PE-4030 Chapter 2/a

Sensors and Transducers

Prof. Charlton S. Inao Professor Mechatronics System Design Defence Engineering College Bishoftu, Ethiopia

Sensors
Sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured Example: Resistance Temperature Element/(RTD), the quantity being measured is temperature and the sensor transforms and input of temperature into a change in resistance.

Sensors
Sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to a specified physical input. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor that converts a temperature difference into an electrical output. The term transducer is generally used to refer to a device that converts a signal from one form to a different physical form. Thus sensors are often transducers, but also other devices can be transducers, such as a motor that converts an electrical input into rotation.

Transducers
Transducer is often used in place of the term sensor. They are elements that when subject to some physical change experience a related change. Sensors are transducers. A measurement may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to another form.

Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments. Transduce means converts.

Transducers

Terminology
Signal Conditioning - a front-end preprocessing, which generally includes functions such as signal amplification, filtering, electrical isolation, and multiplexing. In addition, many transducers require excitation currents or voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or high amplification for proper and accurate operation.

Signal Conditioning Devices

Charge amplifiers, lock-in amplifiers, power amplifiers, switching amplifiers, linear amplifiers, tracking filters, low-pass filters, high-pass filters, and notch filters are some of the signal-conditioning devices used in mechatronic systems.

Signal Conditioning Requirements of Common Transducers

Terminology
Range- it is the limits between which the input can vary. eg load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of 0-50 kN. Error- the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the quantity being measured. Error= measured value- true value

Terminology
Accuracy- is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement system might be wrong. It is the summation of all possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated. Accuracy is often expressed as the full range output or full scale deflection. Eg. A sensor might be specified as having an accuracy of + 5% of full range output. Given: Temp Range 0200 deg Centigrade. Reading could be within +or 10 deg centigrade of the true reading.

Terminology
Sensitivity- the sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output you get per unit input, ie. Output/input. Example: A resistance thermometer may have sensitivity of 0.5 ohms/deg Centigrade. -A transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as having a temperature sensitivity of + 0.1% of the reading per degree Centigrade change in temperature.

Terminology
The sensitivity is defined as the ratio between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all points of measurement.

Terminology
Hysteresis error- Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. The hysteresis error is the maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing values.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one direction than in the other.

Hysteresis Error

Nonlinearity and hysteresis

Terminology
The error of a measurement is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the quantity being measured. Nonlinearity error is used to describe the error that occurs as a result of assuming a linear relationship between the input and output over the working range, that is, a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to give a straight line. Non linearity error- The error associated in the deviation from linearity between the input and the output. The error is quoted as the percentage of the full range output. Three methods: 1) Draw the straight line joining the output values at the end points of the range 2) Find the straight line by using the method of least squares to determine the best fit line. 3) Find the straight line by using the method of least squares to determine the best fit line which passes through zero point.

Non Linearity Error

Terminology
Repeatability- The repeatability of the transducer is its ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value. Example: Angular velocity => repeatability + 0.01% of the full range at a particular angular velocity. Reproducibility- the ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant and is measured on a number of occasions. Between the measurements the transducer is disconnected and reinstalled. The error is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output.

Terminology
Stability- The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant input over a period of time. The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time. The drift may be expressed a s a percentage of the full range output. The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero input.

Terminology
Deadband- the deadband or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output. For example bearing friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular velocity threshold.

Terminology
Resolution- The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is measuring. Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects an electron tunnelling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

Example: Strain Gauge Transducer

Thermal Sensitivity :0.03 % full range output /deg Centigrade

Interpretation for Strain Gauge Transducer Specs

The range indicates that the transducer can be used to measure pressures between 70 and 1000 kPa or 2000 and 70000kPa. It requires a supply of 10 Vdc or ac rms for its operation It will give an output of 40mV when the pressure on the lower range is 1000 kPa and on the upper range of 70 000kPa

Interpretation for Strain Gauge Transducer Specs

Nonlinearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of + .5% of 1000, i.e + 5kPa on the lower range and + .5% of 70 000 , that is i.e + 350kPa on the upper range. The transducer can be used between the temperature range -54 deg C and +120 deg C. When the temperature changes by 1 deg C the output of the transducer for zero input will change by 0.03% of 1000=0.3kPa on the lower range and 0.03% of 70 000=21 kPa on the upper range.

