GRAVITATION

FORCES IN THE UNIVERSE

1. Gravity

2. Electromagnetism
* magnetism
* electrostatic forces

3. Weak Nuclear Force

4. Strong Nuclear Force
Increasing
Strength
Kinds of Forces
+
38
10
Force nal Gravitatio
Force netic Electromag
~
proton
electron
Strong
Force
binds
together
protons &
neutrons
in
atomic
nuclei
n
Weak Force:

Decay of the
Neutron
+
proton
electron
GRAVITATION
GRAVITY keeps the moon orbiting
Earth . . . and Dactyl orbiting Ida . . .
It holds stars
together . . .
Prevents
planets
from losing
their
atmospheres . . .
And binds galaxies together
for billions of years . . .
FALLING BODIES
Falling objects accelerate at a
constant rate (Galileo):
Speed is gained at a constant rate:

9.8 m/sec/sec
Acceleration due to gravity
Ball
Earth p. 82
Time (sec) Speed (m/sec)
1 9.8
2 19.6
3 29.4
4 39.2
6 58.8
8 78.4
10 98
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Speed (m/sec)
Time (sec)
Acceleration is same for ALL OBJECTS,
regardless of mass!
- Newtons 2
nd
law force (F) is acting on
falling ball (mass = m)
- All masses have same acceleration
. . . so more mass means more force
needed:
m F
F
m
Ball
Earth
F
- Newtons 3
rd
law ball pulls on Earth
Ball
F
Does Earth accelerate?
Earth
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
All bits of matter attract all other bits of matter . . .
M
1
M
2
d
F F
Inverse square law

d
1
F 2.
M M F 1.
2
2 1

p. 92
1. Increase one or both masses, and force increases.
2. Force decreases as distance increases.
Force Distance
400 N 10 m
100 N 20 m
25 N 40 m
16 N 50 m
4 N 100 m
d
M
1
M
2

F F

4
400

2
400
100
2
= =
Force Distance
400 10
178 15
100 20
44.4 30
25 40
16 50
11.1 60
8.2 70
6.25 80
4 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance
Force
Force never becomes
zero.
Putting the two parts of the force law together . . .
2
2 1
d
M GM
F =
(G = gravitational constant)
- Acts through empty space
action at a distance

- Explains how gravity behaves but not why
WEIGHT
p. 83
Weight
- Measure of gravitational attraction of Earth
(or any other planet) for you.
Earth
R
F
m
M
Weight
2
R
GMm
F W = =
Other planets: M and R change, so your
weight must change
Mars: R = 0.53 x Earths radius
M = 0.11 x Earths mass
Earth Mars
Weight 150 lbs 59 lbs
A real planet . . .
Weight can be
made to apparently
increase . . .
p. 83
upward acceleration
. . . or decrease!
downward
acceleration

Weightlessness

9.8 m/s/s
Free-fall
EARTHS MASS
2
R
GMm
W =
your weight
your mass
Earths radius
Earths mass
M = 6 x 10
24
kg
HOW DO THE PLANETS GO?
Planets appear
star-like
Planets move, relative to the stars.
Planets reside
near Ecliptic.

[SkyGlobe]
Sun
Earth
Venus
Mars
Aliens eye view . . .
Complicated!
Yet, patterns may be discerned . . .
Planets remain near ecliptic within Zodiac.

Brightness changes in a regular pattern.

Mercury & Venus always appear near Sun in sky.

Mars, Jupiter & Saturn may be near Sun, but neednt be.

Planets travel eastward relative to stars most of the time,
but sometimes they reverse direction & go west!
Jupiter & Venus
are currently
in
Gemini.
Ancient
Greek
geocentric
solar
system
Motionless Earth
* Earth too heavy to be moved
* If Earth moved, wouldnt we notice?
> Relative motion argument
> Parallax argument

Earth at center of Universe
* This is Earths natural place
> Heavy stuff sinks
* This is the natural place of humankind
> Were most important (?)
Ptolemy
(85 165 AD)


