Indian History

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History of India
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History of South Asia
Stone Age
before 3300 BCE
• Mehrgarh Culture
• 7000–3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization
3300–1700 BCE
• Late Harappan Culture
• 1700–1300 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
• Maha Janapadas
• 700–300 BCE
• Magadha Empire
• 684–424 BCE
• Nanda Empire
• 424-321 BCE
• Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
• Sunga Empire
• 185-73 BCE
• Kanva Empire
• 75-26 BCE
• Kharavela Empire
• 209–170 BCE
• Kuninda Kingdom
• 200s BCE–300s CE
• Indo-Scythian Kingdom
• 200 BC–400 CE
• Chera Kingdom
• 300 BCE–1200 CE
• Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
• Pandyan Kingdom
• 250 BCE–1345 CE
• Satavahana Empire
• 230 BCE–220 CE
• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• 180 BCE–10 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• 21–130s CE
• Western Satrap Empire
• 35–405 CE
• Kushan Empire
• 60–240 CE
• Indo-Sassanid Kingdom
• 230–360 CE
• Vakataka Empire
• 250–500 CE
• Kalabhras Kingdom
• 250–600 CE
• Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
• Pallava Kingdom
• 275–800 CE
• Kadamba Empire
• 345–525 CE
• Western Ganga Kingdom
• 350–1000 CE
• Vishnukundina Empire
• 420-624 CE
• Huna Kingdom
• 475-576 CE
• Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
• Harsha Empire
• 590-647 CE
• Shahi Kingdom
• 565-670 CE
• Eastern Chalukya Kingdom
• 624-1075 CE
• Pratihara Empire
• 650–1036 CE
• Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
• Rashtrakuta Empire
• 753–982 CE
• Paramara Kingdom
• 800–1327 CE
• Yadava Empire
• 850–1334 CE
• Solanki Kingdom
• 942–1244 CE
• Western Chalukya Empire
• 973–1189 CE
• Hoysala Empire
• 1040–1346 CE
• Sena Empire
• 1070–1230 CE
• Eastern Ganga Empire
• 1078–1434 CE
• Kakatiya Kingdom
• 1083–1323 CE
• Kalachuri Empire
• 1130–1184 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596 CE
• Delhi Sultanate
• 1206–1526 CE
• Deccan Sultanates
• 1490–1596 CE
Ahom Kingdom
1228–1826 CE
Vijayanagara Empire
1336–1646 CE
Mysore Kingdom
1399–1947 CE
Mughal Empire
1526–1858 CE
Madurai Nayak Kingdom
1559 –1736 CE
Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom
1572–1918 CE
Maratha Empire
1674–1818 CE
Sikh Confederacy
1716–1799 CE
Sikh Empire
1799–1849 CE
Company rule in India
1757–1858 CE
British India
1858–1947 CE
Partition of India
1947 CE
Nation histories
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Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka
Regional histories
Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal
Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions
Punjab • South India • Tibet
Specialised histories
Coinage • Dynasties • Economy
Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime
Military • Science and Technology • Timeline
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This article is about the history of the Indian Subcontinent prior to the
Partition of India in 1947. For the history of the modern Republic of India, see
History of the Republic of India. For the histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh see
History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh. Also for South India see History of
South India.
The known history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread
and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. 3300
to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age
civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was
followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-
Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the
Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were
born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the
masses.
Later, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its culture -
from the Achaemenid Persian empire[1] around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great[2] in
326 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, included
Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under Menander,
establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture.
The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd
centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by
numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Its northern regions were
united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries
thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious and
intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India."
During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under
the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own
golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, and
religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia.
Kerala had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around AD 77. Muslim
rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim
conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab,[3] setting the stage for several
successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia,
leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the
Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came to cover most of the
northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art
and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent Hindu
states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, the Ahom Kingdom and
various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western, Southern and
North-Eastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in
the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans,
Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the
subcontinent until the British East India Company[4] gained ascendancy over South
Asia.
Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually
annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led
to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly
administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development
of infrastructure and economic decline.
During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence
was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim
League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after
being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Pre-Historic Era
o 1.1 Stone Age
o 1.2 Bronze Age
o 1.3 Vedic period
o 1.4 Maha Janapadas
o 1.5 Persian and Greek invasions
• 2 Maurya Period
• 3 Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age
• 4 Northwestern hybrid cultures
o 4.1 Roman trade with India
o 4.2 Gupta Dynasty
• 5 Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age
• 6 The Islamic Sultanates
o 6.1 Delhi Sultanate
o 6.2 The Mughal era
• 7 Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms
• 8 Colonial era
o 8.1 The British Raj
• 9 The Indian Independence movement
• 10 Independence and Partition
• 11 See also
• 12 References
• 13 Further reading
• 14 External links
Pre-Historic Era
Stone Age
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Further information: Mehrgarh, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Edakkal Caves
Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central
India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle
Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago.[5][6] Most traces
of the out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have
been lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil Nadu
(at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano)
indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area.
The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around
25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the
subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000
years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in
the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India.
Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings
(7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic
culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon
dated to 7500 BCE.[7] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest exmples of stone
age writing. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between
6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE.
The north-western part of the Subcontinent has been inhabited continuously for at
least two million years.[8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some of
South Asia's oldest settlements[10] and some of its major civilizations.[11][12]
The earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid
site in the Soan River valley.[13] Village life began with the Neolithic site of
Mehrgarh,[14] while the first urban civilization of the region began with the
Indus Valley Civilization.[15][16]
Bronze Age
Main article: Indus Valley Civilization
See also: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of India
Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.
"Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning
of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its
tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[11] the Ganges-
Yamuna Doab,[17] Gujarat,[18] and northern Afghanistan.[19]
The civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Haryana,
Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and today's Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and
Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the
world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new
techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.
The civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the beginning
of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization included
urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern
day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. The
civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and
multi-storied houses.
Vedic period
Main article: Vedic period
See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans
Map of North India in the late Vedic period.

The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts
of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The
Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of
Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas established
Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the Gangetic
Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan during which
immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of
local people whom they called Dasyus.
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan
urbanization having been abandoned.[20] After the Rigveda, Aryan society became
increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. In
addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of the
Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins
during this period.[21] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part,
to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings.[22]
Vaishali was the capital of "Licchavi," world's second republic only after
Arwad.[23]
The kingdom of the Kurus[24] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted
Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around
1000 BCE with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention
iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture
spanning much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[22] The
Vedic Period also established republics (such as Vaishali) which existed as early
as the sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century AD.
The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from
the prevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Maha
Janapadas.
Maha Janapadas
Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on

the bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India.
Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from the
Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400.
Adi Shankara, an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita

Vedanta by using the Upanishads for reference.
The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the
era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a
number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.
Nalanda University is considered "one of the first great universities in recorded
history." It was the center of Buddhist learning and research in the world from
450–1193 CE.
Main articles: Mahajanapadas and Magadha Empire
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of Jainism
See also: Adi Shankara, Siddhartha Gautama, and Mahavira
Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian philosophy, and Ancient
universities of India
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the
subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as
far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the
Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa
(or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti,
Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day
Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major
urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.
Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present
across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other
states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while
the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as
Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400
BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and
Magadha.[25]
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class.
It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient
philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the
Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect on
Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism and
Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period.
It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of
"enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the elightened one. Around the
same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a
similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[26] However, Jain orthodoxy
believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a
few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[27]
The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and
were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses.
They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual
orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter
and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to
India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to
Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.
Persian and Greek invasions
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Alexander the Great, Nanda Empire,
and Gangaridai
Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's
Empire and neighbors.
Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and
Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE
during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries
thereafter.[28] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the
Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.
There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day
Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[29] Alexander's march East put
him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of
Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian
armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to
march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was
convinced that it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian
civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms
of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan
dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan
and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian
and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted
until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana
Buddhism.
________________________________________
Maurya Period
Main article: Maurya Empire
Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great
Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

The Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically
extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great
Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire was
flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to
the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east
stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan,
annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern
Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and
southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big
portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by
Ashoka the Great.
________________________________________
Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age
Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire.
Kushan Empire of Ancient India.
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.
Badami Chalukya Empire

Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India
See also: Satavahanas, Sunga Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Pallava, Kushan Empire,
Kharavela, Western Satraps, Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera dynasty, Kadamba
Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Gurjara Kingdom, Vishnukundina, and Chalukya
Empire
The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas,
also known as the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India
starting from around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty,
defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra Satakarni was another
notable ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that
survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. The
Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from
Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the
middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included ancient
Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. The Western
Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India.
They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous
with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the
Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India.
Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Dynasty, Chera Dynasty,
Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya Dynasty dominated
the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several
southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia.
The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the
south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of
the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South.
Northwestern hybrid cultures
The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205–171 BCE).
See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and Indo-
Sassanids
The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks,
the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of
these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius
invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day
Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a
succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each
other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who
migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana,
Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the
middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the
Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day
Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the
Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of
Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of
present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth
to the Indo-Sassanid culture.
Roman trade with India
Main article: Roman trade with India
Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India.
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and his
conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West.
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according
to Strabo (II.5.12.[30]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting
sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade,
and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH
VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from
our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and
women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to
the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
—Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[31]
These trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century CE
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Gupta Dynasty
Main article: Gupta Empire
See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, and
Skandagupta
Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and
Vatsyayana
Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra,
Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra
The Gupta Empire
Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijñānaśākuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta

Empire.
In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. During
this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu culture,
science and political administration reached new heights. Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta
dynasty. The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written
around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns from
central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was
again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan
continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas
were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in
the first half of the seventh century.
The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, established
themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their
capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty,
and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern
India. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected
by this state of flux in the north.
Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age
Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India
See also: Harsha, Western Chalukya Empire, Pratihara, Ahom Kingdom, Pala Empire,
Eastern Ganga dynasty, Rashtrakuta Empire, Sena dynasty, Hoysala Empire,
Kalachuri, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiya dynasty, Madurai Nayak Dynasty,
Shahi, and Vijayanagara Empire
Pala Empire under Dharmapala

Pala Empire under Devapala
The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north
during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the
Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in
the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the
epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and
philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in
the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed
after his death.
The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires - the Rashtrakutas of Deccan,
the Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Bengal.
From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern
India: the Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of
Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the
Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajputs, a
series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium
until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms
emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled
much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was
known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The Shahi
dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from
the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern concept
of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal
instead shifted to the south.
The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from
Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas
of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the
Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal,
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast
Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during
the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera
kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to
the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their
influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast
Asia. The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly
involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the
east.[32][33] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture
flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions
of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar
dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the
clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign
culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire
eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had
managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by
that time.
The Islamic Sultanates
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after
the Byzantine Hagia Sophia.
Main article: Islamic Empires in India
See also: Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates
After the Arab invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia, expanding
forces in that area were keen to invade India, which was the richest classical
civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond
mines in the world. After resistance for a few centuries by various north Indian
kingdoms, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and spread
across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior to
Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal
South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly
from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. However,
this had marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion in
Southern India's pre-existing dharmic Hindu culture, often in puritanical form.
Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the south.
Delhi Sultanate
Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak
of the Slave dynasty.
Main article: Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of northern
India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in
the former Rajput holdings.[34] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to
conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the
Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India,
but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the
subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.
The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in
architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the
language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects)
was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling of
the local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and Arabic
speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-
Islamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in
India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240).
A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the
reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city
of Delhi.[35] The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered
Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins.
The Mughal era
Approximate extent of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.
Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals

Main articles: Mughal era and Mughal Empire
See also: Babur, Humayun, Akbar the Great, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the
Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200
years.[36] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it
went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War
of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This period marked vast
social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the
Mughal emperors, most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising
Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to
establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as
Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several
historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-
Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an
area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill
the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The
Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739,
Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this
victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including
the Peacock Throne.[37]
During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal
Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including
the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal
dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their
empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them
successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great
was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals
in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. The
Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and
attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating
unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled
with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in their
downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-
pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority
Hindu population.
Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms
Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Sikh Empire,
Rajputs, and Durrani Empire
See also: History of Sikhism
Further information: Shivaji, Tippu Sultan, Nizam, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Shah
Abdali
The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India.
Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of
worship for the Sikhs.
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerianity as other
small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by
the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha
Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had
transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By 1760,
the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This
expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army
led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Peshwa,
Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the
Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son
Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against
the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British
with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb
Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a
Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of
Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both
Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India.
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity
that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas of
the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the
downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by
Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national
identity and integrity.
Colonial era
Main article: Colonial India
Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to
India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[38] The Portuguese
soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were
the Dutch, the British—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of
Surat[39] in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms
gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political
influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were
to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing
century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British
islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and
Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa,
Daman, and Diu.
The British Raj
Main article: British Raj
The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor
Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India.[40] Gradually their increasing influence led
the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty
free trade in Bengal in 1717.[41] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de
facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits.
This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India
Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first
political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in
India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in
1757.[42] After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights
of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the
beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and
extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century.[43] The East India
Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system
called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal like structure (See
Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the
Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their
policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity
festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. During
the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies,
were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78, in
which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[44] and the Indian famine of 1899–
1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[44] The Third Plague Pandemic
started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all
inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[45] Despite
persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which
stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[46]
The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted
in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy
Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and
reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the
British overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last
Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded
and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the
East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India
as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the
rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when
the Indian subcontinent became independent from Britain in August 1947.[47]
The Indian Independence movement
Main article: Indian independence movement
See also: Mahatma Gandhi
Further information: Freedom fighters of India
Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937.
Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's

