BAB ENAM (6)

MENINGKATKAN KECEKAPAN KOMUNIKASI DATA

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TJ 2013 - Data Communications

Objektif Pelajaran

Setelah tamat bab ini, anda boleh:

Menggambarkan perbezaan antara frequency division multiplexing, time division multiplexing, statistical time division multiplexing, and wavelength division multiplexing. Menggambarkan perbezaan antara concentrators, frontend-processors and controllers. Menerangkan protocol conversion dan mengapa ia diperlukan dalam komunikasi data. Memahami konfigurasi multidrop. Memahami teknik yang digunakan dalam pemampatan data. 9/10/2013 TJ 2013 - Data Communications 2

Isi Kandungan

Pengenalan Multiplexers (MUXs) Concentrators Port Concentrators Front-end Processors Controllers Protocol Converters Konfigurasi Multidrop Teknik Pemampatan Data
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Pengenalan

Tumpuan diberikan terhadap lain2 komponen perkakasan yang menyokong komponen2 yg telah dibincangkan (terminals, host computers, modems, cables). Fungsi utama komponen2 ini adalah untuk meningkatkan prestasi. Komponen2 ini termasuklah multiplexers, concentrators, port concentrators, front-end processors, controllers and protocol converters.
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Multiplexers (MUXs)

Pemultipleksan (Multiplexing) ~ teknik yg membenarkan beberapa komponen komputer berkongsi satu talian transmisi. Ia merupakan proses menggabungkan isyarat dari pelbagai sumber untuk transmisi melalui satu hubungan. Pemultipleksan dilakukan oleh peranti elektronik yg dikenali sebagai multiplexer (MUX). MUX menerima input isyarat dari berbagai peranti komputer, memampatkan isyarat ini ke dalam satu strim data dan menghantarnya menggunakan satu talian komunikasi (Many to one)
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Multiplexers (MUXs)
Modem Termi nal Modem Modem Modem FEP Termi nal

Tanpa MUX
Host

Modem Modem Modem

Modem Termi nal

terminal
2400bps

Dengan MUX
9600bps

terminal terminal Pemultipleks

2400bps

Mode m

Mode m

Pemultipleks F E P KomputerHos

terminal

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Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
Peranti yang memecahkah isyarat yg digabungkan oleh MUX ke bentuk isyarat asal. DEMUX menerima satu strim data drp satu talian komunikasi, memecahkannya ke dlm bentuk isyarat asal dan menghantarnya ke beberapa peranti komputer. (One to many)

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Kelebihan Pemultipleksan
Talian telefon dan modem yang sedikit Meningkatkan keberkesanan komunikasi dgn memaksimakan maklumat yg dihantar di atas satu talian. Meminimakan kos transmisi dgn mengurangkan kos menggunakan satu talian antara komputer hos dan terminal.

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Jenis Pemultipleksan

Terdapat 4 jenis pemultipleksan yg selalu digunakan:

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) Time division multiplexing (TDM) Statistical division multiplexing (STDM) Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

Teknik analog yg boleh digunakan apabila lebar jalur (bandwidth) hubungan (link) lebih besar daripada gabungan isyarat yang hendak dihantar. Dalam FDM, isyarat yg dikeluarkan oleh setiap peranti pengirim dimodulatkan pada frekuensi yg berbeza. Isyarat yg dimodulatkan ini digabungkan ke dalam satu isyarat komposit yg boleh dibawa oleh hubungan (link)
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Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM membahagikan talian lebar jalur transmisi ke beberapa julat yg dinamakan saluran (channels). Ia boleh membawa isyarat yg berbeza2 pada saluran yg berbeza2 serentak. Saluran hendaklah dipisahkan oleh lebar jalur yg tidak digunakan (dikenali sbg guard bands) utk mencegah isyarat drp bertindih dan menganggu antara satu sama lain. Contoh: kabel TV menggunakan FDM utk menghantar saluran TV melalui kabel sepaksi.
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Frequency Division Multiplexing