Results: - Planet-Earth distance changes
- Planet sometimes goes backward

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 1543)
First modern
heliocentric (sun-
centered) model of
solar system
Founder of modern
astronomy
Not first astronomer!
Copernicus
heliocentric
model,
simplified
Galileo Galilei
1564 - 1642
Galileo observes
Jupiters
four largest moons
Telescopic
View
Jupiters moons
in motion.
Allowed
possibility
that there
are many
centers of
motion
not just Earth.
Venus shows a full set of phases
like the moons
Venus motion according to . . .
Ptolemy
(new & crescent phases)
Copernicus
(full set of phases)
ORBITS
- Any motion controlled only by gravity is an orbit
Without gravity
With gravity
NEWTON: Gravity explains how planets (and
moons & satellites & etc.) go.
Sun
Several trajectories are possible. . .
Object is effectively
continuously falling
toward the sun . . .
. . . But never gets
there!
Circle
F
Imagine launching a
ball sideways near
Earth . . .
Possible trajectories:
- Circle
- Ellipse
- Parabola
- Hyperbola v
Which one you get depends on speed (v)!
Escape
Trajectories are
conics
These are only
possible orbits for
inverse square
law force.
- Circles & Ellipses: Bound orbits
- Parabolas & Hyperbolas: Escape orbits
v
v ~ 5 mi/sec
v > 5 mi/sec
Escape:
v > 7 mi/sec
Earth
KEPLERS LAWS
Johannes
Kepler
(1571 1630)
By the study of the orbit of Mars, we must either
arrive at the secrets of astronomy or forever remain
in ignorance of them.
- J. Kepler
Tycho Brahe
1. Planets move in elliptical orbits with the
sun at one focus
X
Sun (Focus)
Focus
Semi-major axis (a)
c
Perihelion
Aphelion
Earth: a = 1.00 AU = 92, 980.000 mi
aphelion = 1.0167 AU = 94,530,000 mi
perihelion = 0.9833 AU = 91,420,000 mi

67,000 mi/hr
Eccentricity (e): Measure of shape of ellipse
e = c/a a = semi-major axis
c = dist center to focus

0 < e < 1

a e
Earth 1.0 AU 0.0167
Mars 1.52 0.0934
Pluto 39.5 0.250
Halleys Comet 17.8 0.967

A few objects orbiting the sun . . . . . .
Semi-major axis, or mean distance
between planet & sun
2. A line drawn from planet to sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times
2
nd
Law
Demo
3. The cube of the mean planet-sun distance is
directly proportional to the square of the
planets orbit period


a
3
= P
2
a: AU
P: years
Or,

a
3
/ P
2
= 1

3
rd
Law
Demo
P a P
2
a
3
P
2
/a
3
Mercury 0.241 0.387 0.058 0.058 1
Venus 0.615 0.723 0.378 0.378 1
Earth 1 1 1 1 1
Mars 1.881 1.524 3.538 3.538 1
Jupiter 11.86 5.203 140.7 140.8 0.999
Saturn 29.46 9.539 867.8 867.9 1
Uranus 84.01 19.19 7058 7068 0.998
Neptune 164.8 30.06 27156 27165 1
Pluto 248.5 39.53 61752 61768 1
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Cube of semi-major axis
S
q
u
a
r
e

o
f

p
e
r
i
o
d
Solar System:
Newton modified Keplers 3
rd
Law:
M
m
2
3
P
a
1 =
2
3
P
a
m M = +
units of the
Suns mass
SUNS MASS
3
2
2
a
m) G(M
4
P
(

+
=
t
Mass of the Sun
1 yr
1 AU
Earths mass
Suns Mass
M = 2 x 10
30
kg ~ 330,000 Earth masses (!)


CENTER OF MASS ORBITS
Finally (at last ) . . . the true story of orbits
We left something out . . .
Sun
Planet
Sun pulls on planet . . . planet pulls on sun
Sun moves a little, too!
Exaggerated view:
X
S
P
X = center of
both orbits
Circular orbits
Consider Jupiter & the Sun . . .
X
5.2 AU 0.0052 AU
Suns motion is small!
Center of Mass
Gravitational
Orbits
Animation
Earth & Moon:
X
2900 mi 235,500 mi
2900 mi < Earths radius!
Gravitational
Orbits
Animation
Discovery of Neptune
1846: Presence of Neptune predicted
from irregularities in Uranus orbit.
(J. C. Adams & U. J. J. Leverrier)
Uranus
Neptune
Speeds up
Slows down