Cattle Rearing10mon

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE
Defra/ADAS
CATTLE REARING TO 10 MONTHS OF AGE (Improving Health, Welfare and Profits)
January / February 2008
ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008
CONTENTS
Page Section 1 Husbandry and Production 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. The Scale of Losses in Cattle Rearing Minimising Calving Difficulties and the Birth of Viable Calves Hygiene at Calving and Management of the Newborn Calf Colostrum and Colostrum Management Purchased Calves Scouring Artificial Rearing System Creep Feeding Suckled Calves Weaning Suckled Calves Disbudding and Castrating Feeding Young Cattle from Weaning to 10 Months of Age Parasite Control at Pasture Section 2 Environmental Factors 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Requirements for Housing and Pneumonia Control Calf Accommodation Temperature Building Ventilation Bedding Requirements Design of Lying Areas Space Allowance for Feeding Water Fly Control Section 3 Disease Prevention and Control 1. 2. 3. 4. Immunity and Disease Challenge Birth & Neo-natal calf health Diarrhoea Pneumonia Section 4 Veterinary Herd Health Planning 19 20 22 28 32 12 12 13 14 16 16 18 18 18 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 7
SECTION 1
Husbandry and Production
1. The Scale of Losses in Cattle Rearing It is estimated that in the UK, one in seven dairy breed calves and one in thirteen beef breed calves die in the rearing phase. Mortality is highest during the first six months of life but certain classes of cattle can be quite vulnerable until they are about 10 months of age. It is also sobering to remember that every year; approximately 50,000 breeding cows (1.4% of the U.K total) die at calving which is mainly due to dystocia. Scouring is the commonest disease in young calves and the greatest single cause of death. Respiratory Disease (pneumonia) is the most common reason for deaths and poor performance in young cattle from weaning to 10 months of age. Mortality is not the only way in which losses occur. Unhealthy animals have a reduced daily liveweight gain, poorer feed conversion efficiency, an extended rearing period and they often have a stunted appearance. Beef animals that have not performed well in the rearing phase tend to have a lower sale value and are older when slaughtered. The potential milk yield of dairy cows is reduced if they do not achieve optimum growth rates during the rearing phase. All cattle producers should know where their systems stand with regard to physical performance e.g. growth rates to weaning, weight for age, calves reared per cow etc); they should also have detailed information on the health status (e.g. mortality, incidence of respiratory disease and calf scours etc) of their herds. This basic information can be used as a point of reference and this is known as benchmarking. Targets for the improvement of physical performance levels and health can then be set for each phase of production and monitoring procedures installed so that current performance can be compared with the benchmark. Management can then be altered to improve production standards. This process involving measurement, management and monitoring is often known as Herd Heath Planning. 2. Minimising Calving Difficulties and the Birth of Viable Calves The ease with which a calf is born depends on 1. The size of the reproductive canal and pelvic opening. Age, breed and body condition can affect the birth passage. Most calving problems are associated with heifers calving for the first time and surgical intervention is not unusual. Heifers should be at least 60% of their mature weight at service; those considered over-fat should be heavier as they will have a small skeletal size relative to their liveweight. Even extremely well grown heifers should not be served until they are at least 14 months of age. 2. Body Condition. The aim should be for cows to be fit and not fat at calving with a body condition score ranging between 2.5 and 3.0. In suckler herds, cows calving in the springtime tend to be leaner than those calving in the autumn. Over-fat cows are more inclined to have calving problems because some of the space in the pelvic canal is taken up by fat. In the last third of pregnancy try and separate out thin cows so that they can be fed separately to prevent further deterioration in body condition. 3. Feeding in Late Pregnancy. Unborn calves grow very rapidly during the last 8 weeks of gestation and the nutrition of the dam during this period has a major effect on calf
1
birth weight. In order to minimise calving problems, any additional feeding that is needed to boost cow body condition before the next lactation should be done should before the last 6-8 weeks of pregnancy. 4. Breeding. The genetics of the dam and the sire can have a very important effect on calving ease as genetics influence the size and shape of the calf. Choose a sire with a good history for calving ease and / or a good Estimated Breeding Value (EBV) for this trait. It is noteworthy that purebred beef cows tend to have more calving problems than crossbreds. In order to avoid problems such as abortion, and abnormal and weak calves it is important that mineral and vitamin levels are maintained in the diet. This is particularly important for cows calving in February, March and April as Vitamins A, D and B12 are most likely to be deficient during these months. Rations based on straw, poor hay or roots can lead to Vitamin E deficiencies. 3. Hygiene at Calving and Management of the Newborn Calf Calves are born without any immunity and they can be infected within minutes of birth by virulent organisms before adequate protection from colostrum can be achieved. When calving indoors, ensure that yards and calving boxes are dry and well bedded and clean and disinfect after every calving. Calving outdoors would usually be expected to be preferable to calving indoors but it is important to ensure that there is a rotation of calving paddocks to prevent a build up of disease. Fence off any muddy or poached areas. Beware of cows calving by fences and ditches that newly born calves can crawl under or fall into while struggling to stand. They may well not be able to get back to their dam to suckle and if this is the case they are likely to die. Immediately after birth, if possible take care to ensure that the mouth and nostrils are clear of the foetal membrane and mucus so that the calf can breathe. Calf navels should be dressed with an antiseptic as soon after birth as possible, particularly when calves are born inside. Both navel ill and joint ill can result from navel infections. 4. Colostrum and Colostrum Management The Welfare of Farmed Animal (England) Regulations 2000 require that each calf must receive bovine colostrum within the first 6 hours of life. In order to combat the common diseases such as scour etc, new born calves rely completely on a supply of colostrum for the provision of antibodies and vitamins A and D. The highest levels of antibody are found in the first milk after calving. The efficiency of antibody absorption decreases gradually from birth and it is very important that calves receive colostrum within the first 6 hours of life. The level of antibody absorption from colostrum is likely to be minimal once the calf is 18 hours old. However, continuing protection is provided by local antibodies on the lining of the gut wall even after the first 18-24 hours, when antibodies are no longer absorbed into the blood stream. In the first 20 minutes of life, calves should consume a volume of colostrum equivalent to 5% of their body weight. This means that a calf with a birth weight of 40kg needs about 2 litres. Where a calf is weak after calving or the cows udder or teat conformation prevents easy first sucking, then milk the cow and provide colostrum with either a stomach tube or a bottle and teat. Give 2 litres immediately and two litres after 6 hours.
2
Colostrum only contains antibodies against those diseases to which the dam has been exposed. The colostrum from heifers is likely to contain a smaller range of antibodies than that from mature cows as they have had less exposure to the diseases that exist on the farm. However, the antibody level in their colostrum can be increased by ensuring that they join the main herd at least four weeks before calving. For orphan calves consider using colostrum from cows in second and later lactations. However, it is common for Johnes disease to be spread via colostrum. The alternative is to use artificial colostrum. As we cannot see antibodies; one way of measuring colostrum quality is to asses its density or specific gravity. A floating hydrometer that is specifically calibrated for cow colostrum is a useful piece of equipment. 5. Purchased Calves When purchasing calves ensure that they are at least one week old and are likely to have had an adequate intake of colostrum if possible acquire a guarantee that this has been done. Inspect the calves thoroughly - healthy calves have a shining coat, a supple skin, a clean damp nose and bright eyes. Reject calves that are dull and listless, show signs of diarrhoea, have wet or thickened navels (remember, it is illegal to transport calves when their navel has not completely healed), have discharges from the eyes, nose or mouth, show signs of heavy breathing or have physical defects. Ideally purchase direct from farm of birth; mixing calves from various sources increases the risk of cross-infection. On arrival on the farm put the calves into clean, dry, properly ventilated, well bedded pens and rest them for a few hours before feeding. The ability of the calf to digest milk substitute at this time may be impaired by stress. Supplementary heating may be required by weaker calves. 6. Scouring Scouring in calves is most critical during the first few weeks of life. It affects over 30% of all calves born alive and causes almost 50% of calf deaths. Calf scour can easily be recognised. The dung is liquid, of variable colour and smell and, in some cases, blood and mucus can also be seen. The clinically affected calf can have a dull appearance with sunken eyes and is often reluctant to eat or drink. As a consequence, the calf suffers dehydration, acidosis and the loss of salts and electrolytes from its body fluid with significant weight loss. In severe cases it will collapse and eventually die. Good colostrum management is the cornerstone of scour control. Scour in suckling calves is usually due to infection but in artificially reared calves nutritional scour is also common. All the recognised infectious causes of scour are commonly found within the cattle rearing environment and it is not possible to eradicate them. The focus should therefore be on good husbandry and biosecurity to optimise the calfs resistance and to reduce exposure to infectious agents. 6.1 Controlling Scour in Suckled Calves Calf diarrhoea is one of the costliest diseases to affect suckled calf production, average losses may be in the order of 33 per calf at risk. This means that for a 100 cow herd the costs associated with calf scour including treatments, labour and calf mortality would amount to 3,300. However in the extreme cases, where several calves die, then costs can be up to five times that.
3
Scour control in suckler herds can be considerably enhanced by adopting a tight two-month calving pattern with the bulk of the herd calving in the first month. This is an effective scour control system as the worst scour problems usually occur with tail end calves which arrive into an environment that is heavily contaminated with agents such as rotavirus and cryptospiridia. Where a spread out calving pattern is unavoidable then every effort should be made to split the calves into groups according to age. Heifers calving for the first time usually have relatively low levels of antibodies in their colostrum. Ensuring that heifers calve before mature cows can reduce the risk of the relatively susceptible calves of heifers being infected by the more resistant calves of older cows. 6.2 Controlling Scour in Artificially Reared Calves Nutritional scour can be caused by several factors including too much milk or milk being fed which is too rich. Feeding very diluted or lumpy milk replacer can cause scouring. Other contributory factors include feeding milk at an inconsistent temperature when, in theory, it is offered at blood heat, feeding milk at irregular intervals, feeding contaminated milk and cold or draughty housing. Infectious scours in artificially reared calves can be controlled by adopting an all in -all out policy for calf housing where the building is completely emptied and disinfected after each batch of calves. If this is not possible then ensure that individual pens are clean and disinfected. Ensure that all calves in a group are of a similar age. Where practical isolate calves with diarrohea and treat them as follows: Discontinue milk or milk substitute feeding for one or two feeds and offer warm water. containing a balanced electrolyte to combat dehydration. Re-introduce milk or milk substitute at half strength for one or two feeds.
7. Artificial Rearing Systems The main artificial milk feeding systems are based on feeding either restricted or unrestricted quantities of whole milk or milk substitute which can be fed warm or cold. Calves are very sensitive to changes of just 2 -3 C in the temperature of the milk substitute when it is fed at blood heat. However the temperature of cool milk can range from 10 -25 C without problems. Milk containing antibiotics or mastitic milk should not be fed. Whole milk feeding has the advantage of casein protein which coagulates in the abomasums and is slowly released into the small intestine. Milk replacer with only whey protein does not have this slow release advantage and this product should not be fed before the calf is one week of age. 7.1 Restricted Feeding Restricted feeding is usually carried out via buckets, preferably with a teat. Feeding milk twice a day as opposed to once per day is recommended until calves are past the highest risk period for diarrhoea. This will vary from farm to farm but a good rule is to offer milk to calves on a twice daily basis for at least two weeks. Milk powder that is specially designed to be fed once a day is available.
4
