The nutrition

of your plants
Essential Points Part II
by Luis Bartolo
The Nutrients
It has been shown in numerous researches that
certain elements are necessary for the healthy
growth of plants. They are sometimes spoken of
as essential elements and, since some are needed
in relatively large quantities and others
in very small amounts, the former
are referred to as major elements and
the latter as minor, trace or
micronutrients. As promised,
this article provides tips
and clues to understand
these concepts. And,
although they may sound like
Chinese to some, they are the
basic fundamentals for a positive
interpretation of your plants’ needs.

86 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

 Hydrangea

"Aluminum sulfate is used because of its acidifying

properties, to change the color of hydrangeas
growing in alkaline soils from pink to blue."

The terms major and minor do not refer to the relative

importance of the functions of the elements in plant growth. For
this reason the term trace element is preferable for the latter class.
Major elements, which we will analyze later on, include
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sulfur.
The trace elements include iron, manganese, boron, copper,
zinc and molybdenum. (Iron occupies an intermediate
position and is usually included in the major elements group.
In dealing with field problems, it is more convenient to group
it with the trace elements).
In addition, there are other elements such as sodium, chlorine
and silicon that produce beneficial effects on the growth
of certain plants but which have not yet been shown to be
absolutely essential to growth. The element aluminum is of
general occurrence in plants, but seems to be without direct
nutritional value; aluminum sulfate is used because of its
acidifying properties, to change the color of hydrangeas growing
in alkaline soils from pink to blue. Aluminum may also exert
indirect influences on nutritional processes.
Other elements often occur in plants but they are not known
to serve any useful function and frequently they act as plant
poisons or toxins.
The nutrient elements can only be absorbed by plants when
present in certain forms: nitrogen from nitrates and ammonium
salts; phosphorus from phosphates; calcium, magnesium and
potassium from their salts (e.g., as sulfates or chlorides, etc.);
sulfur from sulfates; iron from ferrous or ferric salts (more
readily from ferrous salts); manganese from manganous salts;
boron from borates; copper and zinc from their salts; and
molybdenum from molybdates.

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 87

The Nutrition of your Plants: Essential Points Part II

"The absorption of other nutrients into the plant,

such as calcium, slows down potassium and vice
versa; this phenomenon is known as antagonism."
There may appear to be certain exceptions to this statement
in practice. For instance, nitrogen may be applied to a soil as
“organic” nitrogen, as in hoof meal or urea, and sulfur may be
added as the element itself, as in flowers of sulfur or ground
sulfur. In such conditions, the added materials are, however,
converted into the nitrate and sulfate forms respectively by soil
organisms before being absorbed by the plants.
Further points of importance in connection with the
absorption of the nutrients by plants are as follows:
(a) They must be absorbed from relatively dilute solutions or
the plants will be injured or even killed.
(b) The absorption of other nutrients into the plant, such
as calcium, slows down potassium and vice versa; this
phenomenon is known as antagonism.
(c) Healthy plants result when the nutrients are absorbed
in certain relative proportions. When the proportions are
suitable, the nutrient medium is said to be balanced. When
ratios between nutrients are too wide, deficiency conditions
are created. Thus, if a high proportion of nitrogen to
potassium is absorbed, the plant will suffer from potassium
deficiency.
Ferrous salt
(d) Even though nutrients are present in the nutrient solution
in satisfactory amounts and proportions, they may not be
absorbed by the plant unless the reaction of the solution in
regards to acidity and alkalinity is satisfactory. The reaction
is measured in terms of the pH scale, which is merely a
convenient notation for stating the conditions of acidity in
the solution (strength or intensity of acidity, not total amount).
The neutral point, when acidity and alkalinity are equal and
neutralize the effect of each other, is represented by pH 7.0;
below this value the solution is acid and above it is alkaline.
Many crop plants prefer a reaction slightly on the acid side -
pH 6.0 to 6.5. Extreme values are in the neighborhood of 4.0
on the acid side and 9.0 on the alkaline side.
(e) The nutrient medium must contain an adequate supply of
oxygen; aeration must be satisfactory.

88 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

The Nutrition of your Plants: Essential Points Part II
The Functions of Nutrients
Knowledge of the main functions of the nutrients is useful in
helping us to understand the effects produced by deficiencies
of any one of them.
A. Essential Major Elements
Nitrogen. Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of
the most important substances that occur in plants. It is of
outstanding importance among the essential elements in that
nitrogen compounds comprise from 40 to 50 per cent of
the dry matter of protoplasm, the living substance of plant
cells. For this reason nitrogen is required in relatively large
quantities in connection with all growth processes in plants.
It follows directly from this that without an adequate supply
of nitrogen, appreciable growth cannot take place; plants will
remain stunted and relatively undeveloped when nitrogen is
deficient.
Proteins, which are of great importance in many plant
organs, such as the seeds, are compounds of nitrogen whilst
chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of the leaves, also
contains the element.
In addition to the above substances, numerous other organic
compounds of importance in plants, such as amino acids,
amides, and alkaloids, are compounds of nitrogen.
90 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
"Mobility and re-utilization of nitrogen explains
why deficiency symptoms of the element always
appear first in the older parts of plants and why
growing points are the last to be affected."
Certain compounds of nitrogen are very mobile in plants, and
this enables them to readily mobilize supplies of the element
at vital growing points and to transfer stored supplies to points
where they are most required. Such transference is common
from old tissues to young growing points when supplies of the
element are short. This mobility and re-utilization of nitrogen
explains why deficiency symptoms of the element always
appear first in the older parts of plants and why growing points
are the last to be affected.
Phosphorus. This element,
like nitrogen, is closely
concerned with the vital
growth processes in plants as
it is a constituent of nucleic
acid. The nuclei in which this
occurs are essential parts of all
living cells. Hence, a deficiency
of this element will also be expected to result in greatly
restricted growth. Phosphorus is also of importance in seeds
and in connection with the metabolism of fats. Compounds of
phosphorus are concerned with the processes of respiration
and with the efficient functioning and utilization of nitrogen.
This relationship to nitrogen probably accounts for the fact
that several of the symptoms of phosphorus deficiency are
identical or similar to those which result from a deficiency of
nitrogen. Phosphorus is also of special importance in the root
development process and the ripening of seeds and fruits.
of this pigment. As a result, when magnesium is deficient,
one of the symptoms commonly shown by plants is chlorosis.
Magnesium is also regarded as a carrier of phosphorus in the
plant, particularly in connection with the formation of seeds of
high oil content, which contain the compound lecithin.

