COP.
Ÿ Reduce condensing temperature to increase system COP
Ÿ Upgrade automatic controls in refrigeration plants to provide accurate and flexible operation.
Ÿ Replace high-maintenance, centrifugal compressors with compressors selected for high
efficiency when operating at part load conditions.
Ÿ Upgrade insulation on primary and secondary refrigerant piping circuits.

REFRIGERANTS (Chapter 4):

Ÿ Review energy efficiency when replacing CFC with ozone benign refrigerants. (This might not
have an energy saving effect).
AUDITING (Chapter 5)
Refrigeration efficiency is usually expressed as the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as:

Cooling effect (kW)

COP =
Power input to compressor (kW)

Once the system performance has been established it is useful to identify the contribution of each plant
component to the total system power input. Suitable electricity submeters can be installed for this purpose. The
main contributors are normally:

Ÿ compressors (typically 65%);

Ÿ condenser pumps (typically 5%);
Ÿ condenser fans (typically 10%);
Ÿ evaporator pumps (typically 15%);
Ÿ lights (typically 5%).

The next stage is to divide the total cooling load amongst the various process requirements. This should allow
the loads that significantly affect costs to be highlighted.

3E STRATEGY
 Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................................................1

2.THE REFRIGERATION PROCESS...................................................................................................................................2

2.1 The vapour compression cycle ...................................................................................................................................2
2.2. Reverse Carnot Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Coefficient of Performance...............................................................................................................................4
2.3 Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle...............................................................................................................5
2.3.1 Model Coefficient of Performance................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Practical Considerations .....................................................................................................................................7
2.4 Absorption Cycle............................................................................................................................................................11
2.5 Special Refrigeration Systems ...................................................................................................................................13
2.6 Variations on the simple Carnot circuit................................................................................................................13
2.6.1 Suction/liquid heat exchanger.......................................................................................................................13
2.7 Multiple evaporator circuits .......................................................................................................................................14
2.7.1 Multiple compressor Systems .......................................................................................................................15
2.7.2 Cascade Systems .................................................................................................................................................17
2.7.3 Heat Pump Systems ...........................................................................................................................................18

3. EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Compressors.....................................................................................................................................................................20
3.1.1 Types of compressor housing .......................................................................................................................20
3.1.2 Hermetic and semi-hermetic compressors ...........................................................................................20
3.1.3 Open compressors ............................................................................................................................................20
3.1.4 Reciprocating compressors............................................................................................................................21
3.1.5 Screw compressors............................................................................................................................................21
3.1.6 Scroll compressors .............................................................................................................................................22
3.1.7 Compressor performance data ...................................................................................................................22
3.1.8 Capacity control...................................................................................................................................................22
3.2 Evaporators........................................................................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Direct expansion .................................................................................................................................................23
3.2.2 Flooded.....................................................................................................................................................................24
3.2.3 Oil control in evaporators...............................................................................................................................25
3.2.4 Energy efficient operation of evaporators ..............................................................................................27
3.2.5 Defrosting................................................................................................................................................................27
 3.3 Expansion devices...........................................................................................................................................................28
3.3.1 Thermostatic expansion valves ....................................................................................................................28
3.3.2 Float valve systems..............................................................................................................................................30
3.4 Condensers........................................................................................................................................................................32
3.4.1 Air-cooled condensers.....................................................................................................................................32
3.4.2 Water-cooled condensers .............................................................................................................................32
3.4.3 Evaporative condensers...................................................................................................................................33
3.4.4 Loss of condenser efficiency due to air in system ................................................................................38

4. REFRIGERANTS.....................................................................................................................................................................35
4.1 Desirable Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................35
4.2 Common Refrigerants - Vapour Compression Cycles................................................................................38
4.3 Common Refrigerants - Absorption Cycle........................................................................................................38
4.4 Brines and Secondary Coolants...............................................................................................................................38

5. ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES ....................................................................................................39

5.1 Housekeeping Opportunities...................................................................................................................................39
5.1.1 General maintenance........................................................................................................................................39
5.1.2 Plant operation .....................................................................................................................................................40
5.1.3 Instrumentation....................................................................................................................................................40
5.1.4 Trouble shooting .................................................................................................................................................42
5.1.5 Housekeeping Worked Examples..............................................................................................................42
5.2 Low Cost Opportunities.............................................................................................................................................45
5.2.1 Low Cost Worked Examples........................................................................................................................46
5.3 Retrofit Opportunities..................................................................................................................................................47

APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF TERMS............................................................................................................................49

APPENDIX 2: ENERGY,VOLUMEAND MASS CONVERSION FACTORS ............................................57
APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF MEASURING COP DIRECTLY..........................................................................58

3E STRATEGY
1. INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, humans have used various 1.1 PURPOSE

forms of refrigeration. Simple cooling
arrangements, such as those provided by iceboxes
The following summarizes the purpose of this
and root cellars, allowed long term storage of
guide.
perishable foods. These, and other simple
techniques, though largely supplanted by
Ÿ Introduce the subject of Refrigeration and
mechanical refrigeration equipment, are still used
Heat Pumps as used in the Industrial,
by campers, cottagers and people in remote or less
Commercial and Institutional Sectors.
developed areas.
Ÿ Make building owners and operators
aware of the potential energy and cost
Mechanical refrigeration systems were first built in
savings available through the implemen-
the late nineteenth century, but did not become
tation of Energy Management Oppor-
commonplace until the 1940s. Although
tunities.
mechanical refrigeration provides benefits such as
refrigerated storage independent of season or
· Provide methods of calculating the potential
climate, and better living and working
energy and cost savings, using simple worked
environments, the energy costs related to
examples.
operation of these systems are significant. This
guide examines refrigeration and heat pump
systems and identifies where energy consumption
and costs may be reduced.

1
2. THE REFRIGERATION
PROCESS
The majority of refrigeration systems are driven by
a machi ne, which compr esses and pumps
refrigerant vapour around a sealed circuit. Heat is
absorbed and rejected through heat exchangers.
These systems work on what is called a vapour
compression cycle.
There are other types of plant which can be used to
obtain a cooling effect, such as absorption cycle
systems, but these are not in common use and are
only economically viable where there are large
supplies of waste heat.
2.1 THE VAPOUR
COMPRESSION
CYCLE
Heat can only flow naturally from a hot to a colder
body. In refrigeration system the opposite must
occur. This is achieved by using a substance called a
refrigerant, which absorbs heat and hence boils or
evaporates at a low pressure to form a gas. This gas
is then compressed to a higher pressure, such that it
transfers the heat it has gained to ambient air or
water and turns back into a liquid (condenses). In
this way heat is absorbed, or removed, from a low
temperature source and transferred to one at a
higher temperature.
There are a number of factors, which make the
operation of the vapour compression cycle
possible:
2
Ÿ The temperature at which refrigerant boils
varies with its pressure; the higher the
pressure, the higher the boiling point;
Ÿ When refrigerant liquid boils, changing its
state to a gas, it absorbs heat from its
surroundings;
Ÿ Refrigerant can be changed back from a gas
to a liquid by cooling it, usually by using air
or water.
Note: In the refrigeration industry the term
evaporation is used instead of boiling. Also, if a gas is
heated above its boiling point it is said to be
superheated and if liquid is cooled below its
condensing temperature it is sub-cooled.
To enable the refrigerant to be condensed it has to
be compressed to a higher pressure, and it is at this
point that energy has to be used to drive the
machine that performs this task. The machine is
called a compressor and it is usually driven by an
electric motor.
The operation of a simple refrigeration system is
shown in Figure 1. The diagram shows the
refrigerant pressure (bars) and its heat content
(kJ/kg).
The refrigeration cycle can be broken down into
the following stages:
1-2 Low pressure liquid refrigerant in the
evaporator absorbs heat from its
surroundings, usually air, water or some
 other process liquid. During this process it
changes its state from a liquid to a gas, and
at the evaporator exit is slightly
superheated.
2-3 The superheated vapour enters the
compressor where its pressure is raised.
There will also be a big increase in
temperature, because a proportion of the
energy put into the compression process is
transferred to the refrigerant.
3-4 The high pressure superheated gas passes
from the compressor into the condenser.
The initial part of the cooling process (3 -
3a) desuperheats the gas before it is then
turned back into liquid (3a - 3b). The
Figure 1: Single stage vapour compression circuit and pressure enthalpy diagram (source: ETSU)
3
cooling for this process is usually achieved
by using air or water. A further reduction in
temperature happens in the pipe work and
liquid receiver (3b - 4), so that the
refrigerant liquid is sub-cooled as it enters
the expansion device.
4-1 The high pressure sub-cooled liquid passes
through the expansion device, which both
reduces its pressure and controls the flow
into the evaporator.
It can be seen that the condenser has to be capable
of rejecting the combined heat inputs of the
evaporator and the compressor; i.e. (1 - 2) + (2 - 3)
has to be the same as (3 - 4). There is no heat loss or
gain through the expansion device.
2.2. REVERSE CARNOT
CYCLE
The Carnot Cycle is a theoretical model
representing the basic processes of a heat engine. A
heat engine is a devide which produces work from
heat. The Reverse Carnot cycle produces a transfer
of heat from work. From the model, the maximum
theoretical performance can be calculated,
establishing criteria to which real refrigeration
cycles can be compared.
The following processes occur in the Reverse
Carnot Cycle (Figure 2).
Ÿ 4 to 1 is the absorption of heat at the
evaporator, a constant temperature
boiling process at TL.
Ÿ 1 to 2 is constant entropy (ideal)
compression. Work input is required and
the temperature of the refrigerant
increases.
Ÿ 2 to 3 is heat rejection at the condenser, a
constant temperature process at TH.
Figure 2: Reverse Carnot Cycle (source: CEMET)
4
Ÿ 3 to 4 is constant entropy (ideal)
expansion from a higher to a lower
pressure through the throttling device.
From the diagram, the concept of Coefficient of
Performance (COP) is derived. The COP is the
ratio of the cooling or Refrigeration Effect (RE), to
the work required to produce the effect.
2.2.1 COEFFICIENT OF
PERFORMANCE
The refrigeration effect is represented as the area
under the process line 4 - 1.
RE = TL × (s1 - s4)
Where, RE = Refrigeration effect (kJ)
TL = Temperature (K)
s1, s4 = Entropy [kJ/kg·K)J
The theoretical work input (WS) (i.e. energy
requirement) for the cycle is represented by the
area "within" the cycle line 1-2-3-4-1. Example: two refrigeration machines of similar
capacity are compared. One has a COP of 4.0 while
WS = (TH - TL) × (s4 s1) kJ/kg the second a COP of 3.0 at the same operating
conditions. The first machine with the higher COP
The equation for coefficient of performance (COP) is the most efficient, producing 1.33 times the
is obtained by dividing the refrigeration effect (RE) refrigeration effect for the same work input of the
by the theoretical work input (WS). second machine. The figures above show the effect
RE TL x (s1 - s4 ) of evaporator and condenser temperatures on the
COP = =
WS (TH - TL ) x (s1 - s4 ) COP for various types of chillers.

The coefficient of performance for this theoretical

The theoretical COP can also be expressed in
system is temperature dependent and can be
terms of enthalpy, where the difference in energy
reduced to:
content of the refrigerant at various points of the
TL cycle define the cooling effect and the work input.
COP (Ideal) =
(TH - TL )
(h1 - h4 )
Actual systems are not as efficient as the ideal or COP = (h - h )
2 1
theoretical model (i.e. lower COP), but the
following general conclusion applies: The smaller
the temperature difference between the heat sink
2.3 THEORETICAL VAPOUR
and the heat source, (TH - TL) the greater the
efficiency of the refrigeration (or heat pump) COMPRESSION CYCLE
system. The COP, a measure of the energy
required to produce a given refrigeration effect, is The Carnot cycle, although a useful model to assist
an excellent means of comparing the efficiencies of in the understanding of the refrigeration process,
similar equipment. has certain limitations. One limitation is the lack of

Figure 3: Effects of evaporator and condensing temperature on chiller COP. (source: CEMET)

5
accounting for changes of state. The figure below condenser. Step 2 2' is the initial de-superheating
shows a vapour compression cycle approximating of the hot gas at the condenser or intermediate
the effect of the cycle on the refrigerant, assuming equipment, and 2' - 3 is the condensation process.
ideal equipment, where:

Ÿ 1 - 2 Compression. 2.3.1 MODEL COEFFICIENT

Ÿ 2 - 2' Desuperheating. OF PERFORMANCE
Ÿ 2' - 3 Constant Temperature
Condensation.
As in the Reverse Carnot cycle, the coefficient or
Ÿ 2 - 4' Throttling.
performance is:
Ÿ 4' - 1 Constant Temperature
Evaporation. COP(refrig) = refrigeration effect
Work input
Assuming that the compression process starts at
TL h -h
point 1 as a saturated vapour, energy added in the COP(refrig) = = 1 4
(TH - TL ) h2 - h1
form of shaft work will raise the temperature and
pressure. Ideally, this is a constant entropy process Where h4' = h3
represented by a vertical line on the T-s diagram.
The net result is superheating of the vapour to Departures from the ideal Carnot cycle are
point 2. Process 2 2' 3 is heat rejection at the apparent.

