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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO.

6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004 1665

Advances in Construction Techniques of AC


Induction Motors: Preparation for
Super-Premium Efficiency Levels
John Malinowski, Senior Member, IEEE, Jim McCormick, Senior Member, IEEE, and
Kevin Dunn, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—Design, material, and production techniques are II. MOTOR EFFICIENCY


evolving on ac induction motors leading to improved efficiencies
over older designs. IEEE 841 and even NEMA Premium efficiency A. History of Premium Efficiency
levels are now quite easy to meet and exceed. New research and The high-efficiency levels of today’s IEEE 841 motors have
production techniques will allow construction of ac motors with
been developed over the last 20 years. Several manufacturers in-
die-cast copper rotors, allowing even higher efficiency levels and
greater longevity. troduced “premium” efficient motors in the early 1980s. These
motors used better lamination material, more active material
Index Terms—Die-cast copper rotor, Energy Policy Act of 1994
(laminations and copper), and lower loss cooling fans. However,
(EPAct), IEEE 841, motor efficiency, NEMA Premium, premium
efficiency. there were no guidelines as to what efficiency the motor was re-
quired to produce to be called a “high-efficiency” motor.
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
I. INTRODUCTION first made a definition between Standard and Energy Efficient
motors in MG1-1987 with their September 1990 revision. These
T HIS PAPER will review design and production techniques
required for premium-efficiency motors and introduce new
research being done to further raise efficiency, including better
“Energy Efficient” motor efficiencies later became the standards
for the Energy Policy Act of 1994 (EPAct).
lamination steel slot designs and die-cast copper rotors. Devel- In October 1997, EPAct took effect, mandating minimum ef-
opment to increase efficiency with existing practices and mate- ficiency levels for general-purpose totally enclosed fan-cooled
rials may be nearing the end of its cycle. (TEFC) and open drip-proof (ODP) 1–200-hp (0.75–150 kW)
History of premium efficient motors and standards will be two-, four-, six-, and eight-pole foot-mounted motors. This re-
reviewed. The various standards from the IEEE, Canadian quired that any EPAct motor sold in the United States comply
Standards Association (CSA), International Electrotechnical with minimum nominal efficiency, testing, and labeling stan-
Commission (IEC), and Japanese Electrotechnical Commis- dards. EPAct does not cover “special-purpose” motors such as
sion (JEC) will be compared. Segregated motor losses will be footless motors with C-faces, pump mountings, or other non-
discussed, as well as how they affect efficiency. standard mountings.
Using copper rotors can reduce rotor losses and improve die- The Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE) established
casting consistency compared to die casting with aluminum. “premium” efficiency guidelines used by many utilities for
Challenges for production include tooling stresses and thermal rebate programs in 1996. In mid-2001, NEMA and CEE
shock from the higher melting point of copper versus aluminum. harmonized their efficiency standards, establishing NEMA
Above-NEMA Premium efficiency levels are possible Premium efficiency standards for ODP and TEFC 1–500-hp
without the additional cost and complexity of superconducting (0.75–370 kW) two-, four-, and six-pole motors in low and
designs. Motors of all IEEE 841 output ratings (1 hp and medium voltage. The NEMA Premium standard, first defined
up) can be built using these design features to achieve higher in NEMA MG1-1998, Rev. 2, does not differentiate between
efficiencies. mounting configurations and all types of motors are covered
[1].
IEEE 841 covers 1–500-hp (0.75–370 kW) TEFC two-, four-,
Paper PID-04-08, presented at the 2003 IEEE Petroleum and Chemical In- six-, and eight-pole motors [3]. With adoption of IEEE 841-
dustry Technical Conference, Houston, TX, December 15–17, and approved for
publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Pe- 2001, minimum nominal motor efficiency was set at the EPAct
troleum and Chemical Industry Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications level plus 1 NEMA efficiency level. The previous 841-1994 was
Society. Manuscript submitted for review September 18, 2003 and released for at EPAct levels. Looking at the efficiencies of motors from most
publication July 14, 2004. This work was supported in part by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy Office of Industrial Technology, by the International Copper manufacturers, their nominal efficiency complies with NEMA
Association, Ltd., by The Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technical Insti- Premium. It is expected that the NEMA Premium efficiency
tute, and by four motor manufacturers. levels will be the new minimums for the next revision of IEEE
The authors are with Baldor Electric Company, Fort Smith, AR 72902 USA
(e-mail: jmalinowski@baldor.com). 841. A comparison of four-pole TEFC efficiencies is shown in
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2004.836300 Table I.
0093-9994/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE

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1666 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004

TABLE I TABLE III


NOMINAL EFFICIENCY FOR FOUR-POLE TEFC MOTORS EFFECT OF INCREASED CORE LOSS ON MOTOR OPERATING COST AND
INSULATION LIFE FOR A 50-hp TWO-POLE ODP MOTOR

Source: Montgomery 1989

tions. Some countries adopt the IEEE/CSA methodology and


others choose the IEC testing methods. The U.K., Australia,
Brazil, Thailand, Singapore, and China are among those coun-
tries that have adopted efficiency standards.