Calcium. Calcium occurs in plants chiefly in the leaves, and

the amounts present in seeds and fruits are relatively low. One
of its main functions is as a constituent of the cell wall, the
middle lamella of which consists largely of calcium pectate.
This function appears to be of fundamental importance since,
if calcium is replaced by any other of the essential elements
such as magnesium or potassium, the organic materials and
mineral salts in the cells are readily leached through the walls.
Another function of calcium is for providing a base for the
neutralization of organic acids; it is concerned with activities
of growing points, especially with root tips. It also may be of
importance in nitrogen absorption.

Magnesium. The outstanding fact about magnesium is that it

is a constituent of chlorophyll, and is essential to the formation

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 91

The Nutrition of your Plants: Essential Points Part II
"Potassium in plants plays a role of special
importance as it is reutilized by young tissues
and functions as a regulator of plant processes
on a large scale."
The element seems to be very mobile within the plant, and
when deficient is apparently transferred from older to younger
tissues where it can be re-utilized in the growth processes. This
is why the deficiency starts to occur first with on the oldest
leafs than moving slowly to the younger leaves.
Potassium. Unlike all of the other major elements, potassium
does not enter into the composition of any of the important
plant constituents concerned in plant metabolism, such as
proteins, chlorophyll, fats and carbohydrates. For this reason its
role is more difficult to determine, and in spite of much study,
it cannot be said that the functions of potassium are clearly
understood.
The element is present in all parts of plants in large or fairly
large proportions. It seems to be of special importance in
leaves and at growing points, as these are especially rich in
potassium. Probably the whole of the potassium in plants is
present in soluble form, and most of it seems to be contained
in the cell sap and cytoplasm.
92 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
It is outstanding among the nutrient elements for its mobility
and solubility within the plant tissues, and these properties no
doubt account for the ready way in which potassium can be re-
utilized by young tissues when the element is in short supply.
Potassium in plants plays a role of special importance as it is
reutilized by young tissues and functions as a regulator of plant
processes on a large scale. This combined with potassium’s great
mobility in plants is in harmony with the observations that,
when potassium is moderately deficient, the effects are seen first
in the older tissues and progress from these towards the growing
points. When the deficiency is acute, the growing points are
severely affected, and die-back; general collapse of the plants
commonly occurs.
Crystal form of sulfur
Sulfur. Sulfur occurs in plants as a constituent of proteins and
of certain volatile compounds such as mustard oil. It seems
to be connected with chlorophyll formation, although it is
not a constituent of this substance. The signs of deficiency in
connection with proteins and chlorophyll look similar to the
deficiency of nitrogen.
That is all for today. I hope you enjoyed this article and that
somehow it could be useful for you. In the next issue we will
go through the essential trace elements and their importance
in the growth and nutrition of your plants. It is always good to
know the symptoms and how to interpret them. MY
For additional arcticles by Luis Bartolo
visit www.maximumyield.com
MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 93
TIPS &
tricks
What is EC?
by Grodan
Electrical conductivity, or EC, is a measure of the total salts
concentration in a nutrient solution (drip, slab or drain). It
is expressed in milliSiemens per linear centimeter (mS/cm)
or microSiemens per linear centimeter (µS/cm) where one
mS equals 1,000 µS. The conductivity of a given solution can
change with temperature and for this reason most nutrient
solution analysis is carried out at 68°F.
The higher the total salts concentration in a substrate, the
higher the EC. An EC will only be registered when inorganic
ions are present in solution. Examples of inorganic fertilizer ions
are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Urea, an organic molecule, will not contribute to the EC of a
solution because it cannot conduct electricity the way a calcium
(Ca) ion or a nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) ion can.
The required EC for optimum plant growth will depend on
the crop and variety being grown, the physiological stage of
plant development and the prevailing environmental conditions
both inside and outside the greenhouse.
Interesting EC Facts
It is possible to influence the growth of plants by increasing
or reducing the EC in the slab. Often however, the EC itself
is not as easy to control as we would wish. All too frequently
the EC goes up or down when this is not wanted. A better
understanding of some aspects of EC can prevent this problem.
Plants absorb nutrients in the form of ions. Ions are positively
or negatively charged elements. The negatively charged
elements are called anions and the positively charged elements
are called cations. For example, the fertilizer potassium nitrate
(KNO3-) breaks down into K+ and NO3- after dissolving in
water. If more positive elements are absorbed than negative
ones, the roots of the plant eliminate H3O+ in order to remain
electrically neutral. If too many negative elements are absorbed,
the plant secretes HCO3- or OH-, thus influencing the pH.
As a result of the presence of positively and negatively charged
elements, a saline solution can conduct an electric current.
The EC is a measure of the conductivity of electric current
by the solution and is expressed in milliSiemens per linear cm
of solution (mS/cm). An increase in the number of charged
elements present in the solution means the solution can conduct
more current and the EC is higher.
EC and Temperature
It is easier for the solution to conduct the current when
the temperature of the solution is higher - even with the
94 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
same concentration of elements. Consequently, the EC
reading is higher at a higher temperature. Therefore, it is
standard practice for the solution to be corrected to a fixed
temperature, such as 68°F.
Sum of Anions and Cations
The EC corresponds roughly to the sum of the cations and
anions, expressed as mmols, multiplied by 0.055.You can check
this in your own analyses. Take into account the fact that
divalent ions (Ca2+, Mg2+ and SO42-) are included in the sum
twice and that, in the case of a high pH, the phosphate value is
lower in the analysis than it actually is in the slab. This is because
phosphate can be present in the slab in different forms. Some of
these forms cannot be measured.
EC and Plant Development
The EC of the nutrient solution influences the growth of the
plant. With a higher EC, it is not as easy for the plant to take up
water. As a result, the cells in the plant do not take up as much
water and, therefore, do not develop as much. They
remain smaller and have a thicker, stronger
cell wall. The plant then appears darker and
shorter, with smaller leaves. In this situation,
the plants put relatively more energy into the
formation of flowers and fruit (a generative
response). This can be seen most clearly in
tomatoes.
If the EC is too low in poor light conditions
(i.e. winter), the plant has too much leaf growth
and too little fruit growth (too vegetative).
When there is a great deal of incoming light,
the plants grow more readily with a lower EC.
When the EC is too high, water absorption is
restricted. Therefore, a compromise must be
struck between fruit quality and vegetative
and generative development.
EC and Quality
Apart from affecting plant growth, the
EC also influences production and quality.
In general, a higher EC in the root
environment leads to lower production and
smaller fruit size. This is because the cells in
the fruits take up less water, which results in a
lower fresh weight.
With a higher EC, however, the
concentration of dissolved substances in
the cells is higher. In the case of tomatoes,
therefore, a higher EC gives a better
flavor, quicker ripening and a longer shelf
life. There is little evidence of a fall in
production with tomatoes. For other plants,
an EC of six mS/cm is best. MY
 Calcium
Magnesium and
Beyond the Obvious