Figure 4: Basic Refrigeration Cycle. (source: CEMET)

6
 Ÿ [h2 - h1](theoretical) is larger than [h2 -
h1](Carnot).
Ÿ [h1 - h4](theoretical) is smaller than [h1 -
h4](Carnot).
The net effect is a COP reduction.
The throttling process reduces the refrigerant
pressure from the condensing (high) pressure side
to the evaporator (low) pressure side. By definition,
throttling is a constant enthalpy process. The
enthalpy at point 3 is equal to that at point 4', thus h3
= h4'. Energy is degraded in this process, therefore
the entropy must increase from point 3' to 4.
2.3.2 PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Refrigeration and heat pump cycles are more
complex than the theoretical vapour compression
cycle discussed in the previous sector. Practical
Figure 5: Effectiveness of Reciprocating compressors. (source: CEMET)
1
An example of measuring COP directly is given in Appendix 3
7
limitations such as equipment size, system pressure,
and design temperatures at the evaporator and
condenser, reduce the effectiveness of actual
1
systems. Actual COPs are 20 to 30 per cent of the
theoretical COP based on the Carnot cycle
operating at the same conditions. Individual
components, such as the compressor, may have an
effectiveness of 40 to 60 per cent of the theoretical
COP (Figure below). These limitations, and
techniques used to reduce their input on cycle
efficiency, are now discussed.
2.3.2.1 Heat Transfer
Operating temperatures in actual cycles are
established to suit the temperatures required at the
cold medium and the temperature acceptable for
the heat sink. The practical temperature gradient
required to transfer heat from one fluid to another
through a heat exchanger is in the range of 5 to 8ºC.
This means that the refrigerant entering the
evaporator should be 5 to 8ºC colder than the
 Figure: 6: Heat exchanger limitations and the effects of superheating. (source: CEMET)
desired medium temperature. The saturation
0
temperature at the condenser should be 5 to 8 C
above the temperature of the heat rejection
medium (Figure below).
The area enclosed by line l - 2 - 3 - 4' - l, which
describes the cycle, has increased because of the
temperature difference required to drive the
transfer process. There has been an increase in the
work required to produce the refrigeration effect
because the temperature difference has increased,
(TH - TL).
2.3.2.2 Superheat
In the refrigerant cycle, refrigerant gas becomes
superheated at the evaporator and at the
compressor (Figure 6). During the evaporation
process the refrigerant is completely vaporized
part-way through the evaporator. As the cool
refrigerant vapour continues through the
evaporator, additional heat is absorbed which
superheats the vapour. Pressure losses, caused by
friction, further increase the amount of superheat.
8
When the superheating occurs at the evaporator,
the enthalpy of the refrigerant is raised, extracting
additional heat and increasing the refrigeration
effect of the evaporator. When superheating
occurs in the compressor suction piping, no useful
cooling occurs.
The increase in refrigeration effect, caused by
superheating in the evaporator, is usually offset by a
decrease in refrigeration effect at the compressor.
Because the volumetric flow rate of a compressor is
constant, the mass flow rate and refrigerating effect
are reduced by decreases in refrigerant density
caused by the superheating. The relative effects of
increases in enthalpy and decreases in density must
be calculated in detail. A study of the system design
may be practical only for systems over 500 kW in
capacity. There is a loss in refrigerating capacity of
about one per cent for every 2.5ºC of superheat in
the suction line of a reciprocating compressor.
Insulation on suction lines will minimize the
undesirable heat gain.
Refrigerant superheating also occurs at the
compressor. The refrigerant enters the compressor
as a saturated vapour. Increasing the pressure will
increase the temperature and cause superheat.
Friction, system inefficiency and the work added,
raise the entropy and superheat above that
occurring in the theoretical cycle. Superheat,
caused by the compression process, does not
improve cycle efficiency, but results in larger
condensing equipment and large compressor
discharge piping.
Desuperheating is the process of removing excess
heat from superheated refrigerant vapour, and
when accomplished by means external to the cycle,
can be beneficial to system performance.
Desuperheating the suction gas is often impractical
because of the low temperatures (less than 10 ºC)
and the small amount of available energy. Some
superheat is required to prevent slugs of liquid
refrigerant from reaching the compressor and
causing serious damage. At design conditions,
superheat can account for 20 per cent of the heat
rejected at the condensers, and often raises
condensing temperatures above 45ºC.
Desuperheating the high-pressure refrigerant (hot
Figure 7: Effect of Subcooling (source: CEMET)
9
gas) leaving the compressor will reduce the
required condenser capacity, and provide a high-
grade heat source for other process use. A typical
application would be the preheating of boiler make-
up or process water. The total amount of heat
available as superheat can be difficult to predict, as
the superheat fluctuates with changes in load
conditions. If a use can be found for low-grade heat,
the total condensing load can be reclaimed. This
can result in substantial energy savings.
2.3.2.3 FLASH GAS AND
SUBCOOLING
Liquid subcooling occurs when a liquid refrigerant is
cooled at constant pressure to below the
condensation temperature (Figure 7). When
subcooling occurs by a heat transfer method
external to the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerating
effect of the system is increased because the
enthalpy of the subcooled liquid is less than the
enthalpy of the saturated liquid. Subcooling of the
liquid upstream of the throttling device also reduces
flashing in the liquid piping. The work input is
reduced, and the refrigeration effect is increased
because (h1 h4) is less than (h1 h4').
Subcooling refrigerant R-22 by 13ºC increases the
refrigeration effect by about 11 per cent. If
subcooling is obtained from outside the cycle, each
degree increase in subcooling will improve system
capacity by approximately one per cent. Subcooling
from within the cycle may not be as effective
because of offsetting effects in other parts of the
cycle.
Subcooling capacity can be increased by providing
additional cooling circuits in the condenser or by
immersing the liquid receiver in a cooling tower
sump. Most systems provide 5 to 7ºC subcooling at
the condenser to improve system efficiency.
2.3.2.4 HOT GAS BYPASS
Hot gas bypass is a method of placing an artificial
heat load on the refrigeration system to produce
stable suction pressures and temperatures, when
the refrigeration load is very low. The heat load is
produced by bypassing hot gas from the
compressor discharge to the evaporator inlet or
the compressor suction. While permitting stable
compressor operation at low load, hot gas bypass
wastes energy. Bypass is required to maintain
evaporator temperature above freezing, and
prevent frosting of the coil, freezing of the chilled
water, and compressor cycling.
The total refrigeration load on a compressor with
hot gas bypass will be equal to the actual (low) load
plus the amount of hot gas bypass. Typically, the hot
gas bypass on a reciprocating machine is 25 per cent
of the nominal refrigeration capacity for a 4 cylinder
unit, 33 per cent for a 6 cylinder unit and 37.5 per
10
cent for an 8 cylinder unit. For centrifugal
equipment, the bypass varies with the load and
impeller characteristics.
2.3.2.5 EVAPORATOR FROSTING
When a refrigeration system operates with the
evaporator temperature close to 0ºC, or less,
frosting of the evaporator coil is inevitable.
Examples of this would be the frosting of heat
pump evaporator coils during winter operation, or
freezer evaporators. Ice buildup on the coils lowers
the heat transfer rate, effectively reducing the
refrigeration effect. The suction temperature will
fall as the heat transfer rate falls, further increasing
the rate of ice buildup. For systems operating under
these conditions defrosting accessories are
available from the equipment manufacturer.
Defrost is performed by reversing the refrigerant
flow, so that the system operates in an air-
conditioning mode, using the evaporator as the
condenser to reject heat through the frosted coils.
In a heat pump system used for heating, a back-up
heating system is required to prevent chilling the
space during the defrost mode. Defrosting is a
major consumer of energy. It is important that the
controls optimise the defrost cycle to avoid
unnecessary defrosting while preventing unwanted
ice build-up.
2.3.2.6 HEAT PUMP CYCLE
The heat pump is a separate class of compression
refrigeration equipment whose main purpose is to
transfer heat from a low temperature heat source
to a higher temperature heat sink for heating, rather
than for cooling. The coefficient of performance in
the heating configuration is:
Refrigeration effect plus work input2
COP(Heat Pump) =
Net work input
= TH
(T H - TL)
In a heat pump system where both heating and
cooling are required, a special four-way valve is
used to reverse the functions of the evaporator and
condenser. In this manner, the coil or exchanger is
used to supply heating or cooling as required.
Alternatively, the piping or ductwork system
external to the heat pump can be provided with
valves or dampers to reverse the primary air or fluid
flows, without the reversing valve. The heat pump
cycle is identical to a standard refrigeration cycle on
a T-s diagram (Figure 2).
2.4 ABSORPTION CYCLE
The absorption refrigeration cycle is similar to the
vapour compression cycle, however instead of
using a compressor, high pressures are obtained by
applying heat to a refrigerant solution.
The system operates on the principle that variations
in refrigerant solubility can be obtained by changing
solution temperatures and pressures. Absorption
systems in industry often use ammonia as the
refrigerant in a water solvent, whereas in
commercial and institutional applications water is
used as the refrigerant in a lithium bromide solvent.
The basic components of an absorption system are
the vapour absorber, solution transfer pumps, and a
vapour regenerator (solvent concentrator) in
addition to the evaporator and condenser.
2
i.e. 'Heat 'pumped' to the hot surface.
11
The steps in an absorption refrigeration cycle are:
1. Liquid refrigerant is vaporized in the
evaporator absorbing heat from the
medium to be cooled
2. The suction effect necessary to draw the
vapour through the system is ac-
complished by bringing the refrigerant into
contact with a solvent. The solvent's affinity
for the refrigerant causes the refrigerant to
be absorbed by the solution, reducing the
pressure of the refrigerant vapour. The
absorption process releases heat which
must be removed from this portion of the
cycle. The solution of refrigerant and
solvent (weak liquor) is pu mp ed fr om
the absorber at low pressure, to the
generator at a high pressure.
3. Heat is added to the weak liquor to drive
the refrigerant out of solution. A heat
exchanger is located between the
absorber and generator. Heat is removed from
the strong liquor (solution with high solvent
and low refrigerant concentrations) leaving
the generator, and is added to the weak
liquor entering the generator, reducing the cycle
heat input.
4. Further heat added to the weak liquor in
the generator drives the refrigerant out of
solution providing a high pressure
refrigerant vapour. The hot solvent, still
containing some refrigerant (strong liquor),
returns to the absorber through the heat
exchanger where the solvent cycle
repeats.
5. Vapour at high-pressure and temperature
flows to the condenser where heat is
rejected through a coil or heat exchanger
during the condensation process.
 Figure 8: Absorption Refrigeration Cycle. (source: CEMET)

6. The pressure of the liquid refrigerant is

reduced by passing through a throttling
device before returning to the evaporator
section. The complete cycle is shown in
Figure 8.

The generator may be equipped with a rectifier for

selective distillation of refrigerant from the solution.
This feature is common in large ammonia systems.

Performance of an absorption chiller is measured

by the COP, the ratio of actual cooling or heating
effect, to the energy used to obtain that effect. The
best ratios are less than one for cooling and 1.2 to
1.4 for a heat pump application. Compared to
compression cycles this is low, but if high-
temperature waste heat can be utilized to Figure 9: Diagram of a Two-Shell Lithium
regenerate the refrigerant, refrigeration can be Bromide Cycle Water Chiller.
obtained at reasonable costs. (source: CEMET)

System performance is affected by:

The flow diagram of a two-shell lithium bromide
Ÿ Heat source temperature. chiller is shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows an
Ÿ Temperature of medium being cooled. alternative configuration of an absorption machine
Ÿ Temperature of the heat sink. using only a single shell. Actual installations vary

12
considerably in layout, number of components and Well water, or any other clean water below l5ºC,
accessories, application and refrigerant type. can be used for cooling or precooling ventilation air,
or a process.