Buckets and all mixing equipment should be thoroughly disinfected after every feed. Calves normally will have consumed about 15 -20 kg of milk substitute and at least 5 kg of concentrates when weaned. 7.2 Ad libitum Feeding Calves are grouped and fed milk substitute via teats (6-8 calves per teat). There are two main methods of feeding either from a machine that reconstitutes milk substitute or from plastic containers containing cold acidified milk substitute. Automatic feeding does not mean automatic rearing; calves must be examined regularly to see if they are thriving Livewight gain to weaning usually well above what is obtained in restricted feeding systems but over twice as much milk substitute is needed (30+ kg/head). The liveweight advantage can be easily lost at weaning time especially if calves are not consuming sufficient concentrates. Concentrate feed and fresh water must be available close to the teat at all time as calves will tend to eat concentrates while they are waiting to drink milk. Calve tend to urinate soon after drinking so effective drainage of the area around the machine is essential. It is vital to prevent bacterial build up in the feeding equipment. Machines must be cleaned daily and the plastic containers disinfected every two or three days. 7.3 Concentrates and Roughage Palatable starter pellets or a home mix coarse mix of 18% crude protein should be gradually introduced from the first week onwards. Concentrates should be fed fresh daily. Roughage in not readily digested but its physical presence helps development of the rumen. From just the first or second week of age, clean, palatable, dry barley straw or good quality hay should be offered in a rack. High quality silage can also be offered but it must be fresh each day. 7.4 Weaning Artificially Reared Calves Weaning should take place abruptly when calves are eating 1.00 1.25 kg/ head/ day of early weaning compound for three consecutive days, usually at around 5-6 weeks of age. Calves weaned before 5 weeks of age tend to be less resistant to disease. Where calves are reared on surplus milk, prolonged feeding of milk after 8 weeks is not recommended as it can impair rumen development. 8. Creep Feeding Suckled Calves When young calves are reared on a diet of milk and grass they have a limited rumen capacity at weaning. This limits their forage intake and places a higher reliance on concentrates. The transition from the suckling to the weaned stage is best handled by offering creep feed. Creep fed calves will suffer less stress at weaning because they have already adjusted to a concentrate diet and will be less susceptible to pneumonia. The feed being fed after housing should be gradually mixed in with the creep so that calves are on their post weaning concentrate two weeks before weaning. A creep feeding area offered to autumn born calves in their first winter enables them to get away from the cows. Scouring in the calves is often reduced as the creep area can be kept clean and relatively free of contamination.
5
9. Weaning Suckled Calves Weaning is a stressful time for suckled calves, particularly for those born in the springtime. The latter are weaned younger than autumn born calves at a time when feed supplies and weather conditions are deteriorating. Steps taken to improve calf welfare at weaning will also improve the lifetime performance of the animal and boost profitability. It is important to see things from the calfs perspective and try and reduce the level of stress. The main stressors includetransport or travel from field, treatment at handling pens, change of environment (field to pen), mixing with calves from other groups, loss of contact with dam, change of diet, unfamiliar feeds, poorly ventilated buildings and exposure to disease from other animals. The presence of cows has a calming effect and the prolonged presence of cows is one way of reducing stress in suckled calves that are being weaned. The easiest method is to wean most of the calves at housing but leave a few fitter cows that can afford to lose some body condition in with the calves for a week or so after weaning. When there is plenty of shed space available, all the calves can be left with the cows at weaning. A creep area can be created for the calves in which they are shut into for an increasing period of time over a two week period. The calves will then gradually wean themselves. 10. Disbudding and Castrating Never dehorn and castrate at stressful times. It should be done when calves are young and have active immunity from colostrum. Disbud when calves are less than two months of age and avoid dehorning as a routine procedure. It is an offence to castrate calves over two months of age without an anaesthetic. 11. Feeding Young Cattle from Weaning to 10 Months of Age Ruminants such as cattle and sheep have a fermentation chamber called the rumen where feed and microflora (bacteria, protozoa and fungi that live in the rumen) interact to produce various compounds that provide energy and protein for the cattle and also for themselves. There are 1,000,000,000 bacteria per millilitre of rumen contents. The microflora are essential as they produce the enzymes needed to break down the cellulose found in fibrous plant material. The microorganisms, however, require specific conditions in which to function properly. So it is important to formulate rations that will satisfy both requirements of the rumen microbes and those of the animal itself. For example the rumen functions best within the pH range of 6.2 to 6.5. A pH that is too low can be created by offering too much concentrate feed at any one time; the concentrate ferments very rapidly, a large amount of lactic acid is produced and the digestion of fibre is impeded. Cattle producers should take the time to ensure that they know what the optimum target daily liveweight gain should be for the system in question. Performance should be monitored regularly, and the feeding level should be adjusted to meet the level of performance required. Animals that are less than 9 months of age should not undergo a store period as they will become stunted and they will never catch up. Dry matter intake is the single most important factor to consider when feeding cattle. It can be predicted as a percentage of the animals liveweight. For example, growing and dry stock tend to have a potential dry matter intake of 2.25% to 2.5% of their body weight and that for finishing stock is 2.5% -2.8% of their body weight. It is important therefore, that the quality of the diet is such that it allows the desired
6
performance level to be achieved within the restraint of the amount of dry matter that can be consumed. For example, grass silage with a high moisture content and/or a high level of acidity is likely to be eaten in smaller quantities so more concentrate feed would be needed to enhance energy intake. A range of forages can be fed but always ensure that the ration is properly balanced. Forage maize, for example, has a high level of energy but it has a low level of protein, it is also deficient in many essential minerals and vitamins. Byproduct feeds can be considered but it is important to be aware of their feeding value and you should calculate their true financial worth in relation to other feeds that may be available e.g. a mixture of barley and rapeseed meal. 12. Parasite Control at Pasture There are several species of roundworms that can infect cattle but for practical purposes, the number of important species can be reduced to three. These worms inhabit the alimentary tract are ubiquitous and cattle of all ages can harbour the parasites, though burdens can vary considerable between individuals. In contrast, though common, lungworms tend to occur more or sporadically and less predictably. Table 1 outlines the main pathogen species that can infect grazing cattle and shows the percentage of isolations from samples submitted to the Veterinary Laboratories Agency. Table 1 Main Pathogens of Grazing Cattle Species Ostertagia/Teladorsagia (Stomach worm) Cooperia (Gut worm) Dictyocaulus (Lungworm) 12.1 Gut Worms (Ostertagia and Cooper) Most infections of cattle at grass will be due to a mixture of parasitic worms. Generally the cycle of infection follows a seasonal pattern. Following turnout in early spring, calves will become infected from larvae generated from eggs that have survived the winter on the pasture or if the cattle have been grazed during the preceding season, from eggs produced by worms that have developed from the larvae that have emerged from hibernation in the abomasum. Once the animals are infected and until immunity develops, the larvae will develop into adult worms and subsequently start to release huge numbers of eggs into the faeces thereby increasing pasture contamination and the infectious load on the pasture. Warm, wet conditions favour egg survival and speed up the development and migration of the infective larval forms. This environmental telescoping of the worm lifecycle creates a typical pattern where a peak of infection is seen on pasture around June and July and consequently a peak of associated problems shortly after this. Prolonged wet warm conditions, as seen in summer 2007, are likely to extend this peak. Cold winters or dry summers will reduce the numbers of infective larvae on pastures, but when favourable conditions return, larvae that have survived in the pats can emerge in large numbers and pose a threat to grazing stock. Therefore later peaks of infection can arrive in such circumstances. The exact timing of disease will therefore depend on the number of over
7
Percentage of isolations 10 30% (used to be 60%) 70 90% (used to be 40%) up to 40%
wintered larvae, climatic conditions and stocking density. Even in the absence of clinical disease economic losses still occur (e.g. poor growth rates) and indeed, the majority of losses from gastrointestinal worms occur in so-called sub-clinical infections. 12.1.2 Ostertagia Ostertagia is possibly the most important of the gut parasites due its prevalence and ability to cause disease by damaging the abomasum, which results in a reduction in feed intake and an upset in the ability to digest and absorb feed. In clinical infections, signs include diarrhoea, severe weight loss and in some circumstances, death. Calves are infected by cattle ingesting grass with infective larvae that have hatched from the eggs in the dung and have then migrated away from the faeces onto the pasture. These larvae then mature within the gut reaching the final adult form in around 18 days, at which time the males and females mate and the latter then go on to produce eggs which are passed out with the dung onto the pasture. Many of the larvae ingested towards the end of the grazing system will not go on to develop into fully mature adults within the normal 3 week time frame but hibernate in the abomasal wall in a larval form until early spring. They then start to develop again to release eggs thereby contaminating the pasture. If a large number of larvae restart maturation again within a tight time frame then massive gut damage can occur and calves develop what is known as Type II ostertagiasis, which though is uncommon, it can be fatal. 12.1.3 Cooperia This worm damages the lining of the small intestine, causes a reduction in appetite and also interferes with the digestion and absorption of nutrients. The result is less food digested and absorbed, resulting in reduced weight gains. Infection is often not noticed resulting in subclinical reductions in productivity rather than visible clinical disease. As previously stated, infection with single species of worms, particularly in young stock, probably rarely occurs and more severe consequences of infection can occur when combined with Ostertagia. 12.1.4 Immunity to Gut Worms Immunity to gut worms develops over the first grazing season, the speed varying with the particular species of worm. Generally, immunity to Cooperia will be well-developed after a full grazing season whereas two full grazing seasons are typically required for solid immunity to Ostertagia. As a result, assuming animals are exposed in a complete first grazing season, parasitic gastro-enteritis (PGE) is generally only a disease for first grazing season animals. Whilst adult cattle are generally considered to be immune to worms and rarely suffer from clinical parasitism, this does not mean that they have no worms at all and some dairy cows can have several thousand Ostertagia in their stomachs. In immune cattle fewer worms will establish in the gut and those that do survive will have a reduced capacity to produce eggs. This limits the number of worm eggs that can contaminate the pasture. Nevertheless, because adult cows produce large quantities of dung each day - ~30 kg, they can still act as important contaminators of pasture. The traditional view that adult cows have a cleansing effect on pasture contaminated with worms, as they consume the infective stages of the parasite but are not infected themselves needs to be considered carefully.
8
Artificially reared calves spending their first season at grass are particularly prone to gut worm infection. Spring born suckling calves do not generally require preventative strategies for gut worms because of their diet is predominantly milk for the first few months of life and because levels of pasture contamination are generally lower when grazed with adult stock as opposed to when grazed by young calves alone. However, once the calves are weaned worm control may well be needed. Weaned autumn and spring born calves in their second season may be susceptible to gut worms. Gut worm control may also control lungworm. 12.1.5 Pasture Management to Control Gut worms The infective stages of the gut worm parasites, third stage larvae (L3s) will over-winter on the pasture from one year to the next. After that they have a limited period of survival and die off progressively in the spring so that by mid summer the infection from last year is much reduced. That is why aftermath following a crop of hay or silage which was not cut too early, is considered to be relatively safe grazing. If susceptible cattle are turned out onto infected pasture in the spring then they will be infected with L3s which will develop to adult worms in the gut. These produce eggs that in turn hatch on the pasture to give a new generation of infective larvae. By the end of June this contamination will be such that the cattle will be scouring and losing condition. Figure 1 shows how pasture is likely to be contaminated with gut worm over the course of the calendar year. Figure 1 Typical pattern of pasture contamination by gut worm over the calendar year
100
90
Eggs shed in dung with no treatment