Introduction
Calcium and magnesium are
common inputs in everyone’s
garden. They are the building
blocks and catalysts that allow by Richard Gellert
plants to flourish. They are found
in the soil and in plant food and
in tap water, with some well
sources having extreme
amounts. Most experienced
gardeners tend to supplement Common knowledge has it is that cal-mag
their feed regimen with extra is pretty straight forward, that there is not
calcium and magnesium (cal- much variation between the different kinds
mag), especially those with on the market or in your tap water. But
hydroponic gardens. is all cal-mag created equal? Would some
forms of these minerals perform better than
others? What forms are leading nutrient
manufacturers using? How can you tell if
you have a deficiency? What leads to these
deficiencies and most importantly how can
you avoid them? These are just some of the
questions this article will attempt to answer.
I will help refine your knowledge of these
important components in your garden so they can
help you achieve the highest quality and maximum
yields of your favorite fruits and veggies.

96 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

Cal-Mag’s Key Role in the Garden
Calcium, an essential part of the plant’s cell wall structure,
improves the absorption of other nutrients by the roots and
their translocation within the plant. It activates a number
of plant growth-regulating enzyme systems; helps convert
nitrate-nitrogen into forms needed for protein formation; and
contributes to improved disease resistance.
Calcium is an intracellular messenger as well and can send a
signal from one cell to another telling other cells how to react
or what to do. It also provides for the transport and retention
of many other elements. Calcium, magnesium and potassium
live in a delicate balance within plants. Too much of one will
inhibit the other two. Finally, calcium is a co-factor in many
enzymatic reactions. Its presence is needed to turn an enzyme
on or off and allow it to catalyze a reaction.
Magnesium is part of the
chlorophyll in all plants.
Magnesium is the central core
of the chlorophyll molecule in
green plant tissue and essential
for photosynthesis. Thus, if
magnesium is deficient, the
shortage of chlorophyll results in
poor and stunted plant growth.
Magnesium also helps to
activate specific enzyme systems.
Enzymes are complex substances that build, modify or break
down compounds as part of a plant’s normal metabolism.
Most growers incorporate higher levels of cal-mag (around
50 to 200ppm) during the first two weeks of bloom. This is
when the plant takes up a higher concentration of calcium
and magnesium to help facilitate the rapid division of cells,
changing the plant from a vegetative process to a reproductive
process. Also, during main flower set four to six weeks into the
flowering process, additional cal-mag is required.
Roy Gomez, owner of Humboldt Nutrients, had a very
specific viewpoint about supplementing extra calcium. “I
believe that calcium should be supplemented in a feeding
regimen in the early vegetative and early bloom stages. As
young children, we are told to consume milk as a calcium
supplement for strengthening bone density and structure.Young
plants should also receive this calcium supplement to help
their stock, density and plant structure.”
Calcium and Magnesium: Beyond the Obvious

"Naturals chelates harnesses the power

of nature’s smallest creatures to “fix”
plant food for easy uptake."

