HAD DAN KESELANJARAN

1.1. HAD KANAN Jika nilai f(x) menghampiri nombor l1 apabila x menghampiri xo dari sebelah kanan, maka ditulis

yang dibaca sebagai had f(x) apabila x menghampiri x0 dari sebelah kanan bersamaan dengan l1. 1.2 HAD KIRI Jika nilai f(x) menghampiri nombor l2 apabila x menghampiri x0 dari sebelah kiri, maka ditulis

yang dibaca sebagai had f(x) apabila x menghampiri x0 dari sebelah kiri bersamaan dengan l2. 1.3 HAD SUATU FUNGSI Jika had dari sebelah kiri dan had dari sebelah kanan bagi f(x) mempunyai nilai yang sama, iaitu

maka had wujud dan ditulis

Sebaliknya, apabila

maka had tak wujud.

1.4 KES HAD TIDAK WUJUD Terdapat juga kes di mana had suatu fungsi apabila

tidak dapat dipastikan. Jika had tidak ada , maka disebut had tidak wujud. 1.5 HAD DI KETAKTERHINGGAAN Had juga boleh digunakan untuk menggambarkan kelakuan sesuatu fungsi apabila pembolehubah tak bersandar bergerak jauh dari asalan di sepanjang paksi-x. Jika x dibiarkan menokok tanpa batas, x dikatakan menghampiri positif ketakterhinggaan. Sebaliknya, jika x dibiarkan menyusut tanpa batas, x dikatakan menghampiri negatif ketakterhinggaan. Katakanlah had bagi f(x) apabila x menghampiri positif ketakterhinggaan ialah l, dengan l suatu nombor nyata. Pernyataan ini boleh ditulis sebagai

Garis y = l merupakan garis asimptot mengufuk untuk f(x). 1.6 SIFAT ASAS HAD Misalkan a, k dan n ialah nombor-nombor nyata, maka

1.7 SIFAT-SIFAT HAD YANG LAIN Misalkan had mewakili had-had

Jika had f(x) dan had g(x) kedua-duanya wujud, maka

1.8 TAKRIF HAD SECARA FORMAL Misalkan f(x) tertakrif untuk semua nilai x di dalam selang terbuka yang mengandungi nombor a, kecuali mungkin f(x) tertakrif atau tidak tertakrif pada a. Seterusnya

jika untuk setiap nombor e > 0, wujud suatu nombor d > 0 supaya untuk semua x,

Dalam takrif tersebut, ungkapan 0 < | x - a | < d disebut pernyataan toleransi d manakala ungkapan | f(x) - l | < e disebut pernyataan toleransi e. 1.9 KESELANJARAN Suatu fungsi f(x) dikatakan selanjar di titik x = a jika syarat berikut dipenuhi. 1. Fungsi f(x) tertakrif di x = a, iaitu f(a) wujud. 2. had f(x) wujud 3. had f(x) = f(a) 1.10 KESELANJARAN DALAM SELANG Andaikan f(x) tertakrif dalam [a, b]. Fungsi f(x) dikatakan selanjar dalam [a, b] jika f(x) selanjar dalam (a, b), dan

Limit and Continuity

Definition: Limit at a real number c (Both side limit). Given > 0, there exists -c|< , > 0 such that | f ( x ) - L | < whenever 0 < | x ,

then the limit of f ( x ) at x = c is L, and denoted by otherwise f ( x ) has no limit. Roughly speaking,

means that whenever x approaches to c

from either side of c, the graph point (x, f(x)) approaches to the point (c, L) on the plane.

Definition: Continuity for f ( x ) at x = c ( both side continuity ). Given > 0, there exists c| < , > 0, such that | f ( x ) - f ( c ) | < whenever | x -

then f ( x ) is continuous at x = c. ( i.e ), otherwise f ( x ) is not continuous at x = c. ( i.e f ( x ) is discontinuous at x = c ). Roughly speaking, means that whenever x approaches

to c from either side of c, the graph point (x, f(x)) approaches to the point (c, f(c)) on the plane.