80 70 60
L3 larvae on herbage with no treatment
50
40
30
20
10
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
If the pasture in the previous season has not been grazed at all or only by sheep then it is considered to be clean, but it is worth remembering that small numbers of larvae can survive in the herbage mat and soil for up to 2 years after the removal of cattle. There is relatively little cross over between the parasites of sheep and those of cattle although occasionally nematodirus worms can cause problems in younger calves. Therefore, in planning a worm control programme the grazing history from the previous 12 months must be known. The number of infective lungworm can also persist on the pasture for periods beyond a year. Where cattle are coughing at grass it is most likely due to lungworm so this must be considered and appropriate action taken. 12.1.6 Control Strategies Combining Anthemlmintics and Grazing Management The strategy developed will depend on the availability (amount and timing) of clean grazing, the method of grazing (set stocked or rotated), the system used (organic or conventional) and level of previous exposure to contaminated grazing. The object is to allow enough exposure for immunity to develop but without causing production losses. There are two broad options: 1. Move animals onto clean grazing at the start of the season and hence expose the calves to very low levels of overwintered larvae. This will consequently result in it taking a long time for dangerous levels of worms to develop, assuming animals are not stocked too tightly. If possible at the mid point of the season move the animals to new clean grazing (usually aftermath), having dosed them with a short acting wormer prior to movement to reduce the contamination of the new pasture. When adopting a system reliant on clean grazing and minimising or avoiding use of drugs it is worth monitoring levels of worm eggs in the faeces and growth rates to ensure levels of worms are not building up faster than expected. 2. If clean grazing is either not available until later in the season or not at all then there are the choices are as follows Bolus. Routinely treat every 3-4 weeks with a shortacting wormer. Treat every 6-8 weeks with a long acting anthelmintic. These techniques will have the effect of continuously suppressing the numbers of adults and therefore eggs shed onto the pasture. If boluses are to be used it is important to bear in mind their duration. For example if environmental conditions promote high levels of worms late into the season then protection afforded by the bolus may well have gone by this point. Whichever system is used it is sensible to dose animals at housing with either a benzimidazole or short acting avermectin to ensure that any hibernating larvae they are carrying are removed and thereby reduce the risk of type 2 ostertagiasis occurring. This will also reduce the level of shedding by these animals at the start of the new grazing season. 12.2 Lungworm (Dictyocaulus viviparous) All cattle are at risk from lungworm until they become immune. Infection with relatively few lungworms can cause clinical disease. Older cattle may have acquired natural immunity but
10
lungworm vaccination should be considered for all breeding animals, because the duration of immunity is relatively short 6-9 months in the absence of exposure. The disease is caused by the worm Dictyocaulus viviparous; its lifecycle is very similar to the gutworms. Adult worms in the lung produce eggs which hatch almost immediately. The larvae from these eggs migrate up the trachea of the host are swallowed by it and are consequently passed out in the faeces and contaminate the pasture. Cattle then ingest the larvae which then penetrate the gut wall, migrate to and travel through the lungs until they reach the airways where they mature into adults. The period from ingestion of infective larvae to egg production is 3-4 weeks. The passage of larvae through the lung and the presence of adults in the airway cause the clinical signs of respiratory disease. The cycle of pasture contamination is similar to gut worm with small numbers of larvae that have over-wintered on pasture infecting nave animals which will then start to multiply the numbers up, but unlike gutworms, lungworm is much less predictable. Additionally, lungworm larvae can be distributed from the dung pat by a fungus, allowing them to spread further. This is crucially dependent on having warm wet conditions. 12.2.1 Lungworm Control Control differs from gut worm in that there is an effective vaccination against lungworm. This is given to susceptible stock prior to turnout and relies on the animals subsequently being exposed to lungworm to allow them to develop full immunity. Failure to expose animals in this way will result in a risk of lungworm in subsequent years. This is particularly germane where calves are also to receive wormers as there may be conflict between their strategic use to limit pasture contamination and the level of exposure required to stimulate lungworm immunity. If vaccination is not practiced and reliance is placed on strategic worming then as with gut worms it should be borne in mind that the potential for disease can occur right through the grazing season and consequently control will need to be applied throughout the grazing period. 12.3 Anthelmintic Drugs Benzimidazoles - Generally known as white drenches this group is effective against both adult and immature stages of gutworm and lungworm. It has no residual action and is available as either drench or as a bolus. Levamisole- Levamisole is known as a clear drench. Like benzimidazoles it is effective against major GI roundworms and lungworm but only has limited efficacy against immature stages. It is available as drenches or pour-on. Avermectins- There are presently 4 available ivermectin, doramectin, moxidectin and eprinomectin. They are highly effective against all stages of both gut and lungworm and are also effective against external parasites such as mites. They have the advantage over the other two classes of anthelmintic in that they have a prolonged action and so one injection can provide a long degree of cover. They are available as injections and pourons. Clinical disease can be treated with any effective anthelmintic drug to eliminate the worm burden. This strategy may prevent deaths, however, significant production losses will be incurred and it is therefore preferable to prevent disease (clinical and subclinical) thereby maximising production.
11
SECTION 2
Environmental Factors
1. Requirements for Housing and Pneumonia Control Regardless of the type and age of cattle or type of housing (cubicles, straw yards, pens or hutches) the accommodation must provide the animal with its most basic needs if performance is to be maximised and welfare standards met. Air space is just as crucial as floor area. Pneumonia is especially common in housed animals and the disease can often be avoided if buildings are not overcrowded, are well ventilated and well drained, and animals of different age groups are not mixed together. With dairy units it is not uncommon for young stock to be housed in cubicles, although straw yards are more common in beef units. There are advantages and disadvantages with both housing systems, but if the adult cow is being housed in cubicles then there may be advantages to housing the heifer replacements in suitably sized cubicles. 2. Calf Accommodation Calves require a clean, dry bed in well ventilated but draught free (wind speed <2m/sec) conditions. They can be housed individually or in groups. Calf pens should be large enough to allow calves to groom themselves, lie down and stretch their limbs and rise without any difficulty and must allow visual and tactile contact with animals in adjoining pens/hutches. Therefore pen divisions must be perforated, i.e. allow calves to see and touch one another. Not to do so may have cross-compliance reverberations. Calves must be group housed from 8 weeks of age, unless an animal is kept in isolation on the advice of your veterinary surgeon. The width of the individual stall/pen for a calf from birth to 8 weeks of age must be at least equal to the height of the calf at the withers, as measured in the standing position. The length shall be at least equal to the body length of the calf, measured from the tip of the nose to the caudal edge of the pin bone multiplied by 1.1. In practice this means pens at least 1.5 x 0.75m, but preferably 1.8 x 1.0m. When kept in groups the space allowances are as in Table 2 Table 2 Mass of calf (kg) 45 46-99 100-149 150-199 200-300 Space allowances for group housed calves Approximate age (months) 0 0-2 3-5 5-7 10 Minimum (statutory) area (m2/calf) 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 Recommended area (m2/calf) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
12
No more than 12 calves are recommended in any one group; sick calves can be easily identified and treated when they are in small groups. There should be no more than 30 calves sharing the same air space and they should not share that space with older cattle. Air space is critical; with a minimum of 6m3 air space per calf at birth which increases to 10 m3 by 2 months of age and then at least 15 m3 by 6-7 months. The greater the number of calves in a single air space, the greater is the risk to health. A calf with respiratory disease can shed millions of infectious organisms from its lungs into the atmosphere. Calf hutches provide suitable housing for either individual calves or the larger hutches can accommodate up to 5 calves. Each hutch must have an outside run for the calves to move around and be in fresh air. The hutches should be situated on either free draining concrete or on a porous (e.g. chalk) base ensuring that any effluent goes to a suitable site for disposal. Plenty of clean, dry bedding (normally straw) needs to be provided which should be disposed of after each batch of calves. Ideally the hutches should be moved after each batch of calves to minimise disease risks. 3. Temperature Cattle are homeothermic animals and need to maintain a constant body temperature around 38 C. The Lower Critical Temperature (LCT) is the temperature below which an animal must burn extra energy to keep warm, i.e. feed is channelled away from growth/production to keeping warm. At temperatures above the Upper Critical Temperature (UCT), cattle will sweat in an attempt to dispel the excess heat and the animal will become heat stressed, which can lead to death of the animal. As cattle sweat at only 10% of the human rate they are much more susceptible to heat stress. Body temperature can be affected by air temperature, radiant temperature, wind speed and relative humidity together with animal factors such as size of animal, coat thickness, feed level and type, body condition, etc. Whereas adult cattle can withstand temperatures as low as -5C and even greater when dry and out of draughts, a newborn calf needs to be kept in a temperature of no less than 7C if it is not to suffer. By one month of age a calf can comfortably withstand temperatures around freezing point. However, rarely are low temperatures a problem in UK conditions with housed animals, quite the converse with the main issue relating to high temperatures and humidity within a building. At grazing, the story is different due to the compounding effects of rain and wind, as indicated in Table 3. Table 3 Wind speed (mph) Calm 5 10 15 20 25 30 Wind-chill factors for cattle (dry winter coat) Temperature (C) -4 -1 +1 -4 -8 -11 -13 -16 -19 -24
13
-12 -12 -16 -18 -20 -23 -27 -34
-9 -9 -12 -16 -18 -21 -24 -29
-6 -6 -9 -13 -15 -18 -21 -27
+4 +4 +1 -2 -4 -7 -11 -16
+7 +7 +3 +1 -1 -4 -7 -13
+10 +10 +6 +3 +1 -2 -5 -11
-1 -5 -8 -10 -13 -17 -21
+1 -2 -5 -7 -10 -14 -18