Beyond the various compounds of these two minerals there

are chelators which are used to make the cal-mag more readily
available. There are vast differences in what manufacturers use
to chelate their cal-mag. Most typical synthetic chelators are
EDTA, DPTA and EDDHA and are classified as poly-amino
carboxylic acids. Naturals chelates are also used and include
humic and fulvic acid, organic amino acids or a micro-
organism based chelation process, which harnesses the power of
nature’s smallest creatures to “fix” plant food for easy uptake.
 Calcium is always used as CA2+ within plants, but how it
gets into the plant is a whole other story. Each of the various
forms of calcium each has different absorption co-efficients.
Each form of calcium is absorbed into the cell at different rates
and requires a different method for the cell to take it in. Each
method requires more or less energy for the cell to exert to do
so. Some highly chelated forms of cal-mag can enter the plant’s
Magnesium is part of the chlorophyll in all plants.
phospholipid membrane through osmosis. The quicker the cal-
The Different Forms mag can be absorbed, the more efficiently the plant can make
Calcium and magnesium are found in most plant nutrients. use of these compounds, thus facilitating lightning fast growth
They are also available combined into one bottle as a and cell division.
supplement. Some companies go one step further and separate
the two giving one the ability to really dial in the perfect feed
recipe. The ratio of calcium to magnesium can vary and be very
specific to a particular type of plant.
Calcium and magnesium are also the most abundant minerals
in tap water. The majority of the PPM, or EC reading, you
obtain from a measuring device is cal-mag. The most typical
form of these minerals in your untreated water is calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Unfortunately, contrary
to popular belief, these forms are virtually unusable by
plants, especially fast growing plants. The molecules of these
compounds are far too large and immobile to be absorbed
by the roots and transported to where the plant needs them.
Relying on the cal-mag in tap water can lead to many problems
which we will discuss later in this article.
Nutrient manufacturers use different forms of cal-mag and
base their decision on what they feel delivers the most benefits
to the type of plants they have targeted with their plant food
and supplements. Below are a few examples of calcium and
magnesium compounds used by nutrient manufactures:
• Calcium Nitrate
• Calcium Carbonate
• Calcium Chloride
• Calcium Gluconate
• Calcium Proteinate
• Calcium Acetate
• Magnesium Nitrate
• Magnesium Carbonate Calcium and magnesium are the most abundant minerals in tap water.

98 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

Calcium Deficiencies
Calcium deficiency symptoms appear initially as generally
stunted plant growth. Necrotic (dead) leaf margins on
young leaves or necrosis around the base of the leaves is very
common. In its advanced stage it can eventual lead to death
of the terminal buds and root tips. Generally the new growth
of the plant is affected first. The mature leaves may be affected
if the problem persists. Cupping of mature leaves is a tell tale
sign of a calcium deficiency.
Classic symptoms of a calcium deficiency include blossom-
end rot of tomato (death of the end part of the fruits), tip
burn of lettuce, blackheart of celery and death of the growing
regions in many plants. All these symptoms show soft, dead
necrotic tissue at rapidly growing areas.
Generally, a calcium deficiency is related to poor
translocation of calcium to the tissue rather than a low
external supply of calcium. Calcium has a very low mobility in
plants which makes this one of the most common problems in
a garden. Calcium may be available externally but it is in the
wrong form for the plant to absorb readily.

Magnesium Deficiencies
Deficiencies typically occur with the middle or lower leaves.
The most common symptoms are interveinal chlorosis or

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 99

 Calcium and Magnesium: Beyond the Obvious
The most common cause of calcium and magnesium deficiencies is lockout, which is caused by too
large cal-mag molecules accumulating on the outside of roots.
yellowing between leaf veins, which
stay green, giving a marbled appearance.
Necrosis, or death, can develop in the
highly chlorotic tissue. The symptoms
generally start with mottled chlorotic
areas developing in the interveinal tissue
and spreads to large dead spots. This
begins with older leaves and spreads to
younger growth.
Magnesium deficiencies are usually
confused with a virus, or natural aging
in the case of tomato plants. In its
advanced form, a magnesium deficiency
may superficially resemble a potassium
deficiency. The tell tale sign of a
magnesium deficiency is the interveinal
chlorosis produces a raised puckered
surface, with the top of the puckers
progressively going from chlorotic to
necrotic tissue. Other symptoms of this
deficiency are fruits and vegetables tend
to be small and woody while flowers
never develop to their full potential.
Roy Gomez understands the important
role of magnesium and states, “As aging
adults, it is not uncommon for people to
become magnesium deficient. There
are multiple sources of magnesium
supplements in the health food market. I
believe that magnesium is an important
100 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
element to supplement in an aging
plants life. Certain plants consume
large amounts of magnesium during
the early and late flowering stages.
If magnesium deficiencies occur in plants,
it causes late-season yellowing in leaf
veins and older leaves.”
"Fulvic and humic acid, as well
as living beneficial biology, can
help break down the relatively
immobile cal-mag in your tap
water."
How Cal-Mag Deficiencies Occur
The most common cause of calcium
and magnesium deficiencies is lockout.
When there is too much cal-mag already
in the untreated source water being
used as the base to the nutrient formula
it can cause the good cal-mag in the
plant food to become unavailable. Think
about it this way - the cal-mag in your
tap water has a large molecular structure
and is very immobile in that form. These
molecules try to go through your roots
and up into the plant where they can
be used. The molecules are too large
to be absorbed efficiently and end up
accumulating on the outside of the roots.
 “In many relations, people are the same as plants
- what you put in is what you get out. We can feed
ourselves fast food everyday to become full, but it
doesn’t mean that is the best choice for living."

This causes a road block that can lock out the good forms of
cal-mag you are trying to feed them. Other key components of
the nutrient formula can also be locked out and the problems
escalate until your plants appear to be stunted and yellow and
growth crawls to a halt.
There are ways to mitigate this problem. Fulvic and humic
acid, as well as living beneficial biology, can help break down
the relatively immobile cal-mag in your tap water and allow it
to become more available to the plants. This process takes time
and is not guaranteed to free up all the cal-mag in an efficient
manner. The whole idea behind hydroponics is to minimize
your time and maximize your harvests. There is no time to
wait around for the cal-mag to be made available. What the
plants need is cal-mag that they can readily absorb and use
immediately.
Another way to acquire deficiencies is by not adding enough
cal-mag to your nutrient formula when using purified water.
Reverse Osmosis gives you the purest water possible and so you
have to add the correct amount of cal-mag to ensure you have
the proper feed solution. The best way to start your nutrient
formula is to begin with purified water, add 50 to 250ppm cal-
mag, and then add your additional macro- and micronutrients.
The amount of cal-mag you add depends on the variety of plants,
what stage in their life they are in, and the media you are using.
Certain growing media, such as coco coir, requires additional
calcium due its cation exchange capacity properties. Growing
in coco requires additional calcium, especially in the first few
weeks of the plants life.