2.5 SPECIAL
REFRIGERATION 2.6 VARIATIONS ON THE
SYSTEMS SIMPLE CARNOT
CIRCUIT
Steam jet refrigeration systems use steam ejectors to
reduce the pressure in a tank containing the return
2.6.1 SUCTION/LIQUID HEAT
water from a chilled water system. Flashing a
portion of the water in the tank reduces the liquid EXCHANGER
temperature. The chilled water is then used directly
or passed through an exchanger to cool another The cooling effect of an evaporator is proportional
heat transfer fluid. to the length of the line between points 1 and 2 in

Figure 10: Single shell configuration. (source: CEMET)

13
Figure 1. Additional cooling can be obtained by
increasing the amount of subcooling at the inlet to
the expansion device.
The temperature of the refrigerant leaving the
evaporator will be lower than that of the liquid
entering the expansion device. Therefore, it is
possible to reduce the liquid temperature by using a
heat exchanger between these two pipes. A
schematic layout showing how a suction/liquid heat
exchanger can be incorporated into a refrigeration
circuit is given in Figure 2.
Figure 11:The suction line heat exchanger.
(source: ETSU)
It must be remembered that there will be a
corresponding increase in the suction gas
temperature entering the compressor, which will
reduce its capacity as the gas will be less dense and,
therefore, a lower mass of refrigerant will be
pumped by the compressor. Experience has shown
that an overall improvement in the system's
efficiency will be gained at high evaporating
14
tem per atu res . In gen era l, the eva por ati ng
temperature below which a suction/liquid heat
exchanger no longer becomes viable is about 15º
C. Care must also be taken when using these heat
exchangers on systems with R22 and R717
(ammonia) refrigerants, where the increased
suction temperature at the compressor could result
in an excessive discharge temperature.
2.7 MULTIPLE
EVAPORATOR
CIRCUITS
It is often desirable to operate more than one
evaporator on the same system. This is not a
problem if all if the evaporators are working it the
same temperature, as they can simply be connected
in parallel.
If, however, one evaporator is required to work it a
lower temperature than the others, it will be
necessary to operate the compressor(s) at the
pressure required by the lower temperature. The
other evaporators will then have to be controlled at
a higher pressure by installing evaporator pressure
regulators between the exit of the evaporator and
the suction into the compressor(s). The
disadvantage of this is that operating the system at
the lower suction pressure will reduce the
compressor's efficiency and capacity. If the main
load has the lower temperature, then the cost of
installing an additional system for the small higher
temperature load would probably not be
economic, despite the increase in efficiency which
would result. If the opposite case exists, it will
almost certainly be better to put the small low
temperature load on its own individual system and
run the main load at a higher, and hence more
energy efficient, evaporating pressure.
2.7.1 MULTIPLE COMPRESSOR
SYSTEMS
In many systems the load is too great to be handled
practically with one compressor. In these cases
compressors are connected in parallel, which has
the added advantage that their use can be cycled in
order to adjust the capacity to suit the load.
2.7.1.1 TWO STAGE SYSTEMS
Two stage, or compound, systems are used when
there is a large difference between the evaporating
and condensing temperatures. This usually occurs
when process or product storage conditions
require a low evaporating temperature, such as in
freeze drying or ice cream storage.
At these compression ratios two stage systems
have to be used because a single stage system
would result in an unacceptably high discharge
temperature in the compressor. In addition, in
some cases two stage compression can give more
efficient compressor operation.
There is no easy rule to determine where two stage
compression, with its additional design and
installation complexity, becomes preferable to
single stage compression. Generally, with
refrigerants like R22, two stage compression may
be used on systems using suction cooled
compressors evaporating below about - 30ºC.
There are two ways that two stage compression
can be achieved and the method selected will affect
efficiency. In both cases, additional system capacity
can be obtained by first passing the refrigerant used
for interstage cooling through a liquid line
subcooler. If this method is used, care must be
15
taken to ensure the liquid does not get significantly
warmer, so that it begins to evaporate, before it
enters the expansion device.
2.7.1.2 INTERNALLY COMPOUNDED
COMPRESSORS
Two stage compression can be achieved within
one, specially designed, compressor. The gas is
compressed to the intermediate pressure in the
first, low stage cylinder(s) and then compressed to
the condensing pressure in the high stage
cylinder(s). The intermediate condition is called the
interstage pressure, and some form of cooling is
usually used to reduce the temperature of the
refrigerant before it enters the second stage of
compression.
The selection and application of such a compressor
is relatively simple; however, there are a limited
number of compressor variations available.
Selecting a design that matches a specific system
requirement usually results in a compromise which
is made at the expense of energy efficiency. The
fixed volume ratio of the two compression stages
also means that efficiencies are lower than they
could be where demand varies.
2.7.1.3 EXTERNALLY COMPOUNDING
COMPRESSORS
In this case two stage compression is achieved by
using two separate compressors - one for the low
stage and another for the high. This more flexible
approach enables the system designer to match a
compressor combination to the load more
accurately and select the most economical
interstage pressure.
The design and selection process is far more
complicated than with the internally compounded
variation, but the use of computer selection
programs make it easier and quicker. To limit the
final discharge temperature interstage cooling is
used, usually by injecting a small quantity of
refrigerant into the gas flow although other suitable
sources of cooling could be used.
A multistage system is used when large
temperature and pressure differences exist
between the evaporator and the condenser. Figure
12 illustrates the basic arrangement for a two-stage
system where the compression work is done by
either two positive displacement compressors or
by two stages of a multistage centrifugal unit. The
flash intercooler subcools the refrigerant liquid to
the evaporator by vaporizing a portion of the
refrigerant after the first throttling stage. The flash
gas returns at an intermediate point in the
compression process to improve the compression
efficiency by cooling the superheated gas (Figure
13).
In large systems with a number of evaporators and
large compression (temperature) ratios, the

Figure 12: Schematic of 2-Stage Refrigeration System. (source: CEMET)

Figure 13: Diagram of a 2-Stage Vapour Compression Cycle. (source: CEMET)

16
number of flash intercoolers and compression
stages is increased to maximize system efficiency.
2.7.2 CASCADE SYSTEMS
Cascade systems are another method of
overcoming the problems in applications requiring
low evaporating temperatures. Two separate
refrigeration circuits are used, usually with different
refrigerants in each circuit.
The evaporator of the low pressure system is
below the process or product storage temperature.
The condenser for this system is also the
evaporator of the high pressure system. The high
stage system transfers the heat from this condenser
evaporator to the external condenser. The low
pressure system can therefore use a refrigerant
which has a suitably low boiling point for the
application, and its condensing pressure can be kept
at a safe level by the high stage of the cascade.
A cascade system cannot be as efficient as a well
designed externally compounded system, because
there is a loss in efficiency due to the heat transfer

Figure 14:Three stage Cascade System. (source: CEMET)

Figure 15:Two stage cascade system with booster circuit. (source: CEMET)

17
between the two systems. It does, however, offer
more flexibility, as a small low temperature load
could be interfaced with an existing high
temperature system. In many cases cascading is the
only alternative if very low temperatures are
required.
Refrigerants used in each stage may be different and
are selected for optimum performance at the given
evaporator and condenser temperatures. An
alternative arrangement uses a common condenser
with a booster circuit to obtain two separate
evaporator temperatures (Figure 15).
2.7.3 HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
A heat pump is a device used to transfer heat from a
lower temperature to a higher temperature, for
heating the warmer area or process. In many
installations, reversible heat pumps are used, which
heat or cool the process, or space.
A four-way reversing valve is used to reverse the
refrigerant flow, to permit the use of the coils or
exchangers in either the condenser or evaporator
mode. With a fixed refrigerant circuit and no
reversing valve, the secondary refrigerant flows can
be reversed through appropriate external valve or
damper arrangements.
Various heat source and heat sink arrangements are
possible, depending on heating and cooling
requirements.
Ÿ Air-to-air.
Ÿ Air-to-water.
Ÿ Water-to-air.
Ÿ Water-to-water.
Ÿ Earth-to-air.
Ÿ Earth-to-water.
18
In each case the first term refers to the heat source
for heating applications, or the heat sink for cooling.
The second term refers to the secondary
refrigerant used for process or space heating and
cooling. For example:
Ÿ An air-to-air heat pump (Figure 16)
provides heating or cooling. In the cooling
mode, heat is removed from the air in the
space and discharged to the outside air. In
the heating mode, heat is removed from
the outside air and discharged to air in the
space.
Ÿ An air-to-water system extracts heat from
ambient or exhaust air to heat or preheat
water used for space or process heating.
Ÿ A water-to-air system (Figure 17) provides
heating and cooling of air with water as the
heat sink or source.
Ÿ A water-to-water system extracts heat from
a water source while simultaneously
rejecting heat to a water heat sink, to either
heat or cool a space or process.
Ÿ Earth-to-air and earth to water systems have
limited use. Practical application is limited
to space heating where the total heating or
cooling effect is small, and the ground coil
size is equally small.
The COP for heat pump systems varies from 2 to 3
for small air-to-air space heating systems, to 5 or 6
for large systems that operate across small
temperature differences.
Most heat pump systems are provided with a
backup heat source to offset reductions in heat
output as the evaporator (heat source: outdoor
 Figure 16:Typical schematic of an air-to-air heat pump system. (source: CEMET)

coil) temperature falls. This is particularly true in air- result from lack of proper cleaning. Absorption
to-air, space-heating systems where heat output chillers face reductions in refrigerating capacity of
decreases as the outdoor temperature lowers. up to 24 per cent, with power increases of 7.5 per
cent, from poor maintenance.

2.7.3.1 EFFECTS OF MAINTENANCE

ON SYSTEM EFFICIENCY

Owners of refrigeration and heat pump equipment

should follow the manufacturer's service and
maintenance recommendations to maintain
maximum system efficiency over the life of the
equipment, leaking seals, poor lubrication and faulty
controls will reduce system life and performance.

A simple procedure, such as regular cleaning of the

evaporator and condenser, has a marked effect on
performance. Table 7 shows the effect of dirty heat
transfer elements on an air-cooled reciprocating
compressor system. Reductions in refrigerating
capacity up to 25 per cent, with simultaneous Figure 17:Typical schematic of water-to-air
increases in power input of up to 40 per cent, can heat pump system. (source: CEMET)

19
3. EQUIPMENT
The following major components are required in
vapour compression refrigeration systems.
Ÿ Refrigerant compressors.
Ÿ Evaporators.
Ÿ Throttling devices.
Ÿ Condensers.
Ÿ Heat rejection equipment.
3.1 COMPRESSORS
The purpose of the compressor in a refrigeration
system is to draw the low pressure refrigerant gas
from the evaporator and compress it to a higher
pressure. This enables the gas to be condensed
back into liquid by some convenient low cost
source of cooling, such as air or water.
3.1.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSOR
HOUSING
Most compressors are driven by an electric motor,
sometimes built into a common casing. Other
compressors have an external drive, the shaft
passing through a rotating gas seal where it exits
from the pressurised casing.
3.1.2 HERMETIC AND SEMI-
HERMETIC COMPRESSORS
These compressors have the motor directly
attached to the main shaft, and the whole assembly
20
is contained in a common gas-tight housing.
Hermetic compressors are built into a welded shell,
and there is no access to the internal parts for
servicing or repair. Semi-hermetic compressors are
assembled with removable covers, usually sealed by
gaskets, enabling a limited amount of access for on-
site maintenance.
Both types of compressor are designed and built
with specially selected motors. The motor's size
and type is matched to the motion work of the
compressor for specific applications and
refrigerants. To obtain the maximum efficiency the
compressor must be closely matched to the system
duty.
Hermetic compressors and larger semi-hermetic
compressors are usually suction-cooled, the
refrigerant passing over the motor windings before
entering the compressor cylinders. This helps to
cool the motor windings, but reduces the capacity
of the compressor. Externally cooled types, where
the gas passes directly into the cylinders, are usually
about 8% more efficient than the equivalent
suction-cooled models but are only available up to
a motor size of about 5 kW.
3.1.3 OPEN COMPRESSORS
This type of compressor has an external drive shaft
allowing a suitably sized motor to be selected and
connected to it, either with a direct coupling or via
belts. It is important to size the motor accurately in
relation to the compressor's duty. Running motors
at below their design duty reduces their power
factor and their efficiency.
When comparing the input power requirements of
open and semi-hermetic compressors, the motor's
efficiency and losses due to the drive have to be
taken into account for open drive machines.
Where extended operation of the plant is
envisaged it could prove viable to invest in an
energy efficient (high efficiency) motor. At present
the cost will be higher than a standard motor but
this could change as the price differential between
standard and high efficiency motors is decreasing.
The payback time, derived by a simple cost analysis,
will usually be less than two years given the long
running hours and may show a better return on
investment.
3.1.4 RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating compressors are the most common
types of compressor and are available for a wide
range of applications.
The design of a compressor is optimised for
operation within a designated application envelope
with specified refrigerants. Operating a compressor
at high temperature conditions with valves
designed for low temperature operation could
result in losses of up to 10% in the extraction rate.
With many compressors it could also result in the
motor being overloaded and tripping its protection
device.
Compressors have been developed with improved
efficiencies. The main areas of improvement are:
Ÿ clearance volume reduction;
21
Ÿ improved flow through valves:
o less restricted gas flow path,
o reduced pressure drop;
Ÿ minimised heat transfer from discharge to
suction gas.
Such modifications can improve efficiency by up to
20%, although in many cases the capital cost of the
compressor will be higher because of the increased
complexity of manufacturing.
It is critical to the reliability of reciprocating
compressors that liquid refrigerant or large
quantities of oil are not injected into the cylinders,
as this will cause mechanical failure in the
compressor.
3.1.5 SCREW COMPRESSORS
Screw compressors are available for duties from
about 50 kW up to thousands of kilowatts and are
generally used on medium to high temperature
applications. The geometry of the compressor
determines its optimum pressure ratio. Operation
away from this ratio will significantly reduce its
efficiency. For this reason manufacturers usually
produce a range of machines with different
operating characteristics.
A large quantity of oil is injected into screw
compressors to seal the running clearances
between the rotors and the casing. The oil has to be
removed from the refrigerant in a suitable sized
separator. A significant amount of the heat of
compression is absorbed by the oil, which must be
removed by an oil cooler. It is preferable to cool the
oil by using a supply of air or water. Using a supply of
refrigerant for cooling can reduce the system
capacity by up to 10%, with a corresponding loss of compressors that the correct running speed of the
efficiency. compressor has been used. With semi-hermetic
compressors this speed is fixed by the design of the
built-in motor.
3.1.6 SCROLL COMPRESSORS

The scroll type of rotary compressor has been the
subject of extensive development in recent years,
as improved machining techniques have made its
production viable.
Scroll compressors are being increasingly applied to
medium and small air-conditioning applications
because of their quiet, low vibration operation and
good efficiency. Their efficiency advantage over
reciprocating compressors at lower compression
ratios makes them ideal for high temperature
refrigeration applications, such as beer cellar and
milk tank cooling.
3.1.8 CAPACITY CONTROL
To maintain the maximum system efficiency in
systems with widely varying loads, it is important to
be able to vary the duty of the compressor. In a
multi-compressor system this can either be
achieved by switching a number of compressors off
or by reducing their individual pumping capacities.
The best way to save energy is always to switch off
any unnecessary machines.
3.1.8.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Scroll compressors are also being developed for There are a number of methods used to reduce the
lower temperature applications. capacity of compressors:

Ÿ blocked suction gas,

3.1.7 COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE Ÿ suction valve lifting;
DATA Ÿ discharge gas recirculation

The extraction rate and power input of a

compressor depend principally on the evaporating
and condensing temperatures. Compressor
performance is usually presented in graphical (Fig)
or in tabular format.