Remarks: ( 1 ) The existence of the limit for f ( x ) at x = c is not related to the existence of the output of f ( x ) at x = c. ( 2 ) When , f ( x ) is continuous at x = c.

( 3 ) Whenever does not exist or then f ( x ) is not continuous at x = c.

o

exists but is not equal to f ( c ), then the graph of f ( x ) has a hole at x = c. does not exist, then the graph of f ( x ) has either a jump at x = c or f ( x ) has a vertical asymptote at x = c ( will be defined later ).

Example1: Show that Analysis : ( 1 ) Given > 0, we need to select < whenever 0 < | x - 4 | < . > 0 to satisfy that | f ( x ) - L |

( 2 ) Since ( x - 4 ) = for x > 0, we need to show < from the condition 0<|x-4|< ( i.e combined with . ) ( * ), the factor should be

By rearranging ( * ), we acquire need . We can achieve this by

. But, we

restricting the x values close to 4 such that the lower bound of be obtained. Therefore, we can obtained a relationship between e.g. let ( i.e ), and .

can

then Proof :

. So,

i.e.

Given

> 0, let

whenever 0 < | x - 4 | <

Example2: show that Analysis : ( 1 ) We need to show . We can rewrite to |x-2|< from the condition 0 < | x - 2 | <

. We know that .

since 0 <

We need an upper bound for | x + 2 | to yield so, we will restrict the value of x close to 2 as we did in Example1. ( 2 ) For example, let . So, . Proof : ( i.e ), then

. In order to do

Given

> 0, let

, 0<|x-2|< .

Example3: show that

(1)

(2) since (3)

since ( 2 ) is true and

Form ( 1 ), ( 2 ), and ( 3 ), we can have the following proof : Proof : Given > 0, let , 0<|x-c|< ,

Remarks:
o

It is easy to see that (1) (2) is continuous at x = c > 0 ( positive real number ). is continuous at x = c ( any real number ).

(3)

is continuous at x = c ( any real number ).

The selection of like the selection of

in example 3 is independent of c. But, it seems

in example 1 could be depending on c.

Definition: Uniform Continuity Given (c)|< > 0, there exist > 0 ( independent of c ) such that | f ( x ) - f

whenever | x - c | <

, then f ( x ) is uniformly continuous.

Remarks: ( 1 ) To show that f ( x ) is uniformly continuous is not a simple problem. Sometime, it could involve advance concept. ( 2 ) To show that f ( x ) is not uniformly continuos, we may show that "There exists x ) - f ( c )| > > 0, for any given > 0, there exist x and c such that | f (

even if | x - c | <

"

Example 4: Show that Note: For any given ,

is not uniformly continuous over > 0, when .

Therefore,

could go to infinity.

Proof : It is very simple by viewing the above "fact".

Example 5: Show that

is uniformly continuous over

Note: It seems like we need an advance concept to prove the problem above.

( 1 ) When selection of

for

, therefore, the

Could be independent of all c which are larger than or equal to 4. (2) is uniformly continuos over [ 0, 4 ], since [0, 4] is a compact set. (This is an advanced concept.)

Techniques ( Finding the limit of f ( x ) ) ( 1 ) For a polynomial function, f ( x ) or continuous function, substitution method can be applied to find the limit for f ( x ). Example :

Therefore, polynomial function is a continuous function.

( 2 ) For a rational function, method can be applied

, substitution

to find the limit for f ( x ), unless the following results happen through substitution method.

: ( indeterminate case ) Usually, there exists common factor ( x - c ) between numerator and denominator that can be removed before the substitution method can be applied. ( Actually, there could be any other methods, too. ) Example 1:

Example 2:

Example 3:

( Substitution method ends with

o

: ( the limit does not exist ) ( The behavior of the graph for f ( x ) near x = c can be identified by one - sided limits )

Example :

Special ratio-type function

o

Try substitute method first, unless the following cases happen.

(1)

: ( indeterminate case )

Example 1 : ( Numerator has radical Notation for x. Rationalize the numerator )

Example 2 : ( denominator has radical notation for x. Rationalize the denominator. )

Example 3 : ( i ) L'Hopital rule may be applied. ( ii ) Sandwich theorem may be applied.