national anthem.
The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken
with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy,[48] and
with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the councillors'
participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[49] From 1920
leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began mass movements to campaign
against the British Raj. Subash Chandara Bose was another freedom fighter who
formed army forces against British rule. Bhagat Singh was also an Indian freedom
fighter, considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the
Indian independence movement. He is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh (the
word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another freedom
fighter who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to pay
tax to British Government. Revolutionary activities against the British rule also
took place throughout the Indian sub-continent, and these movements succeeded in
bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, Gandhi
was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his homeland.
Independence and Partition
Main articles: Partition of India and History of the Republic of India
See also: Jawaharlal Nehru, Rabindranath Tagore, and Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had
also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, and
the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence;
they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. In
1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between
the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually lead
the country to independence. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his
ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him
one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example,
wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating
a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in
protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great
Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The British
promised that they would leave India by 1947.
British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned
into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the division of pre-
partition Punjab and Bengal provinces, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and
Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving
some 500,000 dead.[50] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations
ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and
Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan.[50]
See also
• History of South Asia
• History of the Republic of India
• History of Pakistan
• History of Bangladesh
• Indianized kingdom
• Contributions of Indian Civilization
• Economic history of India
• Religion in India
• Indian Religions
• History of Buddhism
• History of Hinduism
• History of Jainism
• History of Sikhism
• Indian philosophy
• Science and technology in ancient India
• List of Indian inventions and discoveries
• Indian maritime history
• Military history of India
• Kingdoms of Ancient India
• Timeline of Indian history
• Timeline of the economy of India
• Historic figures of ancient India
• Indian nationalism
• Harappan mathematics
• Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam
• Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
• Imperialism in Asia#The British in India
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Further reading
• R.S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India,
(Motilal Banarsidass, Fifth Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005), ISBN 8120808983.
Translated into Hindi and Tamil.
• R.S. Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order
Down to Circa A D 600(Motilal Banarsidass, Third Revised Edition, Delhi, 1990;
Reprint, Delhi, 2002). Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu and
Marathi (two volumes).
• R.S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India,
paperback edn., (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 2003). Translated into Hindi,
Russian and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu
translations projected.
• R.S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India,
(Macmillan Publishers, Delhi, 1985). Translated into Hindi, Russian and Bengali.
Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected.
• R.S. Sharma, Urban Decay in India (c.300-1000), (Munshiram Manoharlal,
Delhi, 1987). Translated into Hindi and Bengali.
• R.S. Sharma, Advent of the Aryans in India (Manohar Publishers, Delhi,
2003).
• R.S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation (Orient
Longman Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2003).
• R.S. Sharma, Looking for the Aryans, (Orient Longman, Madras, 1995, ISBN
8125006311).
• R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-
0195687859).
• R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism (Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 3rd Revised
Edition, Delhi, 2005).
• R.S. Sharma, The State and Varna Formations in the Mid-Ganga Plains: An
Ethnoarchaeological Vew (New Delhi, Manohar, 1996).
• R.S. Sharma, Origin of the State in India (Dept. of History, University of
Bombay, 1989)
• R.S. Sharma, Land Revenue in India: Historical Studies, Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi, 1971.
• R.S. Sharma, Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Manaktala, Bombay,
1966.
• R.S. Sharma, Survey of Research in Economic and Social History of India: a
project sponsored by Indian Council of Social Science Research, Ajanta Publishers,
1986.
• R.S. Sharma, Communal History and Rama's Ayodhya, People's Publishing House
(PPH), 2nd Revised Edition, September, 1999, Delhi. Translated into Bengali,
Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Two versions in Bengali.
• R.S. Sharma, Social Changes in Early Medieval India (Circa A.D.500-1200),
People's Publishing House, Delhi.
• R.S. Sharma, In Defence of "Ancient India", People's Publishing House,
Delhi.
• R.S. Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan and Social Change, Indian History Congress,
1993.
• R.S. Sharma, Indo-European languages and historical problems (Symposia
papers), Indian History Congress, 1994.
• R.S. Sharma, Some economic aspects of the caste system in ancient India,
Patna, 1952.
• R.S. Sharma, Ancient India, a Textbook for Class XI, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, 1980. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Japanese,
Korean, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Italian and German translations
projected. Revised and enlarged book as India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University
Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0195687859).
• R.S. Sharma, Transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages in India (K. P.
Jayaswal memorial lecture series), Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute,
Patna, 1992.
• R.S. Sharma, A Comprehensive History of India: Volume Four, Part I: the
Colas, Calukyas and Rajputs (Ad 985-1206), sponsored by Indian History Congress,
People's Publishing House, 1992, Delhi.
• R.S. Sharma, Rethinking India's Past, (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN
978-0195697872).
• Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History
of India (1934)
• Chandavarkar, Raj. The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business
Strategies and the Working Class in Bombay 1900-1940 (1994)
• Cohen, Stephen P. India: Emerging Power (2002)
• Daniélou, Alain. A Brief History of India (2003)
• Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from
Independence to the Global Information Age (2002)
• Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by
Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company
1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The
Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner
Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities
Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author
List and Title List)
• Keay, John. India: A History (2001)
• Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. India: An Illustrated History
(2003)
• Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 3rd ed. (1998)
• Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and partition: the erosion of colonial power
in India, New Delhi [u.a.] : Sage 2000, ISBN 0-7619-9367-3
• R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History
of India London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
• R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1951.
• Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002)
• Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times
to 1991 (1993)
• Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (1981)
• Spear, Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 (1990)
• Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004)
• von Tunzelmann, Alex. Indian Summer (2007). Henry Holt and Company, New
York. ISBN 0-8050-8073-2
• Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India 6th ed. (1999)
External links
• History of India at the Open Directory Project
[hide]
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South Asian Stone Age

Stone Age before 3300 BCE

• 7000–3300 BCE
3300–1700 BCE
• 1700–1300 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
• Maha Janapadas
• 700–300 BCE
• Magadha Empire
• 684–424 BCE
• Nanda Empire
• 424-321 BCE
• Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
• Sunga Empire
• 185-73 BCE
• Kanva Empire
• 75-26 BCE
• 209–170 BCE
• Kuninda Kingdom
• 200s BCE–300s CE
• 200 BC–400 CE
• Chera Kingdom
• 300 BCE–1200 CE
• Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
• Pandyan Kingdom
• 250 BCE–1345 CE
• 230 BCE–220 CE
• 180 BCE–10 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
• 21–130s CE
• 35–405 CE
• Kushan Empire
• 60–240 CE
• 230–360 CE
• Vakataka Empire
• 250–500 CE
• 250–600 CE
• Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
• Pallava Kingdom
• 275–800 CE
• Kadamba Empire
• 345–525 CE
• 350–1000 CE
• 420-624 CE
• Huna Kingdom
• 475-576 CE
• Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
• Harsha Empire
• 590-647 CE
• Shahi Kingdom
• 565-670 CE
• 624-1075 CE
• 650–1036 CE
• Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
• 753–982 CE
• 800–1327 CE
• Yadava Empire
• 850–1334 CE
• Solanki Kingdom
• 942–1244 CE
• 973–1189 CE
• Hoysala Empire
• 1040–1346 CE
• Sena Empire
• 1070–1230 CE
• 1078–1434 CE
• 1083–1323 CE
• 1130–1184 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596 CE
• Delhi Sultanate
• 1206–1526 CE
• 1490–1596 CE
Ahom Kingdom
1228–1826 CE
Vijayanagara Empire
1336–1646 CE
Mysore Kingdom
1399–1947 CE
Mughal Empire
1526–1858 CE
1559 –1736 CE
1572–1918 CE
Maratha Empire
1674–1818 CE
Sikh Confederacy
1716–1799 CE
Sikh Empire
1799–1849 CE
1757–1858 CE
British India
1858–1947 CE
Partition of India
1947 CE
Nation histories
Regional histories
The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic
periods in South Asia. In Mehrgarh, in what is today western Pakistan, the
Neolithic begins ca. 7000 and lasts until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the
Bronze Age. In South India, the Mesolithic lasts until 3000 BCE, and the Neolithic
until 1400 BCE, followed by a Megalithic transitional period mostly skipping the
Bronze Age. The Iron Age begins roughly simultaneously in North and South India,
around 1200 to 1000 BCE (Painted Grey Ware culture, Hallur).
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Paleolithic
o 1.1 Homo erectus
o 1.2 The coming of Homo sapiens
• 2 Neolithic
• 3 References
• 4 See also
[edit] Paleolithic
[edit] Homo erectus
Further information: Acheulian, Soanian, and Riwat
Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, Pakistan along the
Soan River (nearby Rawalpindi) during the Pleistocene Epoch. Biface handaxe and
cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene.[1] The beginning
of the use of Acheulian and chopper-chopping tools of lower paleolithic may be
dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene.[2]
[edit] The coming of Homo sapiens
Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Stone age writing of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Analysis of mtDNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to South Asia to 70,000 to
50,000 years ago.[3] An analysis of Y chromosome haplogroups found one man in a
village west of Madurai to be a direct descendant of these migrators.[4] These
populations spread further to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia by 40,000 years
ago. Cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest record of modern homo
sapiens in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago. (Kennedy 2000: 180).
For finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh radio carbon data have
indicated an age of 18-17kya. Palaeolithic rock art is also well-known.
At the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper Paleolithic
(10th to 8th millennia BC), revealing cave paintings dating to ca. 7000 BC; the
Sivaliks and the Potwar (Pakistan) region also exhibit many vertebrate fossil
remains and paleolithic tools. Chert, jasper and quartzite were often used by
humans during this period.
[edit] Neolithic
Further information: Mehrgarh and Neolithic Tamil Nadu
The aceramic Neolithic (Mehrgarh I,Baluchistan, Pakistan, also dubbed "Early Food
Producing Era") lasts ca. 7000 - 5500 BC. The ceramic Neolithic lasts up to 3300
BC, blending into the Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period.
One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges
region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC.[5]. Recently another site near the
confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100
BC for its Neolithic levels.[6]
In South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400
BC.South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka
region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out in
Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence
of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture[7] The earliest clear evidence
of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000
BC, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at
Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological
Survey of India unearthed 12 urns with Tamil Brahmi script on them containing
human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and
Neolithic celts, giving evidence confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years
ago. This proved that Tirunelveli area has been the abode for human habituation
since the Neolithic period about 3,000 years ago. Adhichanallur has been announced
as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[8][9]
[edit] References
• Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian Raine (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men:
Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). "Modern Human
Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of South
Asia" (PDF). Current Anthropology 46 (Supplement): S3. doi:10.1086/444365.
http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Petraglia/pubs/JamesPetraglia(CA2005).pdf.
• Misra, V. N. (November 2001). "Prehistoric human colonization of India"

(PDF). Journal of Biosciences 26 (4): 491–531. doi:10.1007/BF02704749.
http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/nov2001/491.pdf.
1. ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 136)
2. ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 160)
3. ^ Petraglia 2005, S6
4. ^ Spencer Wells, The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House, ISBN
0-8129-7146-9
5. ^ Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A
Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic"
6. ^ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations
at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara
No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28"
7. ^ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta. A History of South India. pp. 49–
51.
8. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (2004-05-26). "Skeletons, script found at ancient
burial site in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu.
http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/26/stories/2004052602871200.htm. Retrieved on 2007-
07-31.
9. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil A. (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil
Literature. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9004093656. "The most
interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at
Adichanallur.There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to the
megalithic complex."
Mehrgarh
Holocene epoch
↑ Pleistocene
Holocene
Preboreal (10.3 ka – 9 ka),

Boreal (9 ka – 7.5 ka),
Atlantic (7.5 ka – 5 ka),
Subboreal (5 ka – 2.5 ka)
Subatlantic (2.5 ka – present)
Mehrgarh, (Urdu: ‫ ) مﮩرگڑھ‬one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC)
sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of today's
Balochistan, Pakistan. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming
(wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."[1].
Located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the
present-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh was discovered in
1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean-François
Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The earliest
settlement at Mehrgarh—in the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.00 km2) site—was
a small farming village dated between 7000 BC–5500 BC.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Lifestyle and technology
• 2 Archaeological significance
• 3 Mehrgarh Period I
• 4 Mehrgarh Period VII
• 5 Common variant spellings
• 6 See also
• 7 Notes
[edit] Lifestyle and technology
Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BC, with houses built with mud bricks.
(Musée Guimet, Paris).
Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in
granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket
containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat,
jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later
period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping,
tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously
until about 2600 BC.[2]
In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest
(and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in
vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh.[3]
[edit] Archaeological significance
A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh.

Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. "Discoveries
at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to
Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus of archaeology at Quaid-e-Azam University,
Islamabad, "There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled
village life."[4] According to Catherine Jarrige of the Centre for Archaeological
Research Indus Balochistan, Musée Guimet, Paris
…the Kachi plain and in the Bolan basin (are) situated at the Bolan peak pass, one
of the main routes connecting southern Afghanistan, eastern Iran, the Balochistan
hills and the Indus valley. This area of rolling hills is thus located on the
western edge of the Indus valley, where, around 2500 BC, a large urban
civilization emerged at the same time as those of Mesopotamia and the ancient
Egyptian empire. For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a continuous
sequence of dwelling-sites has been established from 7000 BC to 500 BC, (as a
result of the) explorations in Pirak from 1968 to 1974; in Mehrgarh from 1975 to
1985; and of Nausharo from 1985 to 1996.[5]
The chalcolithic people of Mehrgarh also had contacts with contemporaneous
cultures in northern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and southern central Asia.[6]
[edit] Mehrgarh Period I
A figurine from Mehrgarh, c. 3000 BCE. (Musée Guimet, Paris)

[hide]History of South Asia
Stone Age
before 3300 BCE
3300–1700 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
Satavahana Empire
• 230 BCE–220 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596
Mughal Empire
1526–1858
Sikh Empire
1733–1849
British India
1858–1947
Modern States
since 1947
Timeline
Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh
Period I 7000 BC–5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of
pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people
using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle.
The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal
subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as
baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal
sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell,
limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found,
along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore
and lapis lazuli found far in Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those
areas. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were
obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a
stratified context in the South Asia.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made the
discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early
Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was
announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early
Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living
person) was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point
to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.
"Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a
Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. These
findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an
early farming culture."[3]
[edit] Mehrgarh Period VII
Somewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been largely
abandoned, which is when the Indus Valley Civilisation was in its middle stages of
development. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to the
fertile Indus valley as the Balochistan became more arid due to climatic changes.
[edit] Common variant spellings
• Mehrgarh is also spelled as Mehrgahr, Merhgarh or Merhgahr.
• Kachi plain is also spelled as Kacchi plain, Katchi plain.
The extent of Indus Valley Civilization.

Stone Age
before 3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
Satavahana Empire
• 230 BCE–220 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596
Mughal Empire
1526–1858
Sikh Empire
1733–1849
British India
1858–1947
Modern States
since 1947
Timeline
Bronze Age
↑ Neolithic
Near East (3300-1200 BC)

Caucasus, Anatolia, Levant, Ugarit, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam, Sistan
China (3100-700 BC)
List of Bronze Age sites
South Asia (3000-1200 BC)
Pontic-Caspian steppe (5500-1200 BC)
Europe (3000-600 BC)
Aegean civilization
Beaker culture
Unetice culture
Tumulus culture
Urnfield culture
Apennine culture
Terramare culture
Atlantic Bronze Age
Bronze Age Britain
Nordic Bronze Age
Korea (800-400 BC)
Copper Age, Bronze, Arsenical bronze, Writing, Literature, Sword, Axe, Chariot,
Boat, Gold hat, Collapse
↓Iron age
The Indus Valley Civilization (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was
an ancient civilization in South Asia that flourished around the Indus River
basin. Primarily centered along the Indus river, the civilization encompassed most
of what is now Pakistan, mainly the provinces of Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, as
well as extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and
Rajasthan. Remains have been excavated from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, as
well. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization
as the first of its cities to be unearthed was from Harappa in Pakistan.[1]
Excavation of IVC sites have been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs
occurring as recently as 1999.[2]
The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra
civilization[3] or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The appellation Indus-
Sarasvati is based on the possible identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra River with
the Sarasvati River mentioned in the Rig Veda,[4] but this usage is disputed on
linguistic and geographical grounds.[5]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Discovery and excavation
• 2 Periodisation
• 3 Geography
• 4 Origins
• 5 Early Harappan
• 6 Mature Harappan
o 6.1 Cities
o 6.2 Science
o 6.3 Arts and culture
o 6.4 Trade and transportation
o 6.5 Agriculture
o 6.6 Writing or symbol system
o 6.7 Religion
• 7 Late Harappan
o 7.1 Legacy
• 8 Historical context
• 9 See also
• 10 Notes
• 11 Bibliography
Discovery and excavation

The ruins of Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his
Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab, where
locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but
no archaeological interest would attach to this for nearly a century.[6]
In 1856, British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian
Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote: "I
was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the
railway." They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called
Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and
"convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted," the city of
Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[7] A few months later, further north, John's
brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city,
bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of
Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150
km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore."[7]
Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.