These data are presented at specific rating

conditions, and corrections have to be made to
take into account actual site operating conditions
for:

Ÿ suction gas temperature;

Ÿ liquid subcooling.
Figure 18:Typical compressor performance
Care must be taken with data for open data. (source: ETSU)

22
When selecting a compressor, it is important to about 50% capacity, but below this it falls off very
check the manufacturer's data to ensure that the quickly.
model chosen is of an energy efficient design. The
reduction in input power should match, as closely as
possible, the reduction in refrigeration duty.
3.2 EVAPORATORS
It is also worthwhile checking whether
There are two principal types of evaporator:
supplementary compressor cooling is required
Ÿ direct expansion (sometimes called "dry
while capacity control is in operation, as this will
expansion" or DX);
need additional energy.
Ÿ flooded.

The number of stages of capacity reduction that can

be obtained will depend on the design of the
compressor, and is usually a function of the number
of cylinders. On suction cooled compressors the
minimum capacity is often limited by the loss of
cooling of the motor.
3.2.1 DIRECT EXPANSION
These are commonly used to cool either air or a
liquid. The expansion device used with this type of
evaporator is an expansion valve.

A direct expansion evaporator used for cooling air

3.1.8.2 SCREW COMPRESSORS
The capacity of a large screw compressor can be
varied from 100% down to 10% by using a slide
vane. The part load efficiency is acceptable down to
is shown in Figure 19. There are many different
designs available using plain or finned tube, both
with and without forced circulation of air or some
process fluid. Certain tube designs incorporate
internal devices to maximise heat exchange and

Figure 19: Liquid distribution on a direct expansion circuit. (source: ETSU)

23
thus efficiency, by causing turbulence to keep the
liquid in full contact with the tube wall.
3.2.1.1 DESIGN FEATURES
A typical evaporator will have a number of parallel
circuits designed to:
Ÿ maximise heat transfer;
Ÿ ensure good oil return;
Ÿ minimise pressure drop.
A distributor is used to ensure refrigerant flows
evenly between the different parallel circuits.
To enhance the heat transfer in air-cooled designs,
the surface of the refrigerant-carrying tubes is
usually extended by using external fins. To
maximise their surface the fins are spaced as closely
together as possible without restricting the air flow.
On low temperature systems, where ice can form
on the fin surfaces, a wider spacing has to be used to
ensure adequate air flow when ice build-up occurs.
In the past few years compact plate heat
exchangers have become increasingly popular for
direct expansion cooling of liquids. Due to their
design they have a very good heat transfer capability
and hence high efficiency. Some larger designs can
be disassembled for cleaning, whereas the smaller
type are brazed together as a sealed assembly. They
can be used with all halocarbon refrigerants, but
because of the materials used for construction they
arc not suitable for ammonia.
3.2.1.2 OPERATING FEATURES
Saturated refrigerant is fed through a distributor
into the expansion tubes where it is totally
24
evaporated before reaching the outlet.
By monitoring the flow of refrigerant, the expansion
device maintains a superheat of about 5ºC at the
outlet of the evaporator. This ensures that the duty
is as high as is practically possible while still
protecting the compressor from liquid refrigerant
returning down the suction line. This feature is
important for the reliability of reciprocating
machines, but less so for rotary compressors.
3.2.1.3 OPERATIONAL
PROBLEMS
The efficiency of an evaporator can be affected by
an uneven distribution of refrigerant, and hence
cooling, between the different circuits.
This can occur if the distributor is incorrectly
positioned - it should always be vertical so that
there is an even feed through each outlet - or if one
distributor line becomes damaged.
It is impossible for each circuit to be totally filled
with saturated refrigerant, as there must be
sufficient superheat to enable the expansion device
to control the flow of refrigerant. This means that
the heat transfer efficiency will be reduced at the
end of each circuit where superheated gas is
present. Oil logging can also reduce the efficiency
of an evaporator - more information on this subject
is given in Section 4.3.
3.2.2 FLOODED
There are two types of flooded evaporator:
Ÿ shell and tube;
Ÿ plate type.
3.2.2.1 SHELL AND TUBE
These are commonly used in larger applications for
cooling liquids. There are a number of different
designs but they all have the same basic
characteristics.
Design and operating features
Ÿ In a shell and tube evaporator, the fluid to
be cooled is passed through the tubes with
the evaporating refrigerant boiling off into
gas within the body of the shell.
Ÿ The refrigerant level in the shell is
maintained so that the top tube is always
covered with liquid. In this way the most
efficient heat exchange, liquid to liquid, is
achieved over the whole of the cooling
interface. To ensure optimum efficiency,
the liquid level is usually maintained by
using a low pressure float valve. The
operation of this type of device is
explained in Section 7. Alternatively, an
expansion device and level sensor can be
used.
Ÿ The space in the upper part of the shell
allows any droplets of liquid to be
separated from the gas returning to the
compressor. This separation is sometimes
achieved in a different vessel called a surge
drum.
Operational problems
Ÿ Flooded shell and tube evaporators are
usually large and relatively expensive.
Ÿ Accumulation of oil can reduce the heat
transfer and hence efficiency - see Section
25
4.3 for more information. Fouling on the
external surfaces of the tubes, i.e. the
process fluid side, can be difficult to rectify.
This will also reduce heat transfer.
Ÿ Due to the internal volume of the shell,
large quantities of refrigerant are required
with the corresponding cost and
environmental or safety issues if a leak
should occur.
3.2.2.2 PLATE TYPE
Recently, the use of plate heat exchangers as
flooded evaporators in recirculation systems has
become more common. They offer the following
advantages over the shell and tube type:
Ÿ higher heat transfer coefficients;
Ÿ a smaller temperature difference between
the refrigerant and the cooled liquid,
resulting in higher evaporating
temperatures and therefore improved
system efficiency;
Ÿ more compact units requiring less plant
room space;
Ÿ smaller refrigerant charges;
Ÿ the ability to clean non-brazed assemblies,
thus maintaining a good heat transfer
capability.
3.2.3 OIL CONTROL IN
EVAPORATORS
In order to maintain the optimum system efficiency
it is important that oil is not allowed to collect in the
evaporator, coating the tubes and thereby reducing
their capability to transfer heat. Different actions
are required to control oil, depending on the type
of evaporator and refrigerant.
3.2.3.1 DIRECT EXPANSION
EVAPORATORS
The main rule with this type of evaporator, whether
it is being used with halocarbons or ammonia, is to
maintain an adequate refrigerant velocity to carry
the oil through the tube assembly.
Problems can occur if the evaporator has to
operate over a wide range of loads, as the flow
might not be sufficient at the lowest duty to achieve
the minimum required velocity. Under these
conditions it may be necessary to split the total
Figure 20:Typical oil rectification system diagram. (source: CEMET)
26
system duty between a number of smaller
evaporators, isolating some as the load diminishes.
3.2.3.2 FLOODED EVAPORATORS
Ammonia systems
Ÿ Oil is almost totally insoluble in ammonia
and will separate out, collecting in the
bottom of the evaporator and must be
periodically drained, either manually or
automatically. This is not a hazardous
operation providing proper safety
precautions are taken. A careful log must
be kept recording any oil added to or
removed from the system.
 Ÿ Any control connections made to the
lower part of the evaporator's shell must
be above the highest possible oil level. Oil
is very viscous at low temperatures and can
cause a restriction in small bore pipes.
Halocarbon systems
Ÿ Some refrigerants, for example R11 and
Rl2, are completely miscible with oil under
all operating conditions and no special
action is required to prevent oil logging.
Ÿ Other refrigerants, for example R22 and
R502, are miscible at high temperatures
but, at low temperatures, an oil rich layer
will form on the top of the liquid
refrigerant. By carefully positioning tapping
points ill the evaporator's shell, this oil rich
mixture can be removed from the
evaporator and transferred into a rectifier.
The rectifier is then heated to boil the
majority of the refrigerant out of the oil
before it is returned to the compressor.
The most energy efficient method of
supplying this heat is to use the warm
refrigerant in the liquid line which incurs no
additional energy costs, and has the further
advantage of increasing the liquid
subcooling. A typical oil rectification
arrangement is shown in Figure 20.
3.2.4 ENERGY EFFICIENT
OPERATION OF
EVAPORATORS
The efficiency of a refrigeration system is increased
when the evaporating temperature increases. This
can be achieved by:
Ÿ ·maximising the size of the evaporator;
Ÿ maintaining the peak heat transfer rate of
27
the evaporator.
The size of evaporator should be decided at the
design stage by evaluating the additional evaporator
capital cost and the resulting lower running costs,
and comparing the simple paybacks obtained by
each option.
The heat transfer will be influenced by factors such
as:
Ÿ oil logging;
Ÿ fouling and corrosion of heat transfer
surfaces;
Ÿ incorrect control of the refrigerant flow or
level in the evaporator;
· frost build up.
3.2.5 DEFROSTING
As noted before, allowance must be made in the fin
spacing to allow for ice build-up on evaporators
operating with refrigerant temperatures below
0ºC. To maintain an adequate air flow through the
fin block it has to be defrosted periodically,
requiring the use of heat.
Energy efficient defrosting depends on the
following factors:
Ÿ initiating a defrost operation only when it
becomes necessary through loss of
performance;
Ÿ using the most efficient method of applying
the necessary heat;
Ÿ ensuring that the defrost heat is evenly
distributed over the whole of the fin block;
Ÿ ·stopping the defrost cycle as soon as the
fin block is totally clear of ice;
Ÿ ·minimising the amount of defrost heat
absorbed by the process fluid or product.
 Table1:Types of Liquid Coolers

Type of cooler Usual Refrigerant Feed Usual Range of Commonly Used with
Device Capacity (kW) Refrigerant Numbers

Flooded shell-and-bare-tube Low pressure float 175-1750 717 (Ammonia)

Flooded shell-and-finned-tube Low pressure float

High pressure float, fixed orifice(s), weir(s) 175-35 000 11, 12, 22, 113
114, 134a, 500, 502

Spray-type-shell-and-tube Low pressure float

High pressure float 350-1750 11, 12, 13B1, 22,
113, 114, 134a

Direct-expansion shell-and-tube Thermal expansion valve 17.5-1250 12, 22, 134a, 500, 502, 717

Flooded Baudelot cooler Low pressure float 35-350 717

Direct-expansion Baudelot cooler Thermal expansion valve 17.5-85 12, 22, 134a, 717

Flooded double-pipe cooler Low pressure float 35-85 717

Direct-expansion double-pipe cooler Thermal expansion valve 17.5-85 12, 22, 134a, 717

Shell-and-coil cooler Thermal expansion valve 7-35 12, 22, 134a, 717

Flooded tank-and-agitator Low pressure float 175-700 717

3.3 EXPANSION DEVICES Ÿ thermostatic expansion valve;

Ÿ high pressure float valve;
Ÿ low pressure float valve.
The purpose of an expansion valve is to:

Ÿ reduce the pressure of the liquid
refrigerant from the condensing pressure
to the evaporating pressure;
Ÿ modulate the flow of liquid refrigerant into
the evaporator
Capillary tubes (which just drop the refrigerant
pressure but cannot regulate flow) are used in
domestic type systems. These are factory
assembled and cannot be adjusted.

