APEX BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS

Can I really do a PhD?

Things to consider before I start
H.C Sikazwe-Newcastle upon Tyne, 2013

Table of Contents
1.0 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4 The Psychology of the PhD candidate ............................................................................................. 7 Critical thinking skills. ................................................................................................................ 8 Communication, presentation and writing skills........................................................................... 9 Self-knowledge. .......................................................................................................................... 9 Choice of University degrees ........................................................................................................ 11 Types of degrees ....................................................................................................................... 11 Bachelors Degree ............................................................................................................. 11 Masters degree ................................................................................................................. 12 MPhil degree in contrast to PhD ........................................................................................ 12

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

The Doctorate or PhD ................................................................................................................... 13 The Basics ................................................................................................................................ 15 Mastering a Subject................................................................................................................... 16 Extending Knowledge ............................................................................................................... 17 Relationship to Products............................................................................................................ 17 Research Activities ................................................................................................................... 18 The PhD Individual ................................................................................................................... 18 Intelligence: ...................................................................................................................... 18 Time: ................................................................................................................................ 18 Creativity: ......................................................................................................................... 19 Intense curiosity: ............................................................................................................... 19 Adaptability: ..................................................................................................................... 19 Self-motivation: ................................................................................................................ 19 Competitiveness: ............................................................................................................... 20 Maturity: ........................................................................................................................... 20

3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 3.6.8 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

What does it take to do a PhD? ..................................................................................................... 20 Time Management .................................................................................................................... 20 Tutors/Supervisors .................................................................................................................... 22 Use the Libraries ....................................................................................................................... 23 Other PhD Students................................................................................................................... 24

4.5 5.0 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

Undergraduate lessons .............................................................................................................. 24 The write-up ................................................................................................................................. 26 Conclusion and a few warnings: .................................................................................................... 27 Prestigious in itself .................................................................................................................... 27 A guarantee of respect for all the students opinions .................................................................. 27 A goal in itself .......................................................................................................................... 27 A job guarantee ......................................................................................................................... 27 A practical way to impress family or friends.............................................................................. 28 An occasion to test how smart one is ......................................................................................... 28 The only research topic they will ever pursue ............................................................................ 28 Easier than entering the work force ........................................................................................... 29 Some sincere warnings .............................................................................................................. 29 Be aware of Problems with supervisors.............................................................................. 29 Lack of communication ..................................................................................................... 30 Identify were training or help is required ........................................................................... 30 Absent supervisors ............................................................................................................ 30 Overbearing supervisors .................................................................................................... 31 Changing supervisors ........................................................................................................ 31 Loss of motivation ............................................................................................................. 31 "Second year blues"........................................................................................................... 32 Calling it a day .................................................................................................................. 32

6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3 6.9.4 6.9.5 6.9.6 6.9.7 6.9.8 6.9.9 7.0 9.0 10.0

Final thoughts ............................................................................................................................... 32 Remarks and thanks ...................................................................................................................... 33 Bibliography and references .......................................................................................................... 34

1.0

Introduction

A PhD is coveted by almost everyone who has personal desire to be recognised as an academically accomplished individual and can become an obsession if one is not careful to first stop and think clearly. This simple insight into what it takes to accomplish a PhD is a compilation from several institutions listed on the last paragraph in this paper. We have taken time to amalgamate thoughts coming from these institutions and the write up is not meant to be an academic guide but a supplement to individual institutions in which students are enrolled to attain this achievement. It might seem that getting a PhD is a matter of producing one big deliverable: the thesis. It's true that this is what a student submits and if it's not up to the required standard the student does not get a PhD award. It's much more appropriate, however, to think of a PhD as a journey, and not a destination, and in fact only part of a journey as there is a lot do after the viva voce is done. After getting their PhD award, many grandaunts get a research position within industry or academia, or a lectureship role in society. All of these require a range of skills and abilities; not just technical knowledge, but initiative, independence, people skills, communication skills and so on. By the time the final presentation is made, students are expected to possess all of these values, especially since these are the attributes employers look for. Many individuals start off thinking the program is as simple as writing a good paper that responds to a research question or hypotheses presented at the beginning of the program and only to later realise that they had not actually spelt out their originality from the onset. It can be extremely demoralising and people have been known to seek medical and psychological assistance after being on the program for about two years with little progress in terms of vision and conciseness. Students sometimes start a PhD thinking that they'll solve a substantial problem and have the last word on it. This is not likely, to say the least. It's nevertheless much more realistic for candidates to expect their work to add modestly to the body of knowledge on a subject, building on what was done before and being built on by later work. In a normal situation, this is all that's required or expected. So the scope of a students contribution is expected to be modest, and so too is its impact.

Here are some provoking questions: Have you ever thought about how many people are likely to ever read these theses? In most cases it will be less than ten people. Why? You may ask. The answer is simple, these works are practically boring and not from the natural world of normal individuals on the omnibus. How relevant will ones PhD thesis do you think will it be in ten or twenty years? Maybe never. In most cases it will only be of historical interest, if that (although foundational and theoretical work tends to have more staying power). So, given the modest scope and impact of most PhDs, what is their value? Why even bother? It's that by the time a student completes the PhD research, the student should have become a competent, independent, mature researcher. This is a personal achievement and rarely a societal achievement. The PhD is for the student primarily and secondarily for a few stake holders who rarely even bother to read the massive work. At best, most PhD work are basic reference books rather than informative works! On the other hand, having a PhD means that the individual can be expected to carry out good quality research on their own and that they have all the associated skills that come with independence research thinkers. The thesis is just the tangible evidence that the individual has acquired these abilities. The PhD is just basically part of an individuals journey as he or she drags industry to believe that the work they have done is credible and needed for enhancing the particular industry to have more value in knowledge. This is partly why students must pass a viva, and do so without input from their advisor, peers, supervisor or even their mentor. There are specific things that have to be taken into consideration when embarking on the PhD journey and we have tried to simplify the description of the PhD in the simplest manner through: (a) The candidate (b) State of mind (c) Choices of degree (d) PhD issues (e) Problems and help that is available This simple write-up requires that the candidate must consult with their institutions specific criterion for the procedure that is required to be followed and this work must be viewed as an independent evaluation from several initiations dictate s and that only the most salient parts are covered. It should not be used as an instructive piece of work but rather as check button when things