B. Development of Electrical Grade Lamination Steel


Over the last 20 years, development and refinement of the
motor designs have reduced internal losses producing efficiency
levels consistent with NEMA Premium. The primary advance-
ment is better electrical-grade steel. Lamination coatings have
evolved from basic organic (C3) to various inorganic/combina-
tion configurations (C4/C5/C6) and recently to oxide coatings.
Actual losses in the steel have gone from 4–5 W per pound of
TABLE II steel to less than 2 W per pound. See Appendix I for the reduc-
CEMEP MINIMUM NOMINAL EFFICIENCY STANDARDS FOR FOUR-POLE
MOTORS IEC TEST METHOD tion in iron loss over the last 20 years.
In API 541, C5 inorganic core plate is specified for low
electrical losses and a good resistance to degrading during
any burnout and rewind process. EASA guidelines for burnout
temperatures during rewind are 400 C (752 F) [9]. Some new
proprietary oxide coatings allow temperature limits of 480 C
(896 F) without damage.
Damage of lamination steel during an improperly performed
motor rewind burnout causes increased core losses. Table III
illustrates the effect of increased core loss on a 50-hp (37 kW)
2-pole ODP motor. If the rewind was incorrectly performed, it
will not take long for the operating costs of a poorly rewound
motor to cost more than the rewind. Select a service shop that
follows [10].

C. Additional Benefits of Premium Motors


Source: European Union—CEMEP 1999
Additional active material (laminations and copper wire) is
added to increase efficiency. IEEE 841 motors specify cast-iron
The European Union (EU) and Committee of European motor housings that are usually finned for increased heat dissi-
Manufacturers of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics pation. Laminations are fully round on their outer diameter to
(CEMEP) have developed a motor efficiency classification better provide for increased thermal conductivity to the motor
scheme for motors in the range of 1.1–75 kW [4]. These nom- housing. Smaller internal and external fans are used due to lower
inal efficiencies are shown in Table II. Motors sold in Europe losses, thus decreasing windage losses.
will have en efficiency marking designating Eff1 for their best In addition to using better laminations and more copper,
efficiency, and Eff2 for standard efficiency. There is a lower NEMA Premium efficient motor manufacturing tolerances and
Eff3 level for a family of motors that the EU is encouraging practices are held to tighter tolerances. Typically, vibration
manufacturers to discontinue. Eff1 motor efficiency is compa- levels are lower, generally half of NEMA limits or better.
rable to the U.S. EPAct motor. There are currently discussions NEMA Premium motors are available in most enclosures.
to set minimum regulated standards as the U.S. has done with TEFC motors through 10 hp (7.5 kW) are offered as either
EPAct. steel band or cast-iron housings. Steel band construction is
Efficiency standards are being developed and adopted available on ODP motors through 200 hp (150 kW) with
throughout the world, mostly by government energy organiza- cast iron on the higher output ratings. Cast-iron frames offer

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MALINOWSKI et al.: ADVANCES IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OF AC INDUCTION MOTORS 1667

TABLE IV TABLE V
IEC DEFAULT VALUES FOR STRAY LOAD LOSSES APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION OF COMPARABLE EFFICIENCY LEVELS
USING JEC, IEC, AND IEEE TEST METHODS

