Roger N. Shepard - Geometrical Approximations To The Structure of Musical Pitch (Article) (1982)

Psychological Review
VOLUME 89 NUMBER 4 JULY 1982

Geometrical Approximations to the Structure of Musical Pitch
Roger N. Shepard
Stanford University
' Rectilinear scales of pitch can account for the similarity of tones close together
in frequency but not for the heightened relations at special intervals, such as the
octave or perfect fifth, that arise when the tones are interpreted musically. In-
creasingly adequate accounts of musical pitch are provided by increasingly gen-
eralized, geometrically regular helical structures: a simple helix, a double helix,
and a double helix wound around a torus in four dimensions or around a higher
order helical cylinder in five dimensions. A two-dimensional "melodic map" of
these double-helical structures provides for optimally compact representations
of musical scales and melodies. A two-dimensional "harmonic map," obtained
by an affine transformation of the melodic map, provides for optimally compact
representations of chords and harmonic relations; moreover, it is isomorphic to
the toroidal structure that Krumhansl and Kessler (1982) show to represent the
psychological relations among musical keys.
A piece of music, just as any other acous-
tic stimulus, can be physically described in
terms of two time-varying pressure waves,
one incident at each ear. This level of anal-
ysis has, however, little correspondence to
I first described the double helical representation of
pitch and its toroidal extensions in 1978 (Shepard, Note
1; also see Shepard, 1978b, p. 183, 1981a, 198lc, p.
320). The present, more complete report, originally
drafted before I went on sabbatical leave in 1979, has
been slightly revised to take account of a related, elegant
development by my colleagues Krumhansl and Kessler
(1982).
The work reported here was supported by National
Science Foundation Grant BNS-75-02806. It owes
much to the innovative researches of Gerald Balzano
and Carol Krumhansl, with whom I have been fortunate
enough to share the excitement of various attempts to
bridge the gap between cognitive psychology and the
perception of music. Less directly, the work has been
influenced by the writings of Fred Attneave and Jay
1
Dowling. Finally, I am indebted to Shelley Hurwitz for
assistance in the collection and analysis of the data and
to Michael Kubovy for his many helpful suggestions on
the manuscript.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Roger N.
Shepard, Department of Psychology, Jordan Hall,
Building 420, Stanford University, Stanford, California
94305.
the musical experience. Because the ear is
responsive to frequencies up to 20 kHz or
more, at a sampling rate of two pressure
values per cycle per ear, the physical spec-
ification of a half-hour symphony requires
well in excess of a hundred million numbers.
Clearly, our response to the music is based
on a much smaller set of psychological at-
tributes abstracted from this physical stim-
ulus. In this respect the perception of music
is like the perception of other stimuli such
as colors or speech sounds, where the vast
number of physical values needed to specify
the complete power spectrum of a stimulus
is reduced to a small number of psycholog-
ical values, corresponding, say, to locations
on red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white
dimensions for homogeneous colors (Hurv-
ich & Jameson, 1957) or on high-low and
front-back dimensions for steady-state vow-
els (Peterson & Barney, 1952; Shepard,
1972). But what, exactly, are the basic per-
ceptual attributes of music?
Just as continuous signals of speech are
perceptually mapped into discrete internal
representations of phonemes or syllables,
Copyright 1982 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0033-295X/82/8904-0305$00.75
305
306 ROGER N. SHEPARD
continuous signals of music are perceptually
mapped into discrete internal representa-
tions of tones and chords; just as each speech
sound can be characterized by a small num-
ber of distinctive features, each musical tone
can be characterized by a small number of
perceptual dimensions of pitch, loudness,
timbre, vibrato, tremolo, attack, decay, du-
ration, and spatial location. In addition,
much as the internal representations of
speech sounds are organized into higher level
internal representations of meaningful words,
phrases, and sentences, the internal repre-
sentations of musical tones and chords are
organized into higher level internal repre-
sentations of meaningful melodies, progres-
sions, and cadences.
The Fundamental Roles of Pitch and
Time in Music
The perceptually salient attributes of the
tones making up the musically significant
chords and melodies are not equally impor-
tant for the determination of those higher
order units. In fact, for the music of all hu-
man cultures, it is the relations specifically
of pitch and time that appear to be crucial
for the recognition of a familiar piece of
music. Other attributes, for example, loud-
ness, timbre; vibrato, attack, decay, and ap-
parent spatial location, although contribut-
ing to audibility, comfort, and aesthetic
quality, can be varied widely without dis-
rupting recognition or even musical appre-
ciation.
The reasons for the primacy of pitch and
time in music are both musical and extra-
musical. From the extramusical standpoint
there are compelling arguments, recently
advanced by Kubovy ( 1981 ), that pitch and
time alone are the attributes that are "in-
dispensable" for the perceptual segregation
of the auditory ensemble into discrete tones.
From the musical standpoint a case can be
made that the richness and power of music
depends on the listener's interpretation of
the tones in terms of a discrete structure that
is endowed with particular group-theoretic
properties (Balzano, 1980, in press, Note 2).
In the case of the human auditory system,
moreover, the requisite properties appear to
be fully available only in the dimensions of
pitch (Balzano, 1980; Krumhansl & Shep-
ard, 1979; Shepard, 1982) and time (Jones,
197 6; Pressing, in press), the dimensions
within which higher order musical units such
as melodies and chords are capable of struc-
ture-preserving transformations.
In this paper I confine myself to the case
of pitch and to the question of how a single
psychological attribute corresponding, in the
case of pure sinusoidal tones, to a simple one-
dimensional physical continuum of fre-
quency affords the structural richness req-
uisite for tonal music. One can perhaps
readily conceive how structural complexity
is achievable in the dimension of time,
through overlapping patterns of rhythm and
stress, but the structural properties of pitch
seem to be manifested even in purely melodic
sequences of purely sinusoidal tones (Krum-
hansl & Shepard, 1979 ). In the absence of
physical overlap of upper harmonics of the
sort considered by Helmholtz (1862/1954)
and by Plomp & Levett ( 1965 ), wherein does
this structure reside?
Cognitive Versus Psychoacoustic
Approaches to Pitch
Until recently, attempts to bring scientific
methods to bear on the perception of musical
stimuli have mostly adopted a psychoacous-
tic approach. The goal has been to determine
the dependence of psychological attributes,
such as pitch, loudness, and perceived du-
ration, on physical variables of frequency,
amplitude, and physical duration (Stevens,
1955; Stevens & Volkmann, 1940) or on
more complex combinations of physical vari-
ables (de Boer, 1976; J. Goldstein, 1973;
Plomp, 1976; Terhardt, 1974; Wightman,
1973).
By contrast, the cognitive psychological
approach looks for structural relations within
a set of perceived pitches independently of
the correspondence that these structural re-
lations may bear to physical variables. This
approach is particularly appropriate when
such structural relations reside not in the
stimulus but in the perceiver-a circum-
stance that is well known to students of mu-
sic theory, who recognize that an interval
defined by a given physical difference in log
frequency may be heard very differently in
different musical contexts. To elaborate on
STRUCTURE OF PITCH 307
an example mentioned by Risset (1978, p.
526), in a C-major context the interval B-
F is heard as having a strong tendency to
resolve by contraction into the smaller in-
terval C-E, whereas in an f#-major context
the physically identical interval (now called
B-E*, however) is heard as having a simi-
larly strong tendency to resolve by expansion
into the larger interval ALF*. Moreover,
Krumhansl ( 1979) has now provided system-
atic, quantitative evidence that the perceived
relations between the various tones within
an octave do indeed depend on the context-
induced musical key with respect to which
those tones are interpreted. How, then, are
we to represent the relations of pitch be-
tween tones as those relations are perceived
by a listener who is interpreting the tones
musically?
Previous Representations of Pitch
Rectilinear Representations
The simplest representations that have
been proposed for pitch have been unidi-
mensional scales based on judgments made
in nonmusical contexts. Examples are the
"mel" scale that Stevens, Volkmann, and
Newman (1937) and Stevens and Volkmann
(1940) based on a method of fractionation
or the similar scale that Beck and Shaw
( 1961) later based on a method of
estimation. Pitches are represented in such
scales by locations along a one-dimensional
line. In these scales, moreover, the location
of each pure tone is related to the logarithm
of its frequency in a nonlinear manner dic-
tated by the psychoacoustic fact that paim
of low-frequency tones are less discriminable:
than are pairs of high-frequency tones sep
arated equally in log frequency. Such scaleH
thus deviate from musical scales (or from
the spacing of keys on a piano keyboard) in
which position is essentially logarithmic with
frequency. From a musical standpoint such
scales are in fact anomalous in two respects.
First, because of the resulting nonlinear
relation between pitch and log frequen,cy, the
distance between tones separated by the
same musical interval, such as an octave or
a fifth, is not invariant under transposition
up or down the scale. The failure of musi-
cally significant relations of pitch to emerge
as invariant in these scales seems to be a
direct consequence of the assiduous avoid-
ance, by the psychoacoustic investigators, of
any musical context or tonal framework
within which the listeners might interpret
the stimuli musically. Attneave and Olson
(1971) showed that when familiar melodies,
as opposed to arbitrarily selected nonmusical
tones, were to be transposed in pitch, listen-
ers required that the separations between the
tones be preserved on the musically relevant
scale of log frequency-not on a nonlinearly
related scale such as the mel scale. That the
scale underlying judgments of musical pitch
must be logarithmic with frequency is in fact
now supported by several kinds of empirical
evidence (Dowling, 1978b; Null, 1974; Ward,
1954, 1970).
Second, because of the unidimensionality
of scales of pitch such as the mel scale, per-
ceived similarity must decrease monotoni-
cally with increasing separation between
tones on the scale. There is, therefore, no
provision for the possibility that tones sep-
arated by a particularly significant musical
interval, such as the octave, may be per-
ceived as having more in common than tones
separated by a somewhat smaller but mu-
sically less significant interval, such as the
major seventh. Indeed, even the musically
more relevant log-frequency scale, also being
unidimensional, is subject to this same lim-
itation. Yet, in the case of the octave, which
corresponds to an approximately two-to-one
ratio of frequencies, the phenomenon of aug-
mented perceptual similarity at that partic-
ular interval (a) has long been anticipated
(Boring, 1942, pp. 376, 380; Licklider, 1951,
pp. 1003-1004; Ruckmick, 1929}, (b) was
in fact empirically observed at about the
time that the unidimensional mel scale was
being perfected (Blackwell & Schlosberg,
1943; Humphreys, 1939), (c) has since been
much more securely established (Allen, 1967;
Bachem, 1954; Balzano, 1971; Dowling,
1978a; Dowling & Hollombe, 1977; Idson
& Massaro, 1978; Kallman & Massaro,
1979; Krumhansl & Shepard, 1979; Thur-
low & Erchul, 1977}, and (d) probably un-
derlies the remarkable precision and cross-
cultural consistency with which listeners are
able to adjust a variable tone so that it stands
E
Figure I. A simple regular helix to account for the in-
creased similarity between tones separated by an octave.
(From "Approximation to Uniform Gradients of Gen-
eralization by Monotone Transformations of Scale" by
Roger N. Shepard. In D. I. Mostofsky (Ed.), Stimulus
Generalization. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University
Press, 1965, p. 105. Copyright 1965 by Stanford Uni-
versity Press. Reprinted by permission.)
in an octave relation to a given fixed tone
(Burns, 1974; Dowling, 1978b; Sundberg
& Lindqvist, 1973; and, originally, Ward,
1954).1
Simple Helical Representations
We can obtain geometrical representa-
tions that are consistent with an increased
similarity at the octave by deforming a rec-
tilinear representation of pitch into a higher
dimensional embedding space to form a he-
lix, as proposed for this purpose by Drobisch
as early as 1846, or a spiral, as proposed by
Donkin in 1874 (see Pikler, 1966; Ruckmick,
1929; and for a recently proposed planar
spiral, Hahn & Jones, 1981). For, unlike a
straight line, a helix or spiral that completes
one turn per octave achieves the desired in-
crease in spatial proximity between points
an octave apart-at least if the slope of the
curve is not too steep. (Compare Paths a and
b between the tones C and C', an octave
apart, in Figure 1.) Moreover, this is true
whether the curve is embedded in a cylinder,
as proposed by Drobisch, a flat plane, as sug-
gested by Donkin, or a bell-shaped surface
of revolution, as advocated by Ruckmick
(1929 ). Despite their differences, the rep-
resentations proposed by these authors were
alike in having adjacent turns more closely
spaced toward the low-frequency end, where
given differences in log frequency are less
discriminable. (See the figures reproduced
in Pikler, 1966; Ruckmick, 1929.) These
representations were analogous, in this re-
spect, to the unidimensional psychophysical
representations of Stevens and his colleagues
(Stevens et al., 1937; Stevens & Volkman,
1940):
In 1954, before learning of these early
proposals, I had attempted to accommodate
a heightened similarity at the octave by
means of a tonal helix (Note 3) that differed,
however, from the ones proposed by Drob-
isch, Donkin, and Ruckmick in being geo-
metrically uniform or regular. (See Figure
1, which, except for relabeling, is reproduced
from Shepard, Note 3-as it later appeared
in Shepard, 1965 ). Because it is geometri-
cally regular, this is the helical analog of the
unidimensional scale having the musically
more relevant logarithmic structure advo-
cated by and Olson ( 1971 ); in it
the distance corresponding to any particular
musical interval is invariant throughout the
representation. The uniform helix also pos-
sesses an additional advantage over curves
embedded in variously shaped surfaces of
revolution, such as Ruckmick's (1929) "tonal
bell." Only when the helix is regular, and
hence embedable in a cylindrical surface,
will tones standing in the octave relation, in
addition to coming into closer proximity with
each other, fall on a common straight line
parallel to the axis of the helix. Such lines
1
Incidentally, these studies agree in showing that the
ratio of physical frequencies of pure tones that subjects
set in the octave relationship is about 2.02: I and not
exactly 2: I. This small "stretched-octave" effect (Bal-
1977; Burns, 1974; Dowling, 1973a; Sundberg
& Lindqvist, 1973; Ward, 1954) still leads to an ap-
proximately logarithmic relation between pitch and fre-
quency and does not vitiate any of the conclusions to
be drawn here.
can be thought of as projecting all tones with
the same musical name but differing by oc-
taves (e.g., the tones C, C', C", etc.) down
into a single corresponding point in a
"chroma circle" on a plane orthogonal to the
axis of the helix (see Figure 1 ). Moreover,
this projective property, unlike the property
of augmented proximity, holds regardless of
the slope of the helix.
