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267
Industry Description and Practices
This document addresses the mining of ores of base metals (copper, lead, nickel, and zinc) andof iron. The documents on Aluminum and onCoal Mining and Production also deal with min-ing activities.The major phases in mine development are (a)exploration; (b) mine development; c) extraction(underground and open pit) and mine operation;(d) ore beneficiation; (e) storage and transport of ore; and (f) mine closure and reclamation. Thisdocument focuses on the development, opera-tion, and closure phases.
Waste Characteristics
The volume of solid waste generated, includingtailings from processing, is one of the main pol-lution concerns in the mining industry. Removalof overburden to access the ore can pose majorproblems in storage and reclamation. The over-burden (waste-to-ore) ratio for surface mining of metal ores generally ranges from 2:1 to 8:1, de-pending on local conditions. The ratio for solidwastes from underground mining is typically0.2:1. Where concentration or other processing of the ore is done on site, the tailings generated alsohave to be managed. Ores with a low metal con-tent, say, less than 0.4%, generate significantquantities of tailings.In certain mines where ores have high sulfurcontent, drainage from mine workings and wasteheaps can become highly acidic and can containhigh concentrations of dissolved heavy metals.This acid mine drainage (AMD) can have a pH of 3 or lower; sulfate levels of 800–1,800 milligramsper liter (mg/l); copper levels up to 50 mg/l; ironlevels up to 1,000 mg/l; lead levels up to 12mg/l; zinc levels up to 1,700 mg/l; and cadmiumlevels of several milligrams per liter, dependingon the contents of the ore. Effluent from tailingsponds may contain concentrations of chromiumof several milligrams per liter. Base metal miningtailings decant may contain high concentrationsof thiosalts. Chemicals used in flotation and othermetal concentration processes could create toxic-ity problems when released in effluents.Surface runoffs may also pose significant en-vironmental problems through erosion andcarryover of tailings and other mining residues.Explosives such as ammonium nitrate may bepresent in surface runoff. Transport of minedmaterial and machinery maintenance and repaircan lead to contamination of surface water.Significant levels of dust, above 3 kilogramsper ton (kg/t) of ore mined, and ranging from0.003 to 27 kg/t, may be generated by extractionactivities, crushing, ore beneficiation, transportand traffic, and wind-borne losses. Significantreleases of dust containing metals, includingmercury, may result from the drying of the oreconcentrate. Fires may result from the oxidationof sulfide-bearing materials and can present asignificant hazard.
Pollution Prevention and Control
The critical factors in good environmental per-formance in mining are adequate planning andeffective management and implementation. Re-sponsibilities for the implementation and moni-toring of environmental measures should bespecifically assigned. Before mining begins, amining plan and a mine closure and reclamationplan must be prepared and approved. Theseplans should be updated regularly as miningprogresses.
Base Metal and Iron Ore Mining
Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUPEffective July 1998
 
268PROJECT GUIDELINES:INDUSTRY SECTOR GUIDELINES
 Development Plans
Development plans define the sequence and na-ture of extraction operations and detail the meth-ods to be used in closure and restoration. At aminimum, the plans must address the following:
•
Removal, proper storage, and management of topsoil
•
Early restoration of worked-out areas and of spoil heaps to minimize the extent of openareas
•
Identification of potential areas for AMD gen-eration, followed by planning for successiveremediation of pyrites to reduce AMD genera-tion
•
A water management plan focusing on the ef-fective use of mine water for operations (withrecirculation of process water) and forpostclosure
•
Extraction methods in relation to subsidenceand to surface use
•
Development of restoration and vegetationmethods that are appropriate to the specificsite conditions
•
Blasting methods that minimize noise and vi-brations.The development plan normally contains spe-cific sections dealing with erosion and sedimentcontrol, tailings disposal, mine closure and siterestoration, and operating measures. These arediscussed next.
 Erosion and Sediment Control
An erosion and sediment control plan should beprepared. It should include measures or meth-ods, appropriate to the situation, for intercept-ing, diverting, or otherwise reducing stormwaterrunoff from exposed soil surfaces, tailings dams,and waste rock dumps. Both vegetative andnonvegetative soil stabilization measures shouldbe an integral part of the erosion control plan.Sediment control structures (for example, deten-tion and retention basins) should be provided tointercept and treat surface runoff prior to dis-charge. All erosion control and sediment contain-ment facilities must receive proper maintenanceduring the life of the project.
