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C~adian Foundation Engn~ering M~nual

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o,'

is calibration to field measurements, the analysis can only be used to provide general guidance.

20.2.4.4

Dynamic Formulae

Theassumptions made in the dynamic formulae (which ate also discussed in Chapter21) are oversimplified, and the resulta eannot always be related toaetual pile capacity. One reason is that the dynamic formulae input ~mmer-rated energy and not the aetually deUvered energy, whid1 as ind1cated above will result in considerable error. Nevertheless, when use<! by eompetent persons and related oto local experience, a dynamic formula can sti1l serve as a guide to engiMering ludg~ment. Howe\"er, dynamic formulae are best reptaced by other techniques.\.
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20.2.5

Negativa Friction and Downdrag on PiJes

When a day deposit, in ar through which piles have been installed, is subject to consoJidation, the resulting downward mO\Tementoi the day around fue piJes, as well as in any soil above the clay tayers, induces downdrag forces on fue piles thorough negative skin mction. The magnitude of the settlement needed to cause the negative skin friction is very small. For instance, observations by FeUenius and Broma (1969)and Fellenus (1972)to negative skin friction on pUes in a 40 m thkk day iayer indicate that the relative movement required can be smaUer than a millimetre. Such sman relativemavements occur easily as a result o the large stiffness differ~ce between the pile and ~il. With time, theretote, smaU movements or strams wiU ocCUtin any pottionof a P~J~ positive resistance along a lower portion oi a pUe are th norm rather thanthe exceptiort."' The simplest meU1.odof eomputing the negative ~ frietlon is to assume that it is proportional to the undrained shear strength oEthe soU, Terzaghiand Peck (1967). q" = U'tll

where

<In u 'tu

,.

..

,.

unit negative skin meton a redueton eoefficient ranging from.0.5 to 1.0 the undrained shear strength

Fieldobservationson instrumented piles have shownthat the negative skin frietan is a function of the effectivestress acting on the pile and may be computedin the same way as the positive shaft resistance, as detailed in Subsection20.2. It\most days and sUts,the magnitude of fue negativeskin friction,qn, approximates to a factor oi about 0.2 to 0.3.
The total drag load, Qn, for a single pile is:
Q,. ". q,. e D,.

whereC Dn

.. ...

shaft drcumference or perimeter length length oi pile embedded in settling soil

294

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Geotechnical Design of Deep Foundations

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Altematively, elastic methods can be used~ These methods suggest how downdrag relates to settlement (for example Poulos and Davis (1972, and provide a means of estimating the maximum downdrag force and its development with time. Various . theoretical solutions are avaUable for single pUes (Poulos and Davis, 1980). The design must consider the structural capadty, the settlement and the geotechnical capadty of fue pile., 20.2.5.1 Design Considering Downdrag

The design has to consider fue structural capadty, fue settlement, and fue geotechnical capadty of the pile. It is. important to realize that drag load and live load do not combine, and fuat two separate loading cases must be considered: permanent load plus drag load, but no live load; and permanent load and live load, but no drag loado Furthermore, a rigid, strong pUe will have a large drag load, but small settlement, whereas a less rigid and less strong pile will have a smaller drag load, but larger settlement. AIso, no pUe subjected to downdrag condition will settle more fuan the ground surface nearest the pile. As a first step in the design of the pile, fue neutral plane must be determined. The neutral plane is located where the negative skin metion changes over to positive shaft resistance. It is determined by the requirement that the sum of the applied dead load plus the drag load is in equilibrium with the sum of the positive shaft resistance and the toe resistance of the pile. The location of the neutral plane goveros both the maximum load iri the pile and the settlement of the pile.

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20.2.5.1 (1) Neutral plane

,

The neutral plane is found as the inlersection of two CUIVeS.First, as illustrated in Figure 20.3, a load distribution curve is drawn from the pUe head and down with the load value starting with the applied dead load and increasing with the load due to negative skin mction'crcting along the entire length of the pile~ Second, a resistance distribution curve is drawn from the pile toe and up, starting with the value ofultimate toe resistance and increasing with the .positive shaft resistance. The determination of the load distribution in a pile is subject to large ~certainty. To determine the distribution requires reliable information on the soUstrength. The theoretical analysis according to the method in Subsection 20.2.1~ 1 isrecommended. The analysis should be' supplemented with information from penetrometer tests, such as the SPT and the static cone penetrometer. For driven piles, the analysis should be combined with results from analysis of dynamic monitoring data (~ubsection 21.1.3). 20.2.5.1 (2) Structural Capacity The structural capacity of the pUe is govemed by the structural strength of the pUe at the neutral plane, when subjected to the permanent load plus the drag load live load is not to be inc1uded. (At or below the pile cap, the structural strength of the embedded