(2)

: The limit does not exist.

Example :

Piece-wisely defined function ( To find the limit for piece-wisely defined function at the separating point in the domain, the one-side limits may be used. )

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

One-sided limits
o

Right-sided limit at x = c. Given , there exists such that whenever ,

, then the right sided limit of f ( x ) at x = c and denoted by .

Remarks: (1) of c. means that x approaches to c from the right side

( note that " + " on the right upper corner of c ) ( 2 ) Roughtly speaking, whenever x approaches means that

to c from the right side of c, the graph point ( x, f ( x ) ) approaches to the point ( c, L ) on the rectangle coordinate place.

Left-sided limit at x = c. Given , , there exists , such that whenever

, then the left-sided limit of f ( x ) at x = c is L and denoted by . Remarks: (1) of c means that x approaches to c from the left side

( note that " - " on the right upper corner of c ) ( 2 ) Roughly speaking, approaches to c means that whenever x

from the left side of of c, the graph point ( x, f ( x ) ) approaches to the point ( c, L ) on the plane.

Remarks:
o

Basically, the analysis had been used before proving the both-sided limit can be applied to understand the selection for one-sided limits. , given , for proving the

In the procedures of the proofs for one-sided limits, the for both for right-sided limit and

sided limit will be replaced by be replaced by for the left-sided limit.

To find the limit for piece-wisely defined function at the separating point, c, of the domain, both one-sided limits can be applied. Actually, the following theorem tells the relationship between both one-sided limits and both one-sided limit.

Theorem: Iff , then

( When both one-sided limits are equal, both sided-exists ) Proof: Let exists whenever For the same whenever ( ), , i.e given such that , , there exists ( right-sided limit ). such that , there

( left-sided limit ). , let , , then

Therefore, for the given whenever

( i.e Let whenever , ,

and i.e given

), , there exists

i.e such that

. Therefore, for the given whenever

( right-sided limit ) and ( left-sided limit ). whenever

Remarks: For finding the limit at x = c, we may find both one-sided limits. ( 1 ) Iff both one-sided limits exist and are equal, then the both-sided limits are equal to one-sided limit. Example1: Find Solution:

and ( 2 ) Iff both one-sided limits exist but are not equal, then the both one-sided limits don't exist. ( The graph of f ( x ) at x = c has a jump. ) Example2:

Find

Solution:

Since

, we have,

and ( 3 ) If either does not exist. Example3: or does not exist, then

Find Solution:

and Sign Chart:

Definition:

11.1. Limits and Continuity of Functions

This chapter is a brief introduction to calculus, a set of powerful mathematical tools which allow us to calculate many things which would be impossible otherwise. Once the tools are in place, calculus is not too difficult; the hard part is developing these tools. Calculus deals with infinitesimal quantities, i.e. quantities which can be thought of as being infinitely small. If this does not make sense to you yet, don't worry - you'll get there! In this section we define the limit of a function. This is a necessary step toward understanding the derivative, the most basic concept in calculus. Let f(x) be a real-valued function of a variable x with domain containing some interval (a, b), and let x0 be a fixed real number with a x0 b. Note that this might mean that x0 does not lie in the domain of f. This would be true, for instance, if x0 = a and f is defined on the interval (a, b] but not at a. We want to be able to define the limit of f(x) as x approaches x0. How do we do so? We say the limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 is equal to y0 if for all positive real numbers , there exists a positive real number such that for all numbers x in the interval (x0 - , x0+ ), we have |f(x) - y0| < . (Here we are supposed to imagine and to be small positive numbers. The Greek letters and are typically used to stand for small quantities.) In mathematical notation, this statement looks as follows:

(11.1.1)

We say f(x) is continuous at x = x0 if f is defined at x0 and if

(11.1.2)

Limits of functions are often called two-sided limits. There are also one-sided limits known as the limit from above and the limit from below . The definition of these limits are respectively as follows:

(11.1.3a) (11.1.3b)

Note that by these definitions, a two-sided limit is both an limit from above and a limit from below.