Source: ERM 1999

• stray load losses—magnetic transfer loss in the air gap


between the stator and rotor.
greater structural rigidity, increased vibration damping, and a
Appendix II illustrates segregated losses based on C390-98
flatter mounting base for easier alignment. When compared to
tests in various motors designs. While some losses remain con-
rolled-steel frame motors, the radial-finned housing of these
sistent, others are reduced, resulting in improved overall effi-
cast-iron TEFC motors provides better heat dissipation.
ciency of the machine. Motor designers debate on how these
losses should be distributed for a motor’s performance char-
D. How Efficiency is Measured acteristics, but the total of the losses is most important to ef-
ficiency.
The U.S. standard test for motor efficiency is IEEE Standard For example, certain losses might be further reduced, but this
112, Method B [2]. The equivalent CSA test is C390-98 and it could result in a motor that would not be capable of starting
is also accepted by the U.S. Department of Energy [5]. The IEC across the line. Such a motor might be well suited for use with
test standard is 60034-2. This is not an equivalent test to IEEE an adjustable-speed drive (ASD) or soft start that limit inrush
112 because IEC 60034-2 and the proposed IEC 61972 tests currents but the motor would have difficulty starting across the
assign specific values to stray load losses rather than measuring line with a control bypass. General-purpose motors often have
the losses as in IEEE tests. Table IV shows the IEC assigned design compromises as a result of the designer’s effort to bal-
losses. ance performance parameters.
While the IEC procedure assigns stray load losses, the JEC-37
efficiency test standard for Japan ignores stray load losses alto-
gether. Only IEEE 112 and CSA C390-98 tests actually compare E. Additional Efficiency-Gaining Considerations
measured input and output watts giving a true measurement of Reduced motor losses allow use of a smaller cooling fan with
the motor’s actual efficiency. Test results using IEC and JEC less friction and windage. Bearing sizes could be reduced for
methods cannot be directly compared with IEEE 112 or CSA greater efficiency, but shaft loading would be limited, especially
C390-98 because they do not contain a measurement of all of with belted loads.
the motor’s losses. A comparison of efficiency when testing by For maintenance reasons, some users prefer the use of the
each method is shown in Table V. same size bearing on both ends of the motor. Addition of a larger
IEEE and CSA methods accurately measures watts in and bearing on the opposite drive end (making it the same as the
watts out that allow for segregating the motor’s losses into the drive end) increases friction and reduces motor efficiency. The
following five categories: opposite-drive-end bearing is lightly loaded and does not require
• iron core losses—magnetic losses in laminations, induc- this large bearing for typical loads. Reviewing IEEE 841 mo-
tance and eddy-current losses; tors produced by various manufacturers, about half use the same
• stator resistance—current losses in the windings; bearings on each end and the other half use a smaller bearing
• rotor resistance—current losses in the rotor bars and end on the fan end than the drive end. Table VI illustrates the addi-
rings; tional power losses when using two bearings of the same size
• windage and friction—mechanical drag in bearings and compared to use of a smaller bearing on the opposite drive end
cooling fans; for NEMA 250–360 frame motors.

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1668 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004

TABLE VI TABLE VII


COMPARISON OF SAME-SIZE BEARING ON BOTH ENDS OF IEEE 841 MOTORS AVERAGE LOSS SEGREGATION TEST RESULTS
TO CONVENTINAL CONSTRUCTION WITH TWO DIFFERENT SIZE BEARINGS