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Proses FDM

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FDM Process

2400 bps

sebahagian frekuensi perlu menjadi guardband - pemisah antara saluran

saluran 1

terminal terminal terminal

2400 bps

saluran 2

Pemultipleks

saluran 3 Pemultipleks saluran 4

FEP Komputer Hos

terminal

Media Penghantaran

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Time Division Multiplexing

Proses digital yg digunakan apabila kapasiti kadar data media transmisi lebih besar drp kadar data yg diperlukan oleh peranti pengirim dan penerima. TDM juga dikenali sbg synchronous TDM. Ia tidak menggunakan julat frekuensi berbeza utk menghantar data, tetapi membahagikan talian transmisi ke dalam bentuk segmen masa (time segments). Ia membenarkan peralatan komunikasi data berkongsi talian transmisi dengan menyediakan slot masa yg tetap utk setiap peranti. Keburukan TDM adalah jika terminal tiada data hendak dihantar semasa slot masanya, talian transmisi tidak digunakan dan terminal lain tidak boleh menggunakan slot 9/10/2013 TJ 2013 - Data Communications 15 masa tersebut.

Time Division Multiplexing

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Time Division Multiplexing

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Time Division Multiplexing

Mesej Yang dihantar SEDIA OK SAYA Anggapkan mesej dihantar bermula dari belakang terminal A Dari terminal A terminal B
A D A Y O I N A K A

Dari terminal B

terminal C

Pemultipleks Media Penghantaran

Pemultipleks FEP Komputer Hos Dari terminal A semula

SERANGAN terminal D Terminal B sudah tidak ada data

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Time Division Multiplexing

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Statistical TDM

STDM juga dikenali sbg asynchronous TDM. STDM berfungsi sama spt TDM, tetapi ia berdasarkan andaian bhw tidak semua peranti menghantar data pada masa yg sama. STDM menangani masalah pembaziran lebar jalur dgn menggunakan TDM dengan menyediakan slot masa berdasarkan permintaan (time slots on demand) STDM adalah lebih efisen berbanding TDM kerana ia menggunakan lebar jalur sebaik mungkin dan membolehkan lebih banyak terminal dihubungkan.
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Statistical TDM

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Statistical TDM
Mesej Yang dihantar SEDIA OK ?

Anggapkan mesej dihantar bermula dari belakang terminal 1 terminal 2 terminal 3 Pemultipleks
N4 E1

Terminal 3 sudah habis data - tempatnya terus diberi kepada terminal 4

Dari terminal 2 Dari terminal 1 - setiap penghantaran menyatakan alamat terminal

G4

D1

A4

O2

I1

N4

?3

K2

A1

Pemultipleks Media Penghantaran Terminal 2 & 3 sudah habis data - tempatnya terus diberi kepada terminal 4 Dari terminal 1 semula FEP Komputer Hos

SERANGAN terminal 4

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Statistical TDM

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Jenis pemultipleksan yg dibangunkan utk kegunaan kabel gentian optik. Ia melibatkan isyarat cahaya yg dihantar melalui saluran gentian optik. Setiap isyarat diberikan panjang gelombang tertentu di atas talian komunikasi gentian optik. WDM adalah hampir sama dengan FDM kecuali menggunakan isyarat cahaya dgn memberikan setiap isyarat lebar jalur tertentu pada talian komunikasi. Ia menggabungkan beberapa sumber cahaya ke dalam satu cahaya pada MUX dan memecahkannya cahaya tersebut menggunakan prisma pada DEMUX.
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Teknik Pemultipleksan
FDM
Lebarjalur

TDM
Aliran

STDM
Menggunakan

dibhgkan ke beberapa saluran Bilangan peranti adalah terhad Susah utk menambah / membuang saluran (perlu konfigurasi frekuensi) Membazir lebarjalur kerana guardbands perlu digunakan. Kadar kelajuan rendah
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data dr setiap peranti diberikan slot masa yg tetap Membazir slot masas jika peranti tiada data hendak dihantar Sesuai digunakan utk aliran trafik yg banyak dimana hanya terdapat sedikit slot masa.

kaedah statistik utk memastikan aliran data digunakan dgn lebih berkesan Sesuai utk persekitaran aliran data yg berbagai.