seem to be spiralling out of control. The write-up is not exhaustive but we request that it should be used with absolute clarity that their institutions program dictates take pre -eminence. Finally the student must understand why they are embarking on the PhD to even bother to read this work. Since most students have a wrong notion of why a PhD is done, we have taken time to simplify the vital reasoning of why students should embark on a journey of this magnitude. We think the overall aims in doing a PhD should be: (a) To become a competent, independent, mature and well-rounded researcher who is prepared to pursue an academic or scientific career away from normal life, (b) to do good research that will attract industry experts in the chosen field, (c) to enjoy it as it is only the student who will eat the pudding until the research is over, (d) to help others do the same by inspiring the onlookers when they see the enthusiasm. If the above reasons are hazy and are not clearly in the mind of a student, it is clearly possible that the student will struggle and most likely fail to realise the dream of achieving the coveted PhD award and might simply waste time and cause untold misery to not only those around the student, but those supervising the work.

2.0

The Psychology of the PhD candidate

Its easy to stereotype the PhD experience. New research students enter the PhD journey determined to make an outstanding contribution to their chosen subject. By the time they are in the final lap or stages of thesis-writing for the degree, they are determined and almost in a hurry to get it and forget it mood. Its normal to note that during the intervening years the students enthusiasm would have dampened by the demands of having to concentrate on a specific topic and conduct routine and laborious repetitive tasks in an atmosphere where nobody seems either to understand or to even care about their work. How sad this period is for candidates especially if their supervisor has given up on them and it is too late to start all over again as the deadline closes in like a hangmans noose around a condemned victim. It is during this time that the student is required to possess specific resilient qualities that the candidate should have been cautioned to authenticate before starting the journey. These students come into the university or college knowing precisely who they are: successful and intelligent holders of well-earned qualifications pre-doctorate qualifications. The PhD journey has a way of perforating this initial faade. It is not long before the student lose their initial confidence and begin to question their own self-image and academic abilities. This is the result of contacts (no matter how sporadic or from what distance) with the rigorous academic discourse they are confronted with. Such contacts could come from (a) Members of staff like aggressive supervisors and departmental affront to weak start-ups, (b) Fellow Postgraduates who are further into their research than the first-year PhD students, (c) Reading papers published in journals or presented at conferences in the field in question. These challenge the assumptions and conceptions that the young graduates had accepted as inviolable. In some cases, or lets say from this period of self-doubt and questioning, the successful postgraduates emerge with a new identity as competent professionals, able to argue their viewpoint with anybody regardless of status, confident of their own knowledge but also aware of its boundaries. This is the birth of a new person with marked difference from the beginner who was filled with the lack of confidence and academic wilderness originally exhibited.

This new identity permits the student to ask for information when they are aware that they don't know something and to express a lack of understanding when this is necessary, instead of pretending that there is no difficulty for fear of being thought stupid or ignorant. To arrive at this point is what being a PhD postgraduate research student really is all about. It is important that we look firstly at some specific qualities that are vital for survival along the journey and being devoid of would definitely result in failure and despair. Working toward the following more specific objectives/attributes will help the student to develop into a well-rounded researcher and though broad in nature are nevertheless exhaustive: 2.1 Critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking1 is the most important aspect of the PhD journey. This comes first in the list as it's simply essential for a researcher. Critical thinking requires awareness of meta-information. (Meta information is simply small segments of information about information. The main function of meta information is to provide some broad details about the focus and content of a larger body of more comprehensive information. Within the context of the emerging field of knowledge management, the perimeters for qualifying a particular segment as meta information has become fairly well defined.) It's not enough to be able to quote claim X. A student needs meta-information about X such as: How well the student understand it? What evidence is there for and against it? How reliable is the evidence? How well does the student understand the evidence? What alternative claims are there? How relevant is it to the students work? In short the student must have a critical attitude toward knowledge and how it is created. Learning isn't so much a process of adding information as critically integrating it with the students current understanding. If the student were to add information uncritically the work would end up with lots of contradictory statements with few links between them and little understanding to provide coherence. In contrast, critically integrating information involves iteratively revisiting assumptions and revising the acquired understanding in the light of any new information. This leads to changes in opinions, modification of old assumptions, and creation of new connections between ideas on a regular basis.

http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_thinking.htm

This is how deeper understanding is achieved, and where the insights and progress needed for PhD study arise. Writing, presenting and teaching about a subject are surprisingly good ways to stimulate this revision and integration. Much more could be said on the subject but suffice it to say critical thinking is the foundation of the scientific method and that the opposite, inversely being rigid, dogmatic, and fundamentalist thinking will get the student nowhere.

2.2

Communication, presentation and writing skills.

According to Wikipedia, Communication is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. This exchange requires feedback. The word communication is also used in the context where little or no feedback is expected such as broadcasting, or where the feedback may be delayed as the sender or receiver use different methods, technologies, timing and means for feedback. Communication is also seen as the articulation of sending a message, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc. By the end of the students PhD, the student should be able to publish and present ideas in different formats, be it in conference and journal papers, grant proposals, tutorials, hand-outs, newspaper articles and this to be availed to different audiences ranging from specialists, undergraduates, researchers from other fields, business people, the media, the public and mostly to the experts in the field of study. It's hard to overstate the importance of being able to communicate well. For one thing, good communication involves organising ideas into coherent arguments, and this is a prerequisite for effective research in the first place. That is, the ability to construct coherent arguments underlies both the ability to research well and to communicate well. How information is actually arranged in the students mind and communicated to audience happens to be part of the PhD journey. If the student is not able to articulate the research thoughts to an audience, failure is imminent.

2.3

Self-knowledge.