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 101

Calcium and Magnesium: Beyond the Obvious
Best Practices to Avoid Problems
The most ideal way to avoid deficiencies is by starting with
a base of purified water. That way you are not guessing how
much cal-mag you have and you won’t be as susceptible to lock
out problems. Reverse osmosis technology removes 95 to 99
per cent of all contaminants and the most efficient method to
rid your tap water of the majority of cal-mag and other PPMs.
After having the cleanest base available you want to select
cal-mag that is formulated specifically for horticulture. Going
beyond this, look for labels that list several different sources
or compounds of cal-mag and ensure that they have been
chelated to make them that much more available to your plants.
If growing organically, it is paramount that you select cal-mag
102 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
supplements that have been chelated naturally with amino acids
or living biology. By using these highly absorbable forms of
cal-mag you are helping to ensure the healthiest and quickest
growing plants.
Some nutrient manufacturers address the excessive cal-mag in
tap water by marketing hard water formulas.
“Although a grower can use a hard water formula for his or
her plants, it doesn’t mean they should,” said Brantley Pierce of
Green Coast Hydroponics. “In many relations, people are the
same as plants - what you put in is what you get out. We can
feed ourselves fast food everyday to become full, but it doesn’t
mean that is the best choice for living. Starting with R.O. water
and building a quality nutrient profile from scratch is like home
cooking. It takes more preparation and time but the results
equal a higher quality of life.”
Finally, there are some brands of cal-mag that have been super
chelated with living biology and are readily available to your
plants. These types of cal-mag can actually be foliar sprayed on
the leaves and absorbed in a matter of hours. Results can be
seen amazingly fast and deficiency problems can be corrected in
a matter of days.
In conclusion, it is clear that calcium and magnesium play
significant roles in everyone’s garden. Having the proper
forms and correct amounts will determine the final outcome
of your harvest. Starting with a base of purified water and
supplementing the feed formula with specific, very usable forms
of cal-mag will ensure healthy and happy harvests. Pure water is
the platform for continued success in the garden. MY
Visit www.maximumyield.com to learn
more about the variety of cal-mag
compounds and how they supplement
nutrition to targeted plants.
 Be Good to
Why Pollinators Need a Home in Your Garden
ost people don’t realize that the bees, butterflies, moths
and other insects zooming about in our gardens are
some of the most important creatures on the planet. In their
search for a meal of nectar and pollen, they play a critical role
in helping plants set fruit and reproduce. It’s hard to believe, but
an incredible 91 per cent of the estimated 240,000 flowering
plant species worldwide, require the help of these pollinators to
survive. If there are no insects to pollinate the flower, there will
be no fruit or vegetables and no seed production for the next
generation.
Despite the important service pollinators provide, they have
been largely ignored and are now threatened by habitat loss,
pesticide use and disease. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
lists 50 pollinator species, including some bats and birds, as
threatened or endangered. Wild honeybee populations have
dropped 25 per cent since 1990. A continuing decline in
pollinator activity puts most ornamental plants, as well as much
of our food supply into jeopardy. Here are four easy ways you
can help right in your own backyard:
• Provide an abundant source of food. Include lots of
nectar and pollen rich plants in your garden, such as
old-fashioned flowers and wildflowers. A succession of
blooming annuals, perennials and shrubs will ensure nectar
and pollen are available throughout the growing season.
Remember to also include plants that butterfly larvae
feed on, such as dill, fennel and milkweed.
• Go organic. Many pesticides, even organic ones, are toxic
to bees and other beneficial organisms. In the short term,
these pesticides may provide a quick knock down to the
Bees
attackers. In the long run, you expose yourself, family,
pets, wildlife and pollinators to toxic chemicals, and
risk disrupting the natural ecosystem. If you do apply a
pesticide, make sure you use it carefully and selectively.
Never spray when blossoms are open or when bees or
other pollinators are present.
• Provide shelter. Butterflies, bees and other pollinators need
shelter to hide from predators, eat out of the elements and
rear their young. Make your yard more pollinator-friendly
by letting a section of lawn grow wild for ground nesting
bees. Allow a pile of grass cuttings or a log to decompose
in a sunny place, or leave a dead tree standing to crate
nooks of butterflies and solitary bees. Artificial nesting
boxes also offer a safe place for solitary bees, such as the
orchard bee, to lay their eggs.
• Provide water. A water garden, birdbath or catch basin for
rain will guarantee that pollinators can always find the
water they need to survive. Butterflies are also attracted
to muddy puddles for salts and
nutrients, as well as water.
MY
MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 103

sun and soil:
Natural Greenhouse growing
Putting carbon in its place
Carbon has a bad press. There is too much in the atmosphere
and the Earth is heating up. Driving a car, buying a TV and
even blowing our noses, are all cause for concern about our
“carbon footprint.” Each activity and purchase puts a burden on
the environment. New laws say that carbon is to be taxed and
traded like a toxic asset. It is the bad stuff spoiling our weather
and worrying our children.
104 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
by Roland Evans of Organic Bountea
Can this be the same substance that sparkles in a diamond,
which makes the pencil line in a notebook, which structures the
cells of our bodies? Look around you - everything that is not
metal, stone, glass or ceramic has carbon as part of its essential
makeup; that includes the sheetrock on your walls and the
plastic of your computer. We are carbon-based life forms, living
in a carbon world. Carbon is the element of life.
 Max Yield Ad2-March 08:Layout 1 3/25/08 11:29 AM Page 1