In 1872–75 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an
erroneous identification as Brahmi letters).[8] It was half a century later, in
1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an
excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 and resulting in the
discovery of the hitherto unknown civilization at Harappa by Sir John Marshall,
Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das
Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro
had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer
Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other
archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent in
1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel
Stein.
Following the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds were
inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this
time include those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to
the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization were
excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at Shortugai
on the Amudarya or Oxus River in current Afghanistan.
Periodisation
Main article: Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization
The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE.
With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures—Early Harappan and
Late Harappan, respectively—the entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to
have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for
the periodization of the IVC: Phases and Eras.[9][10] The Early Harappan, Mature
Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called the Regionalisation,
Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era
reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh
changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to Ahmad Hasan
Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have the
whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."[11]
Date range (BCE) Phase Era
5500-3300 Mehrgarh II-VI (Pottery Neolithic)
Regionalisation Era
3300-2600 Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age)
3300-2800 Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase)

2800-2600 Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII)
2600-1900 Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age)
Integration Era
2600-2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
2450-2200 Harappan 3B
2200-1900 Harappan 3C
1900-1300 Late Harappan (Cemetery H, Late Bronze Age)
Localisation Era
1900-1700 Harappan 4
1700-1300 Harappan 5
Geography
Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The shaded area does not
include recent excavations such as Rupar, Balakot, Shortughai in Afghanistan,
Manda in Jammu, etc. See[1] for a more detailed map.
The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending from
Balochistan to Sindh, and extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab, with an upward reach to Rupar on the upper Sutlej.
Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier
Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller
isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal
settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor[12] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[13] in
Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in
northern Afghanistan,[14] in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan,[15]
at Manda on the Beas River near Jammu,[16] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon
River, only 28 km from Delhi.[17] Indus Valley sites have been found most often on
rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,[18] for example, Balakot,[19] and on
islands, for example, Dholavira.[20]
There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan
and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites
have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[21] Among them are: Rupar,
Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala.[22] According to J. G. Shaffer and
D. A. Lichtenstein,[23] the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor,
Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on
the borders of India and Pakistan."[21]
According to some archaeologists, over 500 Harappan sites have been discovered
along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[24]
in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries;[25]
consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation
or Indus-Saraswati civilisation is justified. However, these politically inspired
arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra
desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end
of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the
Indus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra
river beds have been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was
a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant.[26] "Harappan
Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological
usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot.
Origins
See also: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit
There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Valley civilization. The
earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic civilization which
would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been
characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this theory
began to be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the
Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The absence of horses amongst the
many realistic representations of animals was also considered significant,
considering the importance of horses and chariots to the culture described in the
Vedas. Detailed bone analysis has revealed that the horse itself was introduced to
the subcontinent only at the beginning of the second millennium B.C., which
contributes to the chronological problem with this theory.[27][28] Finally, the
concept of urban life which dominates the Indus Valley civilization is foreign to
the more rural lifestyle which is described in the Vedas.[29]
The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian
origin.[30] This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland
who attempted to show that Indus valley symbols could be derived from the
Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated
mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain
throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends
credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the
uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different
languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been
the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory is
far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while
evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found.[29]
Early Harappan
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from
circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the
Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800-2600
BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo
Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from around 3000 BCE.[31]
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and
Amri in Pakistan.[32] Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to
Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an
increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at
Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.[33]
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant
sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-
making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas,
sesame seeds, dates and cotton, as well as various animals, including the water
buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE,
from where the mature Harappan phase started.
Mature Harappan
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban
centers. Such urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern
day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal in modern day
India. In total, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the
general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
Cities
So-called "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-daro, late Mature Harappan period,
National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus
Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. The quality
of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient
municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternately,
accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi,
this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the
city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room
that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to
covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner
courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region
still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans.[34]
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in
cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in
contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in
many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans
is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and
protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the
Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[citation needed]
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this
civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental
structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or of
kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries.
Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public
bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these
structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others
pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant
regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects.
Among the artifacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals
have images of animals, people (perhaps gods) and other types of inscriptions,
including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had
other uses as well.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were
remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had
access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society
with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social leveling is seen in
personal adornments.
Science
Further information: Harappan mathematics
The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length,
mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights
and measures. Their measurements are said to be extremely precise; however, a
comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus
territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in
Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale
of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement
for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their
hexahedron weights.
These chert weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1,
0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing
approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and
smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However,
as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The
weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are
the same as those used in Lothal.[35]
Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole
sections of the horizon and the tidal lock. In addition, Harappans evolved some
new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The
engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks
after a careful study of tides, waves and currents. The function of the so-called
"dock" at Lothal, however, is disputed.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan,
made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, from the
early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it
was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early
Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living
person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were
discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates, from 7,500-9,000 years
ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-
dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[36]
A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used
for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of
India).[37]
Arts and culture
The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro."

Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and anatomically detailed
figurines in terracotta, bronze and steatite have been found at the excavation
sites.
A number of gold, terra-cotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal
the presence of some dance form. Also, these terra-cotta figurines included cows,
bears, monkeys, and dogs. Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with surprise
when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed dancing girl in
Mohenjo-daro:
… When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were
prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early
art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the
Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely
have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years
older than those to which they properly belonged. … Now, in these statuettes, it
is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether,
in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated
by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.
Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead
making" were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from
all phases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts are still practiced in the
subcontinent today.[38] Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs
(kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that
were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern
India.[39] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which had
red color applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).[39]
Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and
another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, the
so-called Pashupati, below).
A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at
Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made
various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the
faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro.[40]
Trade and transportation
Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at Sokhta Koh near
Pasni on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization
Further information: Lothal and Meluhha
The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade,
which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances
included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia
today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed
craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River
today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists
have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking
facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An
extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by
H.-P. Francfort.
During 4300–3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley
Civilization area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and
northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early
Harappan period (about 3200–2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines,
ornaments, etc., document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the
Iranian plateau.[41]
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artifacts, the trade networks,
economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the
coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia.
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and
Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much
commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and
Failaka located in the Persian Gulf).[42] Such long-distance sea trade became
feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with
a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of
Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni) and Balakot (near
Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan
trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at the estuary of rivers opening into
the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.
Agriculture
Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the
Indus Valley. It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and
barley,[43] and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop
derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999).
Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site
"demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and
that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex
social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated,
cultural developments." Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it
took some 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian
conditions.
Writing or symbol system
Main article: Indus script
Ten Indus characters discovered near the northern gate of Dholavira, c. 2000 BCE
Well over 400 distinct Indus symbols (some say 600)[44] have been found on seals,
small tablets, or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a
"signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the
Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five
characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are
exquisitely tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54
cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different
faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of 26 symbols.
While the Indus Valley Civilization is often characterized as a literate society
on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged on
linguistic and archaeological grounds: it has been pointed out that the brevity of
the inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society. Based
partly on this evidence, a controversial paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel
(2004)[45] argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead
similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near
East and other societies. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were
exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the
appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-
produced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in
any other early ancient civilizations.[46] In a 2009 study published in Science,
computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic
scripts and nonlinguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming
language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words,
supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.[47][48]
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus
of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and his
colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly republish
photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions,
along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for several
years, but has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers must
supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the
excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or
reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Religion
Further information: Prehistoric religion and History of Hinduism
In view of the large number of figurines[49] found in the Indus valley, it has
been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess
symbolizing fertility. However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark.[50] Some
Indus valley seals show swastikas which are found in later religions and
mythologies, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. The
earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are present before and during the early
Harappan period[51][52]. Phallic symbols resembling the Hindu Siva lingam have
been found in the Harappan remains.[53][54]
Many Indus valley seals show animals. One famous seal shows a figure seated in a
posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named
after Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of Shiva and Rudra.[55][56].[57]
In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead; however,
later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they also
cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns, a transition notably also
alluded to in the Rigveda, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and
uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked (RV 10.15.14).
Late Harappan
Main article: Late Harappan
Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700
BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did
not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found
in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture
classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and
was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture.[58]
Archaeologists have emphasised that, just as in most areas of the world, there was
a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major
phases of urbanisation in South Asia".[58]
Indus tablets. The first one shows a Swastika
A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change
that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East: The Indus
valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to
a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor
may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river
system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges
Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as most
settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although this
particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the
IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of
various reasons.[citation needed] New geological research is now being conducted
by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how
the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago in order to
test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of
the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system
do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting
a Harappan time mighty "Sarasvati' river.[59]
Legacy
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged,
to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the
formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a
regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The
Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation, a practice dominant in
Hinduism until today.
Historical context
The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from
Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of
Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete
(because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and
depictions of bull-leaping).[60] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is
contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in
particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia,
Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt.
The language of the IVC is unknown, although there are a number of hypotheses:
Proto-Dravidian,[61][31] Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum" (perhaps
related or ancestral to the Nihali language)[62] have been proposed as candidates.
See also
• Charles Masson - First European explorer of Harappa
• Sokhta Koh - A coastal Harappan settlement
• Meluhha - a place name used in Mesopotamia which may have referred to the
Indus Civilization
• Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures
• Brahui language - a language sometimes linked to that of the (southern)
Indus Civilization
• Gola dhoro
Notes
1. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia
Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL:
McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.
2. ^ "'Earliest writing' found". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm.
3. ^ Ching, Francis D. K.; Jarzombek, Mark;Prakash, Vikramaditya (2006). A
Global History of Architecture. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. pp. 28–32.
ISBN 0471268925.
4. ^ (McIntosh 2001, p.24)
5. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the
Indus in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press, India. ISBN 019568088X.
6. ^ Masson, Charles (1842). "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Various
Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in
those countries from 1826 to 1838. London: Richard Bentley. pp. 472. "A long march
preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest description....
When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick
castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was an
irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments of
walls, with niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the existence
here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses
distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence,
brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign." Note that the coss, a
measure of distance used from Vedic period to Mughal times, is approximately 2
miles (3.2 km).
7. ^ a b Davreau, Robert (1976). "Indus Valley". in Reader's Digest. World's
Last Mysteries.
8. ^ Cunningham, A., 1875. Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the Year
1872-73, 5: 105-8 and pl. 32-3. Calcutta: Archaeological Survey of India.
9. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and
Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474.
10. ^ (Shaffer 1992, I:441-464, II:425-446.)
11. ^ Chandler, Graham (September/October 1999). "Traders of the Plain". Saudi
Aramco World: 34–42.
http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htm.
12. ^ Dales, George F. (1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast".
Antiquity 36 (142): 86.
13. ^ Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1973). Lothal and the Indus civilization.
London: Asia Publishing House. ISBN 0210222786.
14. ^ (Kenoyer 1998, p. 96)
15. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1970-1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley". Ancient
Pakistan (5): 1–177.
16. ^ Joshi, J. P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu and
Kashmir". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A recent
perspective. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185–95.
17. ^ A. Ghosh, ed. "Excavations at Alamgirpur". Indian Archaeology, A Review
(1958-1959). Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51–52.
18. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South
Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95. ISBN 0521011094.
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Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto Universitario
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20. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1989). "A new model of the Harappan town planning as
revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: a surface study of its plan and architecture". in
Chatterjee, Bhaskar (ed.). History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya
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Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Reviews of Anthropology 19 (19): 261–282
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22. ^ Mughal, M. R. 1982. "Recent archaeological research in the Cholistan
desert". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization. Delhi: Oxford & IBH
& A.I.1.S.. pp. 85–95.
23. ^ Shaffer, Jim G.; Lichtenstein, Diane A. (1989). "Ethnicity and Change in
the Indus Valley Cultural Tradition". Old Problems and New Perspectives in the
Archaeology of South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2. pp. 117–126.
24. ^ (Gupta 1995, p. 183)
25. ^ e.g. Misra, Virendra Nath (1992). Indus Civilization, a special Number of
the Eastern Anthropologist. pp. 1–19.
26. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the
Greater Indus Valley. New Delhi: Tulika Books. ISBN 8189487027.
27. ^ Indus writing: Sanskrit or Dravidian?
28. ^ Hinduism and The Indus Valley Civilization
29. ^ a b Ancient Indus Valley Script: Dani Interview Text Only
30. ^ Indus Writing Analysis by Asko Parpola
31. ^ a b Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521430798.
32. ^ Durrani, F. A. (1984). "Some Early Harappan sites in Gomal and Bannu
Valleys". in Lal, B. B. and Gupta, S. P.. Frontiers of Indus Civilisation. Delhi:
Books & Books. pp. 505–510.
33. ^ Thapar, B. K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus
Valley". Expedition 17 (2): 19–32.
34. ^ It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring of
Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in some
villages of the region. (Lal 2002, pp. 93–95)
35. ^ Sergent, Bernard (1997) (in French). Genèse de l'Inde. Paris: Payot. pp.
113. ISBN 2228891169.
36. ^ Coppa, A.; et al. (2006-04-06). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry:
Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric
population". Nature 440: 755. doi:10.1038/440755a.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf.
37. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77". in Possehl,
Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. New Delhi:
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.. pp. 113–124.
38. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1997). "Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley:
New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan". World Archaeology 29 (2: "High-Definition
Archaeology: Threads Through the Past"): 262–280.
39. ^ a b (Lal 2002, p. 82)
40. ^ (Lal 2002, p. 89)
41. ^ (Parpola 2005, pp. 2–3)
42. ^ Neyland, R. S. (1992). "The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals". in Keith,
D.H.; Carrell, T.L. (eds.). Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for
Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992. Tucson, AZ: Society
for Historical Archaeology. pp. 68–74.
43. ^ Jarrige, J.-F. (1986). "Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo". Pakistan
Archaeology 10 (22): 63–131.
44. ^ Wells, B. An Introduction to Indus Writing. Early Sites Research Society
(West) Monograph Series, 2, Independence MO 1999
45. ^ Farmer, Steve; Sproat, Richard; Witzel, Michael. The Collapse of the
Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization.
http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf.
46. ^ These and other issues are addressed in (Parpola 2005)
47. ^ "Entropic Evidence for Linguistic Structure in the Indus Script.". Science
324 (5931): 1165. May 2009. doi:10.1126/science.1170391.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1170391. Retrieved on 2009-06-05.
48. ^ Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Symbols
Newswise, Retrieved on Jun 5, 2009.
49. ^ Photos: http://www.harappa.com/figurines/index.html
50. ^ Clark, Sharri R. (2007). The social lives of figurines: recontextualizing
the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan.. Harvard PhD.
51. ^ "Rigveda". The Hindu Universe. HinduNet Inc.

http://www.hindunet.org/vedas/rigveda/. Retrieved on 2007-06-25.
52. ^ "Hindu History".
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml. The BBC
names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the
"Prehistoric religion (3000-1000BCE)".
53. ^ (Basham 1967)
54. ^ Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. pp. 363.
55. ^ Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical Survey. M.E.
Sharpe. pp. 15.
56. ^ Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization.
Arnold-Heinemann. pp. 45.
57. ^ Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood
Publishing Group. pp. 45.
58. ^ a b Shaffer, Jim (1993). "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond".
in Spodek, Howard; Srinivasan, Doris M.. Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The
Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times.
59. ^ Tripathi, Jayant K.; Tripathi, K.; Bock, Barbara; Rajamani, V. &
Eisenhauer, A. (2004-10-25). "Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical
Constraints". Current Science 87 (8).
http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252004/1141.pdf.
60. ^ Mode, H. (1944). Indische Frühkulturen und ihre Beziehungen zum Westen.
Basel.
61. ^ "Indus civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042359. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.
62. ^ Witzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Ṛgvedic,
Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 5 (1).
http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf.
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• Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early
Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking.
• Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia:
The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago:
Heinemann.
• Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson.
pp. 11–14.
• Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New
Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-63-7.
• Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1984). Short History of Pakistan (Book 1). University of
Karachi.
• Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996). History of Humanity, Volume
III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. New York/Paris:
Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN 0415093066.
• Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and
Issues. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN 81-85268-46-0.
• Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation.
Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan.
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Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (1): 141–149.
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley
Civilisation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577940-1.
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly (2005). The Ancient South Asian
World. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195174224.
• Kirkpatrick, Naida (2002). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann.
• Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus
Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black. ISBN 81-7530-034-5.
• Lal, B. B. (1998). India 1947-1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization. New
Delhi: Aryan Books International. ISBN 81-7305-129-1.
• Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity
and Decline).
• Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows on.
• McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus
Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0813335329.
• Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and
Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN 9690013505.
• Parpola, Asko (2005-05-19). "Study of the Indus Script".
http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf. (50th ICES Tokyo Session)
• Possehl, Gregory (2002). The Indus Civilisation. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira
Press.
• Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus
Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-85179-74-3.
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South
Asian Archaeology". in George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia.
Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
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in Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.. Cambridge:
Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN 1-888789-04-2.
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand
Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in
Old World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa". Electronic
Journal of Vedic Studies. http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdf.
Cemetery H culture
Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H
cultures are indicated.
Stone Age
before 3300 BCE
3300–1700 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
Satavahana Empire
• 230 BCE–220 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596
Mughal Empire
1526–1858
Sikh Empire
1733–1849
British India
1858–1947
Modern States
since 1947
Timeline
The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley
Civilization around 1900 BCE, in and around western Punjab region located in
present-day Pakistan. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa.
The Cemetery H culture is part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases
that developed in the Localization Era of the Indus Valley Tradition.[1] It is
considered to be part of the Late Harrappan phase.
The distinguishing features of this culture include:[citation needed]
• The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted
pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization
where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave
skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous.[2]
• Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star
motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
• Expansion of settlements into the east.
• Rice became a main crop.
• Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with
materials such as marine shells no longer used.
• Continued use of mud brick for building.
The Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier
population of Harappa.[3]
The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in
the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the
earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading
aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."[4]
Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE.
Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture,
it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of Vedic civilization.[citation
needed]
[edit] See also
• Indus Valley Tradition
• Painted Grey Ware
[edit] References
1. ^ Kenoyer 1991a; Shaffer 1992
2. ^ Sarkar 1964
3. ^ Kennedy 2000, p. 312; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 103, 310
4. ^ Kenoyer 1991b, p. 56
• Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeoanthropology
of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991a). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991b). "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A
preliminary model from Harappa". in Meadow, R. H. (ed.). Harappa Excavations 1986-
1990: A multidiscipinary approach to Third Millennium urbanism. Madison, WI:
Prehistory Press. pp. 29–60.
• Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.
London and Chicago: Fitzroy-Dearborn.
• Sarkar, Sasanka Sekhar (1964). Ancient Races of Baluchistan, Panjab, and
Sind.
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand
Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in Ehrich, R. W.. Chronologies in Old
World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. I:441–
464, II:425–446.
• http://www.harappa.com
• http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture"
Vedic period
(Redirected from Vedic Period)
Map of northern India in the late Vedic period