Add in rain then serious mortality rates can occur in the grazing scenario if some form of protection is not offered to young calves. For a new born calf at its LCT, just 0.10 inch rain can increase calf mortality by 2-4%. The rates are even higher in calves that have not received adequate amounts of colostrum. Acclimatisation is also important. An animal that has gradually become accustomed to lower temperatures will have grown a thicker coat to compensate thus the LCT of an adult beef animal may be around 15C during the summer but towards 10C in the middle of winter. However, if the animals coat is wet or soiled then the insulation properties are significantly reduced. 4. Building Ventilation Dust and gas can have adverse affects on health. Not only does dust irritate the respiratory tract and mucous membranes it leads to permanent damage of the lungs and encourages microorganisms. Ammonia at levels of 25ppm will irritate the mucous membranes and also make the animal more vulnerable to respiratory diseases. Studies show that ammonia levels in the first 4 months of life severely impact on the age at first calving. Although carbon dioxide is not poisonous at levels above 3000ppm it adversely affects cattle due to less oxygen being present. Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic with levels above 50ppm known to kill cattle the main cause of this problem being agitation to below ground slurry stores. Not only is air space critical but so is the ventilation rate, which is the amount of air replaced within a building in a given time. The aim is a minimum air change within a building of 10 times each hour, increasing in the summer up to around 60 air changes per hour. The purpose is to keep the air fresh. Studies from the USA show that higher humidity and mean temperatures within the calf housing results in a delayed first calving. It is probable that this would also appear as slower live weight gains in fattening cattle. In the housed environment a constant supply of fresh air is essential in preventing respiratory and other diseases together with improving production. Good ventilation removes stale, damp air which helps ensure that viruses and bacteria can not survive for long outside the animal. Ventilation should never be restricted in an attempt to raise air temperature. In the vast majority of situations natural ventilation is adequate. However, if artificial (fan) ventilation is required then it must only be controlled manually or by humidity sensors, never by a thermostat. With climate change a real issue and the increased risk of heat stress in all ages of cattle consideration will need to be given to the installation of fans, combined with spraying water onto the cattle. This can dramatically reduce the effects of heat stress. 4.1 Natural Ventilation Natural ventilation is the most efficient and least expensive system for providing an optimum environment within a building. The objective of the ventilation system must be to provide a continuous stream of fresh air to every housed animal at all times of the day and night. Natural ventilation is best when buildings are sited at right angles to the prevailing wind direction. Although in practical terms in the UK, the occurrence of the prevailing wind is only slightly greater than it is from other directions. To ensure adequate ventilation, it is important that the building is designed to:
14
Remove excess heat. Remove excess water vapour. Remove micro-organisms, dust and gases. Provide a uniform distribution of air. Provide correct air speed for stock. In the UK, wind speed is above 1m/sec for more than 95% of the time. This means that for the majority of time, there is sufficient generating force to provide the necessary air changes within a correctly designed building by natural ventilation. For the remaining time, the building relies on the stack effect to replace foul air with fresh air. Heat produced by the livestock naturally rises. If it is unable to escape from the building, it will condense and remain within the building raising the humidity levels. As the air cools, it will fall back onto the bedding, increasing the moisture content and creating a suitable environment for bacteria to flourish. At a relative humidity of above 75% pathogens and viruses can survive for several minutes which increases their spread from animal to animal. However at RH levels below 75% viruses die very quickly after exhalation. With many calf houses the humidity is such that viruses can survive for around 40 minutes creating a reservoir of infection in the air which means the disease is rapidly spread. Natural ventilation requires the right balance of inlets and outlets. If the warm air is able to exhaust from the ridge of the building then it draws fresh air into the building through the side inlets. This air change ensures the stack effect is maintained. The inlet and outlet areas should be about 0.05m and 0.04m per calf respectively, with the outlet being at least 1.5m above the ventilation inlet. The pitch of the roof can influence how well the stack effect is established. A roof profile of 1:4 and 1:3 are ideal. However, the pitch of a roof will always be a compromise between ventilation and overall ridge height, especially with span buildings. It is essential that there are adequate outlets in the ridge of the building. An open ridge is generally between 0.30.4m wide and should be un-restricted. As a useful rule of thumb, there should be 5cm of ridge opening for every 3.0m of building width. Although cranked open ridges are still commonly fitted, they only offer around 20% of the required outlet. The design of a successful natural ventilation system is complex and requires account to be taken of the span of the building, the location of the building relative to other buildings or obstructions (buildings and trees disrupt airflows for a distance of 510 times their height), the pitch of the roof, the stocking rate, mass of each animal and the bedding system. 4.2 Mechanical Ventilation During the main/conventional housing period mechanical ventilation may be required in some calf buildings due to design constraints but should be the last option. However, with summer housed animals this may be essential to minimise the effects of heat stress. During the summer months fans assist air movement to provide a cooling effect and so increase heat loss from animals. There are two main types of fan available for assisting the ventilation of cattle buildings:
15
High Volume Low Speed Fans (HVLS). High Speed Fans (HS). The HVLS fans are large fans (between 4.87.5m in diameter, although smaller fans are available) which revolve slowly and move large columns of air at a relatively low velocity (2.0 km/hr). A 6.0m fan will typically move around 3,500m3/min of air. A HS fan is more compact (less than 1.0m diameter) and operates at a higher speed. Each HS fan can typically move around 600m3/min of air. To move the same volume of air as an HVLS fan, six HS fans are required. Most HVLS fans are operated by a 0.75kW motor and research at the University of Kentucky has suggested that when HVLS fans are compared with HS fans, the same volume of air can be moved for around 30% of the energy cost. However, this saving may not be sufficient to cover the costs of the initial outlay in the UK due to the amount of time they may be used. THVLS fans do have the added advantage of providing a more even air distribution within a building, preventing pockets of still and/or stale air which could be responsible for respiratory problems, especially in younger animals. Due to the size of many calf buildings the larger HVLS fans would not be suitable, although the intermediate sized fans should be considered. There are relatively few buildings, which cannot be made to ventilate naturally if they are designed carefully, or remedial works undertaken. The decision to resort to assisted ventilation, with the resulting running costs and maintenance should not be taken lightly. In addition, where mechanical ventilation is essential then fail safe systems and alarms are a necessity. 5. Bedding Requirements The quality of cereal straw varies from year to year, but with alternative uses its price is also becoming a serious issue even in the cereal growing areas of the country. Efficient use of bedding is therefore of the essence but care must be taken to ensure that cattle cleanliness and welfare are not compromised. Other bedding materials include sand, sawdust/shavings, bark peelings, waste paper and gypsum waste. Studies of various materials by the University of Arkansas found no significant differences in the performance of calves housed over a 6 week period on different materials, although straw and wood shavings provided more warmth and absorbency compared to products like sand. 6. Design of Lying Areas 6.1 Straw Yards These should be rectangular in shape with a scraped concrete feed/loafing passage. This concrete helps promote hoof wear and will prevent feet becoming over-grown. Aim for a passage width of 2m for animals less than a year of age, which should be scraped regularly at least 3 times per week. Where the yard is for both suckler cow and calf then the bedded area needs to be a minimum of 6.0m2 with a loafing area of at least 2.5 m2. This will mean the scraped passage needs to be at least 3.5m wide. This allows cows to feed at the manger, with other animals moving around behind them. A step should be provided between the feeding/loafing area and the straw beds.
16
This will help retain the straw and prevent slurry flowing onto the bedded area. A solid barrier also provides a straight edge to scrape against when cleaning out the loafing area. The height of the barrier will depend on the frequency in which the beds are cleaned out, but it is likely to be around 0.2m. The barrier height should not exceed 0.3m. In addition a creep feed area should be allowed for the calves and the area should match that given in Table 2. 6.2 Cubicles Cubicles must provide a clean comfortable lying space for the heifer calf. Cubicles are not suitable for bull calves as they urinate in the middle of the cubicle base. The calf/yearling must be able to enter and leave the cubicle easily and lie down and rise without interference or injury. Poorly designed cubicles and inappropriate management can lead to problems such as - cubicle rejection through to adult life, wet and soiled cubicle beds and physical injury to the animals. The length of the cubicle needs to be adequate to allow the heifer to rest comfortably and get up without injury. The position of the animal when lying down and standing are controlled by brisket boards and headrails. A correctly located heifer calf means that urine and dung fall into the scraped passage and not on to the cubicle base. There needs to be sufficient distance between cubicle divisions to allow the calf/yearling to lie comfortably while ensuring she is unable to turn around. She should not come into contact with the cubicle partition in a way that could cause injury. When an animal rises from a lying position, it lunges forward to transfer its weight from the hindquarters onto the forequarters. To accommodate this transfer of weight, it thrusts its head forward and this lunging space must be designed in the cubicle. If the forward lunging space is restricted then difficulty in rising will be experienced. 6.2.1 Cubicle Dimensions Cubicles need to be designed for the size of animal at the end of the housing period. Cubicle Length - The total length of the cubicle should provide body space, head space and lunging space. Cubicle length is very dependant on size of animal. It is better to have a cubicle too long as the effective length can always be reduced. As a guide for calves (0-6 months) the cubicle should be 1.56m long increasing to 2.0m for animals up to 12 month of age. Cubicle width - Cubicle width must allow the animal to rise and lie easily. But if the width is excessive, the animal will tend to lie at an angle in the stall or turn around. The width of the cubicle will be determined not only by the size of the animal but in part by the choice of cubicle division. Slightly wider widths are required if there is a rear support leg. For calves the width will be around 0.60m increasing to 0.82m for animals up to 12 month of age. Division design - There are many types of cubicle division on the market. Whatever the type they must provide the animal with maximum comfort, provide security/protection, prevent injury and ensure that she is correctly positioned both standing and lying. The space sharing division, such as the suspended cantilever type offer more room allowing slightly narrower widths.
17
The main benefit of the suspended cantilever division is that both height and width spacing can be altered at any time. This provides flexibility, especially where animals are growing rapidly. 6.2.2 Number of Cubicles There should always be at least 5% more cubicles than animals within a management group. Overcrowding leads to reduced lying times and increased lameness which is carried through to adult life. There is also more bullying with an increased risk of injuries. 7. Space Allowance for Feeding Although feed may be ad lib and available 24 hours per day it has to be recognised that there are peak periods for feeding during the day, e.g. immediately after fresh feed is put down the trough. If there is competition for feed space during this period, subordinate animals will give way to dominant animals, modify their feeding behaviour and their growth rates are likely to suffer. Feed trough space is given in Table 4. Table 4 Feed face required for cattle eating simultaneously. Mass of animal (kg) <100 100-199 200 300 Width of feed face (m) 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50
Animals should be able to pass behind those already feeding without disturbing them. This means the passage should be at least 2m wide. 8. Water Adequate space must be provided to allow at least 10% of the group to drink at anytime. The water trough should be located at the correct height for the animal again often a problem in practice with rapidly growing animals. 9. Fly Control This is a much overlooked area of biosecurity in cattle buildings. Calf rearing areas are known to have a very high density of flies. Not only do flies spread diseases, they also disturb the animals.
18
SECTION 3
Disease Prevention and Control
