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MICROWAVE TOMOGRAPHY APPROACH FOR UPPER LAYERSSUBSURFACE EXPLORATION VIA GPR
Francesco Soldovieri, Giancarlo Prisco
Istituto per il Rilevamento Elettromagnetico dell’Ambiente, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Via Diocleziano 328, 80124 Napoli, ph: +39 081 5704945,soldovieri.f@irea.cnr.it 
S.E. Hamran
Forsvarets ForskningsInstitutt-FFI, P.O. Boax2027 Kieller, Norway.
 
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IntroductionIntroduction
The possibility to exploit Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) in space exploration is well recognized as it can be inferred by the research activity in Marsissubsurface explorations with sensors onsatellite platforms and the development of GPR systems for in-situ exploration [1]. In particular, attention is focused towards landerand rover platforms for in situ diagnostics of the first layersof the subsurface where Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is one ofthe instrumentations of the package. GPR is usually exploited in a configuration, where the receivingand transmittingantennas are separated by a small fixed offset and are moved very close to or in contact with the ground-interface. A time domain trace is collected and for each antenna’s position, then thetraces are joined and processed in order to visualize the radargram. The interpretation of the radargramin order to achieve information about the scene is usually exploited on the basis of theoperator’s expertise and on the a priori information. In the last years, microwave-tomography based techniques have become an increasing popular interpretational tool over for ground- penetrating radar applications. By recasting data processing as an inverse scattering problem [2-4] the interpretation of the ‘image’ can be improved and, in addition because the microwave-tomography technique exploits a more refined model of the electromagnetic scattering phenomenon, this can help in the understanding of crucial aspects of a specific problem at a much deeper interpretational level.[4, 5].
[1] HamranS.E. , Berger T., HanssenL., ØyanM.J., CiarlettiV., Corbel C. , PlettemeierD., “A prototype for the WISDOM GPR on the ExoMarsmission “, Proc. of IWAGPR2007, Napoli, June , (2007).[2] A. Brancaccio, G. Leone, F. Soldovieri, R. Pierri, “Localization of interfaces embedded in a half-space by a linear inverse scattering algorithm”, IEEE Transactions on Geoscienceand RemoteSensing, Oct. 2007.[3] A. Brancaccio, G. Leone, F. Soldovieri, R. Pierri, “Subsurface localization of interfaces”, Proc. of IWAGPR2007,Napoli, Italy, June 2007.[4] G. Leone, G., F. Soldovieri., Analysis of the distorted Born approximation for subsurface reconstruction: truncation and uncertainties effect,
IEEE Trans. Geoscienceand Remote Sensing 
, 41,66-74, (2003).[5] PierriR., LisenoA., SolimeneR., SoldovieriF., Beyond physical optics SVD shape reconstruction of metalliccylinders,
IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagation 
, vol. 54, 655-665, (2006).[6] SoldovieriF., PersicoR., Leone G., Frequency diversity in a linear inversion algorithm for GPR prospecting ,
Subsurface Sensing Technologies and Applications Journal, Special Issue GPR2004,
vol.6, 25-42, (2005).[7] PersicoR., SoldovieriF., Reconstruction of a slab embedded in a three layered mediumfrom multifrequencydata under Born approximation,
Journal of the Optical Society of America, Pt. A
, vol21, 35-45, (2004).