Tailings Disposal
Tailings must be managed to optimize humansafety and environmental protection. On-landtailings impoundment systems must be designedand constructed in accordance with internation-ally recognized engineering practices, local seis-mic conditions, and precipitation conditions (toaccommodate surface run-on). The designsshould address the structural integrity of the tail-ings dams or deposits even post-closure. On-landdisposal systems should be designed to isolateacid leachate-generating material from oxidationand percolating water. Marine and riverine dis-charges are normally not acceptable and shouldbe considered only when on-land disposal wouldpose an environmental risk and it can be demon-strated that such discharges will not have a sig-nificant adverse effect on downstream coastal orriverine resources. Riverine discharges are ac-ceptable only when justified on the basis of anenvironmental analysis of the alternatives and theeffects on aquatic resources and downstream us-ers of riverine resources.The design of the tailings management systemmust address postclosure issues such as the long-term geotechnical stability of the impoundment,the chemical stability of the tailings, long-termsurface and groundwater management (includ-ing provisions for long-term spillway capacityrequirements), and restoration.
 Mine Closure and Restoration Plan
The closure and restoration plan should coverreclamation of tailings deposits, waste rock de-posits, any open pit areas, sedimentation basins,and abandoned mine, mill, and camp sites.Mine reclamation plans should incorporate thefollowing:
•
Return of the land to conditions capable of supporting prior land use, equivalent uses, orother acceptable uses
•
Elimination of significant adverse effects onadjacent water resources
•
Use of waste rock for backfill and of topsoil(or other acceptable materials) for reclamationto the extent feasible
 
269
 Base Metal and Iron Ore Mining
•
Contouring of slopes to minimize erosion andrunoff 
•
Planting of native species of vegetation and of other species that are environmentally accept-able, to prevent erosion and to encourage self-sustaining development of a productiveecosystem on the reclaimed land
•
Postclosure management of AMD and tailings;reduction of AMD formation by sealing off pyrite-containing waste from oxidation andpercolating water
•
Budget and schedule for pre- and postclosurereclamation activities.
•
Sealing or securing of all shaft openings andmine adits on closure of the mine.Money should be reserved over the life of themine to cover the costs associated with mine clo-sure. The amount of money and the type of fi-nancing required will depend on a number of factors such as the projected life of the mine, thenature of the operations, the complexity of envi-ronmental issues, the financial and environmen-tal management capacity of the borrower orproject sponsor, and the jurisdiction in which themine is located. The mine reclamation and clo-sure plan, the timing of its submission, and fi-nancing of activities under the plan should bediscussed and agreed on with the borrower orsponsor as early as possible.
Operating Measures
Other recommended pollution prevention mea-sures include:
•
Progressive backfilling to minimize land dis-turbances
•
Use of dust control equipment on dryers andof pressure-air dryers instead of fuel-baseddrum dryers to dry concentrations.
•
Use of covers or control devices for crushingand milling to avoid the generation of dust
•
Minimization of AMD generation by reducingdisturbed areas and isolating drainage systems
•
Diversion of leachates from waste heaps toavoid contact with and contamination of sur-face water and groundwater
•
Minimization of freshwater intake; recyclingof tailings decant water and wastewater fromthe concentration process to minimize con-taminated discharges to the extent feasible
•
Collection of leachates from tailings ponds andtreatment before discharge, with sufficient resi-dence time in the tailings pond to ensurethiosalt oxidation; provision of buffer capac-ity for the rainy season
•
Use of ditches to divert surface runoff fromtailing ponds
•
Use of dust suppression measures (wettingwork areas, roads, and storage piles; install-ing equipment covers; minimizing drop dis-tances by using adjustable height conveyors;and using dust hoods and shields)
•
Collection and recycling of waste oils andlubricants
•
Prevention of spills of chemicals (includingammonium nitrate, if used in blasting opera-tions)
•
Provision of appropriate storage areas forchemicals and fuels
•
Avoidance of the use of toxic floatationagents
•
Control of noise through the use of berms andmufflers; control of noise and vibrations bymeans of sequenced blasting.
Treatment Technologies
Filters for crushers, grinding mills, and dryersare used to control dust emissions.AMD and wastewaters are typically dealt withby using physical-chemical treatment techniquessuch as neutralization, precipitation, flocculation,coagulation, settling, and filtration. In some cases,cyanide oxidation and ion exchange may alsohave to be performed. Chrome reduction may beneeded for floatation water.
Emissions Guidelines
Emissions levels for the design and operation of each project must be established through the en-vironmental assessment (EA) process on the ba-sis of country legislation and the
Pollution Preventionand Abatement Handbook,
as applied to local con-ditions. The emissions levels selected must be justified in the EA and acceptable to the WorldBank Group.
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