Failure to rear youngstock appropriately may lead to economic losses either during the rearing period or after they join the herd, through increased mortality, increased disease, forced culls and reduced productivity. The rearing period is not only the period where the majority of the losses occur but also when costs are highest - 60% of the costs of heifer rearing occur in the first 9 months. There is a temptation to find feeding and management systems that reduce rearing costs, but it is false economy to save money on calf rearing if it later results in increased mortality, increased time to service or smaller animals at finishing or calving. 1. Immunity and Disease Challenge Whether or not an animal becomes diseased is a balance between the strength of its immunity and the level of the disease challenge it faces. Effective disease prevention and control therefore requires the balance to be tipped in favour of the animal. This means that systems of management should be developed that 1. Improve the defences of the host. 2. Reduce exposure to pathogens. The defences of the host can be improved by Supplying the correct nutrition to meet the calfs requirement at every stage. Ensuring that calves receive plenty of good-quality colostrum within the first 6 hours after birth. Reducing stress to a minimum. For example, herd groups should remain stable; calves should be handled quietly, calves maintained within a routine and routine procedures such as dis-budding are performed away from critical periods, such as weaning. Controlling sub-clinical disease. Parasitic infestation and trace element deficiencies that are not severe enough to cause clinical signs may increase animals susceptibility to other clinical disease. These sub-clinical conditions produce no clinical signs, so can usually only be detected using laboratory analysis of blood or dung samples. Managing the dam to ensure an easy calving process and to increase the quantity and quality of colostrum production. Ensuring the animals being reared are genetically suitability for the production system.
Exposure to pathogens can be reduced by Ensure excellent hygiene. For example, in preparing reconstituted milk for calves and by regular cleaning out and bedding up. Provide effective ventilation. This removes large numbers of potential pathogens, and dries the air to reduce droplet spread of infectious organisms. Isolate sick animals (for example by removing a scouring calf from the main pen). Sick animals may shed millions of infectious organisms that can infect healthy stock. If the disease is highly contagious (such as Salmonellosis) it may be necessary for stockpersons to use a disinfectant foot-dip, separate overalls and disposable gloves to avoid spreading disease between animals or between themselves.
19
Use All-in, all-out housing policy so pens can be thoroughly cleaned between groups and to prevent the spread of disease from older to younger cattle that are added to a group. Adopt excellent bisocurity such as a closed herd or careful selection of stock for purchase according to disease status, to avoid buying in disease. Eliminate vectors that may carry disease.
Further factors that will be essential in determining success will be the ability to Monitor the progress of the animals. Identity disease early in the individual and/or the herd. Determine the cause of the disease and then develop suitable strategies such as vaccination to overcome or eradicate it. 2. Birth & Neo-natal Calf Health 2.1 Calving Well-managed calving is the first step in successful cattle rearing. Severe dystocia may result in calf death and consequently no calf to rear that year in beef suckler systems or loss of valuable heifer replacements in dairy herds. Hygienic management of the calving accommodation is vital to reduce the challenge of infection to neonatal calves (see balance of disease above). Protocols should be in place for prompt iodine dipping of navels, colostrum intake, provision of adequate clean water and milk for dairy calves and early vaccination as agreed in conjunction with the herd veterinary surgeon. 2.2 Genetic Disorders Genetic disorders may affect cattle from conception to old age. All cattle breeds possess several genetic diseases; some are common to many breeds whereas some are breed specific. Inheritance of a trait requires genes from sire and dam. Some genetic diseases require two problem genes to be expressed (recessive), or only one (dominant) or will be more severe if both genes are affected (semi-dominant). Bulldog monsters in mating of Dexter cattle are an example of semi-dominance. Mating of Dexters produce on average 25% taller Kerry types, 50% more desirable Dexter types and 25% bulldog monsters. Complex vertebral malformation (CVM) in Holstein cattle has been a recent issue associated with widespread worldwide use of a small number of bulls in dairy artificial insemination (AI). It appears to have a genetic basis possible with a recessive-type inheritance pattern. Malformed calves appear visually to have a foreshortened neck and thorax; the spinal cord may be twisted with deformed carpal and metacarpal joints.
2.3 Congenital Disorders Congenital malformations observed at birth may be genetic or due to maternal effects such as infections, nutritional deficiencies or drugs. Cerebellar hypoplasia produces obviously affected calves at birth which have exaggerated or in co-ordinated limb movements. In severe cases calves are blind and
20
unable to stand with swaying of the neck. It is known as Hereford disease but is seen in Holstein and Shorthorn, apparently genetic in origin. It may also occur in any cattle breed as a result of infection with BVD or Neospora during pregnancy. 2.4 Other Calf Problems 2.4.1 Joint ill & Navel ill At birth there is a sudden change from foetal circulation. The blood vessels in the umbilical cord rapidly lose most of the blood within them but they remain open, hence allowing entry of infection, which may be a single organism or mixed egg Streptococcus spp., E.coli., Erysipelothrix insidiosa etc. Infection may cause local reaction at point of entry or pass via the umbilical vein to the liver and then in blood around the body. This bloodstream infection may cause a septicaemia or chronic illness by localising in organs such as the joints, leading to joint ill. Many infections can also enter via the tonsils. Septicaemia may lead to inflammation of the meninges of the brain as meningitis, with signs of raised body temperature, muscular tremors, pus deposits in the eye chamber and arched neck/body posture. Meningitis may also be caused by spread of local infection from poor disbudding technique. 2.4.2 Calf diphtheria Oral and laryngeal forms of this condition occur; both are caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum. The oral form is the most common and often involves cheek swelling and salivation with an otherwise bright calf. Neglected cases may extend to the nasal cavity, lungs and abomasum. Control usually involves improved hygiene of feed and milk buckets in housed calves. Treatment includes isolation and antibiotic therapy, as discussed with your veterinary surgeon. 2.4.3 Vitamin/Mineral Deficiencies Deficiencies of the macrominerals (e.g. magnesium) trace elements (e.g. iodine) and vitamins may cause disease in growing cattle. Magnesium Hypomagnesaemic tetany of calves occurs most commonly in calves on high milk intakes that are receiving little other feed. Milk is deficient in magnesium and suckler calves of more than two months old; not receiving creep feed may be at risk because by this age their capacity to absorb magnesium from the intestine is diminished. Occasionally calves as young as 2 weeks of age may succumb; this is usually associated with poor intestinal absorption due to diarrhoea. Signs include hyperexcitability progressing to convulsions and death.
Trace Elements The common trace element deficiencies mostly arise where the ration consists mainly of grazed or conserved forage with perhaps home mixes without mineral supplementation. Cattle going through a store period before grass finishing are at risk as is the suckler cow herd calving in the spring or autumn particularly in the second half of pregnancy.
21
1. Copper deficiency will most easily be seen as reduced hair coat pigmentation and diarrhoea in young stock. In contrast cows can tolerate extremely low levels of dietary copper and may show no signs even when there is marked deficiency. The infertility that is described for copper deficiency is only thought to arise when there is concurrent molybdenum excess. 2. Cobalt deficiency in youngstock (pine) results in ill-thrift accompanied by a poor appetite. 3. Selenium acts along with vitamin E to protect tissues against metabolic damage. It is essential for proper immune function. Deficiency may be associated with white muscle disease in young stock, retained foetal membranes, metritis, mastitis and infertility in adult cattle. 4. Iodine deficiency has long been recognised as a cause of late abortion, stillborn or weak calves. The calf is often born normal size, but as a consequence of the reduced thyroid function that follows iodine deficiency it is unable to make the transition from a healthy calf in the womb. Vitamins Cerebrocortical necrosis (CCN) involves a deficiency of the vitamin thiamine. It occurs sporadically usually involving well-nourished older growing calves of more than six months of age. There is a sudden onset of nervous signs including blindness and muscle tremors occur, with death often occurring in one to two days. Recovery following therapy with thiamine may take another two to four days. Supplementation with Minerals and Vitamins Where it is confirmed that supplementation is required there is a range of possible methods for. Simplest and cheapest where animals are housed or are being fed outside is to add an appropriate proprietary supplement to the ration. Where this is not possible because animals are grazing then supplementing drinking water, injections or rumen boluses must be considered. If a response is not seen an alternative diagnosis for the problem should be sought. The diagnoses of copper deficiency have been reducing in the past 10 years. However in contrast outbreaks of copper poisoning have been increasingly diagnosed during this time. This has been linked to a reduction in sulphur emissions into the atmosphere by industry (thus allowing livestock to absorb more of the copper they eat) and inappropriate supplementation. 3. Diarrhoea 3.1 Introduction Diarrhoea or scour is the passing of abnormally high amounts of fluid in the faeces. This may be due to excessive passing of fluid into the intestine from the body or the failure to absorb a sufficient quantity of fluid from the contents of the intestine during the digestion process. As a result the nature of the faeces can vary from a pasty texture to pure liquid. Dehydration occurs if the calf is unable to replace lost fluid from the body. This can be noted clinically as slightly sunken eyes and if severe can lead to collapse, circulatory failure and death. In addition in some cases a metabolic upset known as acidosis may occur more rapidly
22
than dehydration. Here the calf may be unable to stand and become severely depressed before severe signs of diarrhoea are seen. 3.2 Disorders of Digestion Young calves are exposed to both a wide range of infectious agents and rapid changes of feed/feeding system soon after birth. This makes the young calf particularly susceptible to digestive disorders arising from either infectious or digestive challenge. 3.2.1 Abomasal Milk Clot Failure & milk scour Abomasal volume in the newborn calf is 1.0 -1.5 litres. Initially the enzyme rennin coagulates milk optimally at pH6.5, with clot formation within minutes of ingestion. The clot then contracts expressing liquid whey which passes into the duodenum 5-10 minutes later. After 2-3 days, numbers of parietal cells in the abomasal lining increase and secrete hydrochloric acid and so abomasal pH falls. Chief cells produce the active enzyme pepsin from pepsinogen. Both pepsin & rennin can digest the milk protein casein, but pepsin is most effective at pH 5.2 and can digest a wider range of proteins. The pepsin digestive system is not fully developed until approximately 7-10 days old and so until then calves should receive whole milk or a substitute consisting of whole milk. Bucket fed calves are vulnerable to poor abomasal clot formation if stressed (feeding straight after disbudding or transport), fed at irregular times or with inconsistent temperature or strength.
23
Figure 2 Digestive System of Newly Born Calf
If excessive quantities of milk are fed to young calves, it can spill into the duodenum, where casein cannot be digested. This overspill disrupts osmotic balance as well as providing a medium for bacterial fermentation in the lower intestine causing diarrhoea. The oesophageal groove is a muscular channel that runs in the anterior wall of the rumen. Reflex action from suckling results in muscular closure of this groove to form an enclosed pipe transferring milk directly into the abomasums and bypassing the rumen. Milk entering the rumen is both wasteful and potentially dangerous, as it undergoes rapid fermentation that may produce an acute and sometimes fatal bloat and colic within 30mins of feeding. Consistent feeding routines are important in prevention of this problem.
24
Figure 3 Digestive System of a Mature Cow