Self-knowledge is a component of the self, or more accurately, the self-concept. It is the knowledge of one's self and one's properties and the desire to seek such knowledge that guide the development of the self-concept (Sikazwe, 2011). Sikazwe writes that Self-knowledge informs us of our mental representations of ourselves, which contain attributes that we uniquely pair with ourselves, and

theories on whether these attributes are stable, or dynamic. The self-concept is thought to have three primary aspects: (a) The Cognitive Self2 (b) The Affective Self (c) The Executive Self (ability to direct ones life) It is important to understand that ultimately the success of a PhD depends entirely on one working independently and managing oneself and time effectively. This can be quite a change from any earlier studies that students could have been exposed to, where one was generally given small objectives on a regular basis, told what to read and so on. To work independently demands the student to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses. Its incumbent on the student to know what motivates them and how to motivate themselves when they are down and feeling out. Understanding ones learning style is key to having a hold of what works well for any of lifes endeavours according to Keefe, (1979). The student need to be fully aware of their learning style3 and habits; whether, for example, their instinct is for a broad-but-shallow or narrow-but-deep understanding, and whether they have difficulty deviating from their instinct (as many people do). As Peter Flach4 of Bristol University says: Doing a PhD is about the things you're not good at. In other words, if a student is good at maths, maths shouldn't cause the student any real problems. But if one is bad at time management, or don't work well when they are stressed, or have trouble explaining their thoughts, then they will have to deal with these problems before considering the extremely stressful and sometimes emotionally debilitating PhD Journey. A PhD journey is very good at uncovering any weaknesses an individual has. Incidentally, or more generally, a PhD is also about what the supervisor and department and so on are not good at and as

2 3

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/cognitive-behavioral-theory.html http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/styles.html 4 http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~flach/

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such the onus is on the candidate to have self-awareness to be able to complete the process of acquiring the PhD award independently.

2.0

Choice of University degrees

We all know the benefits that a college education can bring, but for many individuals, financial, family or geographical constraints often make this impossible to achieve. That is why it is important for a student to choose the best degree to embark on when an opportunity arises. In some cases, the candidate could be chasing the next promotion, or want to gain an extra qualification without having to leave their job and might want to take time out to study for it. For all these reasons, and many more, an increasing number of people are choosing to learn or embark on University degrees due to their rewarding trophy and the type of degree chosen affect the realization of individual dreams. Students have to be certain of what degree program they desire to undertake and degrees offered by different providers will vary enormously, so it is important for the student to do their research, just as you would for any university or college they chose to do it from. Most importantly, it is vital that the institution the student choose is properly accredited. This ensures that prospective employers would recognize the degree and guarantees that the tutors/supervisors and resources available meet certain specific international standards. Its also important that the student should check the schools record for past graduates and current students, as this can give a good indication of its quality. 2.1 Types of degrees

There are different types of digress offered by Universities and the most common ones are the ones listed below. The first degree that a University student undertakes is basically a bachelors degree, followed by a masters degree and finally ends with either an MPhil or a PhD in that order. Some students embark using a different route but the arrangement universally recognized is as indicated here with the specific distinctions.
2.1.1 Bachelors Degree

A bachelor's degree traditionally meant that the recipient had obtained a general education specializing at this level is a relatively recent nineteenth-century development and it has become fashionable for students to simply receive this degree and settle into professional life without adding

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any further education. Most students end at this level and do not see the reason to proceed to do any further studies as these degrees have become industry standard for most employees.
2.1.2 Masters degree

Primarily, a Masters degree is a licence to practise ones professional field. This is essential for providing credence to employers that one is properly qualified to carry out the demands of their chosen field or area of experts. Originally this meant to practise theology, that is, to take a living in the Church, but now there are master's degrees across a whole range of disciplines: business administration, soil biology, computing, and applied linguistics and so on. The degree marks the possession of advanced knowledge in a specialist field.
2.1.3 MPhil degree in contrast to PhD

The MPhil is a less advanced qualification than the PhD in which the student is expected to master a content area and can be completed in two years' full-time study. The MPhil dissertation is normally shorter than the PhD thesis. It is often used as a training course in advanced research work, and can be a preliminary stage for the PhD where it is necessary to learn the fundamentals of research and acquire new techniques, although more and more the newly introduced MRes is being used for this pur-pose. The MPhil is also a legitimate higher degree qualification in its own right and is considered as a mini PhD as it carries similar accolades of rigorous research etiquette and a lot of independent work. As with the PhD, it is not possible to spell out in bureaucratic detail what is required to obtain the MPhil in your subject now. You need to read successful dissertations in order to discover the standards expected. Here, but only in very general terms, are some ways in which the MPhil has been held to differ from the PhD. A candidate for an MPhil must undertake an investigation but, compared to the PhD, the work may be limited in scope and the degree of originality. Invariably, more emphasis is put on original work in the PhD and the PhD thesis involves greater depth than an MPhil dissertation. Greater synthesis and critical ability and also a more detailed investigation of any practical illustrations are expected from doctoral candidates.

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The MPhil can be limited to the replication of research already pub-lished. It is also acceptable for secondary sources to be used extensively. This means that for an MPhil it is legitimate to quote some authority quoting somebody else, for example, Sikazwe gives several definitions of originality (Smith and Owen, 2005). This would not be acceptable for a PhD thesis where the candidate for the degree would be expected to have read and evaluated Sikazwe in the original publication. In addition, although a full summary of literature is required, it does not have to be an evaluative review as in the PhD. The difference here is in the breadth and depth of the review as well as in the amount of critical appreciation that is expected. In a high quality MPhil, evidence is required of the ability to test ideas; understand appropriate techniques; make use of published work and source material; and show familiarity with different theories and empirical studies. Each university will have its own regulations concerning the MPhil degree and you must study carefully those which apply to you.

3.0

The Doctorate5 or PhD

A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that, in most countries, qualifies the holder to teach at the university level in the specific field of his or her degree, or to work in a specific profession. The research doctorate, or the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and its equivalent titles, represents the highest academic qualification. A doctor's degree historically was a licence to teach, meaning to teach in a university as a member of a faculty. Nowadays this does not mean that becoming a lecturer is the only reason for taking a doctorate, since the degree has much wider career connotations outside academia and many of those with doctorates do not have academic teaching posts. The concept stems, though, from the need for a faculty member to be an authority, in full command of the subject right up to the boundaries of current knowledge, and able to extend them. As the highest degree that can be awarded, it proclaims that the recipient is worthy of being listened to as an equal by the appropriate university faculty.