The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest
sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the Vedic
period in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE
based on literary evidence.
The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered
in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early phase
saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from
ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the
Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age, classical age of Sanskrit
literature, and the Middle kingdoms of India.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Rigvedic period
o 2.1 Political organization
o 2.2 Society and economy
• 3 Vedic Religious Practices
• 4 The later Vedic period
o 4.1 Kingdoms
• 5 Notes
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 See also
Overview
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal
details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological
strata:
1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved,
and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content,
that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place
over several centuries, and apart from that of the youngest books (first part of 1
and all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. Archaeologically, this
period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H culture of
the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is no
widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural
continuity from the Indus Valley civilization.
2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the
Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita
(containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda.
Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone
certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous
changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru-
verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-
western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the
kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE.
3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and
codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss
of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the
Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted
Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the
political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges.
4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period,
as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the
oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS).
5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500
BCE, comprising the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g.
KathU, MaitrU). All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). Videha
(N. Bihar) as a third political center is established.
6. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics,
and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and
belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern
Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period.
The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist
scripture belong to this period.
Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain
scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by
linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final
apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of
Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th
century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of
the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan and
ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the
geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose
report is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna, Megasthenes.
Rigvedic period
See also Rigvedic tribes
The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley
civilization, Indo-Aryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures
remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading to
disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of
religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and
stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books
2–7, although some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain
many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it
is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it
emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the semi-nomadic nature
of the society described, it cannot be easily localized, and in its earliest phase
describes tribes that were essentially on the move.
RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni
kingdoms as well as with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to be
the site of the first horse-drawn chariots.
Political organization
The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic
Aryans. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or "krishti", and a grama was a smaller
unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a
vish was called vishpati.
The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king is
often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler).
He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected from a
restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). There were various types of meetings such
as the vidhata or "Sabha". Gana was the non-monarchial assembly that is a parallel
one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same was
referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabha, sitated outside of settlement,
was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search
of cattle, with a common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the potlatch-
like ritual distribution of bounty [3].
The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several
functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena:
army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot
driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot
(pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. The
king employed spaś (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes (originally
ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute.
Society and economy
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.