3.3 The Infectious Causes of Diarrhoea All the recognised infectious causes of scour are commonly found within the cattle rearing environment and cryptosporidia and rotavirus are thought to be present in all herds. It is not possible to eradicate these infections from farms and therefore the risk of infection is always present. Infectious organisms are usually passed in the faeces with infection picked up by the oral route. The likelihood of disease resulting from this infection depends on the balance between infectious challenge and immunity as described above. Rotavirus and Coronavirus
These viruses target the cells lining the small intestine causing damage, which results in a failure of digestion and absorption of nutrients. This generally causes scour from 4 days to three weeks of age with faecal contamination from adult cows or infected scouring calves being the common sources of infection. Recovery from the condition takes five to seven days. Cryptosporidia
This is a protozoan parasite which causes scour in many domestic species including man. The parasite generally affects calves between 4 days and three weeks of age. The damage caused by this infection is similar to that caused be rotavirus. The source of the parasite is thought to be
25
either adult cows (which act as carriers without showing signs of the disease) or infected scouring calves passing the parasite in their faeces. The infectious dose of the organism is very low and therefore hygiene is very important for disease control. The disease process is slightly more protracted than for the viral infections and recovery therefore takes a few days longer and can be expected to be complete by 10 days. Coccidia species
These organisms are protozoan parasites, which cause scour between 3 weeks and 6 months of age. They are increasingly recognised as causes of scour in young calves and infection can produce a range of symptoms from ill-thrift, chronic scour, to severe bloody scour with straining to pass faeces. As with cryptosporidia, recovery will normally be seen by ten days after scouring started, but in some severe cases recovery will be prolonged beyond this. E coli K99
Calves become infected within a few hours of birth with strains of Escherichia coli (E coli) but some strains of E. coli have the ability to adhere to the intestinal wall and produce toxins that cause scour e.g. E coli K99. This strain causes diarrhoea and rapid fluid loss in calves in the first four days of life. Salmonella species
There are a whole range of salmonella organisms, which can potentially cause scour in both calves and humans. Currently the most common in UK cattle is Salmonella Dublin. Disease caused by S. Dublin is seen most commonly in the autumn, peaking in November and December. S. Dublin can infect the gut causing scour and also cross the gut wall, to enter the blood stream causing systemic infections such as pneumonia, septicaemia and joint ill. 3.4 Identifying the Causes of Scour: is it necessary and how to do it? Diagnostic testing is only worthwhile if it is going to influence treatment, prevention and control strategies. Treatment and control through vaccination does vary for the different pathogens outlined above and investigation is warranted, particularly if groups of calves are scouring. Therefore it is important to collect faecal samples (15g approx.) from at least three, and preferably six, untreated scouring calves in the early stages of disease to be tested for all potential scour pathogens. 3.5 Generalised Control Measures Many husbandry measures will reduce the risk of scour. Control focuses on: reducing challenge to the infectious agents i.e. all-in-all-out systems, tight calving patterns for suckler herds and avoiding overstocking. optimising the calves resistance i.e. good colostrum protocols, control of concurrent disease such as bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) and trace element deficiencies, good nutrition, avoiding stressors such as drafts and wet bedding conditions plus vaccination where benefits are indicated.
26
Cleaning and disinfecting calf-rearing accommodation between calves is an essential means of disease control. For most circumstances general farm disinfectants will be satisfactory. However, cryptosporidium oocysts are highly resistant and persist in the environment for long periods of time. Ammonia based disinfectants such as Oocide (Antec), are the only effective agents, but because of the irritant fumes produced they can only be used after a building has been de-stocked. 3.6 Vaccination The vaccination of cows with one of the vaccines against rotavirus, coronavirus and E coli K99 is recommended in herds where calf scour is a recognised problem. If the herd has an extended calving pattern, then it is suggested vaccination should be considered for cows that are more than one month from calving. If necessary pregnancy diagnosis should be carried out on those cows still to calve to target the vaccine appropriately. Use of pooled colostrum following vaccination cannot be advised due to the potential risk of transmission of Johnes Disease, mycobacterium paratuberculosis (MAP). For those cows that are within a month of calving various immunological products are available in paste form. It should be emphasised that these will only provide short-term protection and these products should not be used as an alternative to vaccination. The specific scour control strategy for a herd is best made on the basis of a risk assessment carried out with your vet. Where herds suffer salmonellosis vaccination may be used to offer some protection against this disease. This vaccine appears to work through reducing the numbers of infectious organisms that the cow passes rather than working through the colostrum. Vaccination of healthy calves is possible from 3 week of age; however, there is a delay in the development of immunity, which reduces the practicality of the vaccine for use in young calves. It is recommended that where the herd does suffer an outbreak of salmonellosis then a herd specific control programme should be drawn up with the farm veterinary surgeon. 3.7 Specific Treatments As indicated above it is worthwhile seeking a specific diagnosis of the causes of calf scour on your farm as specific control measures do exist and can be administered in conjunction with your vet. Cryptosporidia
Halofuginone is now available as an aid to treatment and prevention of cryptosporidium infection in calves and can be prescribed by your vet. The drug reduces the severity of disease in individual calves and suppresses the output of oocysts reducing the risk of disease spread. As symptoms of halofuginone toxicity may occur at only twice the therapeutic dose, it is necessary to adhere strictly to the recommended dosage and not to treat severely dehydrated calves. Rotavirus and Coronavirus:
No specific therapy is available for these pathogens, as no anti-viral drugs are available.
27
Salmonella and E coli infections
Antibiotics should only be used in cases involving bacterial enteritis and must be prescribed by your vet. When a bacterial isolate is obtained which may be of significance the laboratory will carry out antibiotic sensitivity testing to enable appropriate antibiotic selection. Coccidiosis
If a diagnosis of coccidiosis is made specific anticoccidial drugs may be used under veterinary prescription. Medication of feed with egg decoquinnate is likely to be the most efficacious and simplest to use method of treatment. Oral drench treatments are available for individual animals. 3.8 Generalised treatments General treatments should be administered whatever the cause of scour and should be aimed at correcting any dehydration and acidosis that may have occurred and minimise intestinal damage. Guidelines on the treatment of scour should be included in health planning. Some guidelines are given below: If the calf is severely dehydrated (sunken eye), weak or collapsed with the absence of a suck reflex then veterinary attention should be sought and intra-venous fluids may be required. If the calf is mildly dehydrated, standing but scouring then oral rehydration fluids should be administered. In the past it has been advised that calves should be kept off milk while being given oral fluids. This procedure is no longer recommended but it may be best to ensure a gap of two hours between giving fluids and allowing the calf milk again. Calves should not be maintained on oral rehydration fluids alone for longer than 2 days as they are do not provide adequate nutrition for the calf. If the calf is scouring but not dehydrated and is bright and alert then no specific oral rehydration treatment is indicated. In general antibiotics have no value in the treatment of the common causes of calf scour. 4. Pneumonia Calf pneumonia is an expensive business with costs per affected calf estimated at 43 per dairy calf and 82 per suckler calf. The costs in suckler calves are higher because these calves are generally bigger. Of these costs only 40% are accounted for in vets fees and drugs, 60% are accounted for by loss in live weight gain, inferior feed conversion efficiency and increased time to finishing. Exactly how much calf pneumonia is present in the UK is not known. These costs are probably an underestimate. For example, the dairy example does not take into account reduced productivity once the cow starts to lactate. Bovine respiratory disease is a complex problem. It is not caused simply by introduction of a specific infectious agent into the susceptible group, as many of the causal agents are often present in the animals (i.e. the herd is endemically infected with the causal agents). What determines the outcome is much about the relationship between immunity and challenge. The specifics of this dynamic in relation to respiratory disease and how the balance can be tipped in the favour of the animals are outlined below.
28
4.1 Reduction in immunity This can be associated with: Poor ventilation. An increase in noxious gases either due to poor ventilation or poor hygiene. The surface defences of the respiratory tract may be compromised by environmental factors such as poor air quality and slurry gases. Exposure to excessive or low environmental temperatures. Thin skinned dairy calves are susceptible to hypothermia and systems that do not allow them to maintain their body temperature will increase the risk of pneumonia. Avoidance of drafts. At 0.2m/sec wind speed the lowest temperature a newborn calf can comfortably cope with is 9oC and at 1month old 0oC, however if the wind speed is increased to 2m/sec these figures are +17 oC and +9 oC respectively. Poor colostral intake. Poor nutritional status. This includes not only gross deficiencies in energy but also factors that compromise the immune system such as micronutrient deficiencies (e.g. due to selenium, vitamin E, vitamin A and copper) and ruminal acidosis (e.g. in systems where the ration consists of a high proportion of rapidly fermentable carbohydrate). Concurrent disease. Any disease such as scour or joint ill is likely to increase susceptibility to respiratory disease. Concurrent infection with Bovine Viral Diarrhoea virus is particularly important as it has a specific ability to compromise the calfs immune responses. 95% of dairy herds and 87% of suckler herds have antibodies to BVD. Stress resulting from handling and transport. Combining management procedures such as castration and disbudding during periods of stress such as dietary changes, housing, weaning, castration, etc). Insufficient feeding space or water provision. Housing after grazing pasture, assembling in courts, congregating around feed troughs etc.
4.2 Increase in challenge This is associated with: Poor ventilation; Almost all infection occurs by direct aerosol spread between calves, so it is vital that there is good ventilation to allow for removal of infectious organisms. Similarly an increase in humidity will favour viral/bacterial survival. Excessive group size; specifically there should be avoidance of large groups (a target maximum of 20 calves per group). For young calves (less than six months old), the smaller the group the better providing stocking rates are sufficient to create the stack effect. Grouping of calves. Always avoid mixing age groups whether this is youngstock of different ages or adults and youngstock. Likewise mixing of vaccinated and nonvaccinated calves, sick and healthy calves, and calves from different sources e.g. market purchased are serious risk factors. Not vaccinating stock- see later.
29
4.3 The disease agents Bovine Respiratory Syncitial Virus (RSV) and Parainfluenza virus (P13) are the most common viruses but on average 1 in 3 calves have been exposed to Bovine Viral Diarrhoea BVD and 1 in 4 calves to IBR, likewise over 84% of calves have been exposed to 2 or more viruses, showing infections are often multifactorial. In relation to bacteria there is increasing evidence of an increase in primary Mycoplasma and Haemophilus infections in young stock. Frequently respiratory infection will follow a pattern where the calf will become infected with a primary agent, usually a virus, and the resultant damage to the ling allows a secondary bacterial infection to develop.
The major agents of respiratory disease