http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Doctorate

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Traditionally the doctorates of British universities have been named for particular faculty, for example: DD (Divinity), MD (Medicine), LLD (law), DMus (Music), DSc (Science), DLitt (Letters, i.e. Arts). These so called higher doctorates are awarded as a recognition of a substantial contribution to the discipline by published work. In British universities Doctor of Philosophy degree is a comparatively recent concept an early twentieth-century import from the United States. Some universities abbreviate the title to DPhil (e.g., Oxford, Sussex, York) but most use the designation PhD. Whatever the abbreviation, the degree is the same. It represents a more restricted achievement than the higher doctorates since it envisages a limited amount of academic work (three years or so), but it still embodies the concept that the holder of the PhD is in command of the field of study and can make a worthwhile contribution to it. There are a number of exceptions to these descriptions of the meaning of the degree titles, since British universities pride themselves on their independence 6. Traditionally, once an institution had become a university there were no laws that specified which degrees could be awarded, by which institutions, to whom and on what basis, as was the case in Continental Europe. This has now changed, as the Government has decided to designate certain Higher Education Colleges as `Teaching Universities', without giving them the right to award research degrees. Historically this independence has allowed, for example, the arts faculties of traditional Scottish universities to use the MA title for their first degree, but the science faculties use BSc. Traditionally there was no extra examination for an MA degree at Oxford and Cambridge, only a requirement to continue attendance at a college for a further two years. Nowadays this has been reduced to paying a registration fee after two years and obtaining the degree without attendance. In medicine the practice is even stranger: general medical practitioners are given the honorary title of Doctor although they do not have a doctorate from their universities. Indeed, on the basis of their university course they are credited with two bachelor's degrees, although having a licence to practise they exemplify the concept of a master's degree.

http://www.vitae.ac.uk/researchers/1248/Types-of-doctoral-degrees.html

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3.1

The Basics

A Doctor of Philosophy degree, abbreviated PhD, is the highest academic degree anyone can earn. Considering that earning a PhD requires extended study and intense intellectual effort, less than one percent of the population attains the degree. Society shows respect for a person who holds a PhD by addressing them with the title Doctor'. At a sordidly practical level, the PhD suggests that the individual is good enough at research to be appointable to a university post. A PhD is highly advisable for a career as an academic, or helpful for a career as a researcher in industry. PhDs are recognized around the world and tend to have pretty good quality control, MD a PhD from one country will be recognized in another without too much snobbery. Still at the practical level, if one has a PhD, they usually go onto a higher pay scale. There are other views of a PhD, as well. It can be viewed as an initiation rite, in which one undergo an ordeal and, if one comes through the ordeal in a creditable manner, they are admitted to membership of the academic clan. Continuing the analogy, having a PhD will not be enough to make one a Clan elder, but it will mark the transition to full adulthood. When one gets a PhD, one is immediately treated differently. Respect and awe from peers, family and friends becomes acceptable. More realistically, a PhD is a demonstration of research competence. There are certain things that one actually demonstrates through their dissertation: (a) Mastery of the subject (b) Research insight (c) Respect for the discipline (d) Capacity for independent research (e) Ability to communicate results and relate them to the broader discourse To earn a PhD, one must accomplish two cardinal things. In a nutshell, the student must: (a) Master a specific subject completely. Second, (b) One must extend the body of knowledge about that subject.

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These two aspects of the PhD are so important that if they are missed out, the PhD journey is completely botched and would never meet the standards of a credible thesis with acceptable international University standards. It is important to have a look at the implication of these two aspects in a more detailed manner.

3.2

Mastering a Subject

This is key to the program. Understanding this aspect of the program makes or breaks the PhD journey. To master a subject, a student searches the published literature to find and read everything that has been written about the subject. In scientific disciplines, a student begins by studying general reference works such as text books. Eventually, the student must also search scholarly journals, the publications that scientists use to exchange information and record reports of their scientific investigations. A lot of secondary information must be collated and used to master the subject field. The student is expected to use data which the student personally reads without using quotations from other authors who have quoted other writers. The data must all be data that has been specifically handled by the student and should never be in the third party position. Each university establishes general guidelines that a student must follow to earn a PhD degree, and each college or department within a university sets specific standards by which it measures mastery of a subject. Usually, in preparing for PhD work in a given field, a student must earn both a Bachelor's and Master's degree (or their equivalent) in that field or in a closely related field. To demonstrate complete mastery of the subject, a student may be required to complete additional graduate-level courses, maintain a high grade average, or take a battery of special examinations. In many institutions, students must do all three. The examinations given as part of a PhD curriculum assess expert knowledge, they are created and evaluated by a committee of experts, each of whom holds a PhD degree.

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3.3

Extending Knowledge

The essence of a PhD, the aspect that distinguishes PhD study from other academic work, can be summarized in a single word: research, research, and then more research. To extend knowledge, one must explore, research, investigate, and contemplate and then research. The scientific community uses the term research to mean capture the idea first. In scientific disciplines, research often implies experimentation, but research is more than mere experiments it means a deeper (a) interpretation and (b) Deep understanding of research field and its implications on the society. PhD researchers must look for new abstractions, new approaches, new algorithms, new principles, or new mechanisms, new ideas, new solutions, new information application, new models, new systems and anything absolutely unique and never used or applied before in the field of study sought for by the research student. The student must conduct independent research parameters that have never been used or encountered by any other research work elsewhere in the entire universe. The research must be used as a stop-gap and should be the missing piece/model/solution etc that the field of study could be missing. This addition of knowledge to the knowledge bank is what makes the PhD exercise absolutely different from any other degree that a student can get involved in. To complete a PhD, the student must present results from their research to the faculty/institution in a lengthy, formal document called a dissertation, more popularly referred to as a thesis. The student must then submit their dissertation to the faculty and defend their work in an oral examination called a viva voce. The ability to communicate the research is key to the research quality and purpose.

3.4

Relationship to Products

In some cases, the results of scientific research can be used to develop new products or improve those that exist. However, scientists do not use commercial success or potential commercial profits as a measure of their work; they conduct investigations to further human understanding and the body of knowledge humans have compiled. Often, the commercial benefits of scientific research are much

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greater in the long-term than in the short-term.