Example 1: Consider the following function:

Compute the following limits if they exist, or if they do not, then say so and why. Also, determine whether f is continuous at x = 0.

(a) (b) (c)

Solution:

(a) For all positive x we have f(x) = 1. Therefore, for all > 0, it is certainly true that there exists a positive real number such that for every number x in the interval (0, ), we have |f(x) - 1| < . In fact, any value of will work, no matter how large, for every > 0, no matter how small. Thus, we see that this limit from above is equal to 1. (b) For all negative x we have f(x) = -1. Therefore, for all > 0, it is certainly true that there exists a positive real number such that for every number x in the interval (-,0), we have |f(x) + 1| < . In fact, any value of will work, no matter how large, for every > 0, no matter how small. Thus, we see that this limit from below is equal to -1. (c) The two-sided limit does not exist since every interval of the form (-, ) contains some values of x (namely the negative ones) for which f(x) = -1 and other values of x (namely the positive ones) for which f(x) = 1. Thus, no value of less than 1 will work for us.

Clearly f(x) is not continuous at x=0 since its two-sided limit is undefined there. It is continuous everywhere else, though.

Example 2: Consider the following function:

Compute the following limits if they exist, or if they do not, then say so and why. Also, determine whether f is continuous at x = 0.

(a) (b) (c)

Solution:

(a) We see that every interval of the form (0, ) contains values of x as large as 1 and as small as -1, no matter how small is. Thus, no less than 1 will work for us, so this limit from above is undefined. (b) Similarly, we see that every interval of the form (-, 0) contains values of x as large as 1 and as small as -1, no matter how small is. Thus, no less than 1 will work for us, so this limit from above is undefined. (c) The two-sided limit clearly does not exist since neither the limit from above nor the limit from below do.

Clearly f(x) is not continuous at x=0 since its two-sided limit is undefined there. It is continuous everywhere else, though.

Limits of functions need not be finite. For instance, consider the function f(x) = 1/x, which we studied in Chapters 1 and 9. We know that f has a singularity at x=0. As x approaches zero from above, we see that f(x) = 1/x grows without limit. In this case, we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches zero from above is equal to infinity. On the other hand, as x approaches zero from below, we see that f(x) is negative and becomes more and more negative (absolute value increasing). Thus, we say that as x approaches zero from below, f(x) approaches negative infinity. Mathematically, we write these two limits as follows:

and Since these limits are different, the two-sided limit of f(x) = 1/x at x=0 does not exist.

Example 3: Compute the limits from above and below of f(x) = 1/x2 as x approaches zero. Is the two-sided limit defined as x approaches zero? Solution: f(x) = 1/x2 is positive for all x. As x approaches zero either from above or below, we see that f(x) approaches infinity. Thus, the limits both from above and below of f(x) as x approaches zero are equal to infinity, and the two-sided limit is as well.

Thus far, we have only considered limits of functions as x approaches some finite value. What about limits as x approaches infinity or negative infinity? These may be defined as well. Here are the definitions: We say that the limit of a function f(x) as x approaches infinity is equal to L if for every positive number , there exists a positive number N such that for all x greater than N, we have |f(x) - L| < . This is written mathematically as follows:

The limit of a function as the argument approaches - is defined similarly. We say that the limit of a function f(x) as x approaches - is equal to L if for every positive number , there exists a positive number N such that for all x less than -N, we have |f(x) - L| < . This is written mathematically as follows:

If a function f(x) has a finite limit L as x approaches infinity, then the function approaches the line y = L as x gets large. Thus, we see that this line is an asymptote to f. Similarly, if the limit of f(x) as x approaches negative infinity is equal to L, then the function approaches the line y = L as x gets small (negative and large absolute value), so the line y = L is an asymptote of f in this case as well. Limits of rational functions as x approaches infinity or negative infinity are easy to compute. The trick to computing these limits is to only consider the leading terms of the both the numerator and denominator.

Example 3: Compute the limits of the following rational functions as x approaches infinity and negative infinity.