The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident
from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and
Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were
specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying out
various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also
restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war,
literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses in
ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests.
Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance of
sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained the
structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law and
order.
In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and
Vaishyas were considered as —relatively— equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age
the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and
farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were meant
to serve the upper three classes [4]. As the caste system became deep-rooted there
were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed.
Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses
were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent
with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times.
The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or
metals.
Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The
Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be
distinguished from caste, jati)
Vedic Religious Practices
Main articles: Historical Vedic religion, Vedic astrology
The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered
to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas,
Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also
considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals
and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas.
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired
poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally
existing Veda, Śrauta means "what is heard").
The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of
Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering
mantras (Yajus) . The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna)
of Vedic society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance of
rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire),
and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and
Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi
(the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of
the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also
considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship
between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial
fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common
Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire
worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse
sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome and
old Ireland, was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and revived
under Jay Singh in 1740 AD.
Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path
considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as
a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and
transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of
thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of
Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The
ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta
tradition, in part with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was mostly
abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period, partly under the
influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their criticism of such
practices[citation needed].
The later Vedic period
The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the
emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding
decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand
with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing
importance of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. 500
BCE onward, more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms
of India known from historical sources.
Kingdoms
The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred
to in some of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly
increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma
(ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings
performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya (including a
chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse
sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several
functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of
the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was
greatly decreased.
Notes
1. ^ V.A. Gunasekara, http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha255.htm
2. ^ H.Falk, Bruderschaft udn Würfelspiel, Freiburg 1986
3. ^ F.B.J. Kuiper, Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology, pp.
406-417
4. ^ W. Rau, Staat und Gesellschaft, 1957
References
• Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada,
Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307.
• Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad:
Orient Longmans (1999).
• Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and
Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.
• Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les
litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
• Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic
texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1].
Further reading
• R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The History and Culture of the
Indian People. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951
• R.C. Majumdar et al. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967.
• Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak "The Arctic Home in the Vedas", Messrs Tilak
Bros., 1903
• Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU
societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim,
Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
See alsoIron Age India
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before 3300 BCE
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• 321–184 BCE
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↓Middle Ages
The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H)
culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition.
There has been fresh evidence for even earlier iron-working in India. Technical
studies on materials dated c. 1000 BCE at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that the
smiths of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they had
already been experimenting for centuries (Agrawal et al. 1985: 228-29). Sahi
(1979: 366) drew attention to the presence of iron in Chalcolithic deposits at
Ahar, and suggested that “the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India may
well be placed as early as the sixteenth century BCE” and “by about the early
decade of thirteenth century BCE iron smelting was definitely known in India on a
bigger scale”. [1]
The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur,
Tamil Nadu[2] at around 1000 BC.
[edit] References
• Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford
University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi.
• Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western
India. In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331-385.
• Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, viara is the one writing for
ancient India and her project grade need to be a 80- or higher
Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the Indo-
Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia:
Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213-257.
Berlin, W. DeGruyter.
• Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions:
Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old Worlsfgagd Archaeology (3rd
Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp. 441-464. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
• Chakrabarti, D.K.
o 1974. Beginning of Iron in India: Problem Reconsidered, in A.K. Ghosh (ed.),
Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology: 345-356. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
o 1976. The Beginning of Iron in India. Antiquity 4: 114-124.
o 1992. The Early Use of Iron in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
o 1999. India An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Press
Mahajanapadas
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Map of the Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: मिाजनपद, Mahājanapadas), literally "Great realms," (from
Maha, "great", and Janapada "foothold of a tribe", "country") were Ancient Indian
kingdoms or countries. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya [1] make
frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas)
which had evolved and flourished in the northern/north-western parts of the Indian
subcontinent prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.[2]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Kasi
• 3 Kosala
• 4 Anga
• 5 Magadha
• 6 Vajji or Vriji
• 7 Malla
• 8 Chedi or Cheti
• 9 Vamsa or Vatsa
• 10 Kuru
• 11 Panchala
• 12 Machcha or Matsya
• 13 Surasena
• 14 Assaka or Ashmaka
• 15 Avanti
• 16 Gandhara
• 17 Kamboja
• 18 See also
• 19 References
[edit] Overview
The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-
nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts attest
several Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal state,
fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and
green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the Epic
Age.
The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that
Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana
tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had
completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The Pre-
Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several
Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands for
country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after
the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled there-in.[3][4] The
Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa
Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give
any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara
Nikaya, at several places,[5] gives a list of sixteen great nations:
1. Kasi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha
5. Vajji (or Vriji)
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Machcha (or Matsya)
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja
Another Buddhist text Digha Nikaya mentions only first twelve Mahajanapadas and
omits the last four in the above list.[6]
Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the
list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as
the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.[7][8]
The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas
viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha
(Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha
and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of
Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha
like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the
omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list
is of later origin and therefore less reliable."[9]
The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically
more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and not
the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the
Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at
best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations.
[edit] Kasi
Main article: Kasi
This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.
The Kasis were Aryan people who had settled in the region around Varanasi (modern
Banaras). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by rivers
Varuna and Asi on north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha,
Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas bear
witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and speaks
high of its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of long rivalry of Kasi
with Kosala, Anga and Magadha. A struggle for supremacy went on among them for a
time.King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala but Kasi was later incorporated
into Kosala by King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kasis along with the Kosalas
and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied
people. Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively.
All other ancient texts read Kasi.
[edit] Kosala
Main article: Kosala
The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its capital
at Savatthi (Sravasti). It was located about 70 miles to north-west of Gorakhpur
and comprised territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Uttar
Pradesh. It had river Ganga for its southern, river Gandhak for its eastern and
the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundaries. The kingdom was ruled by king
Prasenjit followed by his son Vidudabha. There was struggle for supremacy between
king Pasenadi (Prasenjit) and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally settled
once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was
ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa,
Benares and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.
[edit] Anga
Ancient Cities of India during the time of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Buddha.
Main article: Anga
The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find
mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats apparently as a
despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of
Aryan peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly
corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of Bengal.
River Champa formed the boundaries between the Magadha in the west and Anga in the
east. Anga was bounded by river Ganga on the north. Its capital Champa, formerly
known as Malini, was located on the right bank of river Ganga, near its junction
with river Champa. It was one of the very flourishing cities and is referred to as
one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was also a great
center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant
Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.
[edit] Magadha
Main article: Magadha
The first reference to the Magadhas occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are
found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a despised
people. The bards of Magadha are, however, referred to in early Vedic literature
and are spoken of in terms of contempt. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas in early
times was due to the fact that the Magadhas were not yet wholly Brahmanised.
Rigveda mentions a king Pramaganda as a ruler of Kikata. Yasaka declares that
Kikata was a non-Aryan country. Later literature refers to Kikata as synonym of
Magadha.
With the exception of the Rigvedic Pramaganda, whose connection with Magadha is
very speculative, no other king of Magadha is mentioned in Vedic literature.
According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest ruling dynasty of
Magadha was founded by king Brihadratha, but Magadha came into prominence only
under king Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru. In the war of supremacy which went on
for long between the nations of Majjhimadesa, kingdom of Magadha finally emerged
victorious and became a predominant empire in Mid India.
The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna
and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the
north by river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by Vindhya
mountains and on the west by river Sona. During Buddha's time, its boundaries
included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha modern Rajgir in
Patna district of Bihar. The other names for the city were Magadhapura,
Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center
of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha in
the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.
[edit] Vajji or Vriji
Main article: Vajji
The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom the
Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important.
Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha which
became the important center of political and cultural activities of northern
India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. The
last king of Videha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his kingdom
on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom arose
the republics of Lichchhavis, Videhans and seven other small republics. The
Lichchhavis were very independent people. Mother of Mahavira was a Lichchhavi
princess. Vaishali (modern Basarh in Vaishali District of North Bihar) was the
capital of Licchhavis and the political headquarters of powerful Varijian
confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of river Ganga and 38 miles from
Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at
Vaishali. The Licchhavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited
the Licchavis on many occasions. The Licchhavis were closely related by marriage
to the Magadhas and one branch of Lichhavis dynasty ruled Nepal until start of the
Middle Ages but have nothing to do with current ruling shah dynasty in Nepal. The
Licchavis are represented as (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. Vaishali, the
headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of Lichchavis was
defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha.
[edit] Malla
Main article: Malla (India)
The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a
powerful people dwelling in Eastern India. Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have
conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition of Eastern India.
Mahabharata mention Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as eastern
tribes. The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine
territories (Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra), one of each of the nine confederated
clans. Two of these confederations...one with Kuśināra (modern Kasia near
Gorakhpur) as its capital, second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia)
as the capital, had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuśināra and Pava
are very important in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal and
was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara.
The Mallas, like the Lichchhavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya
Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana
Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later
they switched to Samgha (republic) of which the members called themselves rajas.
The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Jainism and Buddhism found many
followers among the Mallas. The Mallas appeared to have formed alliance with
Lichchhavis for self defense. They however, lost their independence not long after
Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.
[edit] Chedi or Cheti
Main article: Chedi Kingdom
The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the
mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old
authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and
Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the
banks of river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata,
was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient peoples of India and are
mentioned in the Rigveda. A branch of Chedis found a royal dynasty in the kingdom
of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharvela.
[edit] Vamsa or Vatsa
Main article: Vatsa
The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot from the Kurus. The
Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with territory of modern Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh. It had monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi
(identified with village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi had been a very
prosperous city where large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was the
most important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and south.
Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in sixth century BCE at the time of Buddha. He was
very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to
Buddhism but later on he became follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state
religion.
[edit] Kuru
Main article: Kuru (India)
The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. Aitareya
Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as
living beyond the Himalayas. According to Buddhist text Sumangavilasini (II. p
481), the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana
attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous
ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in
Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern
Thaneswer, union territory of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.
According to Jatakas, the capital of Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near
modern Delhi which extended on seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country
was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of
Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period
but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound
health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with Yadavas, the Bhojas and the
Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya introduced as prince
from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in earlier
period, the Kurus are known to have switched to republic form of government during
sixth/fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests
the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.
[edit] Panchala
Main article: Panchala
The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains
and river Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the
adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala
and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or
Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala
had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of
Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a
monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation
in the sixth and fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra
also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul)
constitution.
[edit] Machcha or Matsya
Main article: Matsya Kingdom
Country of Matsya or Machcha tribe lied to south of the Kurus and west of the
Yamuna which separated them from the Panchalas, It roughly corresponded to former
state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of
Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said
to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas
are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract
on the north bank of Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in
Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own
during the times of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas
thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of Chedi kingdom.
[edit] Surasena
Main article: Surasena
Country of the Surasenas lied to south-west of Matsya and west of Yamuna. It had
its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first
among the chief disciples of Buddha through whose help, Buddhism gained ground in
Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in
the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described
as Samgha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the
Yadavas formed a Samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the Samgha-mukhya.
Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the
centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on
annexation by Magadhan empire.
[edit] Assaka or Ashmaka
Main article: Assaka
The Country of Assaka or Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern
India. In Buddha's time, Assakas were located on the banks of river Godavari
(south of Vindhya mountains). The capital of Assakas was Potana or Potali which
corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini.
They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita.
River Godavari separated the country of Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or
Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with
Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was
located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included
Mulaka and their country abutted with Avanti (Dr Bhandarkaar).
[edit] Avanti
Main article: Avanti (India)
Country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of
the four great monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, the other three being
Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by river
Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern
Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times
of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country
of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the
Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called
Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan).
Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and
theirs were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by
king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of Magadhan empire.
[edit] Gandhara
Main article: Gandhara
The wool of Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with the
Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, but
apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha
division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king
Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of raja Janaka of Videha. According to
Dr Zimmer, Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of river
Kubha (Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandharas crossed Indus
and expanded into parts of north-west Panjab. Gandharas and their king figure
prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war.
The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to
Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a
descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the
line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered
the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this
Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons
of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the
Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kaliyuga. Panini has
mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his
Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira.[10] Hecataeus
of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e Kashmira) as Gandharic
city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the
kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara.
Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east
Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of Peshawar
(Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prakrit Taxila). The
Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where
scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the Indian
genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila
University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth century
BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the
grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international
commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient
Iran and Central Asia. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and
Kambojas were cognate people.[11][12][13] It is also contended that the Kurus,
Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian
affinities.[14] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing
but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously hence influencing
each others language.[15] Naturally, they may have once been a cognate
people.[16][17][18][19] Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring
regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.[20]
[edit] Kamboja
Main article: Kambojas
Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja
is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria).
Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the
Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to
Bahlika, but with time, some clans of Kambojas appear to have crossed Hindukush
and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are
associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find
mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in Mahabharata and in Ptolemy's
Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[21] The cis-Hindukush
region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with
the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.[22] The capital of
Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in south-west of Kashmir. The
Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush
branch of ancient Kambojas.[23]
The trans-Hindukush region including Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders
with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of
Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country.[24]
The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a large
section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian
cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as
Indian affinities.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] [33][34][35]
The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times.
Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas.[36]
Kautiliya's Arthashastra [37] and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the
Kambojas followed republican constitution. Panini's Sutras,[38] though tend to
convey that the Kamboja of Panini was a Kshatriya Monarchy, but "the special rule
and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the
Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul)
only.[39]
According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong
to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the north-
west division of Jambudvipa.
In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BCE, the
growing state of Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India
annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the
Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all
Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously
refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes
of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry.
The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with
Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But these
nations also fell a prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus
(558-530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the
twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have
destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade.
[edit] See also
• Iron Age India
• Kingdoms of ancient India
[edit] References
1. ^ Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261.
2. ^ http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/16-mahajanapadas.html
3. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the
Ashṭādhyāyī, 1963, p 427, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the Time of
Patañjali, 1968, p 68, Dr B. N. Puri - India; Socio-economic and Political History
of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India); Tribes of Ancient India,
1977, p 18, Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology; Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p
xxiv, Devendra Handa - Coins, Indic - 2007; The Journal of the Numismatic Society
of India, 1972, p 221, Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics .
4. ^ A History of Pāli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law & Some
Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Law.
5. ^ Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc.
6. ^ Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200.
7. ^ Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37.
8. ^ Lord Mahāvīra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; The
History and Culture of the Indian People, 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar,
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, 2000,
p 7, K. D. Sethna.
9. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of
Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16
10. ^ Jataka No 406.
11. ^ Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour
l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France.
12. ^ Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan
Saletore.
13. ^ Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the
Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums
Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p
52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee - Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p
50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The
Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of
Indian Numismatics and Sigillography - Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources
and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Forlong.
14. ^ Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute
(Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra
Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its
racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India,
1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330,
Qamarud Din Ahmed - Pakistan.
15. ^ Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938,
pp 38, 98 Dr T. L. Shah.
16. '^ IMPORTANT NOTE: Ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya's list of
Mahajanapadas includes the Gandhara and the Kamboja as the only two salient
Mahajanapadas in the Uttarapatha. However, the Chulla-Niddesa list (5th c BCE),
which is one of the most ancient Buddhist Commentaries, includes the Kamboja and
Yona but no Gandhara (See: Chulla-Niddesa, (P.T.S.), p.37). This shows that when
Chulla-Niddesa Commentary was written, the Kambojas in the Uttarapatha were a
predominant people and that the Gandharans, in all probability, formed part of the
Kamboja Mahajanapada around this time---thus making them a one people. Kautiliya's
Arthashastra (11.1.1-4) (4th c BCE) refers only to clans of the Kurus, Panchalas,
Madrakas, Kambojas etc but it does not mention the Gandharas as separate people
from the Kambojas. The Mudrarakshasa Drama by Visakhadatta also refer to the
Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Bahlikas and Kiratas but again it does not
include the Gandharas in Chandragupta's army list. The well known Puranic legend
(told in numerous Puranas) of king Sagara's war with the invading tribes from the
north-west includes the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Paradas but again
the Gandharas are not included in Haihayas's army (Harivamsa 14.1-19; e.g Vayu
Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahmanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Shiva
Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padma Purana (6.21.16-33) etc etc).
Again, the Valmiki Ramayana --(a later list) includes Janapadas of Andhras,
Pundras, Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas, Mekhalas, Utkalas, Dasharnas, Abravantis,
Avantis, Vidarbhas, Mlecchas, Pulindas, Surasenas, Prasthalas, Bharatas, Kurus,
Madrakas, Kambojas, Daradas, Yavanas, Sakas (from Saka-dvipa), Rishikas, Tukharas,
Chinas, Maha-Chinas, Kiratas, Barbaras, Tanganas, Niharas, Pasupalas etc (Ramayana
4.43). Yet at another place in the Ramayana (I.54.17; I.55.2 seq ), the north-
western martial tribes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas,
Haritas/Tukharas, Barbaras and Mlechchas etc joined the army of sage Vasishtha
during the battle of Kamdhenu against Aryan king Viswamitra of Kanauj. In both the
references in the Ramayana, the Kambojas are conspicuously mentioned in the lists
of north-western frontier peoples, but no reference is made to the Gandharas or
the Daradas. Yaska in his Nirukta (II.2) refers to the Kambojas but not to the
Gandharas. Among the several unrighteous barbaric hordes (opposed to Aryan king
Vikarmaditya), Brhat Katha of Kshmendra (10.1.285-86) and Kathasaritsagara of
Somadeva (18.1.76-78) each list the Sakas, Mlechchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Neechas,
Hunas, Tusharas, Parasikas etc but they do not mention the Gandharas. Vana Parva
of Mahabharata states that the Andhhas, Pulindas, Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas,
Valhikas, Aurnikas and Abhiras etc will become rulers in Kaliyuga and will rule
the earth (India) un-righteously(MBH 3.187.28-30). Here there is no mention of
Gandhara since it is included amongst the Kamboja. Sabha Parava of Mahabharata
enumerates numerous kings from the north-west paying gifts to Pandava king
Yudhistra at the occasion of Rajasuya amongs whom it mentions the Kambojas,
Vairamas, Paradas, Pulindas, Tungas, Kiratas, Pragjyotisha, Yavanas, Aushmikas,
Nishadas, Romikas, Vrishnis, Harahunas, Chinas, Sakas, Sudras, Abhiras, Nipas,
Valhikas, Tukharas, Kankas etc etc (Mahabharata 2.50-1.seqq). The lists does not
include the Gandharas since they are counted as the same people as the Kambojas.
In context of Krsna digvijay, the Mahabharata furnishes a key list of twenty-five
ancient Janapadas viz: Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vatsa, Garga,
Karusha, Pundra, Avanti, Dakshinatya, Parvartaka, Dasherka, Kashmira, Ursa,
Pishacha, Mudgala, Kamboja, Vatadhana, Chola, Pandya, Trigarta, Malava, and Darada
(MBH 7/11/15-17). Besides, there were Janapadas of Kurus and Panchalas also.
Interestingly, no mention is made to Gandhara in this list. Again in another of
its well known Shlokas, the Mahabharata (XIII, 33.20-23; XIII, 35, 17-18), lists
the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Dravidas, Kalingas, Pulindas, Usinaras, Kolisarpas,
Mekalas, Sudras, Mahishakas, Latas, Kiratas, Paundrakas, Daradas etc as the
Vrishalas/degraded Kshatriyas (See also: Comprehensive History of India, 1957, p
190, K. A. N. Sastri). It does not include the Gandharas in the list though in yet
another similar shloka (MBH 12.207.43-44), the same epic now brands the Yavanas,
Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras (Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata
barbaraih) etc as Mlechcha tribes living the lives of the Dasyus or the
Barbarians. Thus in the first shlokas, the Gandharas and the Kambojas are
definitely treated as one people. The Assalayana-Sutta of Majjima Nakaya says that
in the frontier lands of the Yonas a, Kambojas and other nations, there are only
two classes of People...Arya and Dasa where an Arya could become Dasa and vice-
varsa (Majjima Nakayya 43.1.3). Here again, the Gandharas are definitively
included among the Kambojas as if the two people are same. Rajatarangini of
Kalhana, a Sanskrit text from the north, furnishes a list of northern nations
which king Lalitaditya Muktapida (Kashmir) (8th c AD) undertakes to reduce in his
dig-vijaya expedition. The list includes the Kambojas, Tukharas, Bhauttas (in
Baltistan in western Tibet), Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya, Uttarakurus and
Pragjyotisha respectively, but no mention of Gandharas (Rajatarangini: 4.164-
4.175). Apparently the Gandharas are counted among the Kambojas. Sikanda Purana
(Studies in the Geography, 1971, p 259-62, Sircar, Hist of Punjab, 1997, p 40, Dr
L. M. Joshi and Dr Fauja Singh (Editors)), contains a list of 75 countries among
which it includes Khorasahana, Kuru, Kosala, Bahlika, Yavana, Kamboja, Siva,
Sindhu, Kashmira, Jalandhara (Jullundur), Hariala (Haryana), Bhadra (Madra),
Kachcha, Saurashtra, Lada, Magadha, Kanyakubja, Vidarbha, Kirata, Gauda, Nepala
etc but no mention of Gandhara in this list of 75 countries. Kavyamimasa of
Rajasekhara (880-920 AD) also lists 21 north-western countries/nations of the
Saka, Kekaya, Vokkana, Huna, Vanayuja, Kamboja, Vahlika, Vahvala, Lampaka, Kuluta,
Kira, Tangana, Tushara, Turushaka, Barbara, Hara-hurava, Huhuka, Sahuda,
Hamsamarga (Hunza), Ramatha and Karakantha etc but no mention of Gandhara or
Darada (See: Kavyamimasa, Rajashekhara, Chapter 17; also: Kavyamimasa Editor
Kedarnath, trans. K. Minakshi, pp 226-227).. Here in both the lists, the Daradas
and Gandharas are also treated as the Kambojas. The Satapancasaddesavibhaga of
Saktisagama Tantra (Book III, Ch VII, 1-55) lists Gurjara, Avanti, Malava,
Vidarbha, Maru, Abhira, Virata, Pandu, Pancala, Kamboja, Bahlika, Kirata,
Khurasana, Cina, Maha-Cina, Nepala, Gauda, Magadha, Utkala, Huna, Kaikeya,
Surasena, Kuru Saindhava, Kachcha among the 56 countries but the list does not
include the Gandharas and Daradas. Similarly, Sammoha Tantra list also contains 56
nations and lists Kashmira, Kamboja, Yavana, Sindhu, Bahlika, Parsika, Barbara,
Saurashtra, Malava, Maharashtra, Konkana, Avanti, Chola, Kamarupa, Kerala, Simhala
etc but no mention of Daradac and Gandhara (See quotes in: Studies in Geography,
1971, p 78, D. C. Sircar; Studies in the Tantra, pp 97-99, Dr P. C. Bagchi).
Obviously, the Daradas and Gandharaa are included among the Kambojas. Raghu Vamsa
by Kalidasa refers to numerous tribes/nations of the east (including the Sushmas,
Vangas, Utkalas, Kalingas and those on Mt Mahendra), then of the south (including
Pandyas, Malaya, Dardura, and Kerals), then of the west (Aprantas), and then of
the north-west (like the Yavanas, the Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas) and
finally those of the north Himalayan (like the Kirats, Utsavasketas, Kinnaras,
Pragjyotishas) etc etc (See: Raghuvamsa IV.60 seq). Here again no mention of the
Gandharas though Raghu does talk of the Kambojas. And last but not the least, even
the well known Manusmriti, the Hindu Law Book, refers to the Kambojas, Yavanas,
Shakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasha besides also the
Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas but surprisingly enough, it does not make any mention
of the Gandharas in this very elaborate list of the Vrishalah Ksatriyas
(Manusamriti X.43-44). The above references amply demonstrate that the Gandharas
were many times counted among the Kambojas themselves as if the were one and the
same people. Thus, the Kambojas and the Gandhara do seem to have been a cognate
people.
17. ^ There are also several instances in the ancient literature where the
reference has been made only to the Gandharas and not to the Kambojas. In these
cases, the Kambojas have obviously been counted among the Gandharas themselves.
18. ^ Kalimpur Inscriptions of Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal (770-810 AD) lists
the nations around his kingdom as the Bhoja (Gurjara), Matsya, Madra, Kuru,
Avanti, Gandhara and the Kira (Kangra) which he boasts of as if they are his
vassal states. From Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala (810 - 850AD) the
successor of king Dharmapalal, we get the list of the nations as Utkala (Kalinga),
Pragjyotisha (Assam), Dravida, Gurjara (Bhoja), Huna and the Kamboja. These are
the nations which cavalry of Pala king Devapala is said to have scoured during his
war expeditions against these people. Obviously the Kamboja of the Monghyr
inscriptions of king Devapala here is none else than the Gandhara of the Kalimpur
inscription of king Dharamapala. Hence, the Gandhara and the Kamboja are used
interchangeably in the records of the Pala kings of Bengal, thus indicating them
to be same group of people.
19. ^ James Fergusson observes: "In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all the
countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar"(The Tree and Serpent Worship, 2004, p
47, James Fergusson).
20. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1994, p 277, Encylopedias and Dictionaries.
21. ^ Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria (Ancient
India as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ... 1885, p
268, John Watson McCrindle - Geography, Ancient; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and
Roman World, History - 2000, p 99,(Editors) Richard J.A. Talbert) and Ambautai
people located to south of Hindukush Mountains(Geography 6.18.3; See map in
McCrindle, p 8). Dr S Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (Indian Antiquary,
1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr
Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Ambautai
has also been identified by Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) with Sanskrit
Kamboja (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September),
Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History,
2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South
Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George Erdosy.
22. ^ MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23.
23. ^ See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 5-6; cf: Geographical Data in the
Early Puranas, p 168.
24. ^ MBH II.27.27.
25. ^ Vedic Index I, p 138, Dr Macdonnel, Dr Keith.
26. ^ Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata – 1970, p 107, Dr Ram Chandra Jain.
27. ^ The Journal of Asian Studies – 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Studies,
Far Eastern Association (U.S.).
28. ^ Balocistān: siyāsī kashmakash, muz̤mirāt va rujḥānāt – 1989, p 2, Munīr
Aḥmad Marrī.
29. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the
Ashṭādhyāyī – 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
30. ^ Afghanistan, p 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet.
31. ^ Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, 1962,
p 80, 311 etc.
32. ^ Iran, 1956, p 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. Barnett.
33. ^ Geogramatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions of
the Best Books..., 1953, p 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr Surya
Kanta, Dr Jacob Wackmangel, Dr V. S. Agarwala.
34. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945,
p 33, Dr Moti Chandra - India.
35. ^ A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the
..., 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel,
Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
36. ^ MBH 7/91/39.
37. ^ Arthashastra 11/1/4.
38. ^ Ashtadhyayi IV.1.168-175.
39. ^ Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, Parts I
and II., 1955, p 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal - Constitutional history; Prācīna
Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr
Jiyālāla Kāmboja - Kamboja (Pakistan).
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas"
Magadha
(Redirected from Magadha Empire)
The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BC

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Nation histories
Regional histories
Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit "Great
Countries") or regions in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of
Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir) then
Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal
with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[1] followed by much of
eastern Uttar Pradesh. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. It is also heavily mentioned in Buddhist and Jain
texts. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda
where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats as
despised peoples. Two of India's major religions started from Magadha; two of
India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from
Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics,
astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age".
The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of
Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called
Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and
military functions.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Geography
• 2 History
• 3 Magadha Dynasties
o 3.1 Brihadratha dynasty
o 3.2 Pradyota dynasty
o 3.3 Haryanka dynasty
o 3.4 Nanda dynasty
o 3.5 Maurya dynasty
o 3.6 Sunga dynasty
o 3.7 Kanva dynasty
o 3.8 Gupta dynasty
• 4 Kings of Magadha
o 4.1 Brihadratha Dynasty
o 4.2 Pradyota dynasty
o 4.3 Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 BC)
o 4.4 Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 BC)
o 4.5 Nanda Dynasty (424-321 BC)
o 4.6 Maurya Dynasty (324-184 BC)
o 4.7 Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC)
o 4.8 Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC)
o 4.9 Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 AD)
• 5 References
• 6 See also
[edit] Geography
The Magadha state circa 600 BC, before it expanded

The kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna
and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the
north by the river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the
Vindhya mountains and on the west by the river Sona. During the Buddha’s time and
onward, its boundaries included Anga.
[edit] History
There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The
most important sources are the Puranas, the Buddhist Chronicles of Sri Lanka, and
other Jain and Buddhist texts, such as the Pali Canon. Based on these sources, it
appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 684
BC - 424 BC.
Siddhartha Gautama himself was born a prince of Kapilavastu in Kosala around 563
BC, during the Haryanka dynasty. As the scene of many incidents in his life,
including his enlightenment, Magadha is often considered a blessed land. King
Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering
Anga in what is now West Bengal.
The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King
Pasenadi, king of neighboring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, retook
the gift of the Kashi province and a war was triggered between Kosala and Magadha.
Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army. However, King
Pasenadi allowed him and his army return to Magadha, and restored the province of
Kashi. King Pasendi also gave his daughter in marriage to the new young king.
Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with the
Licchavi republic, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that Ajatashatru
sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity of
the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganga River (Ganges), Ajatashatru
built a fort at the town of Pataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis with
many tribes that fought with Ajatshatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatshatru to
defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and
a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank.
Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capitol of
Magadha after Ajatashatru's death.
The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last ruler of
Shishunaga Dynsty, Kalasoka was assainated by Mahapadma Nanda in 424 BC, the first
of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). The Nanda Dynasty
ruled for about 100 years.
In 326 BC, the army of Alexander the Great approached the boundaries of the
Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another
giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and
refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer,
Coenus, was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering
his way down the Indus to the Ocean.
Around 321 BC, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta became the first king of
the great Mauryan Dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Vishnugupta. The
Empire later extended over most of Southern Asia under King Asoka, who was at
first known as 'Asoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and
became known as 'Dhamma Asoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended and the Gupta
Empire began. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra, in Magadha.
[edit] Magadha Dynasties
Brihadratha Dynasty, Pradyota Dynasty, Śiśunāga Dynasty ruled Magadha from 684 -
424 BC. Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Kanva
Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Magadha.
Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of
dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most
legendary and famous emperors.
[edit] Brihadratha dynasty
Main article: Legendary Kings of Magadha
According to the Puranas,the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha
Dynasty, who was the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty
through his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan
branch of Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in popular
legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharatha. Vayu Purana mentions that the
Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years.
[edit] Pradyota dynasty
Main article: Pradyota dynasty
The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu Purana
ruled for 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill his
father to become king. During this time, it is reported that there was high crimes
in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Haryanka to become the new king, which
destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Haryanka dynasty. Due in part
to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the
emergence of the Haryanka dynasty
[edit] Haryanka dynasty
Main article: Haryanka dynasty
According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC,
whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. This
dynasty lasted till 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty. This
period saw the development of two of India's major religions that started from
Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism,
which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira revived and
propagated the ancient sramanic religion of Jainism. Bimbisara was responsible for
expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and
conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Bimbisara (543-493 BCE )
was imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru (ruled 491-461 BCE) who then
became his successor, and under whose rule the dynasty reached its largest extent.
Licchavi was an ancient republic which existed in what is now Bihar state of
India, since the before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC),[2][3] Vaishali was the
capital of the Licchavis and the Vajjian Confederacy. Its courtesan, Ambapali, was
famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the city
prosperous[4]. Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several time.
Ajatashatru, is thought to have ruled from 491-461 BCE and moved his capital of
the Magadha kingdom from Rajagriha to Patliputra. Udayabhadra eventually succeeded
his father, Ajatashatru, under him Patliputra became the largest city in the
world.
[edit] Nanda dynasty
Main article: Nanda Dynasty
The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent

The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin of
the previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling the
bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first
empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished
to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. The greatest extent of the empire was
led by Dhana Nanda. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty.
[edit] Maurya dynasty
Main article: Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire at its greatest extent(Asoka's empire)
In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty after
overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire.
During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government
for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the
Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only
conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia
and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded by
his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India,
barring the extreme south and east.
The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan period

The only region that was not under the Mauryan's were present day Tamil Nadu and
Kerala (which was a Tamil kingdom then). There are references in one of the oldest
Tamil Sangam literature, Purananuru, that a Mauryan army was driven out by a
unified Tamil army under the leadership of Ilanchetchenni, a Chola King. This
unified Tamil force is supposed to be broken by King Kharavela, a Kalinga ruler,
as per one of his inscriptions.
The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to
expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of
Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa
after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved
historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of
dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for
the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East
Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole.
Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has
seen.
Extent of the Sunga Empire

[edit] Sunga dynasty
Main article: Sunga Empire
The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's
death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated
by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga,
while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then
ascended the throne.
[edit] Kanva dynasty
Main article: Kanva dynasty
The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of
India from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by
Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the
Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former
dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power
swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was
absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the
Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdom replaced the Magandhan
kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.
[edit] Gupta dynasty
Main article: Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empre under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415)

The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire was one of the
largest political and military empires in ancient India. The Gupta age is referred
to as the Classical age of India by most historians. The time of the Gupta Empire
was an Indian "Golden Age" in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and
philosophy. They had their capital at Pataliputra. The difference between Gupta
and Mauryan administration was that the in the Mauryan administration power was
centralised but in the Gupta administration power was more decentralised. The king
occupied a powerful and important position and often took titles to assert his
supremacy. A council of ministers and some officials helped him. The empire was
divided into provinces and provinces were further divided into districts. Villages
were the smallest units. The kingdom covered Gujarat, North-east India, south-
eastern Pakistan, Orissa, northern Madhya Pradesh and eastern India. Art and
architecture flourished during the Gupta age. People were mostly Vaishnavas.
Temples devoted to Shiva and Vishnu were built during this period. Early temples
had a large room where the idol of god was kept. Today these can be found in
Deogarh in Jhansi. Temples were mostly made of brick or stone. The doorways were
very decorative. Wall murals flourished during this age.These can be seen in
Ajanta caves which are about 100 km from Aurangabad. These murals depict the life
of Buddha.Yajnas were performed by Brahmins. All forms of worship were carried out
in Sanskrit. Astronomy made rapid strides. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were two
great Astronomers and Mathematicians. Aryabhatta stated that the earth moved round
the sun and rotated on its own Axis. Metallurgy too made rapid strides. Proof is
the Iron Pillar near Mehrauli on the outskirts of Delhi. Ayurveda was known to the
people of Gupta age. People lived in a happy and prosperous life. Most people
lived in villages and led a simple life. Rest houses and hospitals were set up.
Laws were simple and punishments were not very harsh. However there was a serious
flaw. The bad, inhuman treatment of the Chandalas or Untouchables. They were made
to live outside the city and even their shadows were considered capable of
polluting. The material sources of this age were Kalidasa's works i.e Raghuvamsa,
Meghdoot, Malavikagnimitram and Abhinjnana Shakuntalam, works of Fa-hein,the
Chinese buddhist scholar, Allahabad pillar inscription called Prayag Prashsti,
Books by Harisena and others.
[edit] Kings of Magadha
[edit] Brihadratha Dynasty
Semi-legendary rulers in Purana accounts.
• Brihadratha
• Jarasandha
• Sahadeva
• Somapi (1678-1618 BC)
• Srutasravas (1618-1551 BC)
• Ayutayus (1551-1515 BC)
• Niramitra (1515-1415 BC)
• Sukshatra (1415-1407 BC)
• Brihatkarman (1407-1384 BC)
• Senajit (1384-1361 BC)
• Srutanjaya (1361-1321 BC)
• Vipra (1321-1296 BC)
• Suchi (1296-1238 BC)
• Kshemya (1238-1210 BC)
• Subrata (1210-1150 BC)
• Dharma (1150-1145 BC)
• Susuma (1145-1107 BC)
• Dridhasena (1107-1059 BC)
• Sumati (1059-1026 BC)
• Subhala (1026-1004 BC)
• Sunita (1004-964 BC)
• Satyajit (964-884 BC)
• Biswajit (884-849 BC)
• Nipunjaya (849-799 BC)
[edit] Pradyota dynasty
Ruling 799-684 BC according to calculations based on the Vayu Purana[citation
needed].
• Pradyota
• Palaka
• Visakhayupa
• Ajaka
• Varttivarddhana
[edit] Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 BC)
• Bimbisara (545-493 BC), founder of the first Magadhan empire[5][6]
• Ajatashatru (493-461 BC)
• Darshaka (from 461 BC)
• UdayBhadra
• Anurudhra
• Mund
• NagDasak
[edit] Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 BC)
• Shishunaga (430 BC), established the kingdom of Magadha
• Kakavarna (394-364 BC)
• Kshemadharman (618-582 BC)
• Kshatraujas (582-558 BC)
• Kalasoka
• Mahanandin (until 424 BC), his empire is inherited by his illegitimate son
Mahapadma Nanda
[edit] Nanda Dynasty (424-321 BC)
• Mahapadma Nanda (from 424 BC), illegitimate son of Mahanandin, founded the
Nanda Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empire
• Pandhuka
• Panghupati
• Bhutapala
• Rashtrapala
• Govishanaka
• Dashasidkhaka
• Kaivarta
• Dhana (Agrammes, Xandrammes) (until 321 BC), lost his empire to Chandragupta
Maurya after being defeated by him
[edit] Maurya Dynasty (324-184 BC)
• Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrakottos) (324-301 BC), founded the Mauryan Empire
after defeating both the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid Empire
• Amritrochates (301-273 BC)
• Ashoka Vardhana (Ashoka the Great) (273-232 BC), considered the greatest
ancient Indian emperor, first emperor to unify India (after conquering most of
South Asia and Afghanistan), adopt Buddhism, grant animal rights and promote non-
violence, a secular administrator,often called the emperor of all ages.
• Dasaratha (232-224 BC)
• Samprati (224-215 BC)
• Salisuka (215-202 BC)
• Devavarman (202-195 BC)
• Satadhanvan (195-187 BC), the Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of his
reign
• Brihadrata (187-184 BC), assassinated by Pusyamitra Shunga
[edit] Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC)
• Pusyamitra Shunga (185-149 BC), founded the dynasty after assassinating
Brihadrata
• Agnimitra (149-141 BC), son and successor of Pusyamitra
• Vasujyeshtha (141-131 BC)
• Vasumitra (131-124 BC)
• Andhraka (124-122 BC)
• Pulindaka (122-119 BC)
• Ghosha
• Vajramitra
• Bhagabhadra, mentioned by the Puranas
• Devabhuti (83-73 BC), last Sunga king
[edit] Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC)
• Vasudeva (from 73 BC)
• Successors of Vasudeva (until 26 BC)
[edit] Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 AD)
• Sri-Gupta I (c. 240-290)
• Ghatotkacha (290-305)
• Chandra Gupta I (305-335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is often
regarded as the golden age of Indian culture
• Samudra Gupta (335-370)
• Rama Gupta (370-375)
• Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375-415), son of Samudra
Gupta, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese pilgrim
Fa-Hsien describes Indian culture during his reign
• Kumara Gupta I (415-455)
• Skanda Gupta (455-467)
• Kumara Gupta II (467-477)
• Buddha Gupta (477-496)
• Chandra Gupta III (496-500)
• Vainya Gupta (500-515)
• Narasimha Gupta (510-530)
• Kumara Gupta III (530-540)
• Vishnu Gupta (c. 540-550)
[edit] References
1. ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
ISBN 81-208-0436-8.
2. ^ "Licchavi", Encyclopedia Britannica Online
3. ^ Vaishali, Encyclopedia Britannica Online
4. ^ Vin.i.268
5. ^ Rawlinson, Hugh George. (1950) A Concise History of the Indian People,
Oxford University Press. p. 46.
6. ^ Muller, F. Max. (2001) The Dhammapada And Sutta-nipata, Routledge (UK). p.
xlvii. ISBN 0-7007-1548-7.
[edit] See also
• Śiśunāga dynasty
• Nanda dynasty
Middle kingdoms of India
Timeline: Northern Empires Southern Dynasties Northwestern Kingdoms
6th century BCE

5th century BCE
4th century BCE
3rd century BCE

2nd century BCE
1st century BCE

1st century CE
2nd century
3rd century
4th century
5th century
6th century
7th century
8th century
9th century
10th century
11th century • Magadha
• Shishunaga dynasty
• Nanda empire
• Kalinga
• Maurya Empire
• Sunga Empire
• Kuninda Kingdom
• Western Satraps
• Gupta Empire
• Harsha
• Pala Empire
• Solanki
• Sena dynasty
• Satavahana empire
• Pandyan
• Cholas
• Chera
• Kalabhras
• Kadamba Dynasty
• Pallava
• Chalukya
• Rashtrakuta
• Western Chalukyas
• Hoysala Empire
• Gandhara
(Persian rule)
(Greek conquests)
• Indo-Greeks
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthians
• Kushan Empire
• Indo-Sassanids
• Kidarite Kingdom
• Indo-Hephthalites
(Islamic invasions)
• Shahi
(Islamic empires
Nanda Dynasty
(Redirected from Nanda Empire)
The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BC.
The Nanda Empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha in Ancient India during
the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire extended
from Bihar and Bengal in the East to Sindh and Balochistan in the West.[1] The
Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya
Empire.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Establishment of the dynasty
• 2 Nanda Rule
• 3 The Fall
• 4 List of Nanda rulers
• 5 See Also
• 6 Footnotes
[edit] Establishment of the dynasty

Mahapadma Nanda has been described as the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas. He
defeated the Ikshvaku dynasty, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas,
Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, Vitihotras, etc. He expanded his territory till south
of Deccan. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88 and, therefore, he ruled the bulk
of the period of this dynasty, which lasted 100 years.
The Nandas who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty were of low origin.
Some sources state that the founder, Mahapadma, was the son of a Shudra mother,
others that he was born of a union of a barber with a courtesan. Nandas were the
first of a number of dynasties of northern India who were of non-kshatriya
origin.[citation needed]
[edit] Nanda Rule
The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They
inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant
frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army consisting of 200,000
infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the
lowest estimates).[2] According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda army
was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots,
and 6,000 war elephants. However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see
their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda,
since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his
forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the
Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This river
thus marks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests:
Asia in 323BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's

Empire and neighbors.
"As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage
and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to
repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand
horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river
Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its
depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with
multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the
kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand
horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand
fighting elephants."[3].
The Nandas made the methodical collection of taxes by regularly appointed
officials a part of their administrative system. The treasury was continually
replenished, the wealth of the Nandas being well-known. The Nandas also built
canals and carried out irrigation projects. The possibility of an imperial
structure based on an essentially agrarian economy began to germinate in the
Indian mind.
[edit] The Fall
The last of the Nandas was Dhana Nanda (called Xandrames or Aggrammes in ancient
Greek and Latin sources). Dhana Nanda was dethroned after he was defeated by
Chandragupta Maurya, a young adventurer born of a Nanda prince and a maid named
"Mura". He had a great potential to rule. Dhana Nanda was murdered which finally
signaled the advent of the Maurya Empire in 321 BC.
Plutarch records that Chandragupta Maurya had stated that he was able to overthrow
Dhana Nanda since he was hated and despised by his subjects on account of the
wickedness of his disposition:
"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told
that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself
master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his
baseness and low birth."[4]
[edit] List of Nanda rulers
• Mahapadma Nanda (c. 424 BC – ?)
• Pandhuka
• Panghupati
• Bhutapala
• Rashtrapala
• Govishanaka
• Dashasidkhaka
• Kaivarta
• Dhana Nanda (Argames) (? – c. 321 BC)
The Puranas describe the duration of the Nanda dynasty as 100 years.
Preceded by
Shishunaga dynasty
Magadha dynasties
Succeeded by
Maurya dynasty
[edit] See Also

6th century BCE

5th century BCE
4th century BCE
3rd century BCE

2nd century BCE
1st century BCE

1st century CE
2nd century
3rd century
4th century
5th century
6th century
7th century
8th century
9th century
10th century
• Nanda empire
• Kalinga
• Maurya Empire
• Sunga Empire
• Kuninda Kingdom
• Western Satraps
• Gupta Empire
• Harsha
• Pala Empire
• Solanki
• Sena dynasty
• Satavahana empire
• Pandyan
• Cholas
• Chera
• Kalabhras
• Kadamba Dynasty
• Pallava
• Chalukya
• Rashtrakuta
• Western Chalukyas
• Hoysala Empire
• Gandhara
(Persian rule)
(Greek conquests)
• Indo-Greeks
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthians
• Kushan Empire
• Indo-Sassanids
• Kidarite Kingdom
• Indo-Hephthalites
(Islamic invasions)
• Shahi
(Islamic empires)
Maurya Empire
"Ancient India" redirects here. For other uses, see Ancient India
(disambiguation).
Maurya Empire
The Maurya Dynasty at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great.
Imperial Symbol:
The Lion Capital of Ashoka
Founder Chandragupta Maurya
Preceding State(s) The Nanda Dynasty of Magadha