3.5

Research Activities

Using computer Science research systems as an example of PhD exercise, we can include such diverse activities as designing and building new computer systems, proving mathematical theorems, writing computer software, measuring the performance of a computer system, using analytical tools to assess a design, or studying the errors programmers make as they build a large software system. All these steps are taken by a researcher who chooses the activities appropriate to answer each question that arises in a research investigation, and because new questions arise as an investigation proceeds, research activities vary from project to project and over time in a single project. A researcher must be prepared to use a variety of approaches and tools and innovation is key to the method applied. This means there is no PhD that is ever going to be a standard for others to use.

3.6

The PhD Individual

It is important at this juncture to scrutinize the individual taking this course of life. There are specific qualities that the student need to have and it is paramount to list in principle the criterion that the individual should possess to embark on this tedious and tenuous journey to obtain the PhD achievement. It is difficult for an individual to assess their own capabilities. The following guidelines and questions may be of help to anyone considering this gruesome journey:

3.6.1

Intelligence:

The students level of intelligence starts at the lower academic times w hen students were pursuing undergraduate studies. There are questions to be asked like whilst in college and graduate courses, like, was the student closer to the top of their class or the bottom? How well did they do on the formal or other standardized tests within institutions? The answer should be self-telling.
3.6.2 Time:

The student must ask themselves if they are ready or prepared to tackle a project larger than any that they have ever undertaken before. They must commit to multiple years of hard work. Are they

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willing to reduce or forego other activities in life? No life at all for long spells of time spent alone doing things they do not actually enjoy doing nor does anyone seem concerned that they are doing it in the first place? These are simple issues but when the practical work begins, is the students time ready to be sacrificed for the PhD journey?
3.6.3 Creativity:

Research discoveries often arise when one looks at old facts in a new way. Does the student shine brighter than all? Do they shine when solving problems? Do they like doing brain teasers' and similar puzzles? Are they good at solving them? In school, did they find advanced mathematics enjoyable or difficult? Just how creative is the student? Does their imagination go wild? How often?
3.6.4 Intense curiosity:

Have the student always been compelled to understand the world around them and to find out how things work? A natural curiosity makes research easier. Did the student fulfill minimum requirements or explore further on their own? Just how nosey is the student regarding things around them and how they function, operate, inter-mingle or even exist? How much do they want to know how the wheels are turning regarding things around them?
3.6.5 Adaptability:

Most students are actually unprepared for PhD study. They find it unexpectedly different than course work. When they suddenly get thrust into a world in which no one knows the answers, students most times flounder. Can the student adapt to new ways of thinking? Is innovation natural? Can they tolerate searching for answers even when no one knows the precise questions in the first place? How strange is their attitude when faced with new information that conflicts with their original thinking?
3.6.6 Self-motivation:

By the time a student finishes an undergraduate education, they would have become accustomed to receiving grades for each course each semester. In a PhD program, work is not divided neatly into separate courses, supervisors do not partition tasks into little assignments, and the student does not receive a grade for each small step. Is the student self-motivated enough to keep working toward a goal without day-to-day encouragement? Or knowing whether what they are doing is incremental?

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3.6.7

Competitiveness:

When the student choose to enroll in a PhD program, they are poised to compete with others who are also at the top. More important, once they graduate, their peers will include some of the brightest people in the world. They will be measured and judged in comparison to them. Are they willing to compete at the PhD level? Do they have what it takes to behave objectively discarding emotions?
3.6.8 Maturity:

Compared to coursework, which is carefully planned by a teacher, PhD study has less structure. The student has more freedom to set their own goals, determine their daily schedule, and follow interesting ideas that lead them where no one has been before. Are they prepared to accept the responsibility that accompanies the additional freedoms? The students success or failure in PhD research depends on the level of maturity of one uses unfettered freedom. Lets look at what is really involved in carrying out the PhD and the demands it has on the individual.

4.0

What does it take to do a PhD?

As mentioned in the introduction, it is a truth that it is universally acknowledged that a PhD student in their first year will spend most of that year sitting in a library wondering what on earth they should be doing. They will then spend the next two or more years wishing they had put that wasted first year to better use. Unfortunately nobody ever warns students about this. In fact the Wasted First Year is just one of many PhD hazards that nobody ever warns students about. This is then followed by loneliness, poverty, and helpless tutors/supervisors who think that it is their responsibility to ensure that the student suffer as much as they did. To avoid the period draining a student during this period, here are a few survival tips;

4.1

Time Management

Time management is vital for the PhD student. Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity. Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals complying with a due date. Initially, time management referred to just business or work

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activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Time management is usually a necessity in any project development as it determines the project completion time and scope. From the outset, students may well be given a well-designed and clear timetable/plan of their project, carefully listing by which time certain activities should have been completed. If all falls according to such plan, then that student is extremely fortunate. Such a student is extremely lucky. Or, some students maybe sharp and clever enough to carry out the most articulate work in providing background Research, brainstorm, draft chapters, collect data and even have a draft of what they wish their thesis to be framed like. Confidence and motivation might be swinging high and there could be no foreseeable problems and this could make the student to relax and lose motivation. Unfortunately, the PhD life is all about self-motivation. Those people who lack sufficient selfmotivation will not be able to establish a good work routine, and will soon find themselves sleeping until noon, miserable and/or depressed, devoid of all social skills, and quite possibly with an addiction to tea/coffee, chocolate and day-time television. It is imperative that the student treats each day like a day job. The student must set strict working hours and study activities, and if possible to work hard and complete tasks in the time allotted like a good employee. It is important that students must have skills and abilities to (a) set priorities and manage their time to meet deadlines, (b) set and achieve goals, (Smart goals) (c) effectively organize their daily actions, (d) make smarter decisions faster, (e) uncover better options to achieve work, (f) work with the supervisor and those that can provide help (g) prevent burnout,

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Personal goal setting 7 is so important in personal time management during the PhD journey that students need to know how to implement this prior to embarking on the project. From the time PhD journey starts, the student need to have a strict management perspective. Their life should be seen as a sequence of big and small choices and decisions that have an impact on the outcome of the PhD program. It is those choices that students must really manage, not the flow of time. Personal goal setting is the wisdom that comes out of a lot of practical experience and psychology research to help the student direct their conscious and subconscious decisions towards success, building up their motivation to achieve personal or academic success.

