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Carbohydrates
 The Carbohydrates are composed entirely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have the general molecularformula
CH
2
O
, and thus were once thought to represent "hydrated carbon".Starch and cellulose are two common carbohydrates. Both are
macromolecules, polymers ( 
polysaccharides)
 ,monomers
( 
monosaccharides).
The monomers of both starch and cellulose are the same: units of the sugar
glucose
.
Sugars:
Monosaccharides:
 Three common sugars share the same molecular formula:
C
6
H
12
O
6
.
Because of theirsix carbon atoms, each is a
hexose.
They are:
 
1.
 
G
LUCOSE
.2.
 
G
ALACTOSE
.3.
 
F
RUCTOSE
.
Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose are
monosaccharides
. Two monosaccharides can be linked together to forma
disaccharide
.
Disaccharides: 
an example of three common Disaccharides:
1.
 
Sucrose
 
—
common table sugar = glucose + fructose
2.
 
Lactose
 
—
major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose
3.
 
Maltose
 
—
product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose
The molecular formula of each of these disaccharides is
C
12
H
22
O
11
= 2 C
6
H
12
O
6
 
− H
2
O
Polysaccharides:
Starches:
Starches are polymers of glucose. There are two types of starches:
 
1.
 
Amylose.2.
 
Amylopectin.
Starches are insoluble in water and thus can serve as storage depots of glucose.
Glycogen:
Animals store excess glucose by polymerizing it to form glycogen. The structure of glycogen is similar to that of amylopectin, although the branches in glycogen tend to be shorter andmore frequent.Glycogen is broken back down into glucose when energy is needed (a process called
glycogenolysis
).
 Cellulose:
Cellulose is probably the single most abundant organic molecule in the biosphere. It is themajor structural material of which plants are made.
 
Lipids:
 
All Lipids are hydrophobic, that’s the one property they have in common. This group of molecules
includes fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids (like cholesterol), and some other relatedcompounds.
Fats
and
oils
are made from two kinds of molecules:
glycerol
and three
fatty acids
  joined by dehydration synthesis.
Structure of Fatty Acids
The “tail” of a fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain, making it hydrophobic. The “head” of the
molecule is a carboxyl group which is hydrophilic.The terms
saturated
,
mono-unsaturated
, and
poly-unsaturated
refer to the number of hydrogensattached to the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids as compared to the number of double bondsbetween carbon atoms in the tail.
 
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are made from glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group with someother molecule attached to its other end. The hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids are stillhydrophobic, but the phosphate group end of the molecule is hydrophilic because of the oxygenwith all of their pairs of unshared electrons.The phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil.
 Steroids
 
A
steroid
is a terpenoid lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings. Steroids varyby the functional groups attached to these rings and the oxidation state of the rings. Hundreds of distinct steroids are found in plants, animals, and fungi.
The steroids are:
estrogen
,
 progesterone
,
corticosteroids
,
aldosterone
,
testosterone
, and
Vitamin D.
 
Proteins
Proteins are the most versatile of molecules, carrying out both most of the molecular functions andproviding many of the molecular structures that support life.The kinds of proteins are:·
Keratin:
It is a strong protein that protects epithelial cells from Non and mechanical stresses thatresult in cell death. It is found in hair, nails, skin and teeth.·
Collagen:
 
It is an abundant protein in tissues. Approximately a quarter of your body’s proteins are
collagen. It is found in all of our tissues like ligaments, skin, tendons, etc.·
Hemoglobin:
It is the protein that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and CO2 from the tissuesback to the lungs. It is found in the red blood cells.·
Actin & Miosyne:
 
These proteins are found in the muscles and they’re in charge of its contraction
and relaxation. 
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
A nucleic acid is a macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric nucleotides. The most commonnucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids are universalin living things, as they are found in all cells and viruses.
 
 
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is a nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers, which playsseveral important roles in the processes of transcribing genetic information from deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA) into proteins. RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and the protein synthesiscomplexes known as ribosomes, forms vital portions of ribosomes, and serves as an essentialcarrier molecule for amino acids to be used in protein synthesis.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the developmentand functioning of all known living organisms. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-termstorage of information and DNA Is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it contains theinstructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules.The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes
 
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