 
Microwave tomographyMicrowave tomographyNumerical and experimental imaging resultsNumerical and experimental imaging results
ReferencesReferences
European Mars Science and Exploration Conference: Mars Express &ExoMarsESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 12 -16 November, 2007
We present a numerical example and the result of the processing of experimental data. In all the cases below, it is adopted the multi-monostaticmeasurement configuration with themeasurements collected along at the air/soil interface. In the model, the incident field source is assumed as a time-harmonic filamentary y-directed electric current radiating in a frequency band.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∫ 
′′′=
 Dsincsesss
r d r r  x E r  xGk  x E 
rrrr
 χ ω ω ω 
,,',,,
2
Scattered field datain frequency domainInversion of the linear integral equationTSVD schemeRetrieved contrast function
Geometryof the problem
The targets are invariant along the y-axis and their cross-section is assumed to be included in a rectangular investigationdomain. Theunknowns of the problem are the relative dielectric permittivityprofile and the conductivity profile inside D. Under BA, the relationship between the unknown contrast function and the scattered field data is provided by the integral equation [4, 6, 7]:E
s
( )
r 
′
r
 χ 
Inversion scheme
( )( )
1''
−=
bobject 
r r 
ε ε  χ 
contrastfunctionThe ‘unknown’ in the inversion problem is the contrast function,which accounts for the difference between the dielectric permittivity/conductivity of the objects and the soil. Thus, theresult of the reconstruction is a spatial map of the modulus ofthe contrastfunction within the region under investigation. G
e
(·) is Green’s function, E
inc
is the incident field andk 
s
is the wave-number in the in the soil.The linear model allows us to analyse the reconstruction capabilities of the solution algorithm in terms of the spatial variations of the retrieved ‘unknown’ target object and, ultimately, theachievable resolution limits as well as the spatial and frequency sampling that has to be adopted in the survey criteria [6, 7].The linear integral relation is inverted thanks to the SingularValueDecomposition (SVD) tool that allows to achieve the stability ofthe solution.The datum of the inversion algorithm is the field scattered by the buried object in the frequency domain while theraw-data are collected in time-domain and accounts for the total field; thus a pre-processing of the measurement is necessary.The first step is to “gate”the first part of all the time domain traces,which corresponds to erase the direct and surface wave contributions; this step roughly provides an estimation of the scattered field.After the choice of the time-zero, the data are Fourier transformed in frequency domain and finally they are processed by the inversion algorithm.
Pre-processing of the datacollected in time domainMeasureddata
ParameterValueRelative dielectric permittivity of the soil4Conductivity of the soil0.005 S/mRelative dielectric permittivity of the water80Conductivity of the water0.5 S/mSpatial step of the measurements 0.05mMeasurement domain 2 m (41 points spaced by 0.05 m)Frequency band100-1000 MHzFrequency step20 MHz (46 freq. exploited in the inversion)Investigation domain2 m (horizontal)x(1-3m) depthParameterValueRelative dielectric permittivity of the soil5.76Conductivity of the soil0.005 S/mSpatial step of the measurements 0.1mMeasurement domain 5 m (51 points spaced by 0.1 m)Frequency band100-700 MHzFrequency step10 MHz (61 freq. exploited in the inversion)Investigation domain5 m (horizontal)x(0.1-6.1m) depth
GeometryRadargram Normalizedmodulusof 
χ 
 Normalizedmodulusof 
χ 
Radargram
The measurements presented in this poster was collected in frontof two glaciers located at Svalbardat 78.55 degrees north. The annual mean temperature in the areais -6.3 degrees centigradeand the permafrost depth is estimated to be 100 meter. The measurements were done in April before melting had begun. GPR measurements were done with a Malaimpulse radar system using500 and 800 MHz with shielded antennas, see figure. The GPR datadisplayed to the left below were processed by first moving start time, DC-removal (de-wow) and applying gain as a functionof depth.A microwave tomographicalgorithm based on the Born Approximation (BA) [4, 6, 7]is here described. The adoption of the BA allows us to recast the problem as the inversion of a linear,integral relationship connecting the measured scattered field with an unknown contrast function. The geometry of the problem is presented in figure 1 and is concerned with a half-space scenarioand two-dimensional case. The adopted measurement configuration is multi-bistatic/multi-frequency. The scattered field is given as the ‘difference’ between the total field and the unperturbedfield E
inc
. The total field is the field reflected by the soil when buriedobjects are present, whereas the unperturbed field is the fieldreflected by the soil when the objects are absent and, therefore,it accounts for reflection/transmission at the air/soil interface and other reflections due to buried layers when these are accounted for in the reference scenario assumed for the model.
2 meter thicksediment layer20 meter thick iceLayering inside the ice
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THE NEW MARS CLIMATE DATABASE (version 4.2)
E. Millour
,
F. Forget
,
F. González-Galindo
,
A. Spiga
,
S. Lebonnois
,
K. Dassas
,
Laboratoirede MétéorologieDynamiqueduCNRS, IPSL, France 
,
S.R. Lewis
,
L. Montabone
,
Department of Physics and Astronomy 
,
The Open University 
,
UK 
,
P.L. Read
,
Atmospheric, Oceanic & Planetary Physics,University of Oxford 
,
UK 
,
F. Lefèvre
,
F.
Montmessin,
Service d’Aéronomie, IPSL, France,
M.A. López-Valverde
,
G. Gilli
,
Institutode Astrofísicade Andalucía 
,
Spain 
,
F. Montmessin
,
F. Lefèvre
,
Service d’Aéronomie 
,
CNRS 
,
France 
,
M.-C. Desjean
,
CNES 
,
France,
J.-P. Huot
,
European Space Research and Technology Centre, European Space Agency 
,
Netherlands 
What is the Mars Climate Database?