Compost Tea
The Carbon Dilemma
So how should we solve the dilemma of good and bad & Soil System
carbon? They say a weed is simply a plant in the wrong place.
Humisoil
Too much carbon in the wrong location, the atmosphere, is
like a gardener’s nightmare - the weeds have run amok. In Bioactivator
the world garden, can more carbon be planted in the right Root Web
place where it is both useful and constant? Marine Mineral
A natural home for carbon is in all living beings - Magic (M3)
vegetables, animals and humans. When an organism dies, Quantum Liquid
that carbon can be transformed or sequestered. Gaia, the Compost (QLC)
self-organizing principle of our biosphere, has found many
creative ways to hide away excess carbon. The oceans are 9 Guinness
littered with the shells and dead bodies of invertebrates and World Records
lined with coral reefs; these are forms of carbonate that lock for Giant Vegetables
away vast quantities of carbon.
Until recent times, the fossilized remnants of vegetation lay Grow nutrient-rich, mineralized plants with
hidden deep in the earth as coal, oil and natural gas. Human robust structures that resist pests and diseases.
activity oxidizes those hydrocarbons discharging carbon Increase yields by maximizing microbial
dioxide into the air. In a similar way, over the last 100 years soil ecology.
industrialized agriculture has used up over 50 per cent of • Stronger healthier plants
the essential carbon in the topsoil. According to the Rodale
• Beautiful fragrant flowers
Institute, 1.5 trillion pounds of CO2 are released each year
by US agriculture through unsustainable cultivation methods • Larger, tastier fruits
and the overuse of nitrogen fertilizer. and vegetables
We are breathing the carbon we should be cultivating.
Carbon has to be replanted in the soil where it belongs.
il
Carbon in the Soil th e so
f s
Carbon is a master of transformation. In the soil, it takes
c are o p l ant
e ur
myriad forms. Plants are built of carbon-based cellulose Tak o f yo
and their life-blood contains carbohydrate sugars. As plant
car
e th
ke e ear
material decomposes, it gives off carbon dioxide. A little Ta ft h
heavier than air, CO2 flows close to the soil surface and a reo
ec
is breathed in by the stomata on the underside of leaves. Tak
In a healthy ecosystem, little CO2 gets released into the
atmosphere; the carbon is recycled back into plant bodies.
Millions of species of living beings work the carbon in the Request a Free Video CD Online:
soil. They eat and are eaten, digest and excrete, reproduce,
live, die and decompose, forming a web of life that
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transmutes and transforms carbon in unimaginable ways. One
of the outcomes of all that activity is a stabilized form of
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carbon called humus.

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 105

Sun and Soil: Natural Greenhouse Growing, Putting Carbon In Its Place
Humus
Humus is the essence of fertility. It is the earthy smelling
stuff that makes soil dark brown. Unlike decomposing
organic material that is in flux, humus can last in the soil
for centuries. Surprisingly, not that much is known about
humus. It is an exceptionally complex spongy jelly-like
substance that binds carbon into different geometric
forms.
Humus is porous and not only holds water but also provides
accommodation for billions of microbes. Of course, the
bodies of bacteria, archaea and fungi are themselves
composed of carbon, so the humus does double
duty in sequestering carbon. We gardeners know it
as a magic ingredient of the soil – it gives and holds
life.
"Unlike decomposing organic material that is in
flux, humus can last in the soil for centuries."
106 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
"Root, fungi and glomalin form a powerful micro-
ecology that transforms and holds billions of tons
of carbon in healthy soils."
Glomalin
Humus is not the only form of soil carbon. Just over a
decade ago, soil scientist Sara Wright discovered a sticky soil
protein that contains 30 to 40 per cent carbon. She named the
substance glomalin, not simply because it is like a superglue that
‘gloms’ soil particles into aggregates, but because it is created by
the Glomales group of mycorrhizal fungi.
Glomalin is now recognized as an essential component of
fertile soil that can remain stable for up to 40 years. It gives soil
tilth, the bobbley texture that tells you your soil is full of life
and health. The arbuscular mycorrhizae that create glomalin are
symbiotic with plant roots, transporting nutrients in exchange
for the carbohydrate sugars in sap.
Root, fungi and glomalin form a powerful micro-ecology
that transforms and holds billions of tons of carbon in healthy
soils. Research shows that as atmospheric CO2 levels rise, the
mycorrhizae work harder to gather up the carbon and hold it
securely. However, the fine hair-like fungal hyphae are easily
destroyed by conventional cultivation and are intolerant of high
levels of phosphate. As the farmer plows and scatters fertilizer,
the fungal soil web is broken; the marvelous sticky glomalin
evaporates into the air.
Tilling the soil
Terra Preta
We think we understand soil, but 1500 years ago the
Amazonian people knew secrets we are only now rediscovering.
They were able to create a rich fertile self-renewing soil called
terra preta or dark earth. Terra preta is man-made, constructed
from organic matter, human and animal waste, pottery shards
and, surprisingly enough, ground up charcoal.
The Amazonian dark earth contains upward of nine per cent
black carbon, produced from biochar the slow burning of wood
and leafy materials at low temperatures. At first glance, this
might seem to add CO2 to the atmosphere, but slow burning

Charcoal
does not oxidize the carbon in plant cellulose; it keeps it in
solid form. Somehow, this ancient civilization found a way to
sequester more carbon in the soil that we ever thought possible.
A surprising feature of this soil is that it grows at a rate of 0.4
inches per year. The cause is an extraordinarily rich ecology
of soil life. The pores of the charcoal are an excellent home
for microbes and, the biochar rather than being inert, actually
increases the activity of the mycorrhizae that make glomalin.
Terra preta has 70 times more carbon that the surrounding soils.
Maybe it is time to relearn these ancient growing techniques.
We hear news about the effects of global warming – the Arctic
icecap is melting, the oceans are rising, hurricanes
are increasing in severity. We are told we can help by
reducing our use of hydrocarbons - but can we do
more?
Gardeners, growers and farmers are gatherers, transformers
and shepherds of carbon. Every plant captures carbon; every
acre of healthy soil holds thousands of pounds of carbon out
of the atmosphere. If US households cultivated their gardens
organically, adding plenty of compost and
strengthening soil life, over 10 per cent of the
world’s CO2 emissions could be offset. Growing
plants and tending the soil is more than a
pastime; it is part of our task to help keep carbon
in its right place. MY
Resources:
Malcolm Beck: Lessons in Nature
BBC Video: The Secret of Eldorado (Terra Preta) http://
video.google.com/videoplay?docid=89933137236549
14866
If you missed a month of Sun and Soil,
visit www.maximumyield.com
MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 107
 by Stephen Keen

Grow All Summer:

Water-Cooling Explained

Introduction
Water-cooling has been on the scene
for some time, but until recently it
has been limited to lighting and has
only been used by a small group
of adventurous pioneers. Now that
several new water-cooled products are
emerging, water-cooling is seeing more
of the spotlight and the average grower
is starting to see the benefits. There are
excellent reasons for any grower out
there to consider making the switch.