Correct selection and installation of expansion 3.3.1 THERMOSTATIC

valves is very important, because their incorrect
EXPANSION VALVES
operation will reduce the efficiency and reliability of
a system.
Thermostatic expansion valves are used on most
There are three types of expansion valve widely commercial installations. A typical example shown
used in commercial and industrial refrigeration: in Figure 21. The refrigerant pressure is dropped

28
through an orifice, and the flow of refrigerant is
regulated by a needle valve and diaphragm
arrangement. The diaphragm is moved by the
pressure inside the controlling phial, which senses
the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the
evaporator which should be approximately 5º
C higher than the evaporating temperature, to
ensure there is no liquid refrigerant present which
could damage the compressor. This temperature
difference is the superheat setting of the valve and
can he set by adjusting the valve. Correct setting is
vital to the efficient and reliable operation of the
refrigeration system.
If the load on the evaporator changes, then the
temperature of the refrigerant leaving the
evaporator will also change. The controlling phial
will sense this and automatically adjust the
refrigerant flow to accommodate the load change.
A major disadvantage of thermostatic valves is that
they cannot work well if the pressure difference
Figure 21:Thermostatic Expansion Valve. (source: CEMET)
29
across them varies widely, for example if the
condensing pressure 'floats' with ambient. To cope
with such conditions other valves are now available.
3.3.1.1 BALANCED PORT VALVES
Balanced port valves are very similar in design and
operation to the conventional thermostatic valve
apart from a special internal balanced port design.
This allows the valve to control inlet pressure
accurately over a much wider range. These valves
cost approximately 20% more than a conventional
valve, but are currently available only in a limited
range of sizes.
3.3.1.2 ELECTRONIC EXPANSION
VALVE
Electronic expansion valves work in a similar way to
thermostatic valves, except that the temperature is
 Figure 22: Electronic expansion valve on direct expansion air cooler. (source: ETSU)

sensed electronically and this signal opens and
closes the orifice via a small electrical motor. The
valve can therefore operate with a wider difference
in pressure across it. A further advantage is that they
can be easily integrated into an electronic or
microprocessor control system. Figure 22 shows an
electronic expansion valve with a direct expansion
air cooler.
Electronic valves are much more expensive than
conventional thermostatic valves, and will give a
payback of less than a year only on systems with a
capacity greater than 100kw.
3.3.2 FLOAT VALVE SYSTEMS
A float valve system uses a float chamber with a
separate modulating expansion valve, connected by
a pilot line. The float chamber can either operate at
the high (receiver) pressure or the low
(evaporator) pressure of the system.
3.3.2.1 HIGH PRESSURE (HP)
FLOAT VALVE
A typical HP float valve is shown in Figure 23. This
type of valve is used to maintain a liquid level in the
receiver and operates at receiver pressure.
The receiver pressure controls the pilot line
pressure, and as this pressure varies the expansion
valve opens and closes to supply liquid refrigerant
from the receiver to the evaporator.
An HP float valve is used in large industrial systems
with single evaporators. As it provides no control of
the level of refrigerant in the evaporator, the
amount of refrigerant in the system must be

30
 Figure 23: High pressure float valve. (source: ETSU)

Figure 24: Low pressure float expansion system. (source: ETSU)

correct, i.e. the system is said to be critically
charged. To ensure correct operation, the
evaporator must be fitted with a level gauge which
is checked regularly.
evaporator and operates at evaporator pressure.
This liquid level affects the pressure in the pilot line,
and as the pressure varies the expansion valve
modulates the supply of liquid from the receiver to
the evaporator.

3.3.2.2 LOW PRESSURE (LP)
FLOAT VALVE
A typical LP float system is shown in Figure 24. An
LP float valve is used to maintain a liquid level in the
LP float valves are used on systems which have
more than one evaporator connected to one
compressor or to several compressors in parallel.
It is important that the expansion valve is fitted at a

31
level below the liquid surface in the receiver, in
order to prevent refrigerant gas going through the
valve and hence reducing efficiency. A level gauge
must be fitted to the receiver so that the liquid level
can be checked to ensure adequate performance is
maintained.
3.4 CONDENSERS
There are three types of condenser in widespread
use:
Ÿ air-cooled (using ambient air);
Ÿ water-cooled (using mains, river or cooling
tower water);
Ÿ evaporative cooled (using ambient air and
recirculated water).
The two latter types take advantage of the lower
wet bulb ambient temperature and the greater heat
transfer affect of water, and therefore operate with
lower condensing temperatures. When comparing
different condenser types the power requirements
of associated fans, pumps and heaters should be
taken into account. In general, systems under 100
kW capacity use air-cooled condensers unless
there is a space or noise restriction.
For a given capacity, a larger condenser will result in
a lower condensing temperature and hence better
efficiency. Problems can be caused on installations
which use thermostatic expansion valves if the
condensing (head) pressure varies widely. Such
valves are unable to control refrigerant flow reliably
under such conditions, and reduced efficiency and
reliability will result. Some form of head pressure
control may be used to raise the head pressure
artificially, although this is inefficient and is not
necessary if more sophisticated expansion devices
32
are used, such as electronic expansion valves.
3.4.1 AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS
In an air-cooled condenser the refrigerant
condenses inside tubes over which air is forced by
fans. To improve the heat transfer, the tube surface
is usually extended using corrugated metal fins.
A well designed plant should operate with a
condensing temperature no higher than l4ºC above
the ambient temperature. With larger condensers
it is common practice to control the head pressure
by switching off or slowing down fans, although this
is inefficient.
If air-cooled condensers are being used in a
corrosive atmosphere (for example, near the sea or
in polluted air) then a suitable tube/fin material
combination or a coating should be used.
Air-cooled condensers are susceptible to blockage
by air borne debris such as dust, feathers, packaging,
and so on. They must be regularly cleaned (but not
with refrigerant) to prevent a build up of
contamination, as this will reduce the air flow and
hence increase the condensing pressure.
3.4.2 WATER-COOLED
CONDENSERS
Water-cooled condensers are of the shell and tube
type. The cooling water flows in tubes inside the
shell, and refrigerant inside the shell condenses on
the outside of the cold tubes. Heat transfer is
improved as the water velocity is increased. An
efficient system will work with a temperature rise of
5ºC for the water passing through the condenser,
and a difference of 5ºC between the condensing
temperature and that of the water leaving the likely to cause a problem, cleanable condensers
condenser. On very small commercial installations should be used.
mains water is often used directly, although this is
becoming less common on new installations due to
water metering. 3.4.3 EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSERS
On larger installations the water will be cooled in a
cooling tower, where the cooling effect is achieved
In an evaporative condenser, refrigerant is
by evaporating some of the cooling water into the
condensed in tubes which are wetted and over
air. Blockages in the air or water side will significantly
which air is forced. The water used to wet the
reduce the efficiency of the cooling tower. Such
outside of the tubes is recirculated, although a
blockages are common and are normally caused by
certain amount of make up water will be needed.
hard water deposits or algae growth. Water should
Evaporative condensers should operate with similar
be treated to prevent these and also to prevent
temperatures to the water-cooled conden-
bacteria growth. The cooling tower should cool the
ser/cooling tower combination above. The water
water to within 13 - l8ºC of the wet bulb ambient
used will require treatment, as described for water-
temperature (which can be up to 10ºC lower than
cooled condensers above.
the dry bulb temperature).

The water side of the condenser is also liable to

3.4.4 LOSS OF CONDENSER
blockage caused by hard water deposits. If this is
EFFICIENCY DUE
TO AIR IN SYSTEM

Air and other non-condensable gases in a

refrigeration system will increase the condensing
temperature and hence reduce efficiency. For
example, in a medium temperature ammonia
system working with a condenser which contains
15% air, the running costs will increase by 12%.

Air can remain in a system after installation or

service, if the system has been inadequately
evacuated prior to charging with refrigerant. While
running, air can be drawn into a system operating at
a suction condition lower than atmospheric
pressure, if there is a leak on the low side of the
system.

It is possible to check for air and other non-

Figure 25: Draw-through-type of evaporative
condensable gases when the system is not working
condenser (source: CEMET)

33
and the temperatures have had a chance to
stabilise. If there is no air present, then the
temperature in the condenser should be equivalent
to the temperature of the ambient air or of the
water flowing through a water-cooled condenser.
Any air should be safely purged from the system by
a skilled refrigeration technician, with minimum
refrigerant emission to the atmosphere.

If air is in the system the temperature will be higher.

34
4. REFRIGERANTS

4.1 DESIRABLE Ÿ Large heat of vaporization to minimize

CHARACTERISTICS
Refrigerants for Industrial, Commercial and
Institutional refrigeration and heat pump systems
are selected to provide the best refrigeration effect
at a reasonable cost. The following characteristics
are desirable.
Ÿ Non-flammable to reduce the fire hazard.
Ÿ Non-toxic to reduce potential health
hazards.
equipment size and refrigerant quantity.
Ÿ Low specific volume in the vapour phase
to minimize compressor size. This aspect is
critical for reciprocating and screw type
compressors.
Ÿ Low liquid phase specific heat to minimize
the heat transfer required when
subcooling the liquid below the
condensing temperature.
Ÿ Low saturation pressure required at
desired condensing temperatures to
eliminate requirement for heavy duty or

Table2: Physical Properties of some Refrigerants

Refrigerant Chem. Molec. Boiling Freez. Critical Critical Critical

Formula Mass Point Point Temp Pressure Volume
(NBP), ºC ºC kPa L/kg
°C

Helium He 4.0026 -268.9 None -267.9 228.8 14.43

Hydrogen H2 2.0159 -252.8 -259.2 -239.9 1315 33.21
Air 28.97 -194.3 --- -140.7 3772 3.048
Oxygen O2 31.9988 -182.9 -218.8 -118.4 5077 2.341
Methane CH 4 16.04 -161.5 -182.2 -82.5 4638 6.181
Tetrafluoro-methane CF 4 88.01 -127.9 -184.9 -45.7 3741 1.598
Ethylene C 2H 4 28.05 -103.7 -169 9.3 5114 4.37
Trifluoromethane CHF 3 70.02 -82.1 -155 25.6 4833 1.942
Chlorotrifluoro-methane CClF 3 104.47 -81.4 -181 28.8 3865 1.729
a
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 44.01 -78.4 -56.6 31.1 7372 2.135
Propylene C 3H 6 42.09 -47.7 -185 91.8 4618 4.495
Propane C 3H 8 44.10 -42.07 -187.7 96.8 4254 4.545
Chlorodifluoro-methane CHClF 2 86.48 -40.76 -160 96.0 4974 1.904
Chloropenta-fluoroethane CClF 2CF 3 154.48 -39.1 -106 79.9 3153 1.629

35
 Ammonia NH 3 17.03 -33.3 -77.7 133.0 11417 4.245
Dichlorodi-fluoromethane CCl 2F 2 120.93 -29.79 -158 112.0 4113 1.792
Difluoroethane CH 3CHF 2 66.05 -25.0 -117 113.5 4492 2.741
Sulphur Dioxide SO 2 64.07 -10.0 -75.5 157.5 7875 1.910
Chlorodifluoro-ethane CH 3CClF 2 100.5 -9.8 -131 137.1 4120 2.297
Methyl Amine CH 3NH 2 31.06 -6.7 -92.5 156.9 7455
Octafluorocyclo-butane C 4F 8 200.04 -5.8 -41.4 115.3 2781 1.611
Butane C 4H 10 58.13 -0.5 -138.5 152.0 3794 4.383
Dichlorofluoro-methane CHCl 2F 102.92 8.8 -135 178.5 5168 1.917
Ethyl AmineC 2H 5NH 2 45.08 16.6 -80.6 183.0 5619
Trichlorofluoro-methane CCI 3F 137.38 23.82 -111 198.0 4406 1.804
Ethyl Ether C 4H 10O 74.12 34.6 -116.3 194.0 3603 3.790
Dichlorohexa-fluoropropane C 3Cl 2F 6 220.93 35.69 -125.4 180.0 2753 1.742
Trichloroethylene CHCl=CCl 2 131.39 87.2 -73 271.1 5016
Water H 2O 18.02 100 0 374.2 22103 3.128

high pressure equipment.
Ÿ Low pressure portion of the cycle should
be above atmospheric pressure to prevent
inward leakage of air and water vapour into
the refrigerant piping.
Ÿ High heat transfer coefficients.
Physical properties of various common refrigerants
are listed in Table 2
The relative safety and hazard level of various
refrigerants have been compiled and classified
under ANSI Code B9.l l97l and by Underwriter's
laboratories. Table 2 provides a listing of these
properties for various refrigerants.
Many refrigerants widely used today belong to the
fam ily of c hem ica ls c all ed C FCs (ch lor o-
fluorocarbons) which are suspected of breaking
down ozone in the upper atmosphere. This
environmental concern is causing major changes in
refrigerant development and use. CFC and HCFC
(hydrochlorofluorocarbon) type refrigerants (e.g.
R11, R12, R502 and R22) are being phased out by
international agreement.
The Montreal Protocol on substances suspected of
attacking ozone was first agreed in 1988, and has
now been signed by over 90 countries. HCFCs such
as R22, which have much lower ozone depletion
potentials than CFCs, are termed transition
substances and cannot be considered long term
refrigerants. New HCFCs are being developed
which, together with R22, are being used today to
replace CFCs in many applications.
New refrigerants which do not attack ozone are
also being developed. R134a, the first of these to
become commercially available, has been
developed to replace R12 on mobile air-
conditioning and small refrigeration applications. It
is not a 'drop in' replacement for R12, although it
operates with very similar temperatures and
pressures. It is not miscible with the mineral oils
currently used with CFCs and HCFCs, so new
synthetic oils have been developed. Systems

36
 Table 3: Non-CFC refrigerants

Ref. ODP 1 GWP 2 Availability BP 3 at Efficiency 4 Application

1Bar (ºC)

R22 0.05 0.34 Now -40.8 Better than R12; R12, R502 replacement
same as R502
MP39 0.03 0.22 Now -28.9 Similar to R12 Medium temp retail food
MP66 0.035 0.024 Now -30.7 Similar to R12 R12 replacement
HP81 0.03 0.52 Now -47.4 Same to slightly Medium temp retail food,
better than R12 ice machines, vending
R134a 0 0.34 Now -26.1 Same to slightly Medium and high temp
worse than R12 food retail
69S 0.04 4.0 Now approx. -50.0 Same to slightly Low temp close coupled
better than R502 systems
69L 0.028 4.09 Now -50.6 Same to slightly Low temp remote systems
better than R502
HP80 0.02 0.63 Now -49.0 Slightly worse Low temp retail food,
than R502 transport
FX10 0.023 0.76 Now -49.7 Slightly better Low temp
than R502
HP62 0 0.94 1993/4 -46.5 Similar to R502 Low temp
FX40 0 0.88 1993 for trials -55.0 Slightly worse Low temp
than R502
KLEA60 0 0.35 Now -38.0 to 45.0 Similar to R502 Low temp

Notes:
1. The ODP (ozone depletion potential) is relative to R11 for which OP=1.
2. The GWP (direct greenhouse warming potential) is relative to R11 for which GWP=1.
3. BP = boiling point
4 The efficiency is based on limited test data (not theoretical calculations) in the case of newly developed refrigerants and is therefore
an indication of expected efficiency in actual installations. Much of this data is provisional - the actual effect on efficiency of any new
refrigerant should be checked at the operating conditions of the system.

running with R12 can be retrofilled with Rl34a if the
oil is also changed, providing that the components
in the system can be used with the new refrigerant.
Successful retrofills have been carried out, with
minimum disruption to the cooling application.
Further ozone benign refrigerants are being
developed which will also need to use the new
synthetic oils. Very few single substances are totally
suitable as refrigerants, and therefore blends of new
and existing substances are being developed.
Blends have already been developed based on
HCFCs and are currently being used as transition
substances. Care must be taken, however, to
ensu re t hat the blen d re main s co nsis tent
throughout a plants lifetime.