4.2

Tutors/Supervisors

A supervisor plays multi-disciplinary role at working with a PhD student. A good supervisor is hard to come by and anyone who gets a good supervisor is really fortunate. There are 3 main types of supervisors. (a) The Let you Get On With it and Come to me when you have something supervisors. (b) The Breathing Down Your Neck supervisors and (c) The I Never Had Any Help or Support and so neither will you supervisor. The third variety are the most dangerous and should be avoided at all costs. Unfortunately, in most cases the student will not notice that their tutor has such a sadistic mentality until they have been working with them for months or even years. The best thing to do is to establish good communication and warm relationship from the very beginning. If it is clear that your supervisor is incapable of listening to the student, the student should immediately request for a change of supervisor before it gets too late to change. The situation is unlikely to improve. Find another tutor/institution, and work with somebody who you can relate to. In a perfect world, the supervisor should be a friend and one who has mutual respect with the students work and should possible act or assist

http://www.goal-setting-guide.com/personal-goal-setting/

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 As a Planner or advisor when a student is stuck. A supervisor must push the student to work according to the students abilities. As a Guide and Leader - A PhD supervisor acts as a mentor and possible provide a beacon of guidance to the student. In fact, he plays a role of inspiring to the student. As a Mediator - A Supervisor is called a linking pin between the institution and the student. He is the spokesperson of the institution as well as the student and must constantly play this role. As an Inspector - An important role of the supervisor is to enforce discipline in the PhD student and must not hesitate to mention to the student when the student seems to be struggling with discipline issues. . For this, the work includes checking progress of work against the time schedule, recording the work performances at regular intervals and reporting the deviations if any in subsequent meetings with the student. He can also frame rules and regulations which have to be followed by the student during their work. Such a supervisor is rare and can be priceless when the chips are down. As a Counsellor - A supervisor plays the role of a counsellor to the students personal problems. He has to perform this role in order to build good relations and co-operation from the student. This can be done not only by listening to the grievances but also handling the grievances and satisfying the student when the student is down and almost out.

4.3

Use the Libraries

Libraries8 are full of strange people, often with the most bizarre study habits. It is assumed that as a post-graduate student, the student will be aware of how to use a library. This may be true as far as the finding and borrowing of books, but library etiquette is a world in itself. Things which may have never bothered a student in the past can quickly build into extremely irritating things if you are not prepared. These may include first years studying in noisy groups, people who clear their throats at frequent intervals, and girls roaming the library aisle wearing high-heeled shoes. So, a student needs to try to find a quiet section, or, if absolute silence makes the student uncomfortable, to find a busy spot. Make sure there is plenty of natural light, as with airplanes, the window seats go first so there's another reason to get in there early. The student needs to know the importance of taking
8

http://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit03/libraries03_02.phtml

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breaks to stretch the legs and clear out the brain, avoid library fines like the plague and never ever leave their laptop unattended. The student needs to know the library systems of indexing, storage, borrowing, location and versioning of the library books and information out there in the library. It is important that the student gets to know when the periodicals, journals and newspaper editions are available for easy and quick access. The use of electronic borrowing systems becomes something the student must familiarise with and use extensively. This knowledge is not easy if the student is not akin to the use of computer etiquette and the advantages of being up to date with new library systems that are ever changing rapidly. The use of CD rums and audio systems in local or institutions library needs to be known.

4.4

Other PhD Students

It is important for a student on a PhD to be careful of the impact of other PhD students in the department as they can either build or destroy the motivation that is hard earned. There is nothing more irritating than having another PhD student in the department who seems to have it all worked out. They are making steady progress and can't see what all the fuss is about. Possibly more annoying are the students who whinge constantly about their workload or make a point of telling other students that they have been working since the sun came up. These type of students need to be avoided because they are disingenuous. The PhD student must never fall into the trap of comparing their situation with those of others. No two PhD's are ever the same. A little competition can be a motivator, but in general the student must endeavour to mingle with students who have a positive or helpful attitude. If that is not possible, then the student should find a PhD blog or try to meet with other PhD students at University events where the intention to meet is to provide positive help for one another. It is important to remember that in undergraduate education a most work, in academic terms, is organized for the student and this is different at PhD level.

4.5

Undergraduate lessons

Looking back at undergraduate time might help the student to see that although they were required to do a considerable amount of work, for example, syllabuses were laid down, textbooks were specified, practical sessions were designed, and the examinations were organized to cover a set range

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of topics in questions of a known form, and so on. Yet at PhD, all is left to the student to master all these different skills and planning for the PhD journey to be completed in the stipulated time. During the undergraduate period, the student could quite reasonably have complained if asked about an extraneous subject, But no one told me that I was supposed to learn that topic or methodology or theory or historical period. For the most part the students were following an academic course set by the institutions. In doctoral education, the students have to take responsibility for managing their own learning and for getting themselves the PhD. Fortunately, there are frameworks around to help the student like the supervisor(s), other academics in the department, fellow students and the resources provided by the institution. These frameworks will even try to guide or even tell the student, in their opinion, what the student need to do to obtain the PhD degree. It cannot be overemphasised that ultimately, the responsibility for determining what is required, as well as for carrying it out, remains firmly with the student. The student will not be traversing a set course laid out by others but will be expected to initiate discussions, ask for the help that is need, argue about what route the course should be taking, and so on. The student is under self-management, so it is no use sitting around waiting for somebody to tell them what to do next or, worse, complaining that nobody is telling them what to do next. Supervisors will have only a general interest in the results of the student's research, and will act more as role models than as apprentice-masters. The danger to watch for in this culture is the neglect of the student for long periods of weeks, months, even years. It must be remembered that students need the regular support of supervisors if they are to develop sufficiently to achieve the PhD degree. The student must find institutions that are encouraging team supervision rather than only one supervisor. In recent years universities have found that it is not in a student's best interest to rely on only on one supervisor for each student. Having one supervisor can be a trap for disaster especially if there is a fallout during the process (This is very common!).Supervisory teams with two or three members are being established in many departments, with a lead (or main) supervisor and one or two associate supervisors. This team must contain a subject specialist and someone responsible for pastoral support. The team system can allow for new supervisors to learn how to supervise more effectively under the guidance of an experienced member of the department. Others involved in

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supervision, perhaps at times of upgrading or controversy, might be the departmental head and the research tutor.