108 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

"Water is capable of holding four times the heat
of air, and can absorb it nearly 20 times faster."

Definition of WCS
A water-cooled system is a complete cooling package
that can have several components. It generally consists of
water lines connected from a chilled reservoir or fresh water
source to various heat exchangers, water-cooled lighting
vessels, ballast cooling enclosures and/or CO2 generators.
These devices all cool the heat at the source, which is the
key to the success of the system. Water-cooled products are
able to grab the heat produced by gardening equipment and
move it away from the garden quickly before it is dissipated
into the garden and diluted by the air.

Water-Cooling vs. Air Cooling

Water-cooling is much more effective and efficient than
air-cooling; the thermal conductivity and specific heat
capacity of water are both significantly higher than that
of air. There is a formula that explains this, but the gist of
it is that water is capable of holding four times the heat
of air, and can absorb it nearly 20 times faster. As a real
world example, someone who is swimming in 40°F water
will become hypothermic in a matter of minutes, whereas
someone walking around outside when it’s 40°F will stay
perfectly safe for hours and hours.

Residential chiller

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 109

Grow All Summer: Water-Cooling Explained
This principle is not just applicable
regarding the air cooling of your
reflectors; it’s significant to your air
conditioning system as well. Once heat
is released into your room, the ability
to efficiently remove it is lost. Only
30 per cent of the energy used in air
conditioning is converted into usable
cooling power. Up to 70 per cent of
the power an air conditioning system
consumes is wasted on powering the
a/c itself. Further, air can only be
cooled with electricity whereas there
are several ways to cool water with little
or no energy consumption:
Large reservoirs on a recirculation
system using passive cooling is the most
energy efficient way to cool
the water, but can require
reservoirs with hundreds of
gallons of water depending on
the amount of garden cooling
needed.
Heat exchangers and fans
using outside air can be used to
cool the hot water before it re-
enters the reservoir. This is very
efficient and can reduce the size
of the reservoir needed.
Chillers cooling the reservoir are
extremely effective. They do consume
110 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009
power but will still be significantly more
energy efficient than air conditioners.
Drain to waste systems that utilize cold
water directly from taps or wells is only
energy efficient if the water from a public
utility is being reused for other purposes,
or if the water from a well is being
recirculated back into the well. With some
WCS systems, you can reuse your RO
waste water or used nutrient water, getting
double the use out of it before discarding.
When using air cooling you are at the
mercy of the outdoor elements. The air
being introduced to cool the garden
varies in temperature and humidity on a
day-to-day basis. It’s often unpredictable
Window mount/outdoor chiller
and conditions are ideal for only a few
months out of the year. With a WCS,
as long as you can control your water
temperature, you can control your
growing environment. It’s 100 per cent
predictable and if installed properly, is
safe and dependable as well.
Bringing in outside air to cool your
lights creates a list of other problems too.
You have the issue of pests, loss of CO2
and dirty reflector lenses; there’s also
the issue of exhausting out undesirable
odors and the creation of fan noise. With
a WCS the only things entering and
exiting your garden are two small water
lines. That’s it. The water lines can be run
from virtually anywhere while
air ducting is somewhat limited.
With a WCS there is no need
to cut large holes for ducting
through walls and ceilings
to provide cooling. Where
a set-up with several lights
would need several holes cut to
supply enough airflow for an
air cooled system, with a WCS
you only need two small holes
for water lines. In fact the entire
garden can be cooled using just these
water lines regardless of the size and
amount of equipment.
Hot Climate Gardening
Most of us have problems with heat in
our gardens and as a result, most of us
are not able to grow though the summer
months. Although it is disappointing
to shut down your garden for two to
three months, it is standard operating
procedure in the indoor gardening
industry and we plan for it every year.
Indoor gardening is the only division
of the gardening industry that actually
sees summer as a slow time. It’s a nice
time to take a vacation, but during these
months your garden actually costs you
money. There are only two ways to get
around this: a costly, energy consuming
air conditioning system or a quiet,
energy efficient water-cooled system. A
complete WCS isn’t just water-cooled
lighting anymore; it can now include

Water cooled heat exchanger
CO2 generators, ballast cooling enclosures,
ambient temperature reduction and
lighting. There is no longer a need for air
conditioners and there is no longer a need
to bring in outside air to help cool your
lights. Imagine complete control over
your garden year-round no matter what
the temperature is outside, all operated by
a pump, reservoir and one water chiller.
This kind of system is easy to install,
works very well and saves considerable
energy over traditional air cooling.
Cold Climate Gardening
A WCS can absolutely work for those
in cold climates as well, and in fact can
reduce power consumption because
the energy savings extend beyond your
garden and into your home. With a WCS,
every BTU of heat from the ballast, bulbs
and CO2 generator can be captured and
reused to heat your garden during the off
cycle or even to heat your home. This is
accomplished by storing the hot water
created during the on cycle and using
heat exchangers and fans to put the heat
wherever you want it. This can easily and
quickly add up to considerable energy
savings.
Water-cooled heat exchanger installed A/C diffuser tube
MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 111
Grow All Summer: Water-Cooling Explained