37
Table 3 gives information on non-CFC refrigerants
that are available now and on those that will be
available in the near future.
4.2 COMMON
REFRIGERANTS -
VAPOUR COMPRESSION
CYCLES
Freons: R22, used primarily in air conditioning; R-12,
used primarily in medium- and high-temperature
refrigeration (R-134a is now used as a replacement
for R-12); R-502, used primarily in low-temperature
refrigeration. R-500 can still be found in older
equipment.
Ammonia, refrigerant R-717, one of the earliest
refrigerants, is now limited to industrial applications
because of its high toxicity. High cycle efficiency,
low specific volume, high latent heat and low cost
led to its popularity, particularly in ice rink facilities
and other applications where large temperature
differences were required.
Carbon dioxide is a non-toxic, non-flammable,
odourless, colourless, and inert gas. Because of high
operating pressures and high horsepower
requirements its use as a refrigerant is limited to
specific industrial applications.
4.3 COMMON
REFRIGERANTS -
ABSORPTION CYCLE
Ammonia is a refrigerant used with water as the
absorbent (solvent). Use of ammonia is declining
with the introduction of refrigerants that have low
toxicity and operate at lower system pressures.
38
Water, is the most common refrigerant, and is used
in combination with lithium bromide as the
absorbent.
4.4 BRINES AND
SECONDARY
COOLANTS
Secondary refrigerants, brines and heat transfer
fluids find common use in refrigeration applications.
These liquids are cooled or heated by the primary
refrigerant and transfer heat energy without a
change of state. Their use is common where:
Ÿ Large refrigerant quantities would
otherwise be required.
Ÿ Toxicity or flammability of the refrigerant is
a concern.
Ÿ Central refrigeration is used to produce
cooling for a number of remote locations.
Many examples exist where brines and
secondary coolants are used.
Ÿ Chilled water or glycol-water solutions for
air-conditioning and process cooling.
Ÿ Calcium chloride or sodium chloride in
solution with water for ice production in
skating rink applications.
Ÿ Propylene glycol and water solutions for
use in food and potable water refrigeration
systems.
Ÿ Hydrocarbon refrigerants in the liquid
phase for extremely low temperature
applications.
Selection of the brine type and concentration is
made on the basis of freezing point, crystallization
temperature, specific volume, viscosity, specific
heat and boiling point. Toxicity, flammability and
corrosion characteristics are secondary factors, but
must be considered in the overall analysis.
5. ENERGY MANAGEMENT
OPPORTUNITIES
'Energy Management Opportunities' is a term that
represents the ways that energy can be used wisely to
reduce operating costs. A number of Energy
Management Opportunities, subdivided into
Housekeeping, Low Cost, and Retrofit categories are
outlined in this section with worked examples or
written text to illustrate the potential energy savings.
This is not a complete listing of the opportunities
available for refrigeration and heat pump systems.
However, it is intended to provide ideas for
management, operating, and maintenance personnel
to allow them to identify other opportunities that are
applicable to a particular facility. Other guides in this
series should be considered.
5.1 HOUSEKEEPING
OPPORTUNITIES
5.1.1 GENERAL
MAINTENANCE
Implemented housekeeping opportunities are Energy
Management actions that are done on a regular basis
and never less than once a year. The following are
typical Energy Management Opportunities in this
category:
Ÿ Keep heat transfer surfaces of evaporators
and condensers clean, through regular
inspection and cleaning. Fouling of the
39
surfaces reduces the heat transfer
efficiency, requiring higher temperature
differences to maintain the heat transfer
rate. An increase in temperature difference
reduces the COP.
Ÿ Repair suction and liquid line insulation to
reduce superheating of suction gas and loss
of subcooling. Refrigerant lines gain heat
when they are located in spaces that are
not air-conditioned, increasing the system
load without producing useful cooling.
Ÿ Calibrate controls and check operation on
a regular basis to ensure that the
refrigeration and heat pump systems
operate efficiently.
Ÿ Maintain specified refrigerant charge in
refrigeration and heat pump equipment.
Insufficient refrigerant reduces system
performance and capacity. Reduced mass
flow rates of refrigerant causes excessive
superheating of the refrigerant at the
evaporator which reduces the efficiency of
the compressor, and increases the
condensing temperatures.
Ÿ Provide unrestricted air movement around
condensing units and cooling towers to
eliminate short circuiting or the airstreams
which causes a higher condensing
temperature and pressure.
Ÿ Minimize the simultaneous operation of
heating and cooling systems. Strategically
located thermometers will help identify
this problem.
5.1.2 PLANT OPERATION instrumentation should be considered to
measure/monitor:
Plant performance will be maintained if the system
is monitored and appropriate remedial action taken Ÿ pressures;
when necessary. Adequate instrumentation is Ÿ temperatures;
necessary to enable a plant to be easily monitored. Ÿ current and/or power.
The use of computers to analyse data will help to
highlight areas which should be investigated before Figure 26 shows where such measurements should
problems develop. be taken on a water chilling system.

Many compressors can he used on part capacity,

and the number of cylinders operating on a
5.1.3 INSTRUMENTATION
reciprocating compressor can be indicated by the
signal to the solenoid valves which unload cylinders.
There should be sufficient instrumentation on a
On centrifugal or screw compressors an analogue
plant to enable the performance to be assessed and
indication of the control signal can be useful.
faults diagnosed. With smaller commercial systems
pressure gauges, thermometers and amp probes of
Level gauges should be fitted to all vessels that
the type carried by service engineers are likely to be
contain liquid refrigerant, i.e. liquid receivers, shell
sufficient. With larger installations permanent
and tube evaporators and condensers, and

Figure 26 Simple direct expansion water chilling system

(source: ETSU)

40
 Table 4: An example of a log sheet.

COMPRESSOR CONDENSER EVAPORATOR

Suction temperature Discharge temperature Condensing liquid Water Evaporating

Recommended Hours Amps temp
value Run Saturated Actual Saturated Actual Comp. Oil Diff. Saturated Liquid Inlet Exit Flow Inlet Exit
P1 T1 P2 T2 Loading press P3 line temp. Temp. Rate temp temp.
1 to 5 P1+3ºC to % >3bar P2-2ºC T4 T5 F1 P4 P5
P1+7ºC to 7/10ºC 2/5ºC 550
P2-5ºC l/min
Date Time
18.7.92 1400 2326 92.5 3.0 6.1 30.0 57.2 100 4.2 30.0 28.0 8.4 3.6 547 0.5 0

41
NB: Temperatures taken from pressure gauges (P) refer to saturated temperatures from dual scale gauges
interstage vessels on two stage systems. The
normal refrigerant level, and the acceptable
maximum and minimum levels should be marked
oil the gauge.
5.1.3.1 PLANT MONITORING
The instrumentation fitted to a system enables on-
site plant operators or off-site contractors to
monitor performance and detect faults before they
cause major decline in efficiency.
Ÿ Log Sheets
Plant log sheets should be kept, containing
information on normal operation as well as
recording day to day operation. These logs
allow performance to be assessed
providing that:
- data is measured and recorded
accurately
- information is correctly analysed
- problems found are followed by
appropriate action arid recorded.
Table 4 shows an example log sheet for the plain
shown in Figure 26. The data recorded on a log
sheet for a specific plant will depend on the
characteristics of that plant.
5.1.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING
From monitoring the refrigeration system, several
irregularities can be linked directly to savings
potential. Below table 5 gives a list of such potential
symptoms.
42
5.1.5 HOUSEKEEPING
WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked examples are used to illustrate potential
energy and cost savings. The examples are
considered typical of conditions found in
refrigeration and heat pump systems.
5.1.5.1 REDUCE CONDENSING
TEMPERATURE
Over time the performance of a 175 kW
refrigeration system, with an air-cooled, packaged
condensing unit, deteriorated. Investigation
revealed that the space where the condensing unit
was located had been converted to a storage area
with stacked materials. Air flow to the condenser
was blocked, causing short circuiting of the cooling
air stream.
On a day when the ambient temperature was
35ºC, the air entering the condenser was 46.1ºC.
The actual refrigerating load was 120 kW.
Manufacturer's data for 120 kW cooling indicates
that the compressor power is 42.3 kW at 35º
C, and 49.76 kW at 46.1ºC. The system operates
2000 hours per year at the elevated temperature.
Removal of the stored materials from the
condenser vicinity would prevent short circuiting
and lower the air temperature entering the
condenser to the ambient temperature. Electricity
cost is 0.10R/kWh
Compressor energy required at 46.1ºC
= 2000 x 49.76
= 99 520 kWh
Compressor energy required at 35ºC
= 2000 x 42.3
= 84 600 kWh
 Table 5: Common faults on refrigeration systems
Major Other
symptom symptoms
Low cooling duty Bubbles in liquid
compared with line and low or zero
compressor curves subcooling from
condenser
On HP float systems:
High actual compressor
discharge temperature
and low compressor
absorbed power
High actual compressor
discharge temperature
Poor evaporator Low evaporating pressure
effectiveness high water/air side
pressure drop
Low evaporating pressure
high apparent superheat
Loss of oil from
compressor
crankcase
Loss of oil from
compressor
crankcase
In all systems, possible
subcooling, high
high liquid line
suction superheat
Poor condenser High condensing
effectiveness temperature, high
liquid subcooling
High condensing, high
liquid subcooling
High water/air side
pressure drop
Low suction superheat LP float and TEV: possible
low compressor discharge
temperature
High suction superheat HP float: low liquid level in
evaporator
Fault
System undercharged LP
float or TEV system
HP float valve stuck open,
bypassed, gas passing
Broken or obstructed
reciprocating
compressor suction
valve
Broken or obstructed
reciprocating
compressor discharge
valve
Fouling of air/water side
of evaporator
Blocked suction strainer
Oil accumulation in
flooded evaporator
Poor oil return from
expansion valve system
Obstruction in liquid line
Very high overcharge of
LP float or TEV system
Air or non-condensable
gas in system
Fouling of air-water side
of condenser
Incorrect or faulty expansi
on device control
System undercharged
43
Solution
Add refrigerant to
correct level
Determine why bypass
valve was opened
initially. Correct fault and
close bypass valve
Repair valve and identify
and rectify cause of
blockage or obstruction
Repair valve and identify
and rectify cause of
breakage or obstruction
Clean evaporator and
locate and cure source
of fouling
Clean suction strainer.
Identify and rectify source
of blockage
Remove excess oil, install
effective oil drain or
rectification system
Re-design suction side
pipework
Locate and clear
obstruction. Identify
cause and rectify
Remove excess charge
Purge non-condensable
gas in system
Clean condenser and
locate and cure source
of fouling
Identify and rectify fault
Add refrigerant to correct
level
Operational
cost penalty
Up to 25% or more reduction
in duty and COP
Up to 50% reduction in
duty and COP
Loss of duty in proportion
to cylinders affected
Loss of duty and COP
in proportion to cylinders
affected
Up to 15% loss of COP,
25% loss of cooling duty
Up to 30% reduction in COP
Up to 25% reduction in COP
Up to 25% reduction in
duty and COP
Up to 15% loss in COP,
25% loss of cooling duty
Up to 10% loss of duty,
15% reduction in COP
Up to 10% loss in COP
Up to 25% loss in COP, 10%
loss in duty
Up to 15% reduction in duty.
Potential compressor failure
due to liquid carry over
Up to 10% loss of duty.
7½% reduction in COP
Energy Saved = 99 520 - 84 600 "Clean" refrigerant condensing temperature:
= 14 920 kWh 40.6ºC = 313.6 K