The Mahajanapadas
Languages
Sanskrit
Magadhi Prakrit
Pali Prakrit
Other Prakrits
Religions
Historical Vedic religion
Buddhism
Jainism
Ājīvika
Cārvāka
Local Deities
Capital
Pataliputra
Head of State
Samraat (Emperor)
First Emperor Chandragupta Maurya
Last Emperor Brhadrata
Government
Centralized Absolute Monarchy with Divine Right of Kings as described in the
Arthashastra
Divisions 4 provinces:
Tosali
Ujjain
Suvarnagiri
Taxila
Semi-independent tribes
Administration
Inner Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad) under a Mahamantri with a larger
assembly of ministers (Mantrinomantriparisadamca).
Extensive network of officials from treasurers (Sannidhatas) to collectors
(Samahartas) and clerks (Karmikas).
Provincial administration under regional viceroys (Kumara or Aryaputra) with their
own Mantriparishads and supervisory officials (Mahamattas).
Provinces divided into districts run by lower officials and similar stratification
down to individual villages run by headmen and supervised by Imperial officials
(Gopas).
Area
5 million km² [1] (Southern Asia and parts of Central Asia)
Population
50 million [2] (one third of the world population [3])
Currency
Silver Ingots (Panas)
Existed
322–185 BCE
Dissolution Military coup by Pusyamitra Sunga
Succeeding state Sunga Empire
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient
India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC.
Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar,
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent,
the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (near modern Patna). The Empire was
founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and
rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal
westward by Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire
had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left
by Alexander.
At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural
boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To
the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what
is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire
was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors
Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal
and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa).
The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent.
Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185
BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.
Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was
under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I,
a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, both
internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived
and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system
of finance, administration and security. After the Kalinga War, the Empire
experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India was a
prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political
influence and trade extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. Mauryan
India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of
Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society,
while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism was the foundation of the reign of social and
political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the
spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and
Mediterranean Europe.
Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the
greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration,
military arts, war, and religion ever produced in the India. Archaeologically, the
period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources of
written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of the
most significant periods in Indian history. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath,
is the emblem of India.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Background
o 1.1 Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
o 1.2 Conquest of Magadha
o 1.3 Chandragupta Maurya
o 1.4 Bindusara
o 1.5 Asoka the Great
• 2 Administration
• 3 Economy
• 4 Religion
o 4.1 Jainism
o 4.2 Buddhism
o 4.3 Brahmanism
• 5 Architectural remains
• 6 Natural history in the times of the Mauryas
• 7 Contacts with the Hellenistic world
o 7.1 Foundation of the Empire
o 7.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)
o 7.3 Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
7.3.1 Marital alliance
7.3.2 Exchange of ambassadors
7.3.3 Exchange of presents
o 7.4 Greek populations in India
o 7.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
o 7.6 Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
• 8 Decline
o 8.1 Sunga coup (185 BCE)
o 8.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
• 9 See Also
• 10 Notes
• 11 References
[edit] Background
Alexander set up a Greek-Macedonian garrison and satrapies (vassal states) in the
trans-Indus region of modern day Pakistan, ruled previously by kings Ambhi of
Taxila and Porus of Pauravas (modern day Jhelum).
[edit] Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
The court of Chandragupta Maurya, especially Chanakya, played an important part in

the foundation and governance of the Maurya dynasty.
Following Alexander's advance into the Punjab, a brahmin named Chanakya (real name
Vishnugupt, also known as Kautilya) traveled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large
and militarily-powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its king
Dhana, of the Nanda Dynasty. However, the prospect of battling Magadha deterred
Alexander's troops from going further east: he returned to Babylon, and re-
deployed most of his troops west of the Indus river. When Alexander died in
Babylon, soon after in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared
their independence, leaving several smaller satraps in a disunited state.
Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana. The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, ruled
until around 316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was
now his advisor) surprised and defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the
region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.
Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the
one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa
(Poem of Rakshasa - Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta,
describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya
tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts,
Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further
historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
"Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[4] He is also
said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[5]
Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's
command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work
Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka,
sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.) This
Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of
Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas
(Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians)[6] [7] [8].
With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was
able to defeat the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and found the powerful Maurya
empire in northern India.
[edit] Conquest of Magadha
Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of
Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from
across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule
of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of
battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other accomplished
students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son
Malayketu, and the rulers of small states.
Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and
the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage
Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general
of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom,
which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win
over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta,
and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime
minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not
to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also
reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect
Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and
Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha.
Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of
an elder statesman.
The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE.
The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE.
The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya circa 320 BCE,
after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old.
Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia
after defeating Seleucus circa 305 BCE.[9]
Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau
circa 300 BC.[10]
Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War circa 265 BCE, and
established superiority over the southern kingdoms.
[edit] Chandragupta Maurya
Main article: Chandragupta Maurya
Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty
Emperor Reign start Reign end
Chandragupta Maurya
322 BCE
298 BCE
Bindusara
297 BCE
272 BCE
Asoka The Great

273 BCE
232 BCE
Dasaratha
232 BCE
224 BCE
Samprati
224 BCE
215 BCE
Salisuka
215 BCE
202 BCE
Devavarman
202 BCE
195 BCE
Satadhanvan
195 BCE
187 BCE
Brihadratha
187 BCE
185 BCE
Indian postage stamp depicting Chandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks when Seleucus I, ruler of the
Seleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a
campaign in 305 BCE, but failed. The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty:
a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, implying either a marital alliance
between the two dynastic lines or a recognition of marriage between Greeks and
Indians, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and
Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I
received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory
against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic
relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes,
Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.
Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration
at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall
pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous
Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended
the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek
ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1–70).
Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply,
honestly, and do not know writing:
" The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great
undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of
very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of
Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one
day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who
have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the
business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being
simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices.
Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is
principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting Megasthenes[11]
[edit] Bindusara
Main article: Bindusara
[edit] Asoka the Great
Main article: Ashoka the Great
Emperor Ashoka The Great

Chandragupta's grandson was Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as Ashoka the Great
(ruled 273- 232 BCE).
As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain
and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's
superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga
which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded
in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated
100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over
10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely
affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the
devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'.
Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of
Gautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient times,
this was an historic feat.
Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports
activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-
ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he
maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority,
Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he
sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign
across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one
of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an
idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.
The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging
from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District),
Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly
written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and
Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples
forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent
envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts
precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as
Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and
Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also
accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7
miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece
(roughly 4,000 miles).[12]
A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE.
It is the emblem of India.
Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th-3rd century BCE. Musée Guimet.
The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[13] is a concrete indication of the

extent of Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as Kandahar (where the Edicts
were written in Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the contemporary Hellenistic
metropolis of Ai Khanoum.
[edit] Administration
Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE.
British Museum.
The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a
giant crescents. with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts,
the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the
west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the
provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the
provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and
council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial
level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).
Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the
extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated
civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade.
The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have
been the largest standing army of its time[citation needed]. According to
Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry,
and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both
internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and
expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to
protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia.
[edit] Economy
Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant.
3rd century BCE.
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed
for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased
agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms,
many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way
to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection
burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally-administered and
strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and
a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided
justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped
out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who
sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in
revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to
enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to
newfound political unity and internal peace.
Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an
international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary
of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically-important port of trade and
intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West
Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the
Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and
textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an
exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka
also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals,
hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many overly-rigorous
administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection,
helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.
In many ways, the economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the
Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade connections
and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational
entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India
had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for private
commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing private
commercial entities hence they were more concerned about keeping the support of
these pre-existing organizations, while the Romans did not have such pre-existing
entities to contend with hence they were able to prevent such entities from
developing.[14] (See also Economic history of India.)
[edit] Religion
Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations.
Butkara stupa, 3rd century BCE.[15]
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260-218 BCE).
Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was
originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and later became an avatar of
Vishnu. 3rd-2nd century CE. British Museum.
Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century
BCE.
[edit] Jainism
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a
religious transformation at the highest level when he embraced Jainism, a
religious movement resented by orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended the
imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material
possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple
of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous
but self purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana
Belagola in Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, preserved Hindu
traditions and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the
grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the
teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known to have built 125,000
Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad,
Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent
messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism.
But till date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital
force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta & Samprati, are credited for spread of
Jainism in Southern India. Lakhs of Jain Temples & Jain Stupas were erected during
their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along
with rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism, once the major religion of
southern India, declined.
[edit] Buddhism
But when Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga War, he renounced
expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on
the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and
against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter
Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals
that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent
many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned
the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature
across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across
India i.e. Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of
Buddhism in Afghanistan,Thailand and north Asian countries. Ashoka helped convene
the Third Buddhist Council of India and South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his
capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the
Buddhist religion.
[edit] Brahmanism
While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Brahmana priests and
ministers in his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance although
the Buddhist faith grew in popularity with his patronage. Brahmanic society began
embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and
improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also
greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, as
Brahmanism began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings.
Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and prosperity.
[edit] Architectural remains
Main article: Edicts of Ashoka
Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a hypostyle
building with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in
Kumhrar, 5 km from Patna Railway station, and is one of the very few site that has
been connected to the rule of the Mauryas in that city. The style is rather
reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.[16]
The grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture,
especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by
the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the Ajivikas.[17]
The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of Ashoka,
often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-
continent.
[edit] Natural history in the times of the Mauryas
The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the
Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in
India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in
general is of interest.
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important
forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only
upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat
of Seleucus, Alexander's governor of the Punjab. The Mauryas sought to preserve
supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and
train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only
maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the
responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests:[18]
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by
foresters. The Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect the
elephants whether along on the mountain, along a river, along lakes or in marshy
tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an elephant.
—Arthashastra
The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as
well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also
worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe
for grazing cattle.
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and
instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes
with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They
employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap
animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled
the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[19]
When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about
significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing
protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler
in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules
inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's
example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[19]
Our king killed very few animals.
—Edict on Fifth Pillar
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual
events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal
hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions
conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting,
felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[19]
[edit] Contacts with the Hellenistic world
Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.

[edit] Foundation of the Empire
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of
the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander
the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest:
"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told
that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself
master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his
baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3[20]
[edit] Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)
Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly
ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in
Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been
Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon,
son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for
Babylon in 316 BCE.
"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking
the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he
had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the
throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign
domination" Justin XV.4.12-13[21]
"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild
elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a
remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos
possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin
XV.4.19[22]
[edit] Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made
an alliance with him.
Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's
former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as
far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until
in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta:
"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive
in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia,
Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other
adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so
that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of
Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus".
Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[23]
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly
against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact,
was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and
Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305
BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta,
including southern Afghanistan and parts of Persia.
Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which
would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.
[edit] Marital alliance
It is generally thought that an alliance was made, and that a Greek Seleucid
princess was bethrothed to the Maurya Dynasty.[9][24][25]
A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called Epigamia in ancient sources,
meaning either the recognition of marriage between trans-Indus inhabitants and
Greeks, or a dynastic alliance):
"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of
the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an
understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship". Appian,
History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[23]
The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was
recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among
dynastic rulers or common people, or both.
[edit] Exchange of ambassadors
Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later
Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern Patna
in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and
contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an
ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[26]
[edit] Exchange of presents
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and
Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs
to Seleucus:
"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such
matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by
reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians,
sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of
affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of
Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[27]
His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical
sources as having exchanged present with Antiochus I:
"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as
Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even
Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is
Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some
dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry
figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be
sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[28]
[edit] Greek populations in India
Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent
under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written
in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to
Buddhism:
"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere
people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13
(S. Dhammika).
Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum.
(Click image for translation).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both
Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in
excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict,
Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the
ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:
"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known
(the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has
made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the
king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are)
huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were)
intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and
obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past
also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more
happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [1])
[edit] Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali.

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period
as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record
of this event remain:
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred
yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there
where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise
in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)."
(Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).
Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men
and animals, in their territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and
among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras,
the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules,
and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-
Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical
treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs
suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and
grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported
and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of
humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of
Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are
described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in
Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[29]).
[edit] Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in
ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in Prakrit. His name is
mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of
the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of
Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush,
possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace
with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BC and is said to have renewed
his friendship with the Indian king there:
"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his
friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants,
until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his
troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus
the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to
him". Polybius 11.39
[edit] Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the
last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably
from the time of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.
[edit] Sunga coup (185 BCE)
Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-
in-chief of his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over
the throne and established the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the
Asokavadana write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga
empire led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists,[30] and a resurgence of
Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[31] Pusyamitra may have been the main
author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more
supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[32] and Romila
Thapar,[33] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the
allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and
magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
[edit] Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
Main article: Indo-Greek kingdom
The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign
invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-
up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus
region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them,
Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings Menander became a famous figure of
Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot.
However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to
much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the
subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their
successes against indigenous powers such as the Sungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas
are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians,
brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands
in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat.
Sunga Empire
For other uses of the term Sunga see Shunga (disambiguation)
Shunga Empire
←
185 BC–75 BC →
Approximate greatest extent of the Sunga empire (circa 185 BCE).
Capital
Pataliputra
Vidisa
Language(s) Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

Religion
Hinduism/Buddhism
Government
Monarchy
King
- 185-151 BC Pusyamitra Sunga
- 83-75 BC Devabhuti
Historical era Antiquity
- Established 185 BC
- Disestablished 75 BC
The Shunga Empire (Sanskrit: शुग ं ) or Sunga Empire is a Magadha dynasty that
ं राजवश
controlled North-central and Eastern India as well as parts of the northwest (now
Pakistan) from around 185 to 73 BCE. It was established after the fall of the
Indian Maurya Empire. The capital of the Sungas was Pataliputra. Later kings such
as Bhagabhadra also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. [1]
The Sunga Empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous
powers. Although very much isn't known, the Mathura school of art and the works of
Patanjali colored North India during this empire.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Origins
• 2 Buddhism
o 2.1 Support given
• 3 Wars of the Sungas
• 4 Cultural Contributions
• 5 Script
• 6 List of Sunga kings
• 7 See Also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References
• 10 See also
• 11 References
[edit] Origins
Balustrade-holding Yaksa, Madhya Pradesh (?), Sunga period (2nd-1st century BCE).
Musee Guimet.
The Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka's
death, when the king Brhadrata, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated
by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga [2],
while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then
ascended the throne.
Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories.
The kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended up to Narmada in the south, and controlled
Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions, and the city of
Ujjain [3] in central India. The Kabul Valley and much of the Punjab passed into
the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to the Satavahanas.
Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BCE). He was succeeded by son
Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's greatest
playwrights, Kalidasa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes
place. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten
Sunga kings.
The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE.
[edit] Buddhism
Yaksa reliefs. Bharhut, 2nd century BCE.

Main article: Pusyamitra Sunga
See also: Decline of Buddhism in India
Following the Mauryans, the first Brahmin king was Pusyamitra Sunga, is believed
by some writers with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of Brahmanism
that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.[4] However, there
is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively.[4] According to the
2nd century Ashokavadana:
"Then King Pusyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the
Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. (...) Pusyamitra therefore
destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed.
After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a hundred
dinara reward to whomever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk" (Shramanas)
Ashokavadana, 133, trans. John Strong.
[edit] Support given
Later Sunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to
the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[5]
Some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm
with Buddhism[4] in the gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the
Bactrian kings. [6]
Some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga kings were not
intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the
Sunga kings. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be
inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit
at the Asutosh Museum, University of Calcutta.
An inspriction at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of
the temple as follows:
"The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra." So then this further means
that the Sungas were in support of Buddhism (Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at
Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions). Another inscription reads:
"The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King
Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine
(Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions).
"[2]
Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records.
As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi
letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasada-cetika
sa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this
expression in relation to the preceding words:
"(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and
the mother of living sons), "to the caitya (cetika)
of the noble temple", taking the word raja before
pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the
temple as a particularly large and stately building
similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble
elephant', rajahamsa `a goose (as distinguished from
hamsa 'a duck'), etc." Cunningham has translated the
expression by "the royal palace, the caitya",
suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would
seem to connect the donor with the king's family,"
Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as
a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."
[edit] Wars of the Sungas
Vedika pillar with Greek warrior. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga Period, c.100-
80BC. Reddish brown sandstone.[7]Indian Museum, Calcutta (drawing).
War and conflict characterized the Sunga period. They are known to have warred
with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and
Mathuras.
The Shunga Empire's wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history
of this period. From around 180 BCE the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius, conquered
the Kabul Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Indo
Greek Menander is credited with either joining or leading a campaign to
Pataliputra with other Indian Kings; however, very little is know about the exact
nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains
uncertain.
Some interpretations of the Mahabharata and Yuga Purana have attempted to account
for this:
The Anushasanaparava of the Mahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was under
the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas.[8]
Also the Hindu text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events
in the form of a prophecy,[9] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital
Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according
to Megasthenes,[10] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls:
"Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the
Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of
the flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name of
Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all the
realm will be in disorder." (Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47-48, 2002 edition.)
Bronze coin of the Sunga period, Eastern India. 2nd-1st century BCE.
Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas and Sunga imperial
inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar. Scriptures such as the
Divyavadhana note that his rule extended even farther to Sialkot, in the Punjab.
Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was regained by the Sungas around 100 BCE (or by
other indigenous rulers: the Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention
military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the
Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally
the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles between
the Greeks and the Sunga in Northwestern India are also found in the
Mālavikāgnimitram, a play by Kālidāsa which describes a battle between Greek
cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the Indus river, in
which the Indians defeated the Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed the
Ashvamedha Yagna.[11]
Nevertheless, very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does
appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalized
diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers.
The Indo-Greeks and the Sungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic
missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the
dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo-Greek
king Antialcidas, to the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra at the site of
Vidisha in central India.
[edit] Cultural Contributions
A relief from Bharhut.
While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Sunga dynasty, it is
recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and other
learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and
Mahabhasya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent
mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later
Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a
background of court intrigue.
Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school,
which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara
school of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed
to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some
architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut,
originally started under King Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works
were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of
tolerance on their part.
The last of the Sunga kings was Devabhuti (83-73 BCE). He was assassinated by his
minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company of
women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.
Sunga Yakshi, 2nd-1st century BCE.