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Concentrator

It combines data from several terminals onto a single communication line and is used singly, while MUX must be used in pairs. It accepts data from terminals, does some validation of data, stores the data for a short time and then sends the data to the host computer. These tasks are possible because concentrator has a processor and memory. It also allows a terminal to operate even if the communication line connected to the host computer fails due to its separate processor.
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Concentrator (cont)

Unlike MUX, the number of lines going into the concentrator does not have to match the number of lines coming out of the concentrator. Thus, it can be used to attach multiple terminals to multiple host computers (it acts like a switch) A terminal with data to transmit, specifies to which host computers the data should be sent, and the concentrator routes the information to the correct host. Similarly, the host computer could send data to a certain terminal and route it to the exact line.
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MUX vs. Concentrator

MUX
modem modem

MUX

FEP

Processor CONCENTRATOR Memory

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FEP

Host Computer

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Port Concentrator

Usually used with a multiplexer MUX must have the same number of lines into the host as it has lines to individual terminals. If host computer does not have enough ports available for the lines from the MUX, then a port concentrator is used to combine the data from multiple lines coming from the MUX, to enter the host through a single port thus using only a single communication cable.
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Port Concentrator

MUX

modem

modem

MUX

Port Concentrator

Host Comp

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Front-End Processor

A special purpose computer It can perform most standard computer functions. It performs specialized pre-programmed control and functions. FEP is placed at the same location as the host computer, while concentrator is employed at the remote end. It performs all of the functions of a concentrator, as well as taking over many of the network mgt tasks of the host computer.
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Front-End Processor (cont)

FEP helps host computer by relieving host computers burden so that it can be dedicated to processing data. FEP concentrates on doing communication jobs, so that host computer can focus on data processing. There are two types of FEP.

Nonprogrammable Programmable
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Front-End Processor (cont)

The non-programmable FEP is a device permanently programmed or hard wired to handle certain communication functions. Programmable FEP has an operating system and a communication control program that can be changed and reloaded to reflect changes in the network configuration.

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FEP Functions

Assembly and disassembly of synchronous and asynchronous transmission Compile statistics on a communication network Conversion of data codes from various types of terminals Provide protocol support for different types of terminals Polling of terminals to determine if they have data to transmit Formatting data so it is more easily used by the host computer Flow control to prevent overloading a terminal at the receiving end Error detection, correction, and retransmission of data if required.
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Controller

It is a scaled down version of FEP It can connect up to 32 terminals, PCs, fax machines, printers or other computer-related devices to a single communication line and transmit data to an FEP connected at the receiving end. Can be located at a remote side or near the host computer. 3 types of controllers:
Cluster controller Remote controller Local controller
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Cluster Controller

Developed specifically for IBM mainframe computers. Also called communication controller or a 3174 or a 3274 cluster controller. Each of these controllers can provides connectivity for up to 32 terminals and printers.

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Remote Controller

It can handle 8, 16, 24 or up to 32 terminals depending on the model used. Its main advantage is, simultaneous data transmission on both directions is allowed between the FEP and the remote controllers. Located remotely near terminals.

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Local Controller

Located near the host computer. Connected directly to the host computer. It can handle up to 32 transmission lines, thus, the single connection to the FEP now can use data from 32 different devices. The terminals can be placed locally which means that they are connected by coaxial cable, or remotely, by using a pair of modem
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Protocol Converter

Protocol is a rule that defines how two devices talk to each other. If 2 or more devices are using different protocols, then communication is established using a protocol converter that acts as an interpreter. 3 types of protocol converters:
Hardware converter Software converter Gateway
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Hardware Converter
Can be located either locally (near the host computer) or remotely. They do all the processing for the protocol conversion.

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Software Converter
A software package for protocol converter, which is installed on the host computer or on the PC. It requires the host or PC to do some processing for the protocol conversion.