For a 15-hp (11 kW) motor

bar rotors is common on above-NEMA-sized motors, 250 hp


(190 kW) and larger. American Petroleum Institute (API) Stan-
Using hybrid bearings that have ceramic balls instead of steel
dard 541 specifies that ac induction motors should utilize copper
balls may further reduce bearing losses. Tests have shown that
bar rotors.
these bearings also run cooler and provide longer life than con-
Copper bar rotors are exactly that, extruded copper bars, fab-
ventional deep-groove ball bearings. The ceramic balls would
ricated in the rotor by brazing to copper end rings. Reasons for
have the additional feature of isolating the shaft and preventing
copper rotors are lower rotor current losses, producing higher
bearing fluting from circulating currents caused by ASDs.
motor efficiency and better overall performance. Copper has
IEEE 841 specifies a polyurea-based grease to be used in
better conductivity than aluminum by nearly 60%; therefore, the
motors. Many users specify lithium-based or synthetic greases.
cross section of the rotor bar for copper motors is smaller than
Non-petroleum greases may offer lower losses, operation at
that of an aluminum rotor motor. Less volume of copper is re-
higher temperatures, and longer life between lubrication. The
quired, somewhat offsetting its higher cost per pound.
IEEE 841 committee will be reviewing grease considerations
for the next revision.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NEW CASTING DIE MATERIAL
According to EASA figures, about 60% of premature motor
failures involve the motor bearing system. Most IEEE 841 mo- High-pressure die casting of aluminum squirrel-cage rotors
tors utilize a noncontact labyrinth seal to minimize contamina- is a mature process performed by most motor manufacturers
tion of the bearings. Some manufacturers supply these seals on on motors through 2000 hp (1500 kW). The melting point for
both the drive and fan ends of the motor. Contact seals cause aluminum alloys is in the 676 C (1250 F) range. The ma-
friction losses and their sealing capabilities are reduced as wear terial used for the rotor’s die-casting mold is often H-13 tool
takes place. steel, which is not highly stressed at these temperatures. Die
Bearing manufacturers are also working on noncontact and life can be in the hundreds of thousands of rotors depending on
lower friction bearing seals for applications where sealed bear- die complexity. Copper melts at 1083 C (1982 F). This high
ings are required. Ceramic balls in antifriction bearings may melting temperature results in failure of conventional die steels
offer lower losses, reduced lubrication intervals, and a “self- by thermal fatigue of the surface (“heat checking”) in less than
healing” feature if contamination is introduced into the bearing. 100 shots.
Recent development work has demonstrated that high-tem-
F. Future Developments perature nickel-base alloy dies (e.g., INCONEL alloy 617) will
Several technical improvements promise to produce ac markedly increase die life when die casting copper [8]. Al-
induction motors with efficiency levels exceeding NEMA Pre- though not tested in this work, HAYNES alloy 230 has similar
mium. High-temperature superconducting shows promise on properties and is conventionally weld repairable. Production
higher powered motors. Development of better lamination steel, experience will determine actual useful die life in production of
such as EMTX (enhanced magnetic textures that fundamen- copper rotors using the new, elevated-temperature nickel-base
tally change the magnetic characteristics of steel), also shows alloy die technology. To reduce thermal stressing, the die is
promise. Amorphous materials may become a factor in future preheated to 600 C–650 C (1112 F–1202 F) before casting
motor design but their costs are still prohibitive, and material is the copper.
difficult to obtain and manufacture. Copper rotors are a proven
technology, accepted on higher horsepower motors, but not V. COPPER ROTOR RESEARCH
available as general-purpose products for motors less than 250 A. Initial Copper Rotor Research
hp (190 kW).
During development, a 15-hp (11 kW) four-pole TEFC motor
design was chosen because the rotor size fit the capabilities of
III. USE OF COPPER ROTORS the die-casting press at the research facility [6], [7]. During the
1–500-hp (0.75–373 kW) TEFC motors used in the petroleum first phase, rotor laminations that were designed for aluminum
and chemical industry are often built in compliance with IEEE rotors were used to prove the copper casting process. One motor
Standard 841-2001, which does not specify copper rotors. Most stator and set of endplates were used to test the consistency of
of these motors have die-cast aluminum rotors. Use of copper the rotor performance.

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MALINOWSKI et al.: ADVANCES IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OF AC INDUCTION MOTORS 1669

Fig. 1. History of iron losses.

Rotors were cast in a 750-ton (650 metric tonne) horizontal creased conductivity of copper rotor bars. Rotor slot dimen-
die-casting machine. Chopped copper wire rod was used for sions are reduced and the shape changed to optimize perfor-
the casting material. The copper was melted as required for mance to NEMA Design B specifications for a 10-hp (7.5 kW)
each shot in an induction furnace to control the problems of motor. Rather than decreasing the amount of active material in
oxygen and hydrogen in the molten copper over time. With only the stator, it remains the same, resulting in higher efficiency.
a 60-kW supply, the furnace required about 13 min for the melt Rotor casting will be performed in the same manner as the ini-
to 1230 C (2246 F), providing about 150 C (302 F) of su- tial research.
perheat.
A heated shot sleeve surrounded with a thermal wrap was D. Conversion to Production Designs
used. The shot sleeve was sized for the rotor requirements
to minimize air entrapment and porosity in the casting. After Once testing proves the basic design, production lamination
casting, the rotor was water quenched because it was believed tooling could be produced. It would be logical that NEMA
that the rapid cooling would break the copper away from the frames 143T–449T covering 1–250-hp (0.75–190 kW) designs
laminations and minimize annealing. would be made available in these super-premium designs.
Above-NEMA designs are presently available with fabricated
B. Test Results copper bar rotors in severe-duty and API 541 configurations
During the first test process, seven rotors were cast for the from many manufacturers.
15-hp (11 kW) motor. Efficiency for these motors averaged
90.7% and variations of 0.1% based on IEEE 112B. Rotor watts
loss averaged 157 W with a range of 153–167 W loss. VI. CONCLUSION
Tests comparing rotors quenched by water to those that were Use of die-cast copper rotors is one method enabling motor
air-cooled showed no difference in performance. Rotors that efficiency to be increased as much as 1%–2% above what is
were quenched could be handled within 2 min, compared to 20 currently possible using die-cast aluminum rotors. These effi-
min for those that were allowed to air cool. Quenching would ciency increases are expected to be higher on smaller motors,
allow a much faster production time. decreasing to 0.5% on larger designs. Life-cycle cost will be-
Compared to aluminum, performance variations from rotor come more important in the future as energy costs increase. Be-
to rotor were insignificant. This confirms the belief that rotor sides lower cost of operation, these smaller copper rotor mo-
porosity would be reduced when compared to aluminum. Chem- tors are more robust, providing less downtime, just like larger
ical analysis showed iron, nickel, and oxygen pickup to be min- above-NEMA sizes. IEEE, NEMA, and other standards groups
imal. Electrical conductivity of these castings averaged no lower may need to consider upgrading efficiency standards as better
than 98% IACS. motors become commercially available.
Table VII shows the IEEE test results for the seven rotors
tested.