Physical Realization of the Chroma Circle
It is, in fact, the projective property of the
regular helix that subsequently led me to a
method of physically separating the two un-
derlying components of pitch implicit in the
helical representation, namely, the rectilin-
ear component called pitch height, corre-
sponding to the axis of the helix (or of the
cylinder in which it lies), and the circular
component variously called tone quality
(Revesz, 1954) or tone chroma (Bachem,
1950, 1954), corresponding to the circum-
ference of that cylinder (see Shepard, 1964b ).
What was required was the specification of
two physical operations corresponding to the
geometrical projection of the entire helix
onto the central axis, in the one case, and
onto an orthogonal plane, in the other. The
auditory realization of the required opera-
tions was greatly facilitated by the devel-
opment, at just this time, of computer tech-
niques for the additive synthesis of arbitrarily
specified tones (Mathews, 1963).
For the first operation I proposed a broad-
ening of the band of energy around the cen-
ter frequency of each tone until the resulting
narrow-band noise encompassed about an
octave. Because the different sounds gener-
ated in this way have different center fre-
quencies, they still differ over the whole
range of pitch height. But, because they have
all been spread alike around the chroma cir-
cle, they can no longer be discriminated with
respect to chroma. This operation thus cor-
responds to collapsing the helix onto its cen-
tralaxis.
For the second operation I proposed, in-
stead, a harmonic elaboration of each tone
until it included, alike, all multiples and sub-
multiples of the original frequency (i.e., all
tones standing in octave and multiple-octave
relations to that original tone), with the am-
plitudes of the component frequencies de-
termined by a fixed bell-shaped spectral en-
velope that was at its maximum near the
middle of the standard musical range and
that gradually fell away in both directions
to below-threshold levels for very low and
very high frequencies. The different sounds
generated in this way remain fully distinct
in chroma but are all equivalent in height.
Thus, in shifting through chroma, from C
to Cli to D to Dli and so on to B, the next
step (though still heard as a step up in pitch),
instead of leaving one an octave higher at
C', leaves one back at the original starting
tone C (Shepard, 1964b).
2
Indeed, applica-
tion of multidimensional scaling to measures
of similarity derived from judgments of rel-
ative pitch between tones varied in this man-
ner (Shepard, 1964b) yielded the almost
perfectly circular solution displayed in Fig-
ure 2 (a) (see Shepard, 1978a). (A similarly
circular representation for tones generated
in this way has also been reported by Char-
bonneau and Risset, 1973.)
Although this circular component, chroma,
emerges most compellingly when the recti-
linear component, height, is artificially sup-
pressed, as with these special, computer-gen-
erated tones, the claim is that this circular
component is necessarily present in all mu-
sical tones for which tones separated by an
octave are perceived as more closely related
than tones separated by a somewhat smaller
interval. Circular multidimensional scaling
solutions have in fact been obtained for or-
dinary musical tones. Figure 2 (b), for ex-
ample, reproduces a circular pat-
tern subsequently obtained by Balzano ( 1977,
1982) from a multidimensional scaling anal-
. ysis of his own discriminative reaction time
data for melodic intervals.
3
2
The illusion of circular or "endlessly ascending"
tones can be heard on a commercial record ("Shepard's
Tones," 1970) or on a short 16-mm film (Shepard &
Zajac, 1965), which we believe to be the first film in
which both the sound and the animation were generated
by computer. I demonstrated the independent variation
of linear pitch height and circular tone chroma at the
1978 meeting of the Western Psychological Association
(Shepard, Note I).

3
One should, however, exercise caution in basing the
inference of circularity solely on a multidimensional
scaling solution. The curvature evident in some obtained
solutions (e.g., the one reported by Levelt, Van de Geer,
a b

Tritone
Figure 2. Chroma circles recovered by multidimensional scaling (a) for 10 computer-generated tones
especially designed to eliminate differences in pitch height and (b) for twelve ordinary musical tones.
(Panel a is from "The Circumplex and Related Topological Manifolds in the Study of Perception" by
R. N. Shepard. In S. Shye (Ed.), Theory Construction and Data Analysis in the Behavioral Sciences.
San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Copyright 1978 by Jossey-Bass, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
Panel b is from Chronometric Studies of the Musical Interval Sense by G. J. Balzano. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1977. Reprinted by permission.)
By now the possibility of analyzing per-
ceived pitch into the rectilinear and circular
components of height and chroma has been
accepted by a number of researchers (e.g.,
Bachem, 1950, 1954; Balzano, 1977; Deutsch,
1972, 1973; Jones, 1976; Kallman & Mas-
saro, 1979; Pikler, 1955; Revesz, 1954; Ris-
set, 1978 ). Even among advocates of a helical
representation, though, opinions may still dif-
fer concerning the relative merits of a geo-
metrically regular structure such as I pro-
posed versus a more or less distorted variant
such as Ruckmick (1929) advocated. Here,
again, one's predilection may depend on
whether one takes a more psychoacoustic or
a more cognitive and musical point of view.
Argument for a Geometrically Regular
Structure
From the psychoacoustic standpoint it
seems natural to suggest that the spacing
& Plomp, 1966) may simply reflect an artifact that al-
most always arises when basically one-dimensional data
are fit in a higher dimensional space (Shepard, 1974,
pp. 386-388).
between points in the representational struc-
ture, quite apart from whether that structure
is basically rectilinear or helical in overall
shape, should be adjusted to reflect how the
operating characteristics of the sensory
transducers shift as we move from low to
high input frequencies. Someone preoccu-
pied with such sensory considerations might
even see some significance in the resem-
blance of a distorted spiral or helix to the
anatomical conformation of the cochlea.
By contrast, a more cognitively and mu-
sically oriented approach to pitch is likely
to regard such considerations of automa-
tic peripheral transduction (and anatomy)
as largely irrelevant. Adopting something
like Chomsky's (1965) competence-perfor-
mance distinction, I s ~ g g e s t that if it is
musical pitch that interests us, the repre-
sentation should reflect the deeper structure
that underlies a listener's competence to im-
pose a musical interpretation on a stream of
acoustic inputs under favorable conditions.
Such an interpretive structure continues to
exist whether or not the acoustic stimuli in
a particular stream fall within the range of
frequencies, amplitudes, or durations that
can be adequately transduced by a particular
ear or whether or not a preceding context
has been provided that is sufficient to acti-
vate and to orient or tune the internal struc-
ture required for a musical interpretation.
From this cognitive standpoint the already
cited evidence for invariance under trans-
position (Attneave & Olson, 1971; Dowling,
1978b) would require not only that the struc-
ture be helical (rather than spiral, say) but
also that the helix be geometrically regular
and, so, be carried into itself by a rigid
screwlike motion under the musical trans-
position that maps any tone into any other.
Only then will the geometrical structure pre-
serve the property, essential to music, that
all pairs of tones separated by a given in-
terval, such as an octave or a fifth, have the
same musical relation regardless of their
overall pitch height. Indeed, from this stand-
point the reason that this structure must take
a helical form (just as much as the reason
that the DNA molecule must take a helical
form) is a consequence of the fundamental
geometrical fact that the most general rigid
motion of space into itself is a combination
of a rotation and a translation along the axis
of the rotation, that is, a screw displacement
(Coxeter, 1961, pp. 101, 321; H. Goldstein,
1950, p. 124; Greenwood, 1965, p. 318;
Hilbert & Cohn-Vossen, 1932/1952, pp.
82, 285).
One should not suppose, here, that the
octave-related tones that project onto the
same point on the chroma circle share some
absolutely identifiable quality of chroma any
more than the projection of any tone onto
the central axis of the helix to
an absolutely identifiable quality of pitch
height. Only those rare individuals possess-
ing "absolute pitch" can recognize a chroma
absolutely (Bachem, 1954; Siegel, 1972;
Ward, 1963a, 1963b). For most individuals
(including most musicians), in the case of
pitch just as in the case of many other per-
ceptual dimensions (loudness, brightness,
size, distance, duration, etc.), it is the rela-
tions between presented values that have
well-defined internal representations, not the
values themselves (Shepard, 1978c, 1981 b).
In fact, as Attneave and Olson (1971)
have so persuasively argued, pitch is perhaps
best thought of not as a stimulus but as a
"medium" in which auditory patterns (chords
or tunes) can move about while retaining
their structural identity, just as visual space
is a medium in which luminous patterns can
move about while retaining their structural
identity. We are not very good at recognizing
the position of an isolated point of light in
otherwise empty space, but we can say with
great precision whether one such point is
above or below another or whether three
points form a straight line or a right triangle.
Likewise, many of us are poor at identifying
the pitch of an isolated tone but quite good
at saying whether one tone is higher or lower
than another or whether three tones stand
in octave relations or form a major triad. In
either the visual or the auditory case, any
such pattern moved to a different location
or pitch continues to be recognized as the
same pattern.
I go beyond the formulations of Attneave
and Olson ( 1971) and of Dowling ( 1978b ),
however, in saying that in the case of pitch,
such a motion must .be helical. For example,
suppose we alternate one well-defined pat-
tern, say a major triad, with exactly the same
pattern but each time with the second pat-
tern displaced farther away from the first in
pitch height. As the two patterns are moved
apart from their initially complete coinci-
dence, each will retain its own structural
identity. But the perceived degree of relation
between the two patterns will first decrease
and then increase again as all three com-
ponents of one come into the octave relation
with corresponding components of the other.
(The perceived relation may also increase
somewhat at certain intermediate positions
as the two triads pass through other special
tonal relations, just as the visual similarity
to the original of a rotating copy of a triangle
will increase at certain intermediate orien-
tations before coming again into complete
coincidence at 360. See Shepard, 1982.)
Such a phenomenon is not explicable solely
in terms of increasing separation within a
purely rectilinear medium; it implies a me-
dium with a circular component. Motions in
such a medium are thus auditory analogs of
the operations of mental rotation and rota-
tional apparent motion in the visual domain
(see Shepard & Cooper, 1982).
Limitations of the Simple Helix
The structure of the simple regular helix
pictured in Figure 1 was dictated by two
considerations: invariance under transposi-
tion and increased similarity at the octave.
In such a regular helix, moreover, the special
octave relation is represented by unique col-
linearity or projectability. as well as by aug-
mented spatial proximity. As it stands, how-
ever, the helical structure does not provide
either augmented proximity or collinearity
for tones separated by any other special
musical interval. Yet, beginning with Eb-
binghaus, Drobisch's proposal of a helical
representation has been criticized for its fail-
ure to account for the special status of the
interval of a perfect fifth (see Ruckmick,
1929).
There are, indeed, a number of converging
reasons for supposing that the fifth should,
like the octave, have a unique status. (a) As
has been known at least since Pythagoras,
after the 2-to-1 ratio in the lengths of a vi-
brating string that corresponds to the octave
(which as we now know determines a 1-to-
2 ratio in the resulting frequency of vibra-
tion), the fifth corresponds to the next sim-
plest, 3-to-2, ratio (Helmholtz, 1862/1954).
(b) In the case of musical and, therefore,
harmonically rich tones, those separated by
a fifth also have, within the octave, the few-
est upper harmonics that deviate from co-
incidence by an amount expected to produce
noticeable beats (Helmholtz, 1862/ 1954;
Plomp & Levelt, 1965). (c) Moreover, such
beats can be subjectively experienced even
when the harmonics that most contribute to
them are not physically present (Mathews,
Note 4; see also Mathews & Sims, 1981).
(d) Correspondingly, simultaneously sounded
tones differing by a fifth-even pure, sinu-
soidal tones-tend to Be heard as particu-
larly smooth, harmonious, or consonant, and
the fifth, together with the similarly har-
monious major third, completes the uniquely
stable and tonally centered chord, the major
triad (Meyer, 1956; Piston, 1941; Ratner,
1962; Schenker, 1906/1954, p. 252). (e) In
addition, the interval of the fifth plays a piv-
otal role in tonal music, being _the interval
that separates musical keys that share the
greatest number of tones and between which
modulations of key most often occur (Forte,
1979; Helmholtz, 1862/1954; Schenker,
1906/1954). (f) Finally, according to Bal-
zano's (1980, Note 2) group-theoretic anal-
ysis, the preeminence of the fifth in tonal
music has a basis in abstract structural con-
straints independent of the psychoacoustic
facts noted under (a) and (b).