Water-Cooled Air Conditioning and Dehumidification Water-Cooled Lighting

With water-cooled a/c, the average gardener can add as There are several companies that currently sell water-cooled
much cooling as he needs to any area in his garden. Simple lighting fixtures, but there are basically two types. Both
water-cooled air conditioning consists of a water to air heat types have pros and cons depending on a gardener’s growing
exchanger and fan located inside the grow room, a water environment and specific needs.
pump and reservoir and some way to chill the water. The
chilled water is pumped through the heat exchanger, and the
fan blows the room air over the heat exchanger, cooling the
room. If a chiller or heat exchanger is used to cool the water
they must be located outside the grow room or they will not
work properly. The heat is extracted from the air by the heat
exchanger inside the grow room and must be released back out
of the water somewhere outside the garden.
Using this type of air conditioning can help dehumidify
your grow room because the chilled water tends to make the
exchanger sweat. This water can be collected and removed from
the room or used in the garden since it is essentially pure water Water-cooled glass vessels

extracted from the air. To control a water-cooled a/c there are Water-Cooled vessels can be mounted inside existing
thermostats available to control the fans. The water temperature reflectors. These basically consist of a double wall glass design
is kept at a preset level (the cooler the better), the thermostat with a gap in between. Inside the center tube is a dry cavity
connected to the fans is set at your desired room temperature where the bulb is mounted. Purified water is pumped from
and the fan speed increases or decreases accordingly. a reservoir and it flows through the gap, cooling the heat
Another great point about water-cooled a/c is that it is generated by the bulb. Unlike the water-cooled vessels of
very flexible in the design.You can put the heat exchangers the past, the bulb is not in contact with the water. The main
anywhere and as many as needed could be added to one advantage of the vessel solution is that you can place the
cooling line. This way you can evenly disperse the cooled air lighting much closer to the plant canopy, and since these
exactly where you want and need it. vessels are cool to the touch when running, they allow you to
place more lighting in a given area, increasing your yields on a
Water-Cooled CO2 Generators per square foot basis. Also, because the lighting can be placed
These are fairly new to much closer to the plant canopy, you can use lower wattage
the market and generally lighting and get the same results as higher wattage lights.
come in two sizes: the The main disadvantages to these fixtures are that since the
standard unit, which is light passes through the water it must be purified and the
designed for mid-to-large inside of the fixture must
size gardens, and a small stay perfectly clean or
version for environments lumen loss will occur.
like huts and closets. These Also, since they are mostly
generators use a water made of glass, they are
to air heat exchanger fragile to handle, but once
mounted directly over the installed are safe as long as
flame. When cool water they are used with a flow
is circulated through the detector that will shut
exchanger it absorbs most down the lighting in case
of the heat created by the of pump failure or any
flame, carrying that heat loss of water flow.
Mini water cooler CO2 generator
out of the garden. The Heat exchangers can be
water-cooled generator is capable of removing over 80 per used to water-cool the
cent of the heat produced by the flame. A standard 12,000 warm air from your air-
BTU setting will result in only 1500 BTU of heat actually cooled lighting system.
being released into the garden. A traditional generator releases These are designed to
100 per cent of this heat into the garden, requiring one full attach to the air ducting
Water cooled CO2 generator
HP of air conditioning power to counteract it. flange of any six inch or

112 MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009

eight inch reflector. This system works similar to an air-cooled Summary
set-up in that air is still passed over the bulb, but it then passes On average, a complete water-cooled system will require
through the heat exchanger where it’s cooled before re- an initial investment that is approximately 50 per cent higher
entering the room, eliminating the need to exhaust air from than a traditional air cooled system. However, savings in
the garden. The main advantages of this system is that not only energy consumption over time will cover these costs very
can it be used to efficiently cool the heat from the bulb, but quickly for the average gardener. Additionally, most growers
it can also be used to provide water-cooled air conditioning will see an increase in yields as a result of optimizing the
as well. There is no need to use purified water since light is environment and adding summer harvests. It’s a worthwhile
not passing through the water. The water temperature can also investment for any size garden and by no means should be
be brought down lower than that of the water-cooled vessels limited to the hobby gardener.
because condensation does not negatively affect the function Our industry is evolving as it should, and we have reached the
of the unit. This system requires air cooling for it to function, capacity of air-cooling. The ducting can’t get any larger and the
so you will need to utilize fans. fans can’t move any more air, and most of us are still struggling
with heat problems. Obviously a learning curve comes along
Water-Cooled Ballast Enclosure with switching to a water-cooled system but don’t let it
New to the industry is the ability to water-cool your digital intimidate you; once you get into it, you’ll realize that it’s really
ballasts. The product is an air-cooled aluminum tube designed not that complicated. Once you get it running you’ll find it to
to hook up inline with your air cooled reflector ducting. A be a worthwhile investment.
MY
water-cooled duct mounted heat exchanger is used to cool the
air passing over the ballast just like the heat exchanger system
for the lights.
All ballasts create a significant amount of heat and should For additional water-cooling techniques,
visit www.maximumyield.com
not be ignored. As a general rule, one watt of power equals
3.41 BTU, so a traditional coil 1000 watt ballast is generating
around 3,500 BTU per hour by itself. We all know that coil
ballasts get very hot to the touch, especially after several hours.
What is deceiving is the heat generated by digital ballasts.
Digital ballasts seem considerably cooler to the touch than coil
ballasts, but this is because their extruded aluminum housings
are excellent at dissipating heat. They do create roughly 25
per cent less heat than coil ballasts (and use roughly 25 per
cent less energy), but this still amounts to over 2500 BTU per
hour. Efficiently water-cooling the heat source will help you
maintain complete control of your room temperatures. As an
added bonus, protecting your ballasts from excessive heating
will extend their life.

Ballast cooling enclosure

MAXIMUM YIELD USA - June 2009 113