Interpretation for Strain Gauge Transducer Specs

When the temperature changes by 1deg C, the sensitivity of the transducer will change by 0.3 kPa on the lower range and 21kPa on the upper range. This means that readings will change by these amounts when such temperature change occurs.

Example Velocity Sensor Specs

Example : MX100AP Pressure Sensor Specs

Supply voltage: 3 V (6 V max) Supply current: 6 mA Full-scale span: 60 mV Range: 0 to 100 kPa Sensitivity: 0.6 mV/kPa Nonlinearity error: 0.05% of full range Temperature hysteresis: 0.5% of full scale Input resistance: 400 to 550 O Response time: 1 ms (10% to 90%)

Displacement/Position Sensors

Displacement/Position Sensors
The term position sensor is used for a sensor that gives a measure of the distance between a reference point and the current location of the target, while a displacement sensor gives a measure of the distance between the present position of the target and the previously recorded position.

1.Displacement /Position Sensors

Two Groups
Linear Angular Linear displacement sensors might be used to monitor the thickness or other dimensions of sheet materials, separation of rollers, the position or presence of a part, the size of a part. Angular displacement methods might be used to monitor the angular displacement of shafts.

Application of Displacement Sensor

Application: Location and position of object on a conveyor

1.1 Displacement Sensors

Displacement Sensors
Potentiometer Strain Gauge element Capacitive Element Differential Transformer Optical Encoders
Absolute Incremental

Potentiometer
A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved over the length of the element. Such element can be used for linear or rotary displacements.

Potentiometer

Strain Gauge
The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor material which is waferlike and can be stucked into surfaces like a postage stamp. When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance R/R being proportional to the strain E, that is delta( ) R/R=G x E Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed a s the gauged factor. The resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the change in length of the element to which the strain gauge is attached.

Example: An electrical resistance of 100 ohms and a gauge factor of 2.0. What is the change of resistance of the gauge when it is subject to a strain of 0.001.

Answer=Fractional Change in R= G x strain x R=2.0X0.001x100=0.2 ohms

Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

Linear variable differential transformer is a mechanical displacement transducer. It gives an a.c. voltage output proportional to the distance of the transformer core to the windings. The LVDT is a mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core An external a.c. power source energizes the central coil and the two- identical secondary coils connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other. The net result is zero output. A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of displacement being monitored. However when the core is displaced from the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other. A greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the greater the displacement being monitored.

LVDT

A greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the greater the displacement being monitored.

LVDT

Optical Encoder
An encoder is a device that provides digital output as a result of linear and angular displacement. Position encoders are of two types: 1)Incremental
2) Absolute Incremental encoders detect changes in rotation from some datum while the absolute encoders give the actual angular position.

Incremental encoder

Absolute encoder

Optical Encoder

Optical Encoder

1.2 Proximity Sensors

Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making contact with it. Proximity Sensors -eddy -reed -capacitive -inductive

There are a number of forms of such switches, some being suitable only for metallic objects. The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil that is energized by a constant alternating current and produces a constant alternating magnetic field. When a metallic object is close to it, eddy currents are induced in it .

Proximity Sensors

Photoelectric Sensors

Capacitive
A proximity switch that can be used with metallic and nonmetallic objects is the capacitive proximity switch. The capacitance of a pair of plates separated by some distance depends on the separation; the smaller the separation, the higher the capacitance. The sensor of a capacitive proximity switch is just one of the plates of the capacitor, the other plate being the metal object for which the proximity is to be detected .Thus the proximity of the object is detected by a change in capacitance.