Despite these diverse indications of the
importance of the perfect fifth, the fifth has
largely failed to reveal its unique status in
psychoacoustic investigations for the same
reason, I believe, that the octave often re-
vealed its unique status only weakly, if at
all. In the absence of a muscial context,
tones-particularly the pure sinusoidal tones
favored by psychoacousticians-tend to be
interpreted primarily with respect to the sin-
gle, rectilinear dimension of pitch height.
Without a musical context there is insuffi-
cient support for the internal representation
of more complex components of pitch-com-
ponents that may underlie the recognition
of special musical intervals and that (like the
chroma circle) are necessarily circular be-
cause, again, the musical requirement of in-
variance under transposition entails that
each such component repeat cyclically
through successive octaves.
Recent Evidence for a Hierarchy of Tonal
Relations
Motivated by the considerations just given,
Caroi Krumhansl and I initiated a new series
of experiments on the perception of musical
intervals within an explicitly presented mu-
sical context. In this way we were in fact
able to obtain clear and consistent evidence
that the perfect fifth is at the top of a whole
hierarchy of special relations within each
octave. In these experiments we established
the necessary musical context, just prior to
presenting the to-be-judged test tone or
tones, simply by playing, for example, the
sequence of tones of a major diatonic scale
(the tones named do, re, mi,fa, sol, Ia, and
ti and corresponding, in the key of C major,
to the white keys of the piano keyboard).
Ratings of the ensuing test tones yielded
highly consistent orderings of the musical
intervals across listeners having equivalent
musical backgrounds. This was true both in
the initial experiments in which listeners
rated, in effect, the extent to which each in-
dividual test tone out of the 13 within one
complete octave was substitutable for the
tonic tone (do) that would normally have
completed the major scale presented as con-
text (Krumhansl & Shepard, 1979; also see
Krumhansl & Kessler, 1982) and in further
experiments in which listeners rated the sim-
ilarities between the two test tones in all
possible pairs selected from one complete
octave (Krumhansl, 1979).
Only for listeners with little musical back-
ground did the obtained orderings of the
musical intervals agree with previous psy-
choacoustic results in which similarity was
determined primarily by proximity in pitch
height between the two tones making up the
interval, that is, in which the ranking of the
intervals with respect to similarity or mutual
substitutability of their two component tones
was, from greatest to least, unison, minor
second, major second, minor third, major
third, and so on. For the more musically
oriented listeners, the results tended, instead,
toward the entirely different ranking: unison
and octave (nearly equivalent to each other),
followed by the fifth and sometimes the ma-
jor third, followed by the other tones of the
diatonic scale, followed by the remaining,
non diatonic tones (those corresponding in
the key of C major to the sharps and flats
or black keys of the piano).
In short, data collected from listeners who
invest the test tones with a musical inter-
pretation consistently reveal a whole hier-
archy of tonal relations that cannot be ac-
commodated within previously prop9sed
geometrical representations of pitch whether
rectilinear, helical, or spiral. Accordingly, it
now appears justified to present some alter-
native, generalized helical structures to-
gether with the steps that led to their con-
struction and some evidence that such
generalized structures are indeed capable of
accommodating the musically primary tonal
relations. The following is intended, there-
fore, as the first full account of these new
representations of pitch-first briefly de-
scribed in 1978 (Shepard, Note I; also see
Shepard, 1981 a, or, for a description con-
current with that presented here but follow-
ing a different derivation, Shepard, 1982).
New Representations for Musical Pitch
The Diatonic Scale as an Interpretive
Schema
In their characteristic eschewal of musical
context, psychoacoustically oriented inves-
tigators missed the essential musical aspect
of pitch. By failing to elicit, within the lis-
teners, the discrete tonal schema or "hier-
archy of tonal functions" (Meyer, 1956, pp.
214-215; Piston, 1941; Ratner, 1962) as-
sociated with a particular musical key, these
investigators left the listeners with no unique
cognitive framework within which to inter-
pret the test tones. Even musically sophis-
ticated listeners therefore had little choice
but to make their judgments on the basis of
the simplest attribute of tones differing in
frequency-pitch height.
Cognitively oriented researchers are now
recognizing that interpretive schemata play
an essential role in the perception of musical
pitch, just as they do in perception generally.
In the case of pitch, the primary schema
seems to be the musical scale-usually, in
the case of Western listeners, the familiar
major diatonic scale (do, re, mi, etc.). As
noted by Dowling (1978b, in press), even
though the -most commonly used musical
scales differ somewhat from culture to cul-
ture, they all share certain basic properties.
Regardless of the total number of tones per-
mitted by each scale, most are organized
around five to seven "focal pitches" per oc-
tave. Moreover, the steps between such
pitches rather than being constant in log fre-
quency are almost always arranged accord-
ing to a particular asymmetric pattern that
repeats exactly within every octave.
The cyclic repetition of the pattern from
octave to octave can be explained in terms
of the perceived equivalence of tones differ-
ing by an approximately 2-to-1 ratio of fre-
quencies, which led to the proposed simple
helix for pitch. The other structural univer-
sals of musical scales have been attributed
to pervasive cognitive constraints on the
number of absolutely identifiable categories
per perceptual dimension (7 2, as enun-
ciated by Miller, 1956; cf. Dowling, 1978b)
and to the requirement that the scale have
a structure that affords reference points or
tonal centers to which a melody can move
or come to rest (Balzano, 1980; Zucker-
kandt, 1956, 1972). In this view, evenly
spaced scales, such as the whole-tone scale
or the chromatic (half-tone or twelve-tone)
scale, have not been widely used because, in
the absence of a reference point, music lacks
the tension, motion, and resolution that en-
gages the suitably tuned mind with such dy-
namic force.
Balzano's (1980, in press, Note 2) group-
theoretic analysis has carried this line of
argument to a new level of formal elegance
and detail. He showed that the requirements
that the organization of the scale be invari-
ant under transposition and that each tone
have a unique functional role within the
scale jointly constrain both the number of
scale tones within each octave and the ap-
proximate spacing between those tones. In
fact, he showed that among possible scales
presupposing a division of the octave into
less than 20 steps (a restriction I take to be
desirable, if not necessary, to avoid over-
loading the human cognitive system), the
diatonic scale is the only one satisfying these
requirements. Thus, it may not be accidental
that this scale has become.the basis of West-
ern music, in which the structural complex-
ities of harmony and counterpoint (though
not of other aspects such as, particularly,
rhythm; see Pressing, in press) have reached
their greatest development. Nor is it a co-
incidence that the diatonic scale has arisen,
with but slight variations, "independently in
different ages and geographical locations"
(Pikler, 1955, p. 442) and, according tore-
cent archeological evidence, can be traced
back over 3,000 years to the earliest deci-
pherable records (Kilmer, Crocker, & Brown,
1976).
In any case, as Dowling (1978b, in press)
notes, there are many reasons to believe that
every culture has some such discrete tonal
schema, which through early (and possibly
irreversible) tuning provides a framework
with respect to which listeners interpret all
music they hear. Music of another culture
may therefore be misinterpreted by assimi-
lation to the listener's own, somewhat dif-
ferent tonal schema (Frances, 1958, p. 49).
Within a culture, children evidently inter-
nalize the prevailing schema by 8 years of
age (Imberty, 1969; Zenatti, 1969). The in-
terpretation of continuously variable tones
with respect to this discrete internalized
schema appears to be a kind of "categorical
perception" (Burns & Ward, 1978; Krum-
hansl & Shepard, 1979; Locke & Kellar,
1973; Siegel & Siegel, 1977a, 1977b; Za-
torre & Halpern, 1979; Blechner, Note 5)
much like that originally reported for the
perception of speech sounds (Liberman,
Cooper, Shankweiler, & Studdert-Kennedy,
1967).
4
Indeed, during a child's development
the process whereby the abstract and seem-
ingly universal structure of the underlying
tonal schema becomes tuned to the partic-
ular musical scale entrenched in that child's
culture may be like the process whereby,
according to Chomsky (1968), the innate
schematism that underlies all human lan-
guages becomes tuned to the particular lan-
guage of that culture.
Laboratory studies substantiate the role
of the diatonic scale for Western listeners.
Cohen (1975, Note 6) showed that after
hearing a short excerpt from a piece of mu-
sic, listeners can generate the associated dia-
tonic scale with considerable accuracy. Fur-
thermore, listeners recognize or reproduce
a series of tones more accurately when the
tones conform to a diatonic scale than when
they do not (e.g., Attneave & Olson, 1971;
Cohen, 1975; Dewar, 1974; Dewar, Cuddy,
& Mewhort, 1977; Frances, 1958, Experi-
ments 3 and 4; Krumhansl, .1979 ). More-
over, as I have already noted, Krumhansl
(1979) established that the perception of
musical intervals depends on the key or
4
From the cognitive musical standpoint taken here,
the important issues concern the structural relations
between tones as they are represented in a discrete in-
ternal structure, such as the diatonic schema. To the
extent that the perception of musical tones is categor-
ical, the question of whether the physical stimuli that
are thus categorically associated with nodes in this struc-
ture came from a physical scale of equal temperament
(in which all chromatic steps are uniform with respect
to log frequency) or a scale of just intonation (in which
the frequency ratios of the musical intervals take the
simplest integer forms), though affecting the timbral
quality of simultaneously sounded harmonically rich
tones (Helmholtz, 1962/1954) to a small extent (Ma-
thews & Sims, 1981; Mathews, Note 4), is largely ir-
relevant. The same consideration leads me to disregard
the distinction between a sharp of one note and the fiat
of the note just above (e.g., C* versus Db).
tonality of the diatonic scale withrespect to
which the listeners interpret the test tones.
Finally, in the informal experiment men-
tioned earlier in which a major triad was
alternated with the same major triad dis-
placed in pitch height, I noticed that between
the unison and the octave displacement, the
greatest perceived relation was at the dis-
placement of a perfect fourth and a perfect
fifth. But these intervals, which are adjacent
to the unison around the circle of fifths, do
not have the greatest number of component
tones in the octave or unison relation; rather,
for these displacements alone, all tones in
either triad are in the diatonic scale deter-
mined by the alternately presented triad.
The rectilinear and the simple helical and
spiral representations of pitch bear little re-
lationship to the diatonic or related musical
scales found in human societies. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that these previously pro-
posed geometrical representations fail to
provide an account of the various phenom-
ena of culture-specific, context-dependent,
and apparently categorical perception.
My own approach to the representation
of pitch grew out of an informal observation
concerning the diatonic scale: In listening to
the eight successive tones of the major scale
(do, re, mi, ... , do), I tended to hear the
successive steps as equivalent, even though
I knew that with respect to log frequency,
some of the intervals (viz., the interval mi
to fa and the interval ti back to do an octave
higher) are only half as large as the others.
This apparent equivalence of successive steps
of the diatonic scale could not be dismissed
as an inability to discriminate between major
and minor seconds.
When I then used a computer to generate
a series of eight tones that divided the octave
into seven equal steps in log frequency (a
series that does not correspond to any stan-
dard musical scale), the successive steps
sounded oddly nonequivalent. Apparently,
just as we cannot voluntarily override the
visual system's tendency to interpret paral-
lelograms projected on the two-dimensional
retina as rectangles in three-dimensional
space (Shepard, 1981c, p. 298), I could not
wholly override my auditory system's ten-
dency to interpret tones in terms of the dia-
tonic scale. Thus, after they had been made
physically equal, the steps that should have
been half as large if the scale had been dia-
tonic (viz., the steps between Tones 3 and
4 and between Tones 7 and 8) sounded too
large. Moreover, in just completed, more for-
mal experiments, a student and I have now
obtained strong quantitative confirmation
of this phenomenon (Jordan & Shepard,
Note 7).
Our tendency to hear the successive in-
tervals of the diatonic scale as uniform,
which I take to underlie this auditory illu-
sion, probably d,epends on perceptual set.
That tendency may be weakened in musi-
cians such as singers, trombonists, and string
players who, unlike passive listeners or those
who primarily play keyboard or other wind
instruments, must learn to make vocal or
motor adjustments essentially proportional
to actual differences in log frequency. (Such
differences in set may in part account for the
departure from equality of successive scale
steps implied by the results of Frances, 1958,
Experiment 2, or Krumhansl, 1979). Nev-
ertheless, our own results (Jordan & Shep-
ard, Note 7) indicate that there is a tendency
to hear scale steps as more nearly equivalent
than they physically are. The work of Bal-
zano ( 1980, 1982; Balzano & Liesch, in
press; Balzano, Note 2) has also provided
support for the notion that in addition to
pitch height and tone chroma, the discrete
steps or "degrees" of the musical scale are
psychologically real.
Suppose, then, that listeners interpret suc-
cessive tones of the major scale (e.g., C, D,
E, F, G, A, B, C', in the key of C major) by
assimilating each tone to a node in an in-
ternalized representation of the diatonic
scale. If the steps in this internal represen-
tation are functionally equivalent (as steps),
then the perception of uniformity would fol-
low, despite the fact that the physical dif-
ferences are only half as great for the steps
E to F and B to C' as for the other steps.