(a) f(x) = 1 / (x - 3) (b) f(x) = 1 / (1 - x2) (c) f(x) = (x2 + 1) / (x2 - 1) (d) f(x) = (x2 - 4) / (3x2 + 8x - 3) (e) f(x) = (6x3 - 5x + 4) / (2x3 + 7x2 + 6) (f) f(x) = (x2 + x + 1) / (10 - 3x) (g) f(x) = (x3 + x + 1) / (10 - 3x) (h) f(x) = (1 - x3) / (3 - x)

Solution:

(a) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like 1/x, which approaches zero as x approaches infinity or negative infinity. Thus, both limits are equal to 0. (b) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like -1/x2, which approaches zero as x approaches infinity or negative infinity. Thus, both limits are equal to 0. (c) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like x2 / x2 = 1. Thus, both limits are equal to 1. (d) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like x2 / 3x2 = 1/3. Thus, both limits are equal to 1/3. (e) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like 6x3 / 2x3 = 3. Thus, both limits are equal to 3. (f) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like x2 / -3x = -x/3, which approaches negative infinity as x approaches infinity and approaches infinity as x approaches negative infinity.

(g) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like x3 / -3x = -x2/3, which approaches negative infinity as x approaches infinity or negative infinity. (h) As |x| approaches infinity, f(x) behaves like -x3 / -x = x2, which approaches infinity as x approaches infinity or negative infinity.

To close this section, we state without proof some important properties of limits, which we will find useful.

(11.1.4) (11.1.5) (11.1.6) (11.1.7)

As usual, we must be careful with these properties, because some of the above limits may not exist. Strictly speaking, the above properties are only valid if all limits shown exist.

Left and Right-Hand Limits

In some cases, you let x approach the number a from the left or the right, rather than "both sides at once" as usual.

means: Compute the limit of the right.

as x approaches a from

means: Compute the limit of the left.

as x approaches a from

The left- and right-hand limits are the same if and only if the ordinary limit exists. In this case, the left-hand, right-hand, and ordinary limit are equal.

Example.

Look at the first limit more closely. x approaches 0 from the right. Numbers close to, but to the right of, 0 are small positive numbers: 0.01, for example. Small positive numbers make positive: , for example. If is positive, then , so

(Notice that you don't let x equal 0, so Therefore,

, and the cancellation is legal.)

Here's the picture:

Since the left- and right-hand limits are not the same,

is undefined.

Example. Suppose

Compute To compute

, and

. :

, I use the part of the definition for f which applies to

Likewise, to compute to :

, I use the part of the definition for f which applies

Since the left and right-hand limits are equal, the two-sided limit is defined, and . The fact that does not come into the problem.

Example. Consider the function

whose graph is depicted below:

Then

Since the left- and right-hand limits are not the same,

Example. Consider the function

whose graph is depicted below:

Then

Therefore,

The value of does not affect the existence of the limit. In fact, suppose I change the function as follows:

Now

is undefined, but

Example. Compute

. . The limit is undefined. But I can say more. ,

Plugging in gives

Try plugging in a number close to 1: When

It looks as though

is getting big and negative. In fact,

To why this is true, remember that x is approaching 1 from the right. This means that will be small and positive. On the other hand, . Since the top is negative and the bottom is positive, the result must be negative. As far as size goes, I have

Since the result should be big and negative, it is reasonable that it is Another way to see this is to draw the graph near from the right, the graph goes downward toward .

. As you move toward 1

I noted earlier that if

then the two-sided limit is undefined. As the example above shows, the situation is different with one-sided limits. If, in this situation, has the same sign for all x's sufficiently close to c and

greater than c, then the right-hand limit will be either or . The specific sign depends on the signs of the top and the bottom of the fraction. Likewise, if has the same sign for all x's sufficiently close to c and less than c,

then the left-hand limit will be either or . Again, the specific sign depends on the signs of the top and the bottom of the fraction. The "same-sign" condition will be satisfied, for example, if f and g are polynomials --- that is, if is a rational function. It will also be satisfied by functions like

Example. Compute

. . Since is a rational function, the right-hand

Plugging

in gives

limit is either or ; I have to determine which of the two it is. I'll look at the top and the bottom separately. As , .