Inductive Sensor
The inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound a round a ferrous metallic core. When one end of this core is placed near a ferrous metal object, there is effectively a change in the amount of metallic core associated with the coil and so a change in its inductance. This change can be monitored using a resonant circuit, the presence of the ferrous metal object thus changing the current in that circuit. The current can be used to activate an electronic switch circuit and so create an on/off device. The range over which such objects can be detected is typically about 2 mm to 15 mm. An example of the use of such a sensor is to detect whether bottles passing along a conveyor belt have metal caps on.

Velocity Sensor
Incremental Encoder-This can be used for measuring angular velocity, number of pulses produced per second being determined. Tachogenerator -Used to measure angular velocity. It is essentially a small electric generator, consisting of coil mounted in magnetic field .when the coil rotates an alternating emf is induced in the coil, the size of the maximum emf being a measure of the angular velocity. when used with a commutator a dc output can be aobtained which is a measure of the angular velocity.

Motion Sensor
By motion, we mean the four kinematic variables: Displacement (including position, distance, proximity, and size or gage) Velocity Acceleration Jerk

Note that each variable is the time derivative of the preceding one. Motion measurements are extremely useful in controlling mechanical responses and interactions in mechatronic systems. Numerous examples can be cited: The rotating speed of a work piece and the feed rate of a tool are measured in controlling machining operations. Displacements and speeds (both angular and translatory) at joints (revolute and prismatic) of robotic manipulators or kinematic linkages are used in controlling manipulator trajectory In high-speed ground transit vehicles, acceleration and jerk measurements can be used for active suspension control to obtain improved ride quality.

 Angular speed is a crucial measurement that is used in the control of rotating machinery, such as turbines, pumps, compressors, motors, and generators in power-generating plants.

Proximity sensors (to measure displacement) and accelerometers (to measure acceleration) are the two most common types of measuring devices used in machine protection systems for condition monitoring, fault detection, diagnostic, and on-line (often real-time) control of large and complex machinery

The accelerometer is often the only measuring device used in controlling dynamic test rigs. Displacement measurements are used for valve control in process applications. Plate thickness (or gage) is continuously monitored by the automatic gage control (AGC) system in steel rolling mills.

Force Sensor
Strain Gauge Load Cell a very commonly used form of force measuring transducer on the use of electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent by the application of the force.The arrangement is generally referred to as load cell.

Strain Gauge

Strain Gauges a)metal wire b)metal foil c)semiconductor

Strain Gauge

Strain Gauge

Pressure Sensors

Fluid Pressure Sensors

A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

 Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators and piezometers, manometers, among other names.

Fluid Pressure

Diaphragms a) Flat b) Corrugated

Diaphragms c) Capsule d) Bellows Tube Pressure Sensors e) helical tube d) Bourdon tube, C-type

Many of the devices used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes. For a diaphragm, when there is a difference in pressure between the two sides then the center of the diaphragm becomes displaced. Corrugations in the diaphragm result in greater sensitivity. This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor like strain gauge, which measures the strain in circumferential and radial direction.

Capsules(c) can be considered to be just two corrugated diaphragms combined and give even greater sensitivity. A stack of capsule is just a bellows and even more sensitive. Bellows can be combined with LVDT to give a pressure with an electrical output. Pressures in the range of about 103 to 10 8 Pascal can be monitor with such sensors. Materials for these sensors are SS, phosphor bronze, nickel , rubber and nylon.

A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an elliptical cross section. Increasing the pressure in such a tube causes it to tend to a more circular cross section. When the tube is formed in the shape of a C shaped tube, the C opens up to some extent when the pressure in the tube increases. A helical form of tube gives a greater sensitivity. Materials of these tubes are made of stainless steel and phosphor bronze and are used for pressures in the range of about 103 to 10 8 Pa.

Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate. Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.

Venturi Meter

The End Thank You