TL
Rand savings = 14920 kWh x R0.10/kwh "Dirty" COP = 0.25* x
(TH - TL )
= R1492/yr
274.7
=0.25 x = 1.55
319.1 - 274.7
TL
5.1.5.2 CLEAN EVAPORATORS "Clean" COP = 0.25* x
(TH - TL )
AND CONDENSERS
280.2
= 0.25 x = 2.10
An 880 kW centrifugal chiller with a forced draft 313.6 - 280.2
cooling tower is used to produce chilled water for
*COP actual values estimated as
air conditioning. On a walk-through audit it was
.25 x COP (theoretical)
noticed that algae was growing on the wetted
surfaces of the cooling tower. Water blowdown to
control mineral deposits and chemical feed was (2.10 - 1.55)
Change in COP = x 100
performed by leaving the blowdown valve open. 1.55
Chemical testing and treatment was neglected.
= 35% (improvement)

During a plant shutdown, the heat exchanger

surfaces of the evaporator and condenser were
Power required for 880 kW cooling:
examined and found to be fouled. A contractor was
hired to clean the equipment at a cost of R1,700 for 880
"Dirty" = 568 kW
each heat exchanger and Rl,400 for the cooling 1.55
tower, for a total of R4.800. Electricity cost is
0.10/kWh. 880
"Clean" = 419 kW
2.10
Performance of the system was evaluated, before
and after the cleaning, using manufacturer's data
and estimated COP values. The system operates at full load for an estimated
900 hours per year. Savings because of cleaning are:
"Dirty" refrigerant suction temperature:
1.7ºC = 274.7 K Savings = (568 - 419) kW x
900 hr x R0. 10/kWh
"Dirty" refrigerant condensing temperature: = R13410/yr
46.lºC = 319.1 K
Simple payback = (Investment/Savings)
"Clean" refrigerant suction temperature: = 0.36 years
7.2ºC = 280.2 K (4 months)

44
5.2 LOW COST
OPPORTUNITIES
Implemented low cost opportunities are Energy
Management actions that are done once and for
which the cost in not considered great. The following
are typical Energy Management Opportunities in
this category.
Ÿ Increase evaporator temperature to
increase system COP.
Reset the temperature of the chilled water,
glycol solution or air as a function of the
cooling required, to allow the evaporator
temperature to rise at part loads. For
example, the setting of the air temperature
leaving the evaporator of an air-
conditioning system can be based on the
latent load requirement. As the latent load
falls, less dehumidification is required, and
the controls adjust the evaporator
temperature upwards.
Relocate the outdoor coil of an air-to-air heat
pump to a clean exhaust airstream. A
building's ventilation exhaust is warmer
than the outside ambient air during most of
the heating season.
Ÿ Reduce condensing temperature to
increase system COP
Relocate air cooled condensers and heat
pump outdoor coils to clean exhaust
airstreams. Generally the building's
ventilation exhaust is cooler than the
outside ambient air when cooling is
required.
Reduce condenser water temperature by
resetting cooling tower temperature
controls. Detailed analysis is required to
determine whether increased
45
performance of the refrigeration system
will offset the increased power
requirement of the cooling tower fan and
make-up water costs.
Provide an automatic water treatment
system to add chemicals, and control
blowdown, to match the water losses of
cooling tower and evaporative condenser
systems. Proper water treatment will
maximize heat transfer effectiveness, and
keep condensing temperatures low.
Benefits include reduced quantities of
make-up and blowdown water, and lower
operating and maintenance costs.
Ÿ Reschedule production cycles to reduce
peak electrical demand and make more
efficient use of available cooling or heating
energy. Rescheduling may permit
shutdown of some compressors in
multiunit systems while running others at
optimum load and peak efficiency.
Operation at higher efficiency may delay
purchase of additional equipment when
total load increases
Ÿ Upgrade automatic controls in
refrigeration plants to provide accurate
and flexible operation. Solid state digital
control can optimize equipment and
system operation to meet load
requirements with minimum power
consumption, and/or shed load to reduce
short term electrical peaks.
Ÿ Replace high-maintenance, centrifugal
compressors with compressors selected
for high efficiency when operating at part
load conditions.
Ÿ Upgrade insulation on primary and
secondary refrigerant piping circuits.
Ÿ Provide multispeed fan motors on cooling
towers, evaporative coolers and air cooled
 condensers. Normally, equipment is
selected to match the rarely attained peak
design condition. Lower outdoor wet and
dry bulb temperatures, and lower indoor
loads, predominate. Reducing condenser
air flow to match the capacity requirement
reduces the fan power.
Ÿ Evaporative coolers and condensers
operated in winter may provide adequate
capacity when operated with dry coils.
Maintenance, water and electrical costs
can be reduced. Heat tracing and pan
heaters can be turned off. The detrimental
effect of icing on equipment and buildings
is eliminated. Note that the reduced
power requirements for fan and circulating
pumps in cooling towers and evaporative
coolers may be offset by a COP decrease
caused by higher condenser temperatures.
Detailed analysis is required.
Ÿ Consider a new heat pump system instead
of a new air conditioning system, if winter
heating is required. The higher equipment
cost will be offset by reduced heating costs
during the winter season.
Ÿ Provide lockable covers on automatic
controls and thermostats, to prevent
unauthorised tampering or adjustment.
Ÿ Use clean process cooling water that
normally goes to drain for evaporative
condenser or cooling tower make-up
water. While not conserving energy, this
will reduce operating costs.
Ÿ Re-evaluate the use of hot gas bypass
when a refrigeration unit works at part-
load for any significant period. It may be
possible to eliminate the bypass feature
and cycle or turn off the refrigeration
system.
46
5.2.1 LOW COST WORKED
EXAMPLES
Worked examples are used to illustrate potential
cost savings. The examples are considered typical
of the conditions found in building refrigeration and
heat pump systems
5.2.1.1 WATER TREATMENT FOR
CONDENSER WATER
Maintain maximum heat transfer rates by
minimizing fouling. Consider the condenser water
system in Housekeeping Worked Example 2.
Assume that half the change in performance was
because of condenser cleaning.
Reduced electrical costs = R 3 353 / 2
R 1 676
An automatic water treatment system was
provided for the cooling tower, to optimize water
make-up and blowdown, and automatically feed
chemicals to control fouling. Capital cost was
R3,000. Annual chemical costs are estimated at
R800. Note that the system must be cleaned before
automatic water treatment is initiated.
Simple payback = R 3 000 /1 676
=1.8 yrs
At the end of the first year, the cost of cleaning the
exchangers, the cooling tower, and providing
condenser water treatment is negligible. See
Housekeeping Worked Example 2.
Other costs are reduced. Annual cleaning of
exchangers is eliminated and controlled blowdown
reduces make-up water requirements.
5.2.1.2 HEAT PUMP VERSUS
ELECTRIC HEAT
A small office addition is planned for an industrial
facility in Cape Town. An economical means of
heating and cooling the addition is desirable. The
plant rejects waste heat in the form of warm water.
Loads for the proposed building, including
ventilation, are 35.17 kW cooling, and 29.31 kW
heating. A rooftop packaged air conditioning
system with electric heating is proposed. The
estimated annual heating cost for the all-electric
system is R2 45l.
A water-to-air heat pump was considered as an
alternative to the basic, air-conditioning with
electric heat, rooftop package initially proposed.
The heat pump was selected to meet the design
heating and cooling loads, with electric duct heaters
for 100 per cent backup. The COP for heating at
the given water condition was 2.25 and similar to
the air-conditioner performance in the summer.
The source of warm water was available 85 per
cent of the time during the heating season, and
cooling water was available throughout the cooling
season.
Annual heat pump energy costs
= (0.85xR2451)/2.25
+(0.15xR2451)
= 1 294
Annual savings = R2 451- R1 294
= R1 157
The extra cost for a heat pump package over
standard air conditioning with electric heat is
estimated at R 3 000
Simple payback = R3 000/R1 157
= 2.6 years
47
5.2.1.3. HOT GAS
BYPASS
A small manufacturing plant has a 90 kW capacity
refrigeration plant operating at a COP of 3. The
compressor has six cylinders and operates at full-
load 24 hours per day, 5 days per week and 50
weeks per year. During weekends the refrigeration
load is less than 10 per cent of full-load, and the unit
uses hot gas bypass to avoid low suction pressures
and evaporator frosting. It is proposed to eliminate
hot gas bypass and cycle the unit on and off to meet
the low loads. Controls will be modified to
eliminate hot gas bypass and install anti-short cycle
timers at a cost of R1400. The hot gas bypass
imposes a cooling load of about 33 per cent on the
unit at a cost of R1188 per year. In addition to the
cost of providing the 9 kW cooling load, by
eliminating hot gas bypass, this R1188 can be saved.
Simple payback = R1 400/R1 188
= 1.2 years
5.3 RETROFIT
OPPORTUNITIES
Implemented retrofit opportunities are defined as
energy management actions that are done once, and
for which the cost is significant. Many of the
opportunities in this category will require detailed
analysis by specialists and cannot be examined in
detail in this guide. The following are typical Energy
Management Opportunities in the Retrofit
category.
Ÿ Absorption equipment can provide low
cost cooling if dependable, high grade
waste heat is available.
Ÿ Use a heat pump to upgrade the low
temperature waste heat to a temperature
suitable for building heating.
Ÿ Provide a thermal storage system to
reduce compressor cycling, and allow
continuous operation at full-load and
higher efficiency.
Ÿ Provide decentralized systems to match
loads with specialized requirements. For
example, if a large system operates at a low
evaporator temperature when only a small
portion of the load requires low
tem per atu re, pro vid e a s mal l, l ow
temperature system to serve the special
area. Operate the large system at a higher
evaporator temperature to improve COP.
Co ns id er "p ig gy ba ck in g" th e lo w
temperature system onto the higher
temperature system to reduce
temperature differences and increase
COP.
Ÿ Reclaim rejected condenser heat for space
hea tin g, pro ces s hea tin g or wat er
preheating. In addition to reclaiming the
otherwise wasted heat, the system COP
may be increased when a lower
temp erat ure cond ensi ng medi um is
available. For example, preheating
domestic water will reduce the energy
required for water heating and reduce the
con den sin g tem per atu re. The col d
incoming water supply can often reduce
the condensing water temperature by 5 to
10ºC, thereby increasing the system COP.
Ÿ Desuperheat the refrigerant vapour (hot
gas) leaving the compressor. The
superheat can be recovered for process or
make-up water preheating. Because the
temperature of the hot gas is higher than
the condensing temperature, the
48
superheat can be used where lower
temperature latent heat cannot. Care must
be taken in the design of the refrigerant
piping system to ensure proper return of
liquid refrigerant and oil from the
desuperheater.
Ÿ Use well, river or lake water as a lower
temperature cooling medium to reduce
condensing temperatures. If an air-cooled
condenser requires major repair or
replacement, consider using an
evaporative condenser. Improved
performance and reduced energy cost
because of the higher COP may justify the
added expenditure.
Ÿ Use mechanical refrigeration equipment in
facilities, such as indoor swimming pools
where high ventilation rates are required
for humidity control. Winter heating costs
for the ventilation air can be reduced by
reducing the ventilation rate. The total heat
of rejection can be used to preheat the
ventilation supply air and preheat the
make-up water for the pool. Energy savings
result.
Calculations for 'retrofit' savings are site specific and
in many cases involve detailed analysis. This booklet
serves as a guide for the possible avenues to
investigate and gives a feel for energy efficiency
earning opportunities in refrigeration and cooling.
APPENDIX 1:
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Glossary of terms used in commercial refrigeration

(Words in italics are other terms explained within the glossary.)

Air cooled condenser: A condenser cooled by natural or forced flow of air.

Ambient temperature: The prevailing temperature of the atmosphere surrounding the component
under consideration.

Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the column of air in the atmosphere above the
reference point.

Balanced port valve: An expansion valve which gives good system stability despite widely varying
operating conditions.

Boiling point: The temperature at which evaporation of liquid takes place at a specific
pressure.

Capacity control: Variation in the quantity of refrigerant circulated in order to vary the
refrigeration capacity.

Cascade system: A refrigeration system composed of more than one circuit where the
evaporation process of the higher temperature circuit cools the condenser of
the lower temperature circuit.

CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon a derivative of a hydrocarbon containing chlorine.

Changes of State: When sufficient heat is added or removed, most substances undergo a
change of state. The temperature remains constant until the change of state is
complete. Change of state can be from solid to liquid, liquid to vapour or vice
versa. Typical examples are ice melting and water boiling.

Condense: The process of changing a vapour into a liquid by the extraction of heat.

49
Condenser: A heat exchanger in which a vapour is liquefied by the removal of heat.

Coefficient of performance: (For a refrigerator:)The ratio of the refrigeration capacity to the power
absorbed by the compressor.(For a heat pump:) The total heat delivered to
the power absorbed by the compressor.

Compression ratio: The ration of the absolute pressures before and after compression.

Compressor: A machine for mechanically increasing the pressure of a gas.

Condensing pressure: The pressure at which a vapour changes into a liquid at a specific temperature.

Condensing temperature: The temperature of a fluid at which condensation occurs when at a known
pressure.

Condensing unit: A collection of components usually consisting of a compressor, condenser and

receiver assembled onto a common base frame.

Cycle: A cycle is a series of processes where the end point conditions or properties
of the substance are identical to the initial conditions. In refrigeration, the
processes required to produce a cooling effect are arranged to operate in a
cyclic manner so that the refrigerant can be reused.

Defrost on demand: An automatic defrost system which is initiated by an unacceptable build up of

ice and terminated when the coil has cleared.

Defrost: Elimination of an ice deposit from the surface of an evaporator.

