CH2104

–

Errors Associated with the Measurements of Various Quantities

To work out the % error involved in any measurement;% Error= (error/value) x 100The number of justifiable significant figures is determined by the precision of the measurement. Theerror always relates to the last significant figure.Errors Associated with the Measurements of Volume

Beakers/conical flasks

–

these give a rough indication of volumee.g. 100±10cm

, i.e. 10% error

Measuring cylinder

–

more precise than a beaker/conical flaske.g. 100±1cm

, i.e. 1% error

Volumetric flask/pipette/burette

–

much more accuratee.g. 20±0.01cm

Errors Associated with the Measurement of MassThere are two types of commonly used electronic balance;

Top-pan balances

–

quite accurate, weighs to ±0.01g

Analytical balances

–

very accurate, weigh to ±0.0001gWhen to Use Which Piece of EquipmentIn synthetic work a top-pan balance should always be used as the extra precision is not required.In preparative work less accuracy is required and again top-pan balances are used, along withmeasuring cylinders.In analytical work high accuracy is required, pipettes, burettes, volumetric flasks and analyticalbalances should be used.Preparing Solutions for Analysis-weigh out the required mass on an analytical balance-transfer to a beaker (recording actual mass used) for dissolution in the minimum required volumeof solvent-transfer quantitatively to a volumetric flask, washing the beaker into the flask along with anystirring rods used to ensure all of the dissolved solid is transferred-make up to the mark with deionised water and with the stopper in place shake vigorously to ensurehomogeneityBasic Reaction EquationsAs a generic example;mA

(x)

+nB

(y)

-> pC

(z)

where; A, B, C are the reagents and productsm, n, p are the stoichiometric valuesand x, y, z are the states (Solid (s), Aqueous (aq), Liquid (l), gaseous (g))Balancing EquationsIn general the rules regarding balancing equations are quite simple, the aim is to balance the

number of atoms of each element on either side of the equation, the stoichiometric values shouldbe integral numbers with no fractional values. The simplest option is often to count the number of atoms on each side and go back and forth attempting to make the values equal, however in somecases there are tricks to speed the process up.Acid-Base reactions

–

first balance the number of hydrogen atoms and then oxygen atoms.Redox ReactionsThese are reactions in which one (or several) reagents are oxidised while one (or several) reagentsare reduced.The easiest method of remembering which is oxidation and which is reduction is to use the acronymOILRIG.Oxidationisloss of electrons Reductionisgain of electronsAlso important to note is that an oxidising agent is, itself, reduced, whereas a reducing agent is,itself, oxidised.Chemical Structures and Names of CompoundsWhen drawing molecules;-draw carbon chains as

‘

zig-zags

’

-miss out the hydrogen atoms as well as the C-H bonds-only draw in carbon atoms of particular importance or functionality-to show stereochemistry represent bonds moving towards the reader as a wedge, , and awayfrom the reader as a dashed wedge,Some of the most common functional groups;

Carboxylic acid R=OHOAldehyde R=OHAmine R-NH

Ketone R=OR

’

Ester R=OOR

’

AlcoholR-OHAmide R=ONR

’

Alkyne R-

≡

-RAlkane R-H Alkene R=R

Nomenclature

Name No. of Carbon Atoms Name No. of Carbon Atoms

Methane 1 Hexane 6Ethane 2 Heptane 7Propane 3 Octane 8Butane 4 Nonane 9Pentane 5 Decade 10

Naming Organic Compounds

-identify the longest hydrocarbon chain present-indicate functional groups by prefix or suffix-indicate position of functional group by number, always using the lowest possible numbers-number along the hydrocarbon chainDouble Bond EquivalentsA double bond equivalent is a double bond or ring system as a double bond or ring leads to adecrease in the Carbon-Hydrogen ratio (by removing 2 hydrogens from the empirical formula).To calculate the number of D.B.E.

’

s in a given compound;

No.of D.B.E Equivalents=No.of Hydrogens in Parent Hydrocarbon

−

No.of Hydrogens in Given Formula2

Chemical AnalysisThere are two forms of chemical analysis;-gravimetric

–

dependent upon mass-titrimetric

–

dependent upon volumeThe burette is filled with a chemical of known concentration, thetitrant, this is fed into the flask containing the analyte, a knownvolume of solution or a known mass of a reagent.The point at which the amount of titrant added to the analyte isequal is known as the

equivalence point

.The

end-point

is then the point at which the reaction is completeand is often best detected using the colour change of an indicatorreagent although properties such as conductivity may be used.There are two types of titration;-

acid-base

for which an indicator is generally usedIndicators are compounds which are different colours at different pH levelsi.e. Methyl Orange;red-

yellow - colour changes

≈

3.2-4.4acid-basePhenolphthalein; colourless-pink- colour changes

≈

8.2-10.0 acid-base