5.0

The write-up

Here are tips on how to achieve a better write-up culture. The best way to write the proposal and dissertation is to block out times during the day specifically reserved for writing. It is practically not possible for a student to write something this large and yet casually involved by writing fifteen minutes here and another thirty minutes there. (a) Novelists and playwrights dont write that way, and neither should any student. The student must make specific appointments with themselves to simply sit and write. The student must never wait for inspiration. Most of the time, writing is work, and good writing takes time; so the student must never rely on inspiration to get through their proposal and dissertation. (b) Its always helpful to have some paper and a pencil handy so that the student can write things down as they think about them. (c) The student must never rely on their memory because they may easily forget later. (d) Students must watch out for momentary inspirations that come surging and sometimes, those moments of inspiration come when the student is actually in front of their computer, working on their manuscript. Those are the best moments when the words fly out of their head faster than they can type them, and the manuscript seems to just write itself. Admittedly, such moments are rare and must be celebrated. (e) The student must not let things (or other people) become distractions. Admittedly, this is hard to do at times. (f) The student must develop a habit of writing and if possible must force themselves to write, preferably at the same time every day. (g) Developing writing skills become easier as the student train themselves to turn on their writing skills on a regular basis. The more the student writes, the better they become at it. (h) The student must treat the dissertation as would a regular job. (i) Finally, the student must think of themselves as a writer. Take note, keeping ideas in the head doesnt make one a writer; writing does.

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6.0

Conclusion and a few warnings:

It is absolutely strange to discover that students sometimes enroll in a PhD program for all the wrong reasons. There are a few misconceptions about the PhD that need to be thrashed with any student who wants to embark on this journey. Students who start off on all the wrong footing find that after a while, the requirements on the journey begin to overwhelm them. That is why it is pivotal that before starting off, the student should realize that a PhD is not necessarily:

6.1

Prestigious in itself

Almost everyone who has obtained a PhD is proud of their efforts and the result. However, they soon come to understand that once they graduate, they work among a group of fellow achievers who each hold a PhD degree and as such not so special anymore and the achievement loses its glitter. One supervisor once chided an arrogant group of graduate students by saying, I don't see why you think it's such a great accomplishment, all my friends have a PhD!''.

6.2

A guarantee of respect for all the students opinions

Many students believe that once they earn a PhD, people will automatically respect all their opinions. They soon learn, however, that few people assume a PhD in one specific subject automatically makes them an authority on others. It is especially true in the science communicate; respect must be earned. After graduating, the work of gaining respect then begins and not on graduation day.

6.3

A goal in itself

A PhD degree simply prepares one for research. If all a student wants is a certificate to hang on the wall, there are much easier ways to obtain one. After the student graduates, they now have occasion to compare their record of accomplishment to those of other students. They soon realize that what counts is the research work accumulated after a graduation is achieved together with their formal education path. More work and conduct after graduation makes the achievement worth the while.

6.4

A job guarantee

When an economy slows down like the global recession that the world economies experienced, everyone suffered including PhD holders. In fact, some companies reduce research before they

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reduce production, making PhDs especially vulnerable. Furthermore, once a person earns a PhD, many Organisations will not hire such a person for a non-research position. As in most professions, continued employment depends on continued performance and not on academic achievements.

6.5

A practical way to impress family or friends

Immediate family and friends may be proud and excited when a student enrolls in a PhD program. After all, they imagine that they will soon be able to boast about their family member or close friend the doctor and obtain personal status through that. However, a desire to impress family members and close friends is seriously insufficient motivation for the effort required to obtain the achievement. There should be more that motivates the student than prestige.

6.6

An occasion to test how smart one is

This is a wrong motivation to start the PhD journey. Unless the student make a total commitment, they will fail. The student should be conscious that they will need to work long hours, face many disappointments, stretch their mental capabilities, and learn to find order among apparently chaotic facts. Unless they have adopted the long-range goal of becoming a researcher, the day-to-day demands will wear the student down. Standards peculiarly will seem unnecessary high; rigor will seem unwarranted, and if the student only consider the PhD journey simply a test, they will eventually walk away and feel totally devastated with disappointed with themselves.

6.7

The only research topic they will ever pursue

Many students make the mistake of viewing their PhD topic as a research area for life. They assume each researcher only works in one area, always pursues the same topic within that area, and always uses the same tools and approaches. Experienced researchers know that new questions arise constantly, and that old questions can become less interesting as time passes or new facts and information series are discovered. The best researchers change topics and areas of expertise constantly. It keeps them fresh and stimulates thinking. It is important to keep options open and plan to move on when the horizon changes. The student should prepare for change in life persuasion and must keep researching and finding out new and effective application of new found information. The work does not end on graduation but it is simply the beginning of a life of constant changing faade.

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6.8

Easier than entering the work force

The student will soon find that the path to successful completion of a PhD becomes much steeper after they begin work. The faculty impose constraints on the students study, and do not permit unproductive students to remain in the program and they soon find themselves kicked out and back to being part of the workforce they try to run away from. This journey is actually for the best from the academic and professional life who want to change the world.

6.9

Some sincere warnings

It is now appropriate to discuss some specific issues that confront students when they start on the PhD journey. Before starting on the PhD journey, a PhD student should ALWAYS begin by talking to someone who has done it and accomplished. This should be done the earlier the better! Top of the list is talking to the supervisor (s) who will definitely have proven themselves already. If the student does not feel confident speaking to supervisors directly, it would help putting everything in writing. Not only will it be documented but it may be easier to order the students thoughts and to put points across without duress. Alternatively, if the student does not approach the supervisor, it would be good to raise any issues at the formal initial meeting with supervisor. The PhD program director; or head or manager of graduate school would be the next best person to discuss the initial thrust of the PhD proposal. Most institutions or universities often have support services designed to help the student such as the counselling, student unions, chaplaincy, career advisers, research development advisers and international officers.
6.9.1 Be aware of Problems with supervisors

The student who comes out as being proud and I already know what I want to do and do not stand in my way attitude will always have problems with any supervisor. PhD students can be proactive in the supervision process but must strictly keep cordial and respectful relationships with the supervisor otherwise the journey is botched even before it commences.