Density of Saturated Liquid: The density of liquid at saturation temperature and pressure is expressed in
kg/m3. The specific volume of the refrigerant liquid can be calculated by taking
the inverse of the density.

1
Specific Volume =
Density

Desuperheat: Removal of part or all of the superheat in a gas.

Discharge: The output side of the compressor.

Discharge temperature: The temperature of the compressed fluid discharged from the compressor.

50
Discharge pressure:
Energy in Liquids and Vapours:
Electronic expansion valve:
Enthalpy (h):
Entropy (s):
The pressure of the compressed fluid discharged from the compressor.
When a liquid is heated, the temperature of the liquid rises to the boiling point.
This is the highest temperature to which the liquid can rise at the measured
pressure. The heat absorbed by the liquid in raising the temperature to the
boiling point is called sensible heat. The heat required to convert the liquid to
vapour at the same temperature and pressure is called latent heat.
An electro-mechanical expansion valve controlled by a microprocessor which
has sensors attached to the evaporator and adjacent pipe work.
The total energy contained in a refrigerant is called the enthalpy. Most
refrigerant tables assume, for convenience of calculations, that the saturated
liquid at 40ºC has zero energy.
Enthalpy of liquid (hf) is the amount of energy contained in one kilogram of the
liquid at a particular temperature, and is expressed in kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of vapour (hg) is the total energy contained in dry saturated vapour at
a particular temperature and saturation pressure, and is expressed in kJ/kg.
Latent heat of vaporization (hfg) is the amount of energy required to evaporate
one kilogram of liquid at a given temperature and pressure and is the
difference between the enthalpy of the liquid and the vapour. It is expressed
in kJ/kg.
The enthalpy equation is: hfg = hg - hf
Enthalpy of a mixture is a value necessary in the calculation of most practical
applications because a refrigerant usually contains a mixture of both vapour
and liquid. If the quality of the vapour is "x" then:
h = hf + x(hg - hf)
Where, h = Enthalpy of "wet" vapour (kJ/kg)
hf = Enthalpy of the liquid (kJ/kg)
hg = Enthalpy of the vapour (kJ/kg)
x = Quality of the vapour (decimal fraction)
Entropy can be described as a measure of the molecular disorder of a
substance, and is used to describe the refrigeration cycle.
Entropy of saturated liquid (sf) at a given temperature and pressure condition is
expressed in kJ/(kg·K).
51
 Entropy of saturated vapour (sg) at a given temperature and pressure condition
s expressed in kJ/(kg·K).
Entropy of vaporization (sfg), is the difference in entropy between the saturated
liquid and the saturated vapour.

Evaporation and Condensation: Unlike freezing and melting, evaporation and condensation can take place at
almost any temperature and pressure combination. Evaporation is the
gaseous escape of molecules from the surface of a liquid and is accomplished
by the absorption of a considerable quantity of heat without any change in
temperature. The vapour that leaves the surface of a boiling liquid is called
saturated vapour. The quantity of heat required to make the change of state is
called the latent heat of vaporization. Condensation occurs when the gaseous
molecules return to the liquid state.
Liquids including refrigerants, evaporate at all temperatures with increased
rates of evaporation taking place at higher temperatures. The evaporated
gases exert a pressure called the vapour pressure. As the temperature of the
liquid rises, there is a greater loss of the liquid from the surface which increases
the vapour pressure. Boiling occurs when the vapour pressure reaches the
pressure of the surrounding space. During boiling, vapour is generated at a
pressure equal to the gas pressure on the surface. If the pressure on the
surface is increased, boiling takes place at a higher temperature and the boiling
point is said to increase. Similarly, a reduction in the pressure will lower the
boiling point.

Evaporating temperature: The temperature at which a fluid vaporises within an evaporator at a specific
pressure.

Evaporating pressure: The pressure at which a fluid vaporises within an evaporator at a specific
temperature.

Evaporator: A heat exchanger in which a liquid is vaporised to produce refrigeration.

Externally cooled: A compressor which is cooled by air or water passing over the outside of its
housing.

Extraction rate: The quantity of heat which a refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under
specified conditions of time and temperature.

Fin block: A group of tubes which have been expanded into fins to form a heat
exchanger.

52
HCFC:
Heat exchanger:
Heat recovery:
Heat Transfer:
Hermetic compressor:
High pressure switch:
Hot gas bypass:
Immiscible:
Latent Heat of Fusion:
Liquid refrigerant injection:
Montreal Protocol:
Oil separator:
Open compressor:
tOperating conditions:
Ozone depletion potential:
Hydrochlorofluorocarbon.
A device designed to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids.
The reclaim of heat from a refrigeration system for use in a heating process.
Heat energy can flow only from a higher to a lower temperature level unless
energy is added to reverse the process. Heat transfer will occur when a
temperature difference exists within a medium or between different media.
Higher heat transfer rates occur at higher temperature differences.
A compressor directly coupled to an electric motor and contained within a
gas-tight welded casing.
A switch designed to stop the compressor motor should the discharge
pressure reach a predetermined maximum valve.
A system whereby some or all of the discharge refrigerant is passed directly
back into the compressor suction.
A condition where oil and refrigerant are incapable of being mixed.
For most pure substances there is a specific melting/freezing temperature
relatively independent of the pressure. For example, ice begins to melt at 0ºC.
The amount of heat necessary to melt one kilogram of ice at 0ºC to one
kilogram of water at 0ºC is called the latent heat of fusion of water and
equals 334.92 kJ/kg. The removal of the same amount of heat from one
kilogram of water at 0ºC will change it back to ice.
Introduction of liquid refrigerant into high temperature refrigerant gas to cool it.
International legislation to phase out production of CFCs and other
substances suspected of depleting ozone.
A device for separating oil from refrigerant vapour.
A compressor driven by an external power unit, requiring a shaft seal.
The conditionsunder which a refrigeration system works, including the
evaporating pressure and condensing pressure.
The potential of a substance to destroy stratospheric ozone.
53
Performance data: The extraction rate and power input of a refrigeration system.

Plant room: A secure room where most of the high pressure components of a
refrigeration system are located along with the electrical panel.

Pressure: Pressure is the force exerted on a surface, per unit area, and is expressed in
kilopascals (kPa), megapascals (MPa), bar and pounds per square inch (psig).

Process: A process is a physical or chemical change in the properties of matter, or the

conversion of energy from one form to another. In refrigeration, a process is
generally defined by the condition (or properties) of the refrigerant at the
beginning and end of the process.

Quality ofVapour: Theoretically, when vapour leaves the surface of a liquid, it is pure and
saturated at the particular temperature and pressure. In actual practice, tiny
liquid droplets escape with the vapour. When a mixture of liquid and vapour
exists, the ratio of the mass of the liquid to the total mass of the liquid and
vapour mixture is called the 'quality' and is expressed as a percentage or
decimal fraction.

Receiver: A vessel permanently installed in the refrigeration system between the

condenser and the expansion valve to provide a reservoir of liquid refrigerant.

Reciprocating: A positive displacement compressor with piston(s) moving linearly and

alternately in opposite directions in the cylinder(s).

Refrigerant: The working fluid in a refrigeration system, which absorbs heat at a low
temperature (by evaporation) and rejects heat at a high temperature (by
condensation).

Refrigeration capacity: The quantity of heat which a refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under
specified conditions of time and temperature.

Refrigerant Tables: Common properties of refrigerants are tabulated for both liquid and vapour
phases, and at different temperature pressure conditions.

Rotary: A compressor in which the rotation of the component varies the volume of
the compression chamber.
Saturation: A condition at which liquid and vapour may exist when in contact with each

54
 other.

Saturation Pressure: Saturation pressure is normally the second column in a refrigerant table and is
expressed as MPa (absolute). To obtain gauge pressure subtract 0.101325
MPa (101.325 kpa) from the absolute pressure.

Saturation Temperature: Saturation temperature, normally the first column in a refrigerant table, and
given in K, is the temperature at which boiling will occur to produce vapour at
the given saturation pressure.

Semi-hermetic compressor: A compressor directly coupled to an electric motor and contained within a
gas-tight bolted housing.

Shut-off valve: A valve used to isolate particular items of equipment.

Sight glass: A device which allows a visual inspection of a liquid within a pressurised
container.

Specific Volume of Saturated Vapour: The specific volume of saturated vapour is the volume occupied by one
kilogram of dry saturated gas at the corresponding saturation temperature
3
and pressure, and is expressed in m /kg. Density of the vapour can be
calculated by taking the inverse of the specific volume.

1
Density =
Specific Volume

Subcooled liquid: A liquid whose temperature is lower than the condensing temperature at its
given pressure.

Suction (return) temperature: The temperature at which refrigerant gas enters the compressor.

Suction cooled: A compressor in which the motor is cooled by refrigerant gas passing over the
motor windings.

Superheat: The quantity of heat added to dry saturated vapour to raise it from it
saturation temperature to a higher temperature.

Temperature: Temperature is an indication of the heat energy stored in a substance. If the

temperature of a substance was decreased to 273ºC or 0 K (Kelvin), known
as absolute zero, the substance contains no heat energy and all molecular
movement stops.
Temperature difference: The difference in temperature between two substances, surfaces or

55
 environments involving transfer of heat.

Thermostat: An automatic switch which is responsive to temperature.

Thermostatic expansion valve: A valve which automatically regulates the flow of liquid refrigerant into the
evaporator to maintain within close limits the degree of superheat of the
vapour leaving the evaporator.

Water-cooled condenser: A condenser cooled by the circulation of water through it.

Work: Work is the energy which is transferred by a difference in pressure or force of

any kind. Work is subdivided into shaft work and flow work.
Shaft work is mechanical energy used to drive a mechanism such as a pump,
condenser or turbine. Flow work is the energy transferred into a system by fluid
flowing into, or out of, the system. Both forms of work are expressed in
kilojoules, or on a mass basis, kJ/kg.

Since South Africa mainly uses metric units, these are the first choice in this guide. However, Imperial units are

56
APPENDIX 2:
ENERGY, VOLUME AND MASS
CONVERSION FACTORS

often given as well. The units used are given in the table below:

Table A1: Unit Conversions

Metric Imperial Conversion

Pressure absolute bar psi 1 barg = 14.7 psig
Pressure gauge barg psig 1 bar = 14.7 psi
Flow, volumetric l/sec cfm 1 l/s = 2 cfm (approx)
Power kW hp 1 kW = 1.34 hp
Energy kWh Btu 1 kWh = 3412.4 Btu
Specific energy J/l

Abbreviations:

psi: pounds per square inch kW: kilowatt

psig: pounds per square inch gauge hp: horsepower
l/sec: litres per second kWh: kilowatt-hour
cfm: cubic feet per minute Btu: British thermal units
J/l: Joules/litre

Pressure absolute = pressure gauge + 1 bar

1 bar = 100 kPa
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar

Example of measuring the COP of a refrigeration system directly:

57
APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF
MEASURING COP DIRECTLY.

COP is defined as the refrigeration affect (i.e. heat taken up in the evaporator) divided by the work (from the
compressor) supplied to the system. Supposing we have an 880 kW centrifugal refrigeration system. The liquid
refrigerant (134a see relevant Pressure-Enthalpy diagram) condenses at 1Mpa (P3 from section 5.1.2.1) this
corresponds to just over 40ºC. The refrigerant is then expanded (at constant Enthalpy) to a pressure of 0.22
MPa (from the PE diagram this corresponds to 10ºC) and a vapour fraction of about 35%. The outlet
temperature and pressure (T6 and P6) are measured as 0ºC and 0.2 MPa. The temperature of the brine being
cooled is (T5 and T6) from 1 8'C at the inlet to 2ºC coming out. The flowrate of the brine is 0.0367 m3/s (Fl).
Calculate the COP of the system and the flowrate of the refrigerant.

Cooling effect:
Water flow = 36.67 kg/s
Temp change for water = 18ºC-2ºC = 16ºC
Heat capacity (Cp) of water = 4.2 kJ/kg.ºC
(Cp is the amount of heat (in joules) that is given up (when the substance is cooled) or taken up (when the
substance is heated), for a change in temperature of a degree C or
K.Cp is generally given - as above - per kilogram of substance.)
Thus the cooling effect = 4.2 * 16 * 36.67 = 2464 kJ/s

COP

COP = cooling effect/ = 2462/880 = 2.8(note: kJ/s = kW)

compressor work

Refrigerant flow:
Refrigerant enthalpies
After expansion valve = 188 kJ/kg (0.22 MPa & -10ºC)
After the evaporator = 400 kJ/kg (0.2 MPa & 0ºC)
Enthalpy difference = 400 - 188 = 212 kJ/kg
Assuming heat losses between the expansion valve and suction side of the compressor are negligible, Refrigerant
flow required 2464/212 = 11.6 kg/s

Note: given the flow of refrigerant, the actual COP may be estimated directly from the refrigerant enthalpy
change (from the P-E graphs) over the evaporator, and the power drawn from the compressor.
SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

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SOURCES OF
FURTHER
INFORMATION

For the latest news in energy efficiency technology:

“Energy Management News” is a free newsletter issued by the ERI, which

contains information on the latest developments in energy efficiency in
Southern Africa and details of forthcoming energy efficiency events.

Copies can be obtained from:

The Energy Research Institute

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University of Cape Town
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Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
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Tel No: +27 (0) 21 650 3892
Fax No: +27 (0) 21 686 4838
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