•The
Mars Climate Database
(MCD) is a combination of datafilesand software containing many statisticsand predictions of Martian environment. The database has been built from outputs of numerical simulationsof Mars’climate and atmospheric circulation using a
General Circulation Model
(GCM) developed at theLaboratoirede MétérologieDynamiqueduCNRS (France) in collaboration with the Open University (UK),the Oxford University (UK) and the Institutode Astrofisicade Andalucia(Spain) with support from theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) and the Centre National d’EtudesSpatiales(CNES, France).•The database was originally developed for mission design (re-entry studies) but it is also a convenient toolfor many other scientific studies such as modeling, data processing and interpretation, ...
Why a model-based climate database?
•
The Martian environment is highly variable
. In spite of the new observations available from MarsGlobal Surveyor, Mars Express and now, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, it remains difficult to predict theclimatic conditions on Mars at any time and any locations from available observational data. This isespecially true for climate variables which are not directly observed (e.g.: winds).•Martian GCMshave been extensively validated using available observational data and we believe thatthey represent the current best knowledge of the state of the Martian atmosphere given the observationsand the physical laws which govern the atmospheric environment and surface conditions on the planet.
Models can be used to extrapolate observations
What are the main features taken into account in this climate database?
•
The MCD includes
4 different dust scenarios
in order to better represent the range of variability of theMartian atmosphere due to the amount and distribution of suspended dust.•The MCD
extends into the thermosphere
, up to ~350 km (and more), since the GCM it is derived fromincludes a thermosphere model above ~100 km. Data corresponding to
3 Extreme Ultra Violet (EUV)scenarios
, which account for various states of the solar cycle (minimum, average and maximum), are thussupplied.•Much more than just the main meteorological variables are supplied, as the GCM includes a
full watercycle model
as well as a
chemistry model
.
New features in version 4.2 of the MCD
•
Improved access software
. The main Fortran program to use to retrieve and process database files is now“
call_mcd
”; it includes all the features of its predecessor (seasonal interpolation, choice of multiple verticalcoordinates, the possibility to specify input dates as Earth or Mars dates, etc…) and more:
•
RMS day to day standard deviations are now given
pressure-wise
(as in previous versions of the MCD) and
altitude-wise
.
•
A new “
high resolution mode
”has been implemented, which generalizes and extends the extraction of
accurate surface pressure
at a resolution of 1/32 of a degree.
Data that the v4.2 MCD provides
Mean values of variables
:
(stored at 12 local times of a typical day for each of 12 months)•Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature and winds (horizontal and vertical),•Surface pressure and temperature, CO
2
ice cover,•Atmospheric turbulent kinetic energy,•Thermal and solar radiativefluxes,•Dust column opacity and mass mixing ratio,•[H
2
O] vapor and [H
2
O] ice (columns and mixing ratios),•[CO], [O], [O
2
], [N
2
], [CO
2
], [H
2
] and [O
3
] volume mixing ratios,•Air specific heat capacity, viscosity and molecular gas constant R.
Variability of meteorological variables
: Various tools are provided to reconstruct variabilities
Perturbations
may be added as:•Large scale perturbations, usingEmpirical Orthogonal Functions(EOFs) derived from the GCM runs.•Small scale perturbations, by adding agravity waveof user-defined wavelength.
Standard deviations of main meteorological variables
are given for:•Surface temperature, surface pressure, dust opacity.•Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature and winds.These
RMS day to day variabilities
are given both
pressure-wise
and
altitude-wise
.
Atmospheric variations included in the MCD
Year to year variability and dust content variations
: Simulation of years with three different solarExtreme UltraViolet(EUV) inputs as well as with different dust content were done, corresponding to:
A baseline scenario
MY24
(Mars Year 24), based on assimilation of TES observations in 1999-2001.
Two scenarios which bracket reality: a
clear
(cold) and a
dusty
(warm) one.
A
global dust storm
scenario to represent conditions during such events.
Seasonal cycle
: In the MCD are stored
12 “typical” days
(average over 30°of Ls) around the year.Values at a given date are obtained by interpolation.
Diurnal cycle
: Environmental data are stored
12 times per day
; interpolation is used to evaluate values ofvariables at a given time of day.