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295

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Foundation

Engineering 'Manual ~

pile is determined as a short column subjected to the pennanent load plus the live load, but drag load is to be exduded).
LOA O ANO RESISTANC: 01 STRIBUTI ON
ELASTlC COMPRESSION OF PILE
PI LE HEAO

SETTLEMEN

T DI STRI SI.: TION

GROUND SURFACE

Qd

..OAO

PI!.E.HEAO
I

SETTLEMENT

.
I I IR

,,

'bSETTLEMENT

SETTLEMENT

,
/'
PILE TOE

1"'"

NEUTRAL
PLANE

R t

a) :t: .... ...

b)

Figure 20.3: Calcula~on of the location of. the neutral planeand pile or a pUe group (after FeUenius, 1984a).

the ~ttlement of.a

At the neutral plane, the pUe is confined, anQthe maximwn combined load may be determined by applying a safety factor of 1.5 on the pilematerial strength (steel yield and/or concrete 284aY strength and long..term c:rushing skength of wood).

r
lf both the negative skin.friction and the positiveshaft resistance as well as the toe resistance values are determined, assuming soll-$trength -vatues 'etring"on the strong side, the calcu1ated maximum load in the pile will be on the conservative $ide.

20.2.5.1(3)

Settlement

As illustrated iI;\Figure 2O.3b, the settlement of the pUe head is foundby means of drawing a horizontal line from the neutral plane,as determined according to the foregoing method, to intersect with the curve representing the settlement distribution in the son surroundingthe pUe. The settlement of "the pileheadis'1Kp1a1 to the
.

settlement ol fue soUat fue elevation o the neutr-alplane plus fue elastic compression
of fue pile due to the applied dead load U\dthe drag Io4d (FeUenius, 1984a).

296

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Geotechnical Design of Deep FOundatign!

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One condition for the analysis iS thatthe movement at the pe toe must be equal to OI. exceed the movement required to mobilize the ultilate toe resistnce oi the piJe. In most soils, this required mo~ement is equal to about 1% to 2%oi thepUe toe diameter . oE driven piles anc.\.about 5% to 10% oi the toe diameter for bored pUes. lE tl:te movement is smallet than this required magnitude, the neutral plane will move higher up in the settlement diagram and the settlement will maease correspondingly. If so, however, the magnitude oi the settlement will normally be negUgible and correspond

to the elasticcompression of the pile.

The settlementcalculation should be carried out according to conventional methods (see Chapter 12) for the effective stress inaease caused by dead load on the pUe(s), surcharge, groundwater lowering, and/orany other aspect influencing the stress in the soil. The dead load applied to the pile cap should be assumed to act at an equivalent footing located at the level ofthe neutral plane and the load distributed &om this plane. The sett1ement oftbe pUecap is,the sum oi the settlement of the equivalent footing and the compression' oi thepUes above the neutral planeo Note that Figure 20.3 does not show the settlement due to the dead load acting on the equivalent footing at the neutral

~M.

~
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The reliability of the calculation of the distribution 0&,sett1ement depends on the

reliability oi theinput data, which in tum depend onthe completeness oi the site investigation programme. It is imperative that representative samples be obtained from a11 soil layers, including those below the pUe toe, and that the strength and compressibility propertes of the soil.be determined in the la1?oratory. In-situ testing metbods,. such as vane tests and static cone-penetrom.eter tests, will enhanee the

laboratory testing. .

For the case in which the structure is builtbefore the pote, pressures induced by the pUe jpstallation have dissipated, it is necessary to estin\ate the additional settlement caused

by the pore pressure dissipation. 20.2.5.1(4)

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Ge.o,technicalCapacity "

The last part ofthe design is t check the safety against plunging faUure oi the ple. In this case, the pUe moves down along its entire lengthand the downdrag is eliminated. TI'\erefore, the load is the combinatin oi the dead load and the live load no drag 10a<1~ -and th case is similar to that of' designing the aUowable load of a pUenot in a downdrag condition. .'. .

As stated by Fellenius (1984a),when thecapaty has been determined by static loading test or by dynamic testing method, a factor oi saiety of 2.0 or larger ensures that the neutral plane is located below the mid-point of thepe. When the capacityis calculated from soU-strength values, the factor oi safety should not be smaller than 3.0.

20.2.5.1 (5) Special Co~sideratlons

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Downdrag on piles eaused.by negative skinfriction is a settlement problem and rarely a capaty problem. According to the method recommended in this Section, it is incorrect to reduce the service load by any porton oi the drag load unless required by 297