Viruses Bovine respiratory syncitial virus (RSV) Parainfluenza virus (PI3) Infectious Bovine tracheitis (IBR) Mycoplasma bovis Mycoplasma dispar Mannheimia haemoltica Haemophilus somnus
Mycoplasma Bacteria
Pasteurella multocida
4.4 Disease syndromes Table 5 outlines the common disease syndromes. It is not a definitive list but outlines the commonly encountered disease patterns seen in relation to the management groups. As calves from the dairy and the suckler sides undergo very different lifestyles this means that disease patterns exhibited are often different. Many of these differences are related to the age at which movement and mixing takes place and the interrelationship of these events with changes in nutrition and the decline in maternally derived antibody from colostrum. Table 5 Common Respiratory Diseases Syndromes Common Respiratory Disease Presentations and Likely Disease Agents Management group Clinical syndrome Likely pathogens Housed dairy born calves less Severe acute RSV, PI3, M bovis, H than 6 months old and housed pneumonia somnus, M haemolytica suckled calves born indoors Chronic coughing Mycoplasma and housed from birth Suckled calves at foot housed Severe acute M haemolytica, RSV, PI3, after summer pneumonia H somnus, Acute upper respiratory Housed weaned suckled calves IBR tract disease Housed weaned dairy bred Severe acute RSV, PI3, IBR, M bovis, calves after summer pneumonia Lungworm
Reproduced by kind permission Gibbs, A. (2001) Practical approach to the control of pneumonia in housed calves In Practice Vol 23 Jan 2001 p 32-39
30
4.5 Treatment This will be an area that will under your vets supervision and discretion and as such only the basic key areas will be discussed. There are no anti-viral treatments available for livestock so the mainstay of treatment is antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs). Antibiotics should always be the first consideration because of the risk of secondary infection. NSAIDs are anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic, and help to reduce the damage to the lungs. A successful treatment should not only result in rapid clinical improvement and minimal lung damage but also the avoidance of relapses that require further treatment. Careful records are required to assess the ultimate success or otherwise of a treatment regime. There is always discussion on the cost effectiveness or otherwise of treatment of the in-contact calves. This will need discussion with your vet but it is worth remembering that calves are often sub-clinically diseased and therefore may still benefit from treatment even when apparently unaffected. 4.5.1 Vaccination As discussed above, infection frequently starts with primary agents, and once the viruses or Mycoplasma have caused primary damage, the bacteria can enter as secondary invaders resulting in extensive damage to the lungs. Vaccination against the key four viruses can have a dramatic effect on reducing calf pneumonia outbreaks in some cases. The currently available vaccines protect against IBR, BVD, RSV and PI3 and Mannheimia haemoltica but not against Haemophilus, Pastuerella multocida or Mycoplamsa bovis. So vaccination should only be used alongside other management changes. Likewise immunity can be overwhelmed if challenge is severe enough or the immune system is compromised. Vaccination will not only increase resistance to disease but will also have the benefit of reducing shed from infected animals, thereby reducing the overall pathogen load within the environment. The exact program you adopt will be the responsibility of your vet but will need to address the following questions: What do I want to protect against? This will be a function of the disease status of the farm, its biosecurity status and how long animals are kept on the farm. If the farm buys in calves a broad multivalent vaccine will be indicated to cover any potential infectious agent that might be brought in. How quick will the vaccine provide protection and at what age can I use it? It is vital that the vaccine provides full immunity BEFORE the challenge occurs. How long does the vaccine last? It is important to ensure that calves are protected throughout the period of risk.
When using vaccines it is vital to use them according to the manufactures instructions poor storage etc will rapidly reduce their effectiveness
31
SECTION 4
Veterinary Herd Health Planning
Herd Health Planning (HHP) is not to be confused with Farm assurance. Veterinary herd health planning is directed at improving herd health, fertility and production to improve both animal health & welfare as well as farm gross margin. HHP involves a flexible team approach with farmer, veterinary surgeon and advisors working together proactively to improve herd performance. HHP involves three distinct stages: Measure Manage Monitor Measurement This requires the recording of important aspects of herd performance which can be used as a cornerstone. This is called benchmarking. These aspects of herd performance do not have to be expensive or hi-tech; examples would be number of calves weaned per cow per year in suckler herds. number of calf that die by three months of age . number of calves treated for pneumonia or scour before weaning in dairy herds. daily liveweight gain (DLWG) in suckled calf systems. condition score of dairy heifers at first service and calving.
Figure 4 shows how measurement and recording on four farms involved in the Yorkshire Dairy & Beef Farm Health Planning Project revealed calf mortality levels ranging from 4% to 32%. These differences prompted the installation of management steps to improve performance which were then monitored.
32
Figure 4 Number of Beef Calves Lost for Every 100 Cows Mated on Four Farms
Calf losses per 100 cows