Sunga masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd-1st century BCE.
Sunga woman with child. 2nd-1st century BCE.
Sunga Yaksa. 2nd-1st century BCE.
Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century BCE.

Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century BCE.
[edit] Script
The script used by the Sunga was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write the
Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between the Maurya
and the Kalinga brahmi scripts.[12]
[edit] List of Sunga kings
• Pusyamitra Sunga (185 - 149 BCE)
• Agnimitra (149 - 141 BCE)
• Vasujyeshtha (141 - 131 BCE)
• Vasumitra (131 - 124 BCE)
• Andhraka (124 - 122 BCE)
• Pulindaka (122 - 119 BCE)
• Ghosha (?)
• Vajramitra (?)
• Bhagabhadra (?)
• Devabhuti (83 - 73 BCE)
Kanva dynasty
The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the eastern
part of India from 75 BCE to 26 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was
overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the
kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their
former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. Little is known about
the Kanvas; however, their dynasty was brought to an end by the Satavahanas of the
south.
[edit] Rulers
• Vasudeva (c. 75 - c. 66 BCE)
• Bhumimitra (c. 66 - c. 52 BCE)
• Narayana (c. 52 - c. 40 BCE)
• Susarman (c. 40 - c. 26 BCE)
Kharavela
Maximum extent of Kharavela (ଖାରେେଳ) Kalingan Empire: 2nd century B.C.E
Hathigumpha on Udayagiri Hills, Bhubaneswar
Hathigumpha inscription of King Khāravela at Udayagiri Hills
Khandagiri caves
Kharavela (ଖାରେେଳ) (IAST: Khāravela, Devanagari: खारवेल, Oriya: ଖାେରେଳ) (?209 –
after 170 BCE) was the greatest Oriya emperor of Kalinga, the ancient name of
Orissa state of India. The Chedi dynasty of Kalinga under the kingship of
Khāravela ascended to eminence and restored the lost power and glory of Kalinga,
which was subdued since the devastating Kalinga war with Ashoka. All these
happened within a century of Ashokan era. The Kalingan military might was
reinstated by Kharavela. Under Kharavela's generalship, the Kalinga kingdom had a
formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then Simhala (Sri
Lanka), Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Jabadwipa (Java). On
religion side, though extremely liberal, Emperor Khāravela patronised Jainism.
Emperor Kharavela (ଖାେରେଳ) led many successful campaigns against Kingdoms of
Magadha, Anga, Satavahanas and the then South Indian regions of Pandya kingdom,
present Tamil Nadu state, and expanded Kalinga till the river Ganga in North and
river Kaveri in South, with full West to East coverage. Kharavela (ଖାେରେଳ) was
the third king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty. The main source of information
about Kharavela is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription in a
cave in Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar in Orissa .
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Hathigumpha Inscription
o 2.1 Salient features of the Hathigumpha Inscription
• 3 Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela
• 4 Period
• 5 Wars & Expeditions
• 6 Dynasty
• 7 Queens of Kharavela
• 8 Remembering Kharavela
• 9 See also
• 11 References
[edit] Introduction
The chief source of information about emperor Kharavela is the Hathigumpha
inscription at Udayagiri caves, near present Bhubaneswar city. According to the
inscription, Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan, and was a lineal descendant of
the sage king Vasu. Apart from this eulogic descent amounting to a myth, several
historians have tried to speculate the origin of Kharavela. However, in absence of
any material evidence to the converse, Kharavela has been accepted as being from
an Odia descent.
Etymologically, the name Kharavela is the prakrit transformation of Sanskrit word
Ksharavela (Devanagari:कारवेल). The first syllable Khāra (Devanagari:खार) is the
corrupt form of Kshāra (Devanagari:कार) meaning 'saltish'. The letter Khā
(Devanagari:खा) in the Hathigumpha inscription is the transformed corrupt
(Apabhramsha) form of kshā (Devanagari:का). The second syllable, Vela means 'wave'
or 'shore'.
Incidentally, in north-western part of India, there is a clan of Jats having the
clan name Khārvel, which claims descent from the Emperor Kharavela, originated
during the north-western conquest of the emperor. Similarly, in history books Air
(ऐर) has been stated as a clan that originated from Nagavanshi ruler named Airawat.
[1] However, deep and multi-disciplinary research is required to arrive at the
exact origin of Kharavela.
[edit] Hathigumpha Inscription
This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep cut
Brahmi script on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern called Hathigumpha
(Oriya: ହାତିଗୁଂଫା) (Meaning in English: The Elephant’s Cave) in the southern side of
the Udayagiri hills near present day Bhubaneswar. The inscriptions date back to
the 1st Century BCE. It faces straight towards the rock Edicts of Asoka at Dhauli,
which is situated at a distance of about six miles.
The inscription was first discovered/noticed by A. Stirling in 1820 who published
an eye copy of it in Asiatic Researches, XV , as well as , in his book titled “An
Account, Geographical , Statistical and Historical of Orissa or Cuttack”.
Thereafter, indologist and linguist James Princep succeeded in deciphering the
inscription. Subsequently, Princep’s reading along with a facsimile prepared by
Kittoe was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society Bengal, VI (1837).
According to Princep, the referred personality in the Hatigumpha inscription was a
king named ‘Aira’. Towards the end of 1871 A.D., a plaster cast of the inscription
was prepared by H. Locke, which is now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Later, Alexander Cunningham published this inscription in 1877 in the Corpus
Inscriptionum Indicarrum Vol. I and in 1880 R.L. Mitra published a slightly
modified version in the book Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II.
The first authentic reading of the inscription is credited to historian Bhagwan
Lal Indraji. Indraji presented the novel approach before the Sixth International
Congress of Orientalists in 1885, which was widely accepted. Pandit Indraji was
the first scholar to declare that the King referred to and eulogised in the
Hathigumpha inscription was named Kharavela' and not Aira. However, there are a
large number of lacunae and faults (Both syntactical and physical deformities) in
the inscription, which obstruct its correct reading and the mutilated condition of
the inscription has given the space for rival claims and given rise to
controversies.
[edit] Salient features of the Hathigumpha Inscription
The Hathigumpha inscription starts with a version of the auspicious Jain Namokar
Mantra: नमो अरित
ं ानं [।।] णमो सविसधानं [।।] for in Jainism.
The body-text mentions that:
• In the very first year of his coronation, (His Majesty) caused to be
repaired the gate, rampart and structures of the fort of Kalinga Nagari, which had
been damaged by storm, and caused to be built flight of steps for the cool tanks
and laid all gardens at the cost of thirty five hundred thousand mudra (coins) and
thus pleased all his subjects.
• In the second year, without caring for Satakarni, (His Majesty) sent to the
west a large army consisting of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots, and
struck terror to Asikanagara with that troop that marched up to the river
Kanhavemna.
• Then in the fourth year, (His Majesty] .... the Vidhadhara tract, that had
been established by the former kings of Kalinga and had never been crossed before.
The Rathika and Bhojaka chiefs with their crown cast off, their umbrella and royal
insignia thrown aside, and their Jewelry and wealth confiscated, were, made to pay
obeisance at the feet (of His Majesty).
• And in the fifth year, (His Majesty) caused the aqueducts that had been
excavated by king Nanda three hundred years before, to flow into Kalinga Nagri
through Tanasuli.
• And in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara, blessed
with a son attained motherhood.
• In the 8th year of his reign, (His Majesty) attacked Rajagriha in Magadha
and forced the Indo-Greek king Demetrius (described as the Yavana king ("Yavana-
raja") named Dimi{ta}) to retreat to Mathura.
• In the 12th year of his reign, he attacked the king of Uttarapatha. Then
brought back the holy idols of Kalinga's Jain Gods (The Blessed Tirthankars) which
earlier Magadha rulers had carried away with them after Kalinga war in Past.
Tirthankar’s idol was brought back with its crown and endowment and the jewels
plundered by king Nanda from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures of
Anga and Magadha were regained.
• (His Majesty) then attacked and vanquished the kingdom of Magadha, and
Pataliputra, the then capital of the Sunga, and made king "Bahasatimita" (May be a
Sunga king Bruhaspatimitra, or Pusyamitra himself) bow at his (His Majesty’s)
feet.
The inscription states that the Emperor Kharvela had a liberal religious spirit.
Kharavela describes himself as:
“ सव पासंड पूजको सवदेवायतन संकार कारको ” (Prakrit Language, Devanagari script)
Translation: The worshipper of all religious orders, the restorer of shrines of
all gods.
[edit] Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela
Main article: Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela
Besides the celebrated Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, there are several
other minor inscriptions in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves,
which were deciphered earlier by Prof. R. D. Banerjee during the years 1915-16
(Epigraphic Indica - XIII) and subsequently by B. M Barua (Indian Historical
Quarterly-XIV). These minor inscriptions pertaining to Emperor Kharavela have been
engraved in Brahmi script, prakrit language. Shri Sadananda Agrawal, historian,
has given details and clarifications about those.
[edit] Period
The dating of Kharavela's period has been highly debatable and controversial. It
has been a formidable challenge to ascertain the correct date of Kharavela’s
ascendancy and reign within a definite chronological frame work.
The internal evidence from the Hathigumpha inscription, reasonably places the date
of emperor Kharavela’s reign in second half of the first century BC. An exact time
bracketing has been unachievable at present. The exact time bracket of Kalingan
emperor Kharavela will continue to be controversial so long any other
corroborative evidences have not been discovered.
The Indian numismatist P.L. Gupta has suggested that the Hatigumpha inscription is
from the 2nd century CE:[2]: "The Hâthîgumphâ inscription refers in line 8 to a
yavana-râja, who fled to Mathura when he realized the might of Khâravela. The name
of the yavana-râja bears three letters, of which the second letter may be fairly
read as ma or mi. It has been doubtfully restored as Dimita, meaning Demetrius the
Indo-Greek king. But as early as 1951, I thought it to be Vimaka, meaning Vima
Kadphises. The Patna Museum has a plaster cast of this inscription, which I
personally examined when I was there as Curator. It confirms my suggestion."
There are some issues with this interpretation, since the stated facts are that
the name consists of three letters, of which the second is mi or ma, and that the
king is categorized as yavana, not kushan or tukhara, nor saka or pahlava. It is
otherwise unknown for a Kushan king to have been referred to as a yavana, and for
Vima Kadphises to be referred to as Vimaka (expanded from Vema/Vima). Also, there
are palaeographic problems with dating the Hâthîgumphâ text so late as Wema
Kadphises (Reign 90s-110s CE). The period of 1st century BC, or approximately
contemporary with the Sanchi inscriptions from the reign of the Satavahana
Satakarni, has been preferred by Indic script specialists.
[edit] Wars & Expeditions
It is revealed from Line-4 of the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela in the
second year of his reign dispatched a strong force comprising cavalry, elephants,
infantry and chariots to the western quarter without caring for or bothering about
Sātakarnī, and the kingdom of Asikanagara was frightened of its (Kharavela’s army)
reaching the river Kanhavemṇā. Some scholars prefer to read Masikanagara instead
of Asikanagara and locate it in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh.
An article about Emperor Kharavela mentions about the rule of Kaswan in 2nd
century of Vikram samvat. It has been mentioned in ‘Hathi Gumpha and three other
inscriptions’ (page 24) in Sanskrit as under:
Sanskrit - कुसवानाम् किियाना च सिाययतावता पापत मिसक नगरम्
IAST - “Kusawānāṃ kshatriyānāṃ ca Sahāyyatāvatāṃ prāpt masika nagaraṃ”.
Translation: The city of 'Masiknagara' was captured with the help of 'Kuswan'
Kshatriyas.
According to Sadananda Agrawal, interpretation of the city as Masikanagara is not
well-supported. Kanhavemṇā is commonly equated with the river Krishna coastal
flowing in Andhra Pradesh. However, Krishna lies much to the south of Kalinga, and
not west as averred in the epigraph (Devanagari: पििमिदसं). But there is another
stream flowing to the west of Kalinga in Vidarbha and known locally at present as
Kanhan which flows about 17 km northwest of Nagpur and joins the river Vena
(Wainganga), and it is the combined flow of these two streams that is spoken as
Kanhavemṇā in our records.
The recent find of a seal belonging to the Asikajanapada in course of intensive
archaeological excavations at Adam (Nagpur district) has solved also the problem
of locating the historical Asikanagara whose king or and people became frightful
at the arrival of Kharavela's army at Kanhavemṇā, as per the Hatigumpha
inscription. In view of the evidence of a highly prosperous city unearthed at
Adam, Prof. A. M. Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents the
Asikanagara of Hathigumpha inscription. It is worth noting in the present context
that a terracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam, situated
on the right bank of the river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa (Devanagari:
असकजनपदस).
The Hathigumpha inscription tells us that again in his fourth regnal year
Kharavela directed his invasion against the Satavahana territory. In course of the
campaign the army of Kalinga marched headlong against the Rathikas and Bhojakas
who inhabited the western Deccan and whose chiefs might have been subordinates or
vassals under Satavahana king Satakarni.
It is quite likely that the Rathikas are to be located in southern Maharashtra
region and adjoining Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh where a large number of coins of
some chiefs styled Mahārathi have been found in excavations. Likewise , as regards
the Bhojakas, it is not impossible that they flourished in the region of Goa and
adjoining parts of Karnataka where the Bhoja Kings are found a few centuries
later. As a result of this victory Kharavela’s suzerainty spread over the land
from the eastern sea to western sea.
The eighth regnal year of Kharavela, three years after his war in western India,
heard the war trumpets of Kalinga blowing in direction of the north.
Kharavela entered into the territory of Magadha and fought out important
engagement with the army of that empire at Gorathagiri and stormed that outlying
fortress which guarded Rajagrha, the former capital of Magadha. The strong fort
was demolished and Rajagrha was put to great trouble.
Gorathagiri has been identified with the modern Barabar hill in the Gaya district
in Bihar state. In the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata this hill has been referred
to by the name Gorathagiri wherefrom Girivraja (Rajagrha) the capital of Magadha
was surveyed by Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna on the way of their campaign against
Jarasandha.
It is worth nothing here that two small inscriptions are found engraved in that
hill, which read Gorathgiri and Goradhagiri respectively. While the former belongs
to Asokan period the latter seems to be incised by one of the men who had
accompanied Kharavela in this campaign.
It was by that critical time that one Yavana King (Indo-Greek) who was then in
occupation of Mathura was advancing against Magadha. The king's name has been read
extremely doubtfully as "Dimita", and has been identified by many scholars with
the famous Indo-Greek King Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus belonging to
2nd century BC.
In commemoration of this victory over the Indo-Greeks and age old enemy Magadha,
Kharavela constructed the great victory