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6.9.2

Lack of communication

Often the root of disagreement and difficulties between a supervisor and a PhD student is a lack of communication. The supervisor-supervisee relationship is one of the pillars on which PhDs are built. This relationship will evolve over time so the dynamic will change. An experienced supervisor knows more about the students project and its context than the student does and should be allowed to guide the student in the first steps. By the time the student will be half way on the journey, the experienced supervisor will allow an exchange of ideas and debating of results. By the third year the student should be the expert, with nobody but really himself knowing more about the research. This require good communication and if it is missing, it is a recipe for disaster. Ideally expectations from both sides should have been discussed at the outset but it is never too late to address it if the student finds his expectations are not met or if they feel somewhat disappointed by the supervisor.
6.9.3 Identify were training or help is required

The student must share concerns with supervisor about where the project is and where it is going. The student should ask about techniques, resources and recommended reading which could help. The student will be surprised what effective communication can achieve. Students normally find that the supervisor had no idea that the student was struggling. Nevertheless the student should be realistic with the demands and expectations, supervisors are busy academics and researchers, often juggling teaching, research, pastoral or administrative roles.
6.9.4 Absent supervisors

Having stated the importance of communication, how do students reach out to a supervisor who just isn't there? This problem is one of the most common problem that PhD students face when on the journey. The first step is to try and find out, without being indiscrete, why the supervisor is not available: do they have research commitments abroad? Are they involved in senior-level work with the institution, the Government, public organisations or industry? Are they part-time? The best way to solve this problem is to arrange a formal meeting to discuss scheduled contact times which would mutually appeal to both the student and the supervisor. With the advent of technology, meetings do not have to be face-to-face. Other forms could be arranged exploring the possibilities of online meeting like teleconference or phone support that could be available through the university.

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6.9.5

Overbearing supervisors

An Overbearing supervisors, who constantly looks over a students shoulder can be as much a problem as absent supervisors. The student should communicate firmly with such a supervisor to let them know that meeting too frequently was counterproductive and the student explain to the supervisor that the student has the skills and the enthusiasm to take the project forward. If it doesn't work and becomes unbearable, the student should try to work from home or at the library to get some space whenever possible.
6.9.6 Changing supervisors

There are many reasons why the student may consider a change in the supervisor and most universities have a process in place for this. If the students research has changed in scope considerably, it is perfectly reasonable to consider having an additional supervisor or to change completely. It is a very positive thing to seek the right expertise and guidance for any PhD. However, it is prudent to discuss any drastic changes with the current supervisor, especially if the reasons are any of the issues discussed above so they are aware of what went wrong. Considering that one of the main skills PhD students develop is self-reliance, being able to work without constant supervision, a skill which employers value, being without a supervisor for short spells could prove positive whilst arranging a replacement supervisor. Depending on the stage of the PhD, a change of supervisor may prove to be disruptive rather than a benefit.
6.9.7 Loss of motivation

Motivation will not always be up there where a student want it to be. The student needs enthusiasm, optimism and dedication to do a PhD. A PhD is a long project, probably more than one would have expected. As with all things, motivation will have highs and lows unless the student finds ways to keep things varied, interesting, realistic and rewarding. Its good to always bear in mind that the PhD is primarily the st udents own project and as such the fuel to complete must always intrinsically come from within the students own fighting spirit. Qualities that the student needs to develop as a PhD student are determination and a desire to succeed under whatever cost.

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6.9.8

"Second year blues"

This is a well-known phenomenon. Following the initial high of being a PhD student and the enthusiasm of taking forward the accepted research project, the motivation and morale may take a sudden slump causing the student to experience what has commonly come to be referred to as second-year blues. Most students with their PhD achievement will attest to this weird phenomenon and will advise that this eventually goes away by the time the third year write-up period begins. This should be discussed with the supervisor and must not be ignored because it is the time that most students lose time resulting in rushing through the last year, with devastating consequences.
6.9.9 Calling it a day

With regular occurrence students embark on a doctorate and then later decide it is not for them. There is nothing wrong with that. In the end, a PhD is for the student so one should not continue with the PhD worrying about disappointing someone out there. Students who make such decision have subsequent successful careers and lives because it equally shows their ability to know when they are beaten and making alternative paths for their lives. The decision must not be irrational brought on by one incident and consider everything to be not worth the while. Extensive consultations must be done with the supervisor, fellow students, other researchers, a counsellor or a career adviser.

7.0

Final thoughts

There are some things that can be done to provide a variation to the PhD journey so that it does not become a chore. Here are some tips to make a students work a lot more enjoyable: (a) The PhD students should give guest lectures in the institution and area of study on a spaced out period. A PhD student should know more about their area than their advisor by the time they finish, and undergraduates benefit when this feeds into the department's teaching. (b) The Student should conduct a seminar on his work maybe twice during the entire PhD period. This should be on the students own research and can be an invaluable opportunity to get feedback. Using undergraduate students can be exciting as they probably will offer extremely important feedback from a virgin mind that is not yet corrupted with too much theory work. (c) Reviewing papers for conferences and journals can become an exciting leisure time that the

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student can enjoy as a process to look at how others articulate their thoughts. This can be an excellent way to develop the students critical thinking, capacity.

9.0

Remarks and thanks

This work contained herein would not have been technically possible had we not used a lot of information contained on the listed institutions websites below where research and student participation in commended PhD research is carried out. These institutions have set the pace and others follow. Being pace setters makes these Institutions to be highly recognized for providing some of the most highly respected research solutions to not only the academic world but also the general UK economic sector. We would like to thank the following institutions: University of Sunderland (http://www.sunderland.ac.uk/) Newcastle University (http://www.ncl.ac.uk/) Northumbria University (http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/) University of Glasgow (http://www.gla.ac.uk/) University of Bristol (http://bristol.ac.uk/)

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10.0 Bibliography and references

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Keefe, J. W. (1979). Learning style: An overview. NASSP's Student learning styles: Diagnosing and proscribing programs (pp. 1-17). Reston, VA. National Association of Secondary School Principles. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience As The Source Of Learning And Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sikazwe, H., C (2011). Psychoanalytical theories and opposing views Science or Philosophy, Trends in Psychology studies. SCRIBD, USA Watson, G. (1987). Writing a Thesis: a Guide to Long Essays and Dissertations. London: Longman.

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