As for the bottom, since x is approaching -3 from the right, I'm considering x's greater than -3. Thus, , so --is positive. Since is approaching a negative number and number, the quotient is negative. Therefore, is approaching a positive

I can also see this if I take a number close to -3 but to the right of -3 --for example --- and plug it in:

I got a large negative number, which suggests that the limit should be I could also see this by graphing the function, as in the previous example.

You might ask: "Which of these methods is the best?" I feel that for a first course in calculus, all three are acceptable. (But some people might disagree, so you should be careful to ask.) However, while plugging in numbers and drawing graphs provide support for a conclusion, they don't really provide a proof. Graphs can be deceiving. And when you plug in a number, how do you know that the number you chose is "typical"? The first method --- reasoning about signs using inequalities --- is much closer to a rigorous proof of the result.

Send comments about this page to: Bruce.Ikenaga@millersville.edu. Bruce Ikenaga's Home Page Copyright 2005 by Bruce Ikenaga

Properties of Limits in Calculus

Properties of limits are presented along with some examples and detailed solutions. Theorem: If f and g are two functions and both limxa f(x) and limxa g(x) exist, then 1. lim [ f(x) + g(x) ] = lim f(x) + lim g(x) : The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
Example 1: Calculate limx-2 h(x) where h(x) is given by h(x) = x + 5 Solution to Example 1: We may consider h(x) as the sum of f(x) = x and g(x) = 5 and apply theorem 1 above limx-2 h(x) = limx-2 x + limx-2 5 x and 5 are basic functions and their limits are known. limx-2 x = -2 and limx-2 5 = 5 Hence, limx-2 h(x) = -2 + 5 = 3

2. lim [ f(x) - g(x) ] = lim f(x) - lim g(x) : The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits. Example 2: Calculate limx10 h(x) where h(x) is given by

h(x) = x - 7 Solution to Example 2: We may consider h(x) as the difference of f(x) = x and g(x) = 7 and apply theorem 2 above limx10 h(x) = limx10 x - limx10 7 x and 7 are basic functions with known limits. limx10 x = 10 and limx10 7 = 7 Hence, limx10 h(x) = 10 - 7 = 3

3. lim [ f(x) * g(x) ] = lim f(x) * lim g(x) : The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits. Example 3: Calculate limx-5 m(x) where m(x) is given by m(x) = 3 x Solution to Example 3: Let m(x) = f(x) * g(x), where f(x) = 3 and g(x) = x and apply theorem 3 above limx-5 m(x) = limx-5 3 * limx-5 x 3 is a constant function and x is also a basic function with known limits. limx3 = 3
and

limx- 5 x = - 5

Hence,

limx-5 m(x) = 3*(- 5) = - 15

4. lim [ f(x) / g(x) ] = lim f(x) / lim g(x) ; if lim g(x) is not equal to zero. The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits if the limit in the denominator is not equal to 0. Example 4: Calculate limx3 r(x) where r(x) is given by r(x) = (3 - x) / x Solution to Example 4: Let r(x) = f(x) / g(x), where f(x) = 3 - x and g(x) = x and apply theorem 4 above limx3 r(x) = limx3 (3 - x) / limx3 x 3 - x is the difference of two basic functions and x is also a basic function. limx3 (3 - x) = 3 - 3 = 0 and limx3 x = 3 Hence, limx3 r(x) = 0 / 3 = 0 5. lim nth root [ f(x) ] = nth root [ lim f(x) ]. If n is even, lim f(x) has to be positive. The limit of the nth root of a function is the nth root of the limit of the function, if the nth root of the limit is a real number. Example 5: Calculate limx5 m(x)

where m(x) is given by m(x) = SQRT[2 x - 1] Solution to Example 5: Let f(x) = 2 x - 1 and find its limit applying the difference and product theorems above limx5 f(x) = 2*5 - 1 = 9 We now apply theorem 5 since the square root of 9 is a real number. limx5 m(x) = SQRT(9) = 3