35
32
30 Number of calves lost
25
20
15
10
5 3
Bishopton
Swale
Herd
Kingsway
Vermuden
(Data: Yorkshire Dairy & Beef Farm Health Planning Project July 2007)
Management Two actions were taken Risk assessment and action required to improve performance. Risk management what changes should be made to improve performance and how can the changes be made in the most practical and cost-effective way? Monitoring Monitoring involves an ongoing review of performance to assess the success of changes in
management and the need for further improvement.
33

Cattle Rearing10mon

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cattle Rearing10mon

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE

CATTLE REARING TO 10 MONTHS OF AGE (Improving Health, Welfare and Profits)

January / February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Percentage of isolations 10 30% (used to be 60%) 70 90% (used to be 40%) up to 40%

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Eggs shed in dung with no treatment

L3 larvae on herbage with no treatment

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

-12 -12 -16 -18 -20 -23 -27 -34

-9 -9 -12 -16 -18 -21 -24 -29

-6 -6 -9 -13 -15 -18 -21 -27

+10 +10 +6 +3 +1 -2 -5 -11

-1 -5 -8 -10 -13 -17 -21

+1 -2 -5 -7 -10 -14 -18

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Figure 2 Digestive System of Newly Born Calf

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Figure 3 Digestive System of a Mature Cow

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Salmonella and E coli infections

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

The major agents of respiratory disease

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

Calf losses per 100 cows

management and the need for further improvement.

ACTION ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE January/February 2008

You might also like