CBAM

The Literature: Leadership for Change

Leadership Traits
1920s, studies undertaken to identify qualities found in effective leaders (Bernard 1926; Tead 1929) Traits investigated ranged from physical, to capacity factors, personality factors, social factors and performance factors Studies did not result in strong and consistent findings

 Trait approach meant leaders were born and selected not developed or trained Was unpopular then as well as now Attribution Theory Calder (1977) stated that leadership is a disposition or trait that exists only as perceived by others. Trait studies are still being conducted

Leadership Styles
Researchers have attempted to discover factors that identify leadership styles or patterns of behavior Ohio State Studies identified concepts of consideration and initiating structure

 Consideration degree to which leaders have sincere concerns for followers and express them by boosting others selfesteem and expressing appreciation for their work Structure initiation describes the extent to which leaders structure their own and their followers work to reach goals or complete work tasks.

 Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) Halpin and Winer (1957) used this questionnaire to identify 4 factors of leaders
Aloofness formality and social distance Production emphasis pushing for results Thrust hard work of the individual & task structure Consideration concern for followers welfare and comfort

 Blake and Mouton (1964, 1976) developed an approach to training leaders Contains 5 leadership styles or behaviors

Situation and Leader Traits

Emphasizes the identification of clear, specific situational conditions or contingencies that appear to affect a leaders behavior Basic premise is that under particular conditions certain traits will result in successful leadership

Situation and Leader Behaviors

This perspective assumes that successful leadership is a function of behaviors, not traits, and that interaction between behaviors and the situation is the key. A successful leader understands the situation and adjusts his behaviors to it

 Bulk of leadership theory development during the past 20-30 years is based on belief that successful leadership is situationally influenced

Implications of the Leadership Literature for Change Facilitators

Many of the leadership models consider the situation to be a of critical importance to leader effectiveness Very little research has been directed to systematically studying the situation Little thought to defining situational variables

 In schools, measures of success are derived from performances of nonadult, nonemployed individuals Line workers, teachers, have a great deal to say about how the school is run School leadership is constantly changing and studies have not been conducted to determine this effect

Literature on Change
Change literature presents models of change Havelock: Three models (1971, 1973) Organizational Development Linkage Model Rand Change Agent Study

Havelock: Three Models

Social Interaction Model Research, Development, and Diffusion Model Problem Solving Model

Social Interaction Model

Assumption is made that change or innovation is already fully developed and ready for dissemination 5 phases typically characterize the innovation adoption process Role of the change agent is more significant during the time adopter is becoming aware of the innovation and seeking more information

Research, Development, and Diffusion (RD&D)

This perspective emphasizes the systematic and sequential nature of knowledge creation and utilization and is guided by:
There is a rational sequence-research, development, packaging, dissemination-for evolving and applying a new practice There is large-scale, lengthy planning There is a division and coordination of labor directly related to the rational sequence and planning

 There is a passive but rational consumer who accepts and adopts the innovation The expensive costs of development at the outset are acceptable because of the innovations efficiency, quality, and suitability for mass dissemination and effective use

Problem-Solver Model
This model supported by persons from the group dynamics/human relations tradition Havelock outlined 5 positions advocated by the problem-solving perspective
Consideration of user need Diagnosing need is integral part of change process

 Leader or change facilitator is nondirective with users and is not perceived as an expert of a particular solution Internal resources should be fully utilized Should be self-initiated and self-applied innovations

Organization Development (OD)

Basic assumption of OD is that the nature of the group or organization is the source of many of the problems related to change Major objective of OD is to bring about effective functioning of the various subsystems
Amorphous entities comprised of people, supplies, space, and information; they perform the many functions that constitute an organization

 Development of organizational adaptability is the ultimate goal of OD Improving subsystem effectiveness and interpersonal skills are the core strategies for accomplishing that goal Successful implementation is dependent on several variables

Linkage Model
Concerned with establishing communication networks between sources of innovations and users via an intermediary facilitating role either in the form of a linking agent or a linkage agency Key function of linking agent is to facilitate the work of persons involved in change Objective is to help these persons acquire and use relevant ideas, products, and related sources Linker increases kind and amount of information used for decision making

 Linkage models depend on the linking agents knowledge of new products and other their abilities to persuade and help others use new resources Roles of the linking agent include: product peddler, information linker, program facilitator, process enabler, provocateur/doer, resource arranger, information linker, technical assister, action researcher/data feedbacker, and educator/capacity builder

Rand Change Agent Study

Study took place between 1973 and 1977 Examined 4 federal change agent programs designed to give seed money to schools for creating and using innovative educational practices 1st phase focused on initiation and implementation of the projects

 2nd phase addressed incorporation and continuation of the project activity Sample came from 18 states and included 293 individual projects Results of the Rand Change Agent Study suggest that schools change as new practices gain support, are adapted to the local situation, and become integrated into the regular operation of the organization Report emphasized 3 stages in the change process

 Implementation of successful projects in the Rand study were characterized by adaptive planning, staff training, local material development, and a critical mass of innovators was determined for providing support for one another and for the innovation