Day to day variability
(e.g. representation of transient waves): Within a month, statistics of variations ofmeteorological variables are stored in the form of their standard deviations and EOF components.•
For intensive and precise work
: You will need the database DVD-ROM, whichcontains the data files (in NetCDFformat) and access software (which does all thepost-processing to include and account for sub-grid scales, day-to-day variations ofthe Martian atmosphere, etc…) as well as the lighter standalone high resolutionsurface pressure predictor “
pres0
”.The software is written in Fortran 77; works on Unix and Linux and can be ported toWindows. IDL, Matlab, Scilab, C and C++ interfaces to the MCD are also provided.Contactfrancois.forget@lmd.jussieu.frand/orehouarn.millour@lmd.jussieu.frfor a free copy.
Obtaining and using the database
MCD v.4.2 scenarios:Dust stormWarm (“dusty”)MY24Cold (“clear”)
OpportunityEntry profile(retrieved byPaul Withers)
Temperature (K)
   A   l   t   i   t  u   d  e   (   k  m   )
LEFT: Comparison between Opportunity entryprofile, retrieved by
Paul Withers 
and mean MCDprofiles obtained for various dust scenarios. Notethat Mars Express and MGS measurements showthat the atmosphere was then dustier than usual.LOWER LEFT:Same (
MY24
) temperature profiletopped with the three Solar EUV inputs.BELOW: Some MCD (
MY24
) predictions of speciesMixing Ratios along Opportunity’s entry trajectory.
   A   l   t   i   t  u   d  e   (   k  m   )
 
O
3
Ice Cloud
!
H
2
O VaporDust
Illustrative example:MCD data along Opportunity
’
s entry
•
For moderate needs
: You should use the World WideWeb site:http://www-mars.lmd.jussieu.frwhich givesaccess to:•All scenarios and variables.•A choice between 3 different vertical coordinates(pressure levels, altitude above areoidor abovesurface).•A wide range of output formats: Images (gif orpostscript files), NetCDFdata files, various formatsof plain text files.•Computations of user defined variables (average,min or max values,…).•An Earth date to Mars date (value of solarlongitude Ls) converter.
The online Mars Climate Database
Example n°2:Surface pressure at Viking Lander 2 site
•Surface pressure cycle over a Martian year, aspredicted by the MCD
MY24 scenario
at VikingLander 2 site, with an envelope of twice its standarddeviation, compared to the recorded values.•Switching from the baseline
MY24 scenario
to the
DustStorm scenario
enables to recover the change inbehavior recorded by Viking Lander 2 during the 1977global dust storm.
The high resolution mode
•
The GCM horizontal longitude×latitudecomputational grid is 5.675°×3.75°.
•
By combining high resolution (32 pixels/degree) MOLA topographyand Viking Lander 1 pressure records (usedas a reference to correct the atmospheric mass) with GCM surfacepressure, a corrected
high resolution surfacepressure
may be derived (as is done in our “
pres0
”utility).
•
The high resolution surface pressure can be used to reconstruct the vertical atmospheric pressure distributionand, within the restriction of the procedure, yield
high resolution values of atmospheric variables
.Sections of atmospheric temperature above
VallesMarineris
, in the early afternoon of Northern Hemisphere Springequinox, using MCD
low
(left) and
high
(right)
resolution
modes. Note that there is more than an order of magnitudebetween horizontal and vertical scales in these sections; what appear as sharp spikes are in fact much smoother, asplots using commensurate axes would show.
Accuracy of Mars Climate Database data
TheMCD has been validated using observational data from many available sources: Mars Global Surveyor (TES, RadioScience, accelerometer), Mars Express (SPICAM, PFS, OMEGA, MaRS), Viking Landers, Pathfinder, MER.
Example n°1:TES atmospheric temperatures
The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) onboard Mars Global Surveyor has nearly continuously monitored theMartian Atmosphere for almost 3 Martian years, yielding detailedinformation on the local and seasonal evolution ofatmospheric conditions on Mars.•
Left & middle plots
: Distributions of binned (using 1K bins) temperature differences (at 106 Pa pressure level)between MCD MY24 predictions and TES (2pm or 2am) measurements over Mars Years 24 and 25 (up to Ls=180, i.e.before the global dust storm) and for latitudes ranging from 50°S to 50°N. Displayed MEAN and RMS values arecomputed from the obtained histograms and the curves correspond to normal distributions of same MEAN and RMS.•
Right plot
: Same distributions evaluated this time between different MCD scenarios (
cold
, baseline
MY24
and
warm
).
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