C. Further Development With Optimized Laminations APPENDIX I


HISTORY OF IRON LOSSES
Further research is currently being conducted with a redesign
of the stator and rotor lamination to take advantage of the in- See Fig. 1.

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1670 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004

TABLE VIII
PRE-EPACT DESIGN—87.4% EFFICIENCY

TABLE IX
EPACT DESIGN—91.0% EFFICIENCY

TABLE X
NEMA PREMIUM DESIGN—92.4% EFFICIENCY

TABLE XI
COPPER ROTOR DESIGN—ABOVE NEMA PREMIUM—93.2% EFFICIENCY

APPENDIX II John Malinowski (M’99–SM’01) is Product Mar-


SEGREGATED LOSS COMPARISON OF VARIOUS 15-hp keting Manager for AC and DC Motors with Baldor
Electric Company, Fort Smith, AR. He has authored
FOUR-POLE TEFC MOTOR DESIGNS or coauthored several papers presented at IEEE and
other conferences.
See Tables VIII–XI. Mr. Malinowski serves on the IEEE PPIC Drives
and Control Systems Subcommittee, PCIC-IEEE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 303 and 841 Working Groups, and the Cooling Tech-
nology Industry Drives and Controls Committee. He
Some results presented here are from a development program is Baldor’s representative to NEMA Premium and
on new die-casting materials and manufacturing processes con- the Motor Decisions Matter programs.
ducted by the Copper Development Association Inc.

REFERENCES
Jim McCormick (M’99–SM’01) received the
[1] Motors and Generators, NEMA MG 1-2003. B.S.M.E. degree from the University of Missouri,
[2] IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and Gen- Columbia, in 1970. He has authored or coauthored
erators, IEEE Standard 112-1996. several papers presented at IEEE and other confer-
[3] IEEE Standard for Petroleum and Chemical Industry—Severe Duty ences.
Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induction Mo- He is Chief Applications Engineer with Baldor
tors—Up to and Including 370 kW (500 Hp), IEEE Standard 841-2001. Electric Company, Fort Smith, AR.
[4] Rotating Electrical Machines. Part 2: Methods for Determining Losses Mr. McCormick is a member of the IEEE 841 and
and Efficiency of Rotating Electrical Machinery From Tests, IEC Stan- P1349 Working Groups.
dard 60034-2, 1996.
[5] Energy Efficiency Test Methods for Three-Phase Induction Motors,
CAN/CSA-C390-98, 2002.
[6] “Update: Copper motor rotor,” Copper Development Assoc., New York,
NY, 2001–2002.
[7] J. G. Cowie, E. F. Brush Jr, D. T. Peters, and S. P. Midson, “Materials
and modifications to die cast the copper conductors of the induction rotor Kevin Dunn (M’95–SM’03) received the A.A.S.
motor,” Die Casting Eng., Sept. 2001. degree in mechanical engineering from Saint Louis
[8] D. T. Peters, J. G. Cowie, E. F. Brush, and S. P. Midson, “Use of high Community College, St. Louis, MO, in 1988, and
temperature die material and hot dies for high pressure die casting pure the B.A. degree in marketing from Lindenwood
copper and copper alloys,” in Proc. 2002 Die Casting Congr., North University, St. Charles, MO, in 1993.
American Die Casting Assoc., Rosemont, IL, Sept. 30–Oct. 2, 2002. He is currently Director of Marketing with Baldor
[9] “Guidelines for maintaining motor efficiency during rebuilding,” Elec- Electric Company, Fort Smith, AR.
trical Apparatus Service Assoc., Inc. (EASA), St. Louis, MO, 1999. Mr. Dunn was a member of the IEEE 841 and
[10] Recommended Practice for the Repair of Rotating Electrical Apparatus, P1349 Working Groups.
ANSI/EASA AR100-1998, 1998.

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