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Graphite
The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by AbrahamGottlob Werner in 1789 from the Greek γραφειν (graphein): "to draw/write", for itsuse in pencils, where it is commonly called lead, as distinguished from the actualmetallic element lead. Unlike diamond (another carbon allotrope), graphite is anelectrical conductor, a semimetal, and can be used, for instance, in the electrodes of an arc lamp. Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of carbonunder standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standardstate for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Graphite may beconsidered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite and alternatively calledmeta-anthracite, although it is not normally used as fuel because it is hard to ignite.There are three principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in different typesof ore deposit: (1) Crystalline flake graphite (or flake graphite for short) occurs asisolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken and when brokenthe edges can be irregular or angular; (2) Amorphous graphite occurs as fineparticles and is the result of thermal metamorphism of coal, the last stage of coalification, and is sometimes called meta-anthracite. Very fine flake graphite issometimes called amorphous in the trade; (3) Lump graphite (also called veingraphite) occurs in fissure veins or fractures and appears as massive platyintergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates, and is probablyhydrothermal in origin.Highly Ordered Pyrolytic Graphite or Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG)refers to graphite with an angular spread of the between the graphite sheets of lessthan 1°. This highest-quality synthetic form is used in scientific research. The name"graphite fiber" is also sometimes used to refer to carbon fibre or carbon fibrereinforced plastic.
Occurrence
Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas, iron meteorites, andtourmalines. China is usually the top producer of graphite, followed by India andBrazil.Graphite has various other characteristics. Thin flakes are flexible but inelastic, themineral can leave black marks on hands and paper, it conducts electricity, and
 
displays superlubricity. Its best field indicators are softness, luster, density andstreak.
Graphite ore
According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite in 2006 was 1.03million tonnes and in 2005 was 1.04 million tonnes (revised), of which the followingmajor exporters produced: China produced 720,000 tonnes in both 2006 and 2005,Brazil 75,600 tonnes in 2006 and 75,515 tonnes in 2005 (revised), Canada 28,000tonnes in both years, and Mexico (amorphous) 12,500 tonnes in 2006 and 12,357tonnes in 2005 (revised). In addition, there are two specialist producers: Sri Lankaproduced 3,200 tonnes in 2006 and 3,000 tonnes in 2005 of lump or vein graphite,and Madagascar produced 15,000 tonnes in both years, a large portion of it"crucible grade" or very large flake graphite. Some other producers produce verysmall amounts of "crucible grade".
Detailed properties
Graphite is a layered compound. In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in ahexagonal lattice with separation of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is0.335 nm.The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta(rhombohedral), have very similar physical properties (except that the graphenelayers stack slightly differently).The hexagonal graphite may be either flat or buckled.Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of thebeta form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alphaform.[citation needed] The alpha form can be converted to the beta form throughmechanical treatment and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heatedabove 1300 °C.The layering contributes to its lower density.The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, sincephonons propagate very quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower totravel from one plane to another.Graphite can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within thecarbon layers. These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conductelectricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers.
 
Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for its self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties. There is a common belief that graphite'slubricating properties are solely due to the loose interlamellar coupling betweensheets in the structure. However, it has been shown that in a vacuum environment(such as in technologies for use in space), graphite is a very poor lubricant. Thisobservation led to the discovery that the lubrication is due to the presence of fluidsbetween the layers, such as air and water, which are naturally adsorbed from theenvironment. This molecular property is unlike other layered, dry lubricants such asmolybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricitycan also account for graphite's lubricating properties. The use of graphite is limitedby its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel , and to promotegalvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It isalso corrosive to aluminium in presence of moisture. For this reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft , and discouraged its use inaluminium-containing automatic weapons . Even graphite pencil marks onaluminium parts may facilitate corrosion . Another high-temperature lubricant,hexagonal boron nitride, has the same molecular structure as graphite. It issometimes called white graphite, due to its similar properties.When a large number of crystallographic defects binds these planes together,graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolyticcarbon. This material is useful for blood-contacting implants such as artificial heartvalves. It is also highly diamagnetic, thus it will float in mid-air above a strongmagnet.Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structuralmaterials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanicalproperties.
History
Some time before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous depositof graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite near Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found veryuseful for marking sheep.This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure andsolid, and could easily be sawn into sticks. This remains the only deposit of graphitefound in this solid form.
Uses of natural graphite
According to the USGS, U.S. consumption of natural graphite in 2005-06 averaged41,850 tonnes in end uses such as refractories, steelmaking, expanded graphite,brake linings, and foundry facings-lubricants. GAN (Graphite Advocate News)import-export statistics for 2006 and 2007 indicate the consumption will continue atthat level unless steelmaking carbon raiser takes a drastic drop.
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