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Gateway
Is used to connect dissimilar networks by providing a conversion from one network protocol to another. An example is an e-mail gateway that allows two people who use different e-mail software (with different protocols) exchanging e-mail messages.

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Line Configuration

Refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time: There are two possible line configurations:
Point-to-point Multipoint (multidrop)
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Point-to-Point VS Multidrop

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Point-to-point
It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

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Multidrop / Multipoint
Is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. Some host computers can directly accommodate several terminals by having a single computer or front-end port. This is done by connecting a cable into the first terminal, then from the first terminal to the second, and so on.

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Multidrop

Local multidrop configurations are advantageous when terminals are located near each other, and the FEP is located in another room. Rather than running long cables from each terminal to the FEP, only one long cable and several short ones are needed. The key to multidrop operations is that each terminal must have a unique address and each terminal must be able to determine which messages are destined for it.
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Multidrop

Remote multidrop configurations can also be cost effective. i.e. A company with location in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey needs a communication circuit between the northern part and southern part of Cambodia. If we used 2 telephone lines (from PP to SR and from PP to BM) and 2 pairs of modems, the telephone bill for company will be higher. A message from PP bound for BM is routed through SR. Since the address of the message is BM, it will not displayed on other terminal in SR.
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Multidrop
The drawback of multidrop configuration involves security risk. Using the above example, a determined person in SR could use special monitoring devices to eavesdrop on all the communications to and from BM. The advantage is clearly, the long-distance communications costs are reduced.

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Data Compression

The reduction of the amount of data to be transmitted without significant loss of information. It reduces the number of bits sent. It becomes important when we send data that are not pure text such as audio and video. Two methods are used to compress data: Lossless Lossy

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Lossless Compression

The compressing and decompressign algorithms are usually the inverse of each other. After decompressing, we will get the exact data as they were before compressing Nothing is lose. Some of the techniques used in lossless compression:
Run-Length Encoding Statistical Compression
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Run-Length Encoding

When data contain strings of repeated symbols (such as bits or character), the strings can be replaced by a special marker, followed by the repeated symbol, followed by the number of occurrences.

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Statistical Compression

It uses short codes for frequent symbols and long codes for infrequent symbols. In this way, the length of the total data is reduced tremendously. The three common encoding systems using this principle are: Morse code Huffman encoding Lempel-Ziv-Welch Encoding
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Morse Code

It uses variable length combinations of mark (dash) and space (dot) encode data. One symbol codes represent the most frequent characters and five-symbol codes represent the least frequent characters. I.e. dot (.) represents the character E and four dashes and a a dot (--.--) represent the character Q.

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Huffman Encoding

It uses variable-length codes ( astrings of 0s and 1s) to encode a set of symbols. It assigns shorter codes to characters that occur more frequently and longer codes to those that occur less frequently. I.e. E and T, the two characters that occur most frequently in English language, are assigned one bit each. A, I, M, N which also occur frequently but less frequently than E and T, are assigned two bits each. C,G,K,R,S,U, W are the next most frequent and are assigned three bits each. E: 0 T:1 A:00 I:01 M:10 N:11 C:000 D:001 G:010 K:011 O:100 R:101 S:110
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Lempel-Ziv-Welch Encoding

It looks for repeated strings or words and stores them in variables. It then replaces occurences of that string with a pointer to that variable. I.e. the words the, then, and and some strings such as in and tion are often repeated many times. Each of these words or strings can be stored in separate variables and then pointers can point to them. A pointer (address) requires only a few bits, while a word may need tens of bits. This method is used in UNIX.
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Lossy Compression

It can be used if the decompressed information need not be an exact replica of the original information but something very close. We will lose some of the original data in the process. Appropriate to compress voice, pictures, images, audio, video. Methods that have been developed using lossy compression techniques: Joint photographics experts group (JPEG) ~ pictures & graphics Motion picture experts group (MPEG) ~ video.
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Review

Introduction Multiplexers (MUXs) Concentrators Port Concentrators Front-end Processors Controllers Protocol Converters Multidrop Configurations Data compression Techniques
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