Derivation of a Double Helix
I propose to represent musical tones by
points in space and, as in the case of the
simple regular helix, to represent the under-
lying relations between their pitches by geo-
metrical relations of distance and collinear-
a
b c
.0 D'
/r
/ I
Cl'
' I
I
I
C'
a
AI
A
Gl
G
Fl
Dl
D
Cl
c
A
Figure 3. Stages in the construction of a double helix
of musical pitch: (a) the flat strip of equilateral triangles,
(b) the strip of triangles given one complete twist per
octave, and (c) the resulting double helix shown as
wound around a cylinder. (Panel c is from "Structural
Representations of Musical Pitch" by R. N. Shepard.
In D. Deutsch (Ed.), Psychology of Music. New York:
Academic Press, 1982. Copyright 1982 by Academic
Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.)
ity between those points. Thus, I propose
that the points corresponding to tones of the
same chroma name (e.g., C, C', C", etc.) but
located in different octaves should fall on the
same line within the geometrical structure
and, hence, should project down into the
same point on an orthogonal plane.
Now, however, I propose that the geo-
metrical structure must also reflect certain
subjective properties of the diatonic scale.
Because steps between adjacent tones of the
diatonic scale are of only two physical
sizes-half-tone steps (minor seconds) and
whole-tone steps (major seconds)-! start by
considering the geometrical constraints that
are entailed by perceived distances between
tones separated by half- and whole-tone
steps. My initial attempt to erect a new geo-
metrical structure is then based on the fol-
lowing three requirements, the first two of
which are the same as for the earlier simple
helix but the third of which is new, having
its origin in the just-mentioned informal ob-
servation about subjective uniformity of suc-
cessive steps of the diatonic scale. (Later, I
allow departures from the strict uniformity
imposed by this third, perhaps arguable, re-
quirement.)
1. Invariance under transposition: Tones
separated by a given musical interval must
be separated by the same distance in the
underlying structure regardless of the ab-
solute location (height) of those two tones.
2. Octave equivalence: All the tones
standing in octave relationships to any given
tone, and only those tones, must fall on a
unique (chroma) line passing through the
given tone.
3. Uniformity of scale steps: The steps
between tones that are adjacent within the
major diatonic scale in any particular key
should be represented as equal distances in
the underlying geometrical structure.
According to Requirement 1 the equiva-
lence between half- and whole-tone steps im-
posed within any one key by Requirement
3 must hold for all keys. Consequently, all
major and minor seconds must be repre-
sented by equal distances in the underlying
invariant structure. Thus, the geometrical
implication of Requirements 1 and 3 to-
gether is that the points corresponding to any
three successive tones of the chromatic scale
must form an equilateral triangle, and these
triangles must be connected together in an
endless series as is shown for one octave (and
in flattened form) in Figure 3 (a).
For illustration, the tones included in one
particular key, namely, the key of C, are
indicated by open circles in the figure,
whereas the tones not included in that key
(i.e., the tones corresponding to the black
keys on the piano) are indicated by filled
circles. The pattern for any other key would
be the same except for a translation and, in
the case of half the keys, a reflection about
the central axis of the strip. Two things
should be noted about this pattern. First,
steps between adjacent open circles are of
uniform size, in accordance with Require-
ment 3. Second, the pattern of open circles
as a whole possesses the asymmetry neces-
sary to confer on each tone within any one
octave of the scale the unique structural role
or tonal function required by music theory.
For example, the most stable tone within the
scale, the tonic, is always the lowest tone in
the set of three adjacent scale tones along
one edge of the strip, whereas the second
most stable tone, the dominant, a fifth above,
is always the next-to-lowest tone in the set
of four adjacent scale tones along the other
edge of the strip.
Thus, by going to a more complex rep-
resentation than a simple unidimensional
scale of pitch height, we avoid an objection
to the subjective equality of the intervals of
the diatonic scale, namely, that such unifor-
mity would "deny a major source of melodic
variety" (Dowling, 1978b, p. 350). The
structural uniqueness of the diatonic scale
that underlies the desired variation of mel-
ody and modulation of key can be embodied
in a qualitative asymmetry rather than in a
purely quantitative one. No such structural
uniqueness is possible within scales that are
both quantitatively and qualitatively sym-
metric, such as the whole-tone scale, rep-
resented by just one edge of the strip of tri-
angles, or the chromatic scale, represented
by the symmetrical zigzag path that alter-
nates between the two edges of the strip.
Still, although the strip of triangles shown
in Figure 3 (a) is consistent with Require-
ments 1 and 3, it is not consistent with Re-
quirement 2, according to which any two
tones standing in an octave relation (such
as C-C', C'-C", etc.) must fall on their own
unique chroma line. For, in this flattened
form, the line passing through C and C' also
passes through D, E, F*, G*, and A*, which
are not octave or chroma equivalents to C
and C'. Likewise, the line passing through
C* and Cfll also passes through D*, F, G, A,
and B. However, there is no requirement that
this structure remain flat. In fact, any fold-
ing of the strip of triangles along the sides .
of the triangles will preserve the equilater-
ality of the triangles imposed by Require-
ments 1 and 3. But in order to ensure the
full satisfaction of Requirement 1, the fold-
ing must be done in a uniform manner
throughout the strip. Only then will the
transformation of the strip into itself induced
by transposition into a different key consist
only of rigid translations, rotations, and re-
flections of the structure as a whole and,
thus, preserve all distances within it. Spe-
cifically, all folds must be made at the same
angle.
The case in which all folds are also made
in the same direction can be ruled out be-
cause the resulting structure then curves
back into itself, merging points correspond-
ing to distinct tones and eliminating the rec-
tilinear component of pitch height. The case
in which alternate folds are made in opposite
directions does not lead to these undesirable
consequences, however. As might be ex-
pected from the fact that the most general
rigid motion of three-dimensional space into
itself is a combination of a rotation and a
translation along the axis of rotation, folding
in alternating directions produces an endless
helical structure with the amount of twist
per octave determined by the uniform angle
of folding. Because there are two edges to
the originally flat strip, each corresponding
to one of the two distinct whole-tone scales,
such folding leads to a double helix.
In order to achieve the collinearity of tones
that are equivalent except for height, in ac-
cordance with Requirement 2, there must be
an integer number of full twists of the struc-
ture per octave. The flat version displayed
in Figure 3 (a) corresponds to the trivial 0
twist and, as I noted, must be excluded be-
cause it does not segregate the chroma lines:
They collapse into the two whole-tone scales.
At the other extreme, two full twists per
octave lead to a different kind of degeneracy
in which all the triangles collapse into a sin-
gle triangle. This different kind of flat con-
figuration must also be excluded because in
it not only octaves but also minor thirds map
onto each other and, again, we lose the com-
ponent of pitch height. The single remaining
case of just one full twist per octave is the
unique solution we seek. It is the nondegen-
erate double-helical structure of which one
octave is portrayed in Figure 3 (b). In three-
dimensional space it alone satisfies Require-
ments 1-3.
Emergent Properties of the Double Helix
Musically significant properties emerge
from the double-helical representation that
were not explicitly used in its derivation.
First, successive tones of the chromatic scale
project onto the axis of the helix in equal
steps of pitch height. More remarkably, as
is illustrated in Figure 3 (c), the same tones
project down onto the plane orthogonal to
that axis to form a circle, the "cycle. of
Figure 4. The two-dimensional melodic map of the dou-
ble helix obtained by cutting and unwrapping the cyl-
inder in Figure 3 (c). (From Shepard, 198Ia. Copyright
1981 by Music Educators National Conference. Re-
printed by permission.)
fifths" fundamental in music theory. In this
projection tones separated by an octave map
onto each other, and tones separated by a
perfect fifth are closest neighbors around the
circle.
As I noted, it was the possibility of pro-
jecting the geometrically regular version of
the single helix (Figure l) down into the
chroma circle (Figure 2) that originally led
me to devise a method of generating tones
that in going endlessly around the chroma
circle, give the illusion of ascending endlessly
in pitch (Shepard, l964b ). Similarly, here,
the emergence of the cycle of fifths as a pro-
jection of the double helix led me, more re-
cently, to devise a method of generating
tones that glide continuously around the cir-
cle of fifths, that is, that pass continuously
from C to G to D, and so forth, without
passing through intermediate chromas along
the way.
5
The emergence of the cycle of fifths also
has two important consequences ( cf. Bal-
zano, 1980). The first is that a diametral
plane passing through 'the central axis of the
helix partitions all tones into two disjoint
sets: a set containing all the tones included
in a particular diatonic key (two of which,
in each octave, fall on the plane) and the
complement of that set, containing all the
tones not included in that key. The second
consequence is that partitionings corre-
sponding to the major diatonic keys can be
obtained by rotating the plane about the cen-
tral axis, with modulations between more
closely related keys obtained by smaller an-
gles of rotation.
In Figure 3 the tones of the diatonic scale
in C major are indicated by open circles,
whereas the corresponding nondiatonic tones
are represented by filled circles. In the view
portrayed in Figure 3 (b) and, slightly tilted,
in Figure 3 (c), the three-dimensional struc-
ture has been positioned so that the plane
partitioning the tones into those included in
the key of C major and those not included
is seen almost edge on, with the tones be-
longing to C major falling to the right of the
diametral plane. As can be seen from the 3-
2-3-2- . . . grouping of the black circles on
the left, the arrangement on the piano key-
board of the black keys, which correspond
in the key of C to the sharps and flats or
"accidentals," is not itself an accident.
The Two-Dimensional Melodic Map of
the Double Helix
Because the tones in the double helix fall
on the surface of a right circular cylinder
(Figure 3 [c]), we can make a vertical cut
in this surface and spread it on a plane along
with the embedded double helix. The re-
sulting two-dimensional "map" of the cyl-
inder, illustrated in Figure 4, facilitates vi-
sualization of some of the musically
significant properties of the double helix.
The rectangle bounded by the heavy dashed
line is from the region of the surface between
one C and the C an octave above. The hor-
izontal and vertical axes of this rectangular
map correspond to the circle of fifths and to
pitch height, respectively. (The order in
which the tones project onto the axis cor-
responding to the circle of fifths is reversed
5
These tones, too, were demonstrated at the 1978
meeting of the Western Psychological Association
(Shepard, Note I).
because the unwrapped surface of the cyl-
inder is viewed in Figure 4 as if from the
inside of the cylinder.) In order to represent
the unbounded character of the cylindrical
surface, the rectangle can be endlessly re-
peated in the plane as indicated in the figure.
The chromatic scale is represented in this
two-dimensional map by the sequence of
notes on any of the straight lines directed
upward and to the right. The two whole-tone
scales are represented by the two distinct
sequences of notes on the somewhat steeper
straight lines directed upward and to the left.
The diatonic scale, designated by the stip-
pled band, exhibits a 3-4-3-4- . . . zigzag
pattern in which strings of whole-tone steps
are asymmetrically broken by single half-
tone steps.
Corresponding to the division of the tones
into those that are and those that are not in
a particular key by a plane pivoted about the
axis of the helix, the tones belonging to a
particular key fall, in the flattened represen-
tation, within a particular vertical band de-
marcated in the figure for the key of C by
the lighter dashed lines. Modulation to an-
other key corresponds, here, to a horizontal
shift of the vertical band with, again, more
closely related keys obtainable by smaller
shifts. Alternatively, transpositions from any
major key to any other can be thought of as
translations of the stippled zigzag pattern of
the diatonic scale from one location to an-
other within this two-dimensional plane.
That the two keys most closely related to a
given key (e.g., C) are the two obtained by
a shift of a fifth up (to G) or down (to F)
is reflected in the geometrical fact that this
zigzag pattern overlaps most with itselfwhen
the straight group of three adjacent points
is superimposed on the straight group of
four, slipped into either of the two alterna-
tive positions within that group.
Other commonly used scales take similar
zigzag patterns within this space. In one of
its versions, the relative minor scale is iden-
tical to its associated major scale except that
the sequence is started and ended on a dif-
ferent tone in the sequence (e.g., on A rather
than on C in the example illustrated). In-
deed, the seven so-called authentic church
modes (which derive rather directly from the
earlier Greek modes) all correspond exactly
to the diatonic scale, differing only in which
tone is taken as the principal (beginning,
final, or tonic) tone in the scale. Moreover,
the most common pentatonic scale is given
by the complement of the diatonic scale
(e.g., by C#, D#, F#, G#, and A# in the figure
or by the black keys on the piano). Notice
that apart from the always permissible key-
changing translation, such a pentatonic scale
is equivalent to a diatonic scale in which the
two most outlying tones within the vertical
band have simply been deleted (e.g., B and
F in the diatonic key of C). The resulting
2-3-2-3- ... pattern preserves many of the
desired structural properties of the 3-4-3-4-
. . . diatonic scale and, again, changes of
key correspond to horizontal shifts of the
(now narrower) vertical band.
The adjacency of tones differing by half-
and whole-tone steps in the embedded two-
dimensional lattice preserves proximity in
pitch height. Thus, this two-dimensional
structure is particularly suited for the rep-
resentation of melodies as well as scales. For,
as might be expected on the basis of Gestalt
principles of good continuation and grouping
by proximity (e.g., see Deutsch & Feroe,
1981 ), transitions in pitch between succes-
sive tones of a melody are most commonly
a single step in the diatonic scale (Dowling,
1978b; Fucks, 1962; Merriam, 1964; Philip-
pot, 1970, p. 86; Piston, 1941, p. 23). For
example, in an analysis of nearly 3,000 me-
lodic intervals in 80 English folk songs,
Dowling (1978b, p. 352) found, even after
omitting the unison, that 68% of the tran-
sitions were no larger than one step on the
diatonic scale, and 91% no larger than two
steps.
6
On the basis of these considerations,
6
There may be more than one reason for this striking
predilection for small melodic steps. As Dowling (1978b)
notes, it probably stems, in part, from basic limitations
of human memory capacity. It seems to be related to
Deutsch's (1978) finding that accuracy of recognition
of a repeated tone falls off inversely with the average
size of the intervals in an interpolated sequence of tones.
As I have suggested, however, its close connection to
Gestalt principles of visual perception (Koffka, 1935;
Ktlhler, 1947), to phenomena of "melodic fission" or
"auditory stream segregation" (Bregman, 1978; Breg-
man & Campbell, 1971; Dowling, 1973b; McAdams
& Bregman, 1979; van Noorden, 1975), and to the
closely allied phenomena of the "trill threshold" (Miller
& Heise, 1950) and apparent movement in pitch (Shep-
-CHROMA-
Figure 5. The double helix wound around a torus. (From
"Structural Representations of Musical Pitch" by
R. N. Shepard. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), Psychology of
Music. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Copyright
1982 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.)
I propose that the unwrapped version of the
double helix presented in Figure 4 be called
the melodic map.
The Double Helix Wound Around a
Torus
The double helix has of course retained
the rectilinear component of the earlier sim-
ple helix, namely, the component called
pitch height. Moreover, the circle of fifths
which has replaced the earlier chroma circle'
is still closely related to the chroma circle'
being obtainable from it simply by
changing every other point with its dia-
metrically opposite point around the circle.
This is why the single helix becomes a double
helix following such a substitution. Hence
(a) chroma-equivalent tones still project into
the same point on any plane orthogonal to
the central axis and (b) chroma-adjacent
tones still project into adjacent points on the
central axis. Even so, these vestiges of the
chroma circle in the double helix do not seem
to reflect adequately the robustness of that
circle as it has emerged from studies using
ordinary. musical tones (see Figure 2 [b ]),
or, certamly, the computer-synthesized cir-
cular tones (Shepard, 1964b; also see Figure
2 [a]).
a.rd, 1981c, p. 319) suggest a somewhat broader, par-
tially perceptual basis. Possibly, too, melodies consisting
of small steps provide a quicker and more effective in-
dication of the underlying tonality or key of the piece.
Thus, we need a still more complex struc-
ture that somehow incorporates the essential
features of both the double and the single
helix. Such structures can be constructed
but only at the cost of increased
sionality. We have to resort to an embedding
space of four dimensions-or even five, if we
wish to retain the linear component of pitch
height. However, such higher dimensional
structures are to some extent accessible to
three-dimensional visualization.
Instead of regarding the chroma circle as
obtained by projection of the simple helix,
we could regard it as obtained by first cutting
a one-octave segment out of either a recti-
linear or a simple helical representation of
pitch and then bending that segment until
its two ends coincide to form a complete cir-
cle. Likewise, we could cut a one-octave seg-
ment out of the double helix portrayed in
Figure 3 (c) and, by bending the cylindrical
tube in which it is embedded until its two
ends coincide, obtain a double helix wound
around a torus as illustrated in Figure 5.
. The two strands of the double helix (orig-
mally the two edges of the flattened strip of
triangles) have become two interlocking
rings embedded in the surface of the torus,
and the surface of the original strip of tri-
angles bounded by these two edges has be-
come a twisted band. Unlike the only half-
twisted band of M<>bius, however, the two
ends by a full 360 twist before they
were JOined, and hence, the band retains its
two-sided or "orientable" topology (cf.
Shepard, 198lc, p. 316).
Only in a four-dimensional embedding
space does the torus possess the full degree
of symmetry implicit in the fact that it is the
"direct," Cartesian, or Euclidean product of
two circles (Blackett, 1967)-in this case the
chroma circle and the circle of fifths. (In a
sense, to be illustrated in a later section, the
embedded double helix can be thought of as
a kind of Euclidean sum of those same two
circles.) As a consequence there exists a rigid
rotation of the whole structure such that the
points corresponding to the 12 tones of the
octave project onto the plane defined by one
pair of oi'thogonal axes as a chroma circle
and onto the plane defined by the remaining
pair of orthogonal axes as a circle of fifths.
In other words, the two circular components
enter into the structure in completely anal-
ogous ways, and in four-dimensional space,
where rotations are about planes rather than
about lines, we can rigidly rotate the whole
structure about either of the two mentioned
planes in such a way that the circle projected
onto the other plane is carried into itself
through any desired angle.
The complete symmetry between the two
circular components of the toroidal version
of the double helix is revealed more clearly
in the unwrapped version already displayed
in Figure 4. Such a planar map represents
the toroidal surface just as it did the straight
cylindrical surface (Blackett, 1967). The
horizontal axis of the map still corresponds
to the circle of fifths, but the vertical axis
now corresponds to the chroma circle rather
than to the rectilinear dimension of pitch
height. Also, all four corners of the rectan-
gular map now correspond to the same tone
and, hence, the same point (C) in the torus.
The lattice pattern of the melodic map is
now strictly repeating vertically as well as
horizontally, and the two types of rotations
just described correspond, respectively, to
horizontal and vertical translations in the
two-dimensional plane.
The Double Helix Wound Around a
Helical Cylinder
Actually, because tones can be synthe-
sized such that those differing l?y an octave
realize any specified degree of perceptual
similarity or "octave equivalence," we need
some way of continuously varying the struc-
ture representing those tones between the
double helix with the rectilinear axis (Figure
3 [ c]) and the variant with the completely
circular axis (Figure 5). What modification
of the latter, toroidal structure will bring
back a separation of chroma-equivalent tones
on a dimension of pitch height? Again the
analogy with the original simple helix is
helpful. Just as a cut and vertical displace-
ment of the earlier chroma circle can yield
one loop of the simple helix, a cut and ver-
tical displacement of the torus portrayed in
Figure 5 yields one loop of a higher order
tubular helix. By attaching identical copies
of such a loop, end to end, we can extend
this higher order helical structure indefi-
Figure 6. The double helix wound around a helical cyl-
inder. (From "Structural Representations of Musical
Pitch" by R. N. Shepard. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), Psy-
chology of Music. New York: Academic Press, 1982.
Copyright 1982 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted by
permission.)
nitely in pitch height, as shown in Figure 6.
As before, we are distorting the true met-
ric structure of this geometrical object by
visualizing it in only three dimensions. It
achieves its full inherent symmetry only in
a space of five dimensions, where it exists as
the Euclidean "sum" of the two-dimensional
circle of fifths, the two-dimensional chroma
circle, and the one-dimensional continuum
of pitch height. In this way the structure
continues to obey the already-stated prin-
ciple that the most general rigid motion of
space into itself is the product of rigid ro-
tations and rectilinear translations. It is in
this sense, too, that the structure crudely
depicted as if three-dimensional in Figure
6 can rightly be ,regarded as a higher di-
mensional generalization of the helix.
A final point to be made about this gen-
eralized helical structure will be relevant
when, in a following section, I compare it
against empirical data. Whereas the double
helix as it was first derived (Figure 3 [b])
was regarded as rigid (in order to preserve
the equilateral character of its constituent
triangles), the more general structure illus-
trated in Figure 6 can be regarded as ad-
justable through variation of three parame-
ters: a weight for the circular component for
fifths, a weight for the circular component
for chroma, and a weight for the rectilinear
component for height. Thus, we can accom-
modate the relations between musical pitches
as they are perceived by different listeners
who may vary, for example, in the extent to
which they represent the cognitive structural
component of the circle of fifths versus the
purely psychoacoustic component of pitch
height.
From this standpoint the original double
helix (Figure 3) was perhaps too rigid. In
present terms it can be seen to be the Eu-
clidean sum of just the circle of fifths and
the dimension of pitch height. But we now
know that listeners vary widely in their re-
sponsiveness to these two attributes (Krum-
. hansl & Shepard, 1979; Shepard, 1981a).
So, in fitting the helix to data, we should
perhaps make what might be regarded as a
concession to performance, as opposed to
competence, and allow a differential stretch-
ing or shrinking of the vertical extent of an
octave of the helix relative to its diameter.
This implies, of course, a departure from the
constraint imposed by my third requirement
(uniformity of scale steps), but I noted at
the time that such a requirement may be
appropriate only under a certain "perceptual
set." If listeners differ in their judgments of
the relations between tones, they are not all
operating under identical perceptual sets.
In terms of the two-dimensional map of
the double helix, differences in relative sa-
lience of pitch height and the circle of fifths
would be accommodated by a certain class
of linear transformations of the rectangle,
namely, those restricted to relative stretch-
ing or shrinking of the rectangle along its
vertical and horizontal axes only. In the lim-
iting cases in which there is a degenerate
collapse of the rectangle in the horizontal or
vertical direction, we obtain a rectilinear
(and logarithmic) dimension of pitch height
or a simple circle of fifths, respectively.
Recovery of the Geometrical
Representation From Empirical Data
The probe technique introduced by Krum-
hansl and Shepard ( 1979) is continuing to
yield robust, orderly, and informative data
concerning the effects of musical contexts on
the interpretive schema induced within the
listener (Krumhansl & Kessler, 1982; Jor-
dan & Shepard, Note 7). In this technique
the context (e.g., a musical scale, a melody,
a chord, a sequence of chords, or some richer
musical passage) is immediately followed by
a probe tone (selected, for example, from the
13 chromatic tones inclusively spanning a
one-octave range), and the listener is asked
to rate (on a 7-point scale) how well the
probe tone "fits in" with the preceding con-
text.
For any context, the average ratings from
trials using different probe tones form a pro-
file over the octave that in the case of musical
listeners, reveals the hierarchy of tonal func-
tions induced by that context-with the rat-
ings highest for a tone interpreted as the
tonic, next highest for a tone interpreted as
the dominant, and so on (see Krumhansl
& Shepard, 1979; and, especially, Krum-
.hansl & Kessler, 1982). Indeed, Krumhansl
and Kessler demonstrate that the circularly
shifted position (or phase) of the profile per-
mits one to infer which of the 24 possible
major or minor diatonic keys is instantiated
as the listener's momentary interpretive
framework.
The rating of how well a given probe tone
fits in with the preceding context can be in-
terpreted as a measure of the spatial prox-
imity of that probe to the ideal tonal center
or tonality implied by that context. When
applied to a suitably complete set of such
proximity measures, techniques of multidi-
mensional scaling (see Shepard, 1980) should
therefore enable one to reconstruct the un-
derlying spatial structure.
In the original experiment by Krumhansl
and Shepard (1979), however, only the dia-
tonic scale of a single key (C major) was
presented as context. As a result, the ob-
tained rating profiles directly provided in-
formation about the spatial proximities of
the 13 probe tones to a single tonal center,
C. However, there is every reason to believe
that under transposition into any other key,
the profile would be essentially invariant ex-
cept for random fluctuations in the data-
, and this assumption already has some em-
pirical support (Krumhansl & Kessler, 1982;
Jordan & Shepard, Note 7; also see Krum-
hansl, Bharucha, & Kessler, 1982). Accord-
ingly, it seemed reasonable to approximate
the complete matr.ix of proximity measures
needed for the application of multidimen-
sional scaling by simply duplicating the pro-
file of ratings in each row of a square matrix,
after circularly shifting each succeeding row
by one cell so that the highest number (cor-
responding to the functional identity of the
tonic tone and the ideal tonal center) fell on
the principal diagonal of the matrix. Then,
as is customary in multidimensional scaling,
each entry in the matrix was averaged with
its diagonally opposite counterpart to yield
a symmetric matrix of proximity measures.
Because large individual differences, which
are related to extents of musical background,
characteristically emerge in these experi-
ments (Krumhansl & Shepard, 1979; Shep-
ard, 198la), a symmetric matrix of there-
~
iii
z
"' ::;
Q
z
0
iii
z
"'
::;
iS
~
:!!
:r
C.?
iii
it
a
DIMENSION 1
C INDIVIDUAL LISTENERS
0 ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
/
WEIGHTS ON DIMENSION 1 -
quired sort was obtained separately from the
average rating profile obtained from each of
the 23 subjects in the experiment by Krum-
hansl and Shepard (1979 ). Application of
individual-difference multidimensional scal-
ing (INDSCAL; Carroll & Chang, 1970) to
the entire resulting set of 23 individual ma-
trices then yielded the four-dimensional so-
lution presented in Figure 7.
Panel a shows the projection of the solu-
tion onto the plane of Dimensions 1 and 2,
whereas Panel b shows its projection onto
the plane of Dimensions 3 and 4. As sug-
gested by the circular dashed line, the first
projection (a) is essentially the chroma cir-
cle, going clockwise from C (through C#, D,
D#, etc.) around to C' an octave above. The
configuration departs from the chroma cir-
cle, however, in that the spacing is wider
near C and C' and, particularly, in that C
and C' do not coincide as they should if oc-
..
z
0
iii
z
"'
::;
0
..
z
0
iii
~
::;
iS
b
DIMENSION 3
INDIVIDUAL LISTENERS
Group t
Group 2
.t. Group 3
O WEIGHTS ON DIMENSION 3 -
Figure 7. A four-dimensional solution obtained by application of INDSCAL to the data collected by
Krumhansl & Shepard ( 1979 ). Panels a and b show the projections of the obtained configuration on
the plane of Dimensions I and 2 and the plane of Dimensions 3 and 4, respectively; Panels c and d show
the weights that these same dimensions have for listeners differing in musical background. (From Shep-
ard, 1981a. Copyright 1981 by Music Educators National Conference. Reprinted by permission.)
tave equivalence had been complete for all
listeners. Dimension 1 thus seems to combine
one dimension of the chroma circle with the
dimension of pitch height. The second pro-
jection (b), however, is an almost perfect
circle of fifths, with the points representing
C and C' nearly superimposed, indicating
complete octave equivalence. Apart from the
stretching and separation between the points
representing C and C' on Dimension 1, the
four-dimensional configuration is, in fact,
the double helix on the torus depicted in
Figure 5, which corresponds to the Euclid-
ean product of the chroma circle and the
circle of fifths.
Panels c and d display the INDSCAL
weights for each of the listeners on each of
the four dimensions. Panel c shows that the
listeners with the least extensive musical
backgrounds (represented by the triangles)
had the heaviest weights on Dimension l,
which separated the tones with respect to
pitch height, whereas Panel d shows that the
listeners with the most extensive musical
backgrounds (represented by the circles) had
the heaviest weights on Dimensions 3 and
4, which contained the circle of fifths and
implied complete equivalence between oc-
taves. Moreover, the fact that the points for
all listeners fall on a 45 line in Panel d
means that the circle of fifths emerges, to
whatever extent that it does for any one lis-
tener, as an integrated whole and never one
dimension at a time. That the points for
Group 1 listeners also fall close to the (bro-
ken) 45 line in Panel c indicates that under
the complete octave-equivalence character-
istic of the most musical listeners, the chroma
circle, too, comes and goes as an integrated
unit.
I interpret the obtained four-dimensional
structure in Figure 7 as a one-octave piece
of the endless five-dimensional theoretical
structure portrayed in Figure 6. But because
it includes only one octave, the gap between
the two ends, which should have been rep-
resented by a displacement in a separate
fifth dimension, has (with a small distortion)
been accommodated in the four dimensions
of the embedding space of the torus. In other
words, the separation in pitch height be-
tween C and C' an octave above has been
achieved by cutting through the torus in
Figure 5 at C and springing it slightly apart
(with respect to chroma) in that same four-
dimensional space rather than, as in Figure
6, in an orthogonal fifth dimension. Presum-
ably, if similar data were collected and an-
alyzed for tones spanning two or three oc-
taves, the data could no longer be fit by a
small distortion of this sort in the four-di-
mensional space and, thus, the truer, five-
dimensional structure would emerge.
Further support for these conclusions
comes from a linear regression used to assess
the importance of the various proposed geo-
metrical components of pitch, including-in
addition to the one-dimensional component
for height and the two circular components
for chroma and for perfect fifths already
discussed here-a two-dimensional compo-
nent for major thirds. The use of linear
regression for this purpose is made possible
by the principle of "Euclidean composition,"
according to which the squared distance be-
tween any two points in the final, higher
dimensional configuration is a weighted sum
of the squared distances between the cor-
responding points in each of the component
configurations. What the regression analysis
thus yields is the set of weights, one for each
component configuration, that provides the
best fit to the data. (See Shepard, 1982, for
a fuller explanation of the analysis and the
results.) The results indicated that the circles
of chroma and of fifths did indeed account
for a significant portion of the variance but
that the factors of height and of major thirds
were also significant for the least and the
most musical listeners, respectively. More
specifically, the principal factors (with frac-
tions of variance accounted for in the sym-
metrized data) were for the most musical
listeners, fifths (.43), chroma (.21 ), and
thir<}s (.19 ); for the intermediate listeners,
chroma (.36), fifths (.21), and thirds (.16);
and for the least musicaJ.listeners, chroma
(.39) and height (.31) only (Shepard, 1982,
Table 1 ).
Clearly, then, pitch is multidimensional,
and the different dimensions differ in sa-
lience for different listeners (as well as in
different musical contexts). Moreover, be-
cause the final configuration (whether fitted
by multidimensional scaling or Euclidean
composition) contained circular compo-
nents, the obtained structures provide fur-
ther support for the claim that some of the
dimensions of pitch are circular. The struc-
ture as a whole thus appears to be consistent
with the theoretical expectation of a helical
or, under complete octave equivalence, to-
roidal character.
The Problem of Harmonic Relations
The generalizations of the double helix for
pitch presented in the two preceding sections
depended on an implicit weakening of Re-
quirement 3 underlying the original deriva-
tion of that double helix, namely, the re-
quirement that steps within a diatonic scale
correspond to equal distances within the
model. ,Only by accepting a weakening of
this strong constraint can we provide for the
quantitative variations in the relative weights
of underlying components (height, chroma,
fifths, etc.) necessary to fit the data of dif-
ferent listeners. In terms of the two-dimen-
sional melodic map of the manifold in which
the double helix is wound, changes in the
relative weights correspond to linear stretch-
ings or shrinkings of the rectangular melodic
map along either or both of its two principal
axes. One of these two axes corresponds to
the circle of fifths, whereas the other cor-.
responds to pitch height, chroma, or a mix-
ture of these in the case of the straight cy-
lindrical model (Figure 3 [ c ]), the toroidal
model (Figure 5), or the cylindrical helical
model (Figure 6), respectively.
The coefficients of this linear transfor-
mation determine the relative importance of
certain musical intervals, namely, the per-
fect fifth, the octave, and (through emphasis
of either pitch height or chroma) the minor
second or chromatic step. Within this re-
stricted class of linear transformations of the
melodic map there is, however, no way to
emphasize the intervals of the major or mi-
nor third. Yet these two intervals, though of
limited importance fpr melodic structure,
are fundamental to harmonic structure
(Piston, 1941, p. 10). Thus, whereas the
most common intervals between successively
sounded tones (melodic intervals) are, as we
noted, the minor or major seconds, which are
adjacent in the melodic map (Figure 4), such
intervals are dissonant when sounded si-
multaneously (that is, as harmonic inter-
vals). Harmony, which governs the selection
of tones to be sounded simultaneously in
chords, is therefore based on the consonant
intervals of the major and minor third, along
with the consonant perfect fifth, which to-
gether make up the particularly harmonious,
stable, and tonality-defining major triad
(e.g., C-E-G, in the key of C).
There are two directions in which the geo-
metrical models proposed here might be gen-
eralized in order to accommodate harmonic
relations. One possibility, already suggested
at the end of the preceding section, is to add
further components to the structural repre-
sentation. In addition to the one-dimensional
component of pitch height, the two-dimen-
sional component of chroma, and the two-
dimensional component of the circle of fifths,
we could include another two-dimensional
component of major thirds. As I noted, such
an extended model will indeed permit a
somewhat better fit to the data (for the most
musical listeners, an increase from 63% to
83% of the variance explained; see Shepard,
1982, Table 1). However, the prospect of
increasing the number of dimensions of the
embedding space from five to seven is not
terribly attractive.
A second possibility is to remove the re-
striction that the linear expansions or
compressions of the melodic map are to be
permitted only along the two orthogonal
axes of that map. If we allow elongations
and contractions along arbitrarily oriented
directions in the plane of that map, we can
bring tones separated by other musical in-
tervals into closer proximity'without increas-
ing dimensionality. Linear transformations
of this more general type are called affine
transformations ( Coxeter, 1961 ); they pre-
serve straight lines and parallelism, which
is desirable if we are to continue to use col-
linearity and parallel projection to represent
musical relations. Even so, we are not free
to choose any affine transformation of the
plane but must confine our choice to one that
is compatible with the toroidal interpretation
of the plane. Expansions or contractions
along the orthogonal axes of the rectangular
map can be of any magnitudes, correspond-
ing to changes in the relative sizes (or
weights) of the two circular components
(chroma and fifths) that generate the torus.
But expansions or contractions along other
directions can take on only certain discrete
values, corresponding to operations of cut-
ting through the torus in a plane parallel to
one of the two generating circles, giving one
free end of the resulting cylindrical tube an
integer number of 360 twists relative to the
other end, and then reattaching the two ends.
Twists that are not multiples of 360 would
fail to rejoin the two ends of each line on the
plane (or helical path on the torus) and,
hence, would disrupt continuity required for
an affine transformation and collinearity de-
sired for our musical interpretation.
The Harmonic Map and Its Affinity to the
Melodic Map
In the present case we seek an affine trans-
formation (of the admissible sort) that will
bring tones separated by the harmonically
important major and minor thirds and per-
fect fifth into close mutual proximity. In
Figure 4 we see that for any given tone, say
C at the lower left corner of the rectangle,
the major third (E), the minor third (D#),
and the perfect fifth (G), upward and to the
right, form. the vertexes of an elongated par-
allelogram in which the lower triangular half
corresponds to the major triad built on C
(viz., C-E-G) and the upper, complemen-
tary triangular half corresponds to the minor
triad built on C (viz., C-D*-G). Because no
other tones fall within such parallelograms,
an appropriate affine transformation should
bring all such sets of four tones into the de-
sired, more compact form. Fortunately, this
can be achieved in a way that is compatible
with the toroidal interpretation.
First, we cut through the original torus
(Figure 5) at some point on the circle of
fifths. Then we give the chroma circle at one
end of the resulting cylindrical tube two full
360 twists relative to the chroma circle at
the other end. Finally, we reattach the two
ends, forming a new torus. These operations
are most adequately visualized in terms of
the two-dimensional map of the torus, as
shown in Figure 8. The first twist takes the
rectangle of the original melodic map (a,
which is a simplified version of the earlier
Figure 4) into the sheared parallelogram
(b). However, because the transformation
is on the torus, the lower triangular half of
the resulting parallelogram wraps around to
fill in the vacated upper triangular half of
the rectangular map (as shown in b). The
second 360 twist operates in the same way
(to take b into c). Finally, a relative expan-
sion on the horizontal axis and a circular
shift of the entire pattern around the torus
to bring the tone C into the center of the
map yields the final, transformed map (d)
shown at the bottom of Figure 8.
Because the shearing transformation in-
duced by the double twist was confined to
the vertical axis corresponding to the chroma
circle, the horizontal axis was unaffected and
still corresponds to the circle of fifths. As a
consequence the tones falling within any par-
ticular key continue to form a vertical band
(illustrated for the key of C major in the
figure), and modulations between keys still
correspond to horizontal shifts of this band
and, hence, to rotations around the torus.
However, owing to the twist in the torus
entailed by the affine transformation, the
harmonic map is not best described as a dou-
ble helix wrapped around a torus. In it the
series of perfect fifths now forms a single
helix wrapped three times around the torus;
the three series of major thirds form a triple
helix wound once around the torus crosswise
to the series of fifths; and the four series of
minor thirds form four separate circular
rings around the torus crosswise to both of
the first two types of series. (See the hori-
zontal and diagonal rows of letter names for
the tones in Figure 8 [ d ]. )
The important result is that tones related
to any tone by major and minor thirds, as
well as by perfect fifths, have now been
brought into spatial proximity to that tone,
whereas the formerly proximal tones related
by major and minor seconds have been dis-
placed to greater distances. This is illus-
trated for the tone C in Figure 8 (d), where,
as can be seen, all the tones forming major
or minor triads with C constitute a compact
hexagonal cluster around C. Moreover, the
tones traditionally considered to be conso-
nant when sounded simultaneously with C
now fall in a compact circular region around
C. These same relations also hold for any
other tone chosen as a reference point. Ac-
a
b
c
c- o#-F#- A -c

c c
\#
I
I
B
A#
Gl
D B
ol
A
\
o#
I
G

I
A# F# D
F#
\I
F
I
F
E
I
F c# A I
o#
\I
D
I
c#
c c
c- A -c C\ G/L_E-
Melodic
Map
D\:
G
D
F
1st
\
2nd
360
360
Twist
A
Twist
\
c
c

D
i

I Dissonant with C
I
d
I
eft
Harmonic I
Map
I
(circularly shifted I
around torus
I
to bring C into
center of map) I
In key of C majpr I Not inC major
--D ---Aft_

Figure 8. The harmonic map (d) as obtained from the melodic map (a) by an affine transformation
consisting of two 360 twists of the torus (b and c).
cordingly, I propose that this transformed
map be called the harmonic map. Whereas
the melodic map provided for compact rep-
resentations of musical scales and, hence, the
most common melodies, the harmonic map
provides for compact representation of con-
sonant intervals and, hence, the most com-
mon chords. Although not explicitly illus-
trated, chords consisting of more than three
tones, including augmented and diminished
chords, though more complex, also have
compact representations in this map.
7
7
As an amusing instance of "converging evidence,"
in the version of this space that Attneave presented at
the symposium (Note 8), which was reflected with re-
spect to the version shown here, the pattern for the sev-
enth chord took, as he observed, the unmistakable shape
of the numeral 7.
Representations that more or less resem-
ble the harmonic map portrayed in Figure
8 have been independently proposed by a
number of music theorists (e.g., Balzano,
1980; Hall, 1974; Lakner, 1960; Longuet-
Higgins, 1962, 1979; O'Connell, 1962; Att-
neave, Note 8; Balzano, Note 2). What I
have added here is the demonstration that
this two-dimensional space, which is so well
suited to the representation of harmonic re-'
lations, is related to the map of the double
helix, which was not in any way based on
harmonic considerations, by a simple math-
ematical transformation-specifically, an
affinity.
Two recent developments provide addi-
tional converging evidence for the impor-
tance of this harmonic structure. One is Bal-
zano's erection of essentially this structure
from group-theoretic considerations, which
make no use of acoustic notions of conso-
nance (Ba1zano, 1980, Note 2). The other
is Krumhansl and Kessler's (1982) striking
demonstration that this same toroidal struc-
ture can be recovered by the multidimen-
sional scaling of correlations between pro-
files obtained by applying the probe technique
in musically rich contexts.
By presenting contexts in both major and
minor keys, Krumhansl and Kessler have
shown that toroidal manifold can rep-
resent-in addition to the harmonic relations
between individual tones considered here-
the relations between musical keys, with the
12 minor tonalities falling in regular diag-
onal rows between the diagonal rows shown
in Figure 8, which under their interpretation
would represent the 12 major tonalities. Spe-
cifically, each major tonality (e.g., C major)
is flanked, in their representation, by its cor-
responding relative and parallel minors (e.g.,
A minor- and C minor).
Discussion and Conclusions
I have argued that musical pitch, if not
psychophysical pitch height, should be rep-
resented by a geometrically regular structure
that is capable of rigidly mapping into itself
under transposition from one musical key
into another. I have further argued that such
a structure is a generalized helix-probably
a double helix-in which the rectilinear axis
of the helix, called pitch height, corresponds
to a logarithmic scale of frequency and in
which each of two or more circular com-
ponents completes one turn within a certain
musical interval: the octave, the perfect fifth,
or, possibly, the major third.
I have illustrated how techniques of mul-
tidimensional scaling can reconstruct such
a structure from data collected from musical
listeners within a musical context. I have also
noted that unless certain constraints are im-
posed, the results of multidimensional scal-
ing may not be strictly invariant under trans-
position. For example, if tones spanning only
one octave are scaled, pitch height may be
approximately accommodated by a distor-
tion of the chroma circle. This disortion
could be eliminated by scaling tones span-
ning several octaves or by means of a linear
regression analysis (Shepard, 1982).1t could
also be eliminated by using the circular tones
that I devised to achieve complete octave
equivalence (Shepard, 1964b ). In this latter
case, however, we forgo the of
pitch height.
These considerations suggest two com-
ments concerning the multidimensional scal-
ing representations for musical pitch ob-
tained by Krumhansl (1979) and by Krum-
hansl and Kessler (1982). '
Krumhansl's (1979) analysis of judged
similarities tones presented in the
context of a diatonic key yielded a conically
shaped representation of the tones within an
octave. The disposition of the tones on the
conical surface corresponded to the hierar-
chy of tonal functions in this way: First, the
tonic of the contextually established key and
the other two tones making up the major
triad based on that tonic (i.e., the major
third and the perfect fifth above it) were
clustered together near the apex of the cone.
Second, this central cluster was surrounded
by an intermediate band of the remaining
four tones that belong to the contextually
established key. Third, the remaining five
tones not belonging to that key were widely
spaced around the perimeter of the cone.
I believe that Krumhansl's multidimen-
sional solution, like my own illustrated in
Figure 7 (a), here, is somewhat distorted
because tones from only one octave were in-
cluded. The conical representation cannot be
extended into higher and lower octaves in
such a way that musical transposition cor-
responds to rigid motions of the structure
into itself. However, if we cut off the apex
of the cone and then cut through the re-
sulting closed band, we obtain a strip that
with a slight twist, can be continued upward
and downward as a helical structure (much
as the torus of Figure 5 was cut through,
twisted, and continued to form the higher
' order helix of Figure 6). A further consid-
eration is raised by Tversky's ( 1977) demon-
stration that perceptually more salient stim-
uli are judged to be both more similar to
each other when the judgments are of sim-
ilarity and more different from each other
when the judgments are of dissimilarity. It
is possible that the tones that are perceived
as closely related to the tonal center are
rated as more similar when similarity is
judged because they are more salient and
not because they are closer in the underlying
representational space. If so, the underlying
structure might be more similar, though ev-
idently not isomorphic, to one of the gen-
eralized helical structures proposed here.
Alternatively, it may be that the departures
from helical regularity in Krumhansl's con-
ical solution reflect real differences in the
relative stabilities of the tones within the
diatonic context. (These possibilities are
further considered in Shepard, 1982, pp.
383-384.)
The toroidal manifold of possible tonali-
ties obtained more recently by Krumhansl
and Kessler (1982) is, apart from its inclu-
sion of the minor tonalities, isomorphic to
the toroidal manifold whose two-dimen-
sional harmonic map is shown in Figure 8.
However, whereas the map in Figure 8 al-
lows the inclusion of pitch height and, hence,
the extension of the structure into higher and
lower octaves in the manner illustrated in
Figure 6, Krumhansl and Kessler's solution
is a closed torus with complete octave equiv-
alence and, hence, no component of pitch
height.
This closure of the torus was ensured in
Krumhansl and Kessler's experiment by gen-
erating the tones presented to the listeners
according to a scheme that achieves com-
plete equivalence of octaves and suppression
of pitch height (after Shepard, 1964b ).
Moreover, such a closure is appropriate in
their case because pitch height is not rele-
vant to tonality. To say that a piece is in F
major is not to say whether it is to be played
by a piccolo or a tuba. Krumhansl and Kes-
sler's work elegantly uses the tone-probe
technique to show how a listener's internally
represented tonal center shifts in this closed
toroidal surface under the influence of an
evolving musical context.
As I mentioned earlier, there may be fun-
. damental parallels between the cognitive
structural constraints governing visual-spa-
tial and auditory-musical representation.
Pitch is the "morphophoric" medium that
is most analogous to physical space in the
case of vision (Attneave, 1972; Attneave
& Olson, 1971; Kubovy, 1981; Shepard,
1981c, 1982). Musically meaningful ob-
jects, such as melodies and chords, are the
closest auditory analogs of visual shapes be-
cause such objects preserve their structure
under rigid transformations within their re-
spective morphophoric media. Moreover,
because the medium for the rigid transfor-
mation of melodies and chords has circular
components of chroma and fifths, these rigid
transformations include rotations as well as
translations. Just as in the case of visual cog-
nition, the time needed to carry out such
transformations mentally is expected to de-
pend on the angular extent of these spatial
transformations (Shepard, 1978a, 1981 c;
Shepard & Cooper, 1982). Likewise, mod-
ulations from one key to another correspond
to rotations (Balzano, 1980; Shepard, 1982;
Balzano, Note 2; Shepard, Note 1 ). The to-
roidal space in which these latter rotations
occur has now been fully elaborated by
Krumhansl and Kessler (1982), who have
given all major and minor keys angular co-
ordinates within this same two-dimensional
manifold.
Finally, although I have in this paper fo-
cused exclusively on just one of the two in-
dispensable musical attributes, namely, pitch,
there are reasons to believe that the structure
described here may carry over to the other
indispensable musical attribute, namely,
time. Relations of beat and rhythm have the
same structural properties of augmented
correspondence at the simplest ratios of
tempo, such as the 2-to-1 or 3-to-2 ratios,
which in the case of frequency of tones cor-
respond to the octave and perfect fifth, re-
spectively. Accordingly, illusions of contin-
ually accelerating tempo can be constructed
that are analogous to the illusion of contin-
ually ascending pitch (Risset, Note 9) and,
hence, that demonstrate the existence of a
temporal analog of the circle of chroma.
Further, recent ethnomusicological studies
of the highly developed rhythms of Indian
and West African cultures have even re-
vealed temporal analogs of the diatonic scale
(Pressing, in press). By the same group-the-
oretic arguments already given for pitch by
Balzano ( 1980, in press), this finding implies
(as Pressing notes) the existence of a tem-
poral analog of the circle of fifths. Remem-
bering that we must add the rectilinear time
line to these two circular components, we
arrive at the conclusion that a structure that
is isomorphic to the five-dimensional gen-
eralized helix portrayed in Figure 6 will be
needed for the representation of rhythmic
relations as well.
Reference Notes
I. Shepard, R. N. The double helix of musical pitch.
In R. N. Shepard (Chair), Cognitive structure of
musical pitch. Symposium presented at the meeting
of the Western Psychological Association, San Fran-
cisco, April 1978.
2. Balzano, G. J. The structural uniqueness of the dia-
tonic order. In R. N. Shepard (Chair), Cognitive
structure of musical pitch. Symposium presented at
the meeting of the Western Psychological Associa-
tion, San Francisco, April 1978.
3. Shepard, R. N. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
proposal, Yale University, 1954.
4. Mathews, M. V. Personal communication, January
7, 1982.
5. Blechner, M. J. Musical skill and the categorical
perception of harmonic mode (Status Report on
Speech Perception SR-51/52). New Haven, Conn.:
Haskins Laboratories, 1977, pp. 139-174.
6. Cohen, A. J. Inferred sets of pitches in melodic per-
ception. In R. N. Shepard (Chair), Cognitive struc-
ture of musical pitch. Symposium presented at the
meeting of the Western Psychological Association,
San Francisco, April 1978.
7. Jordan, D., & Shepard, R. N. Effects on musical
cognition of a distorted diatonic scale. Manuscript
in preparation, 1982.
8. Attneave, F. Discussant's remarks. In R.N. Shepard
(Chair), Cognitive structure of musical pitch. Sym-
posium presented at the meeting of the Western Psy-
chological Association, San Francisco, April 1978.
9. Risset, J.-C. Demonstration tape of auditory illu-
sions. (Available from J.-C. Risset, UER de L_uming,
13008 Marseille, France.)
References
Allen, D. Octave discriminability of musical and non-
musical subjects. Psychonomic Science, 1967, 7, 421-
422.
Attneave, F. The representation of physical space. In
A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes
in human memory. Washington, D.C.: V. H. Win-
ston, 1972, pp. 283-306.
Attneave, F., & Olson, R. K. Pitch as a medium: A new
approach to psychophysical scaling. American Jour-
nal of Psychology, 1971,84, 147-166.
Bachem, A. Tone height and tone chroma as two dif-
ferent pitch qualities. Acta Psychologica, 1950, 7, 80-
88.
Bachem, A. Time factors in relative and absolute pitch
determination. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, 1954, 26, 751-753.
Balzano, G. J. Chronometric studies of the musical in-
terval sense (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford Univer-
sity, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International,
1977, 38, 2898B. (University Microfilms No. 77-25,
643).
Balzano, G. J. The group-theoretic description of
twelvefold and microtonal pitch systems. Computer
Music Journal, 1980, 4, 66-84.
Balzano, G. J. Musical versus psychoacoustical vari-
ables and their influence on the perception of musical
intervals. Bulletin of the Council for Research in
Music Education, 1982, 70, 1-11.
Balzano, G. J. The pitch set as a level of description for
studying musical pitch perception. In M. Clynes
(Ed.), Music, mind, and brain. New York: Plenum
Press, in press.
Balzano, G. J., & Liesch, B. W. The role of chroma and
scalestep in the recognition of musical intervals in and
out of context. Psychomusicology, in press.
Beck, J., & Shaw, W. A. The scaling of pitch by the
method of magnitude estimation. American Journal
of Psychology, 1961, 74, 242-251.
Blackett, D. W. Elementary topology. New York: Ac-
ademic Press, 1967.
Blackwell, H. R., & Schlosberg, H. Octave generaliza-
tion, pitch discrimination, and loudness thresholds in
the white rat. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
1943, 33, 407-419.
Boring, E. G. Sensation and perception in the history
of experimental psychology. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1942.
Bregman, A. S. The formation of auditory streams. In
J. Requin (Ed.), Attention and performance VII.
Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1978.
Bregman, A. S., & Campbell, J. Primary auditory
stream segregation and the perception of order in
rapid sequences of tones. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1971, 89, 244-249.
Burns, E. M. Octave adjustment by non-Western mu-
sicians. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Amer-
ica, 1974, 56, 525. (Abstract)
Burns, E. M., & Ward, W. I. Categorical perception-
, phenomenon or epiphenomenon: Evidence from ex-
periments in the perception of melodic musical inter-
vals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1978, 63, 456-468.
Carroll, J. D., & Chang, J.-J. Analysis of individual
differences in multidimensional scaling via an N-way
generalization of Eckart-Young decomposition. Psy-
chometrika, 1970, 35, 283-319.
Charbonneau, G., & Risset, J.-C. Circularite de juge-
ments de hauteur sonore. Comptes Rendus Hebdo-
madaires des Seances de L'Academie des Sciences
Paris, 1973, 277B, 623-626.
Chomsky, N. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1965.
Chomsky, N. Language and mind. New York: Har-
court, Brace & World, 1968.
Cohen, A. Perception of tone sequences from the West-
ern-European chromatic scale: Tonality, transposi-
tion and the pitch set. Unpublished doctoral disser-
tation, Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario,
Canada, 1975.
Coxeter, H. S. M.lntroduction to geometry. New York:
Wiley, 1961.
de Boer, E. On the "residue" and auditory pitch per-
ception. In W. D. Keidel & W. D. Neff (Eds.), Hand-
book of sensory physiology (Vol. 5, Pt. 3: Clinical
and special topics). New York: Springer-Verlag,
1976, pp. 479-583.
Deutsch, D. Octave generalization and tune recognition.
Perception & Psychophysics, 1972, J1, 411-412.
Deutsch, D. Octave generalization of specific interfer-
ence effects in memory for tonal pitch. Perception
& Psychophysics, 1973, 13, 271-275.
Deutsch, D. Delayed pitch comparison and the principle
of proximity. Perception & Psychophysics, 1978, 23,
227-230.
Deutsch, D., & Feroe, J. The internal representation of
pitch sequences in tonal music. Psychological Review,
1981, 88, 503-522.
Dewar, K. M. Context effects in recognition memory
for tones. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Queen's
University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 1974.
Dewar, K. M., Cuddy, L. L., & Mewhort, D. J. K.
Recognition memory for single tones with and without
context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Hu-
man Learning and Memory, 1977, 3, 60-67.
Dowling, W. J. The 1215-cent octave: Convergence of
Western and Nonwestern data on pitch-scaling. Jour-
nal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1973, 53,
373A. (Abstract) (a)
Dowling, W. J. The perception of interleaved melodies.
Cognitive Psychology, 1973, 5, 322-337. (b)
Dowling, W. J. Listeners' successful search for melodies
scrambled into several octaves. Journal of the Acous-
tical Society of America, 1978, 64, SJ46. (Abstract)
(a)
Dowling, W. J. Scale and contour: Two components of
a theory of memory for melodies. Psychological Re-
view, 1978, 85, 341-354. (b)
Dowling, W. J. Musical scales and psychophysical
scales: Their psyc!lological reality. In T. Rice & R.
Falck (Eds.), Cross-cultural approaches to music.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto
Press, in press.
Dowling, W. J., & Hollombe, A. W. The perception of
melodies distorted by splitting into several octaves:
Effects of increasing proximity and melodic contour.
Percepton & Psychophysics, 1977, 21, 60-64.
Forte, A. Tonal harmony in concept and practice (3rd
ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979.
Frances, R. La perception de Ia musique. Paris: Vrin,
1958.
Pucks, W. Mathematical analysis of formal structure
of music. IRE Transactions on Information Theory,
1962, 8, 225-228.
Goldstein, H. Classical mechanics. Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1950.
Goldstein, J. L. An optimum processor theory for the
central formation of the pitch of complex tones. Jour-
1496-1516.
Greenwood, G. D. Principles of dynamics. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Hahn, J., & Jones, M. R. Invariants in auditory fre-
quency relations. Scandinavian Journal of Psychol-
ogy, 1981, 22, 129-144.
Hall, D. E. Quantitative evaluation of musical scale tun-
ings. American Journal of Psychics, 1974, 42, 543-
552.
Helmholtz, H. von. On the sensations of tone as a phys-
iological basis for the theory of music. New York:
Dover, 1954. (Originally published, 1862.)
Hilbert, D., & Cohn-Vossen, S. Geometry and the
imagination. New York: Chelsea, 1952. (Originally
published, 1932.)
Humphreys, L. F. Generalization as a function of
method of reinforcement. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1939, 25, 361-372.
Hurvich, L. M., & Jameson, D. An opponent-process
theory of color vision. Psychological Review, 1957,
64, 384-404.
Idson, W. L., & Massaro, D. W. A bidimensional model
of pitch in the recognition of melodies. Perception
& Psychophysics, 1978, 24, 551-565.
Imberty, M. L'acquisition des structures tonales chez
/'enfant. Paris: Klincksieck, 1969.
Jones, M. R. Time, our lost dimension: Toward a new
theory of perception, attention, and memory. Psy-
chological Review, 1976, 83, 323-355.
Kallman, H. J., & Massaro, D. W. Tone chroma is
functional in melody recognition. Perception & Psy-
chophysics, 1979, 26, 32-36.
Kilmer, A. D., Crocker, R. L., & Brown, R. R. Sounds
from silence: Recent discoveries in ancient Near
Eastern music. Berkeley, Calif.: Bit Enki Publica-
tions, 197 6.
Koffka, K. Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York:
Harcourt Brace, 1935.
Kohler, W. Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright,
1947.
Krumhansl, C. L. The psychological representation of
musical pitch in a tonal context. Cognitive Psychol-
ogy, 1979, Jl, 346-374.
Krumhansl, C. L., Bharucha, J. J., & Kessler, E. J.
Perceived harmonic structure of chords in three re-
lated musical keys. Journal of Experimental Psy-
chology: Human Perception and Performance, 1982,
8, 24-36.
Krumhansl, C. L., & Kessler, F. J. Tracing the dynamic
changes in perceived tonal organization in a spatial
representation of musical keys. Psychological Re-
view, 1982, 89, 334-368.
Krumhansl, C. L., & Shepard, R.N. Quantification of
the hierarchy of tonal functions within a diatonic con-
text. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception and Performance, 1979, 5, 579-594.
Kubovy, M. Concurrent pitch-segregation and the the-
ory of indispensable attributes. In M. Kubovy &
J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Perceptual organization.
Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1981.
Lakner, Y. A new method of representing tonal rela-
tions. Journal of Music Theory, 1960, 4, 194-209.
Levett, W. J. M., Van de Geer, J. P., & Plomp, R.
Triadic comparisons of musical intervals. British
Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology,
1966, 19, 163-179.
Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D., &
Studdert-Kennedy, M. of the speech code.
Psychological Review, 1967, 74, 431-461.
Licklider, J. C. R. Basic correlates of the auditory stim-
ulus. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of experi-
mental psychology. New York: Wiley, 1951.
Locke, S., & Kellar, L. Categorical perception in a non-
linguistic mode. Cortex, 1973, 9, 355-369.
Longuet-Higgins, H. C. Letter to a musical friend.
Music Review, 1962, 23, 244-248.
Longuet-Higgins, H. C. The perception of music (Re-
view Lecture). Proceedings of the Royal Society,
London, 1979, 205B, 307-332.
Mathews, M. V. The digital computer as a musical in-
strument. Science, 1963, 142, 553-557.
Mathews, M. V., & Sims, G. Perceptual discrimination
of just and equal tempered tunings. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, Suppl. I, 1981, 69,
538 (Abstract)
McAdams, S., & Bregman, A. Hearing musical streams.
Computer Music Journal, 1979, 3, 26-43.
Merriam, A. P. The anthropology of music. Evanston,
Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
Meyer, L. B. Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1956.
Miller, G. A. The magic number seven, plus or minus
two. Psychological Review, 1956, 63, 81-97.
Miller, G. A., & Heise, G. A. The trill threshold. Jour-
637-638.
Null, C. Symmetry in judgments of musical pitch.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1974.
O'Connell, W. Tone spaces. Die Reihe, 1962,8, 34-67.
Peterson, G. E., & Barney, H. L. Control methods used
in a study of the vowels. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 1952, )#, 175-184.
Philippot, M. L'Arc, Beethoven, No. 40, 1970.
Pikler, A. G. The diatonic foundations of hearing. Acta
Psychologica, 1955, 11, 4-32-445.
Pikler, A. G. Logarithmic frequency systems. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1966, 39, 1102-
1110.
Piston, W. Harmony. New York: Norton, 1941.
Plomp, R. Aspects of tone sensation: A psychophysical
study. New York: Academic Press, 1976.
Plomp, R., & Levelt, W. J. M. Tonal consonance and
critical band width. Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America, 1965, 38, 548-560.
Pressing, J. Cognitive isomorphisms in pitch and rhythm
in world musics: West African, the Balkans, Thailand
and Western tonality. Ethnomusico/ogy, in press.
Ratner, L. G. Harmony: Structure and style. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Revesz, G. Introduction to the psychology of music.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954.
Risset, J.-C. Musical acoustics. In E. C. Carterette &
M. P. Friedman (Eds. ), Handbook of perception (Vol.
4). New York: Academic Press, 1978, pp. 521-564.
Ruckmick, C. A. A new classification of tonal qualities.
Psychological Review, 1929, 36, 172-180.
Schenker, H. Harmony (0. Jones, Ed. and E. M.
Borgese, trans.). Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press,
1954. (Originally published, 1906).
Shepard, R. N. Attention and the metric structure of
the stimulus space. Journal of Mathematical Psy-
chology, 1964, 1, 54-87. (a)
Shepard, R. N. Circularity in judgments of relative
pitch. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1964, 36, 2346-2353. (b)
Shepard, R. N. Approximation to uniform gradients of
generalization by monotone transformations of scale.
In D. I. Mostofsky (Ed.), Stimulus generalization.
Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1965, pp.
94-110.
Shepard, R. N. Psychological representation of speech
sounds. In E. E. David & P. B. Denes (Eds.), Human
communication: A unified view. New York: McGraw-
Hill, i 972, pp. 67-113.
Shepard, R. N. Representation of structure in similarity
data: Problems and prospects. Psychometrika, 1974,
39, 373-421.
Shepard, R.N. The circumplex and related topological
manifolds in the study of perception. InS. Shye (Ed.),
Theory construction and data analysis in the behav-
ioral sciences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978, 29-
80. (a)
Shepard, R. N. Externalization of mental images and
the act of creation. In B. S. Randhawa & W. E.
Coffman (Eds.), Visual/earning, thinking, and com-
munication. New York: Academic Press, 1978. (b)
Shepard, R. N. On the status of "direct" psychophysical
measurement. In C. W. Savage (Ed.), Minnesota
studies in the philosophy of science (Vol. 9). Min-
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1978. (c)
Shepard, R. N. Multidimensional scaling, tree-fitting,
and clustering. Science, 1980, 210, 390-398.
Shepard, R. N. Individual differences in the perception
of musical pitch. In Documentary report of the Ann
Arbor symposium: Applications of psychology to the
teaching and learning of music. Reston, Va.: Music
Educators National Conference, 1981. (a)
Shepard, R. N. Psychological relations and psycho-
physical scales: On the status of "direct" psycho-
physical measurement. Journal of Mathematical
Psychology, 1981, 24, 21-57. (b)
Shepard, R.N. Psychophysical complementarity. In M.
Kubovy & J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Perceptual or-
ganization. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1981. (c)
Shepard, R. N. Structural representations of musical
pitch. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), Psychology of music. New
York: Academic Press, 1982.
Shepard, R. N., & Cooper, L. A. Mental images and
their transformations. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press;
Bradford Books, 1982.
Shepard, R. N., & Zajac, E. (Producers). A pair of
paradoxes. Murray Hill, N.J.: Bell Telephone Lab-
oratories, Technical Information Library, 1965. (Film)
"Shepard's Tones." On M. V. Mathews, J.-C. Risset,
et at, The voice of the computer (Decca Record DL
710180). Universal City, Calif.: MCA Records, Inc.,
1970.
Siegel, J. A. The nature of absolute pitch. In E. Gordon
(Ed.), Research in the psychology of music (Vol. 8).
Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1972.
Siegel, J. A., & Siegel, W. Absolute identification of
notes and intervals by musicians. Perception & Psy-
chophysics, 1977, 21, 143-152. (a)
Siegel, J. A., & Siegel, W. Categorical perception of
tonal intervals: Musicians can't tell sharp from flat.
Perception & Psychophysics, 1977, 21, 399-407. (b)
Stevens, S. S. The measurement of loudness. Journill
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1955, 27, 815-
829.
Stevens, S. S., & Volkmann, J. The relation of pitch to
frequency: A revised scale. American Journal of Psy-
chology, 1940, 53, 329-353.
Stevens, S. S., Volkmann, J., & Newman, E. B. A scale
for the measurement of the psychological magnitude
of pitch. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Amer-
ica, 1937, 8, 185-190.
Sundberg, J. E. F., & Lindqvist, J. Musical octaves and
1973, 54, 922-929.
Terhardt, E. Pitch, consonance, and harmony. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1974,55, 1061-
1069.
Thurlow, W. R., & Erchul, W. P. Judged similarity in
pitch of octave multiples. Perception & Psychophys-
ics, 1971, 22, 177-182.
Tversky, A. Features of similarity. Psychological Re-
view, 1977, 84, 327-352.
van Noorden, L. P. A. S. Temporal coherence in the
perception of tone sequences. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Technishe Hogeschool, Eindhoven, The
Netherlands, 1975.
Ward, W. D. Subjective musical pitch. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 1954, 26, 369-380.
Ward, W. D. Absolute pitch. Pt. I. Sound, 1963, 2, 14-
21. (a)
Ward; W. D. Absolute pitch. Pt. II. Sound, 1963, 2,
33-41. (b)
Ward, W. D. Musical perception. In J. V. Tobias &
E. D. Hubert ( Eds. ), Foundations of modern auditory
theory (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press, 1970,
pp. 407-447.
Wightman, F. L. The pattern-transformation model of
1973, 54, 407-416.
Zatorre, R. S., & Halpern, A. R. Identification, dis-
crimination, and selective adaptation of simultaneous
musical intervals. Perception & Psychophysics, 1979,
26, 384-395. '
Zenatti, A. Le developpement genetique de Ia perception
musicale (Monographies Fran9aises de Psychologie,
No. 17). Paris: Centre National de Ia Recherche
Scientifique, 1969.
Zuckerkandl, V. Sound and symbol. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1956.
Zuckerkandl, V. Man the musician. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1972.
Received October 21, 1981

Roger N. Shepard - Geometrical Approximations To The Structure of Musical Pitch (Article) (1982)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Roger N. Shepard - Geometrical Approximations To The Structure of Musical Pitch (Article) (1982)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Psychological Review

VOLUME 89 NUMBER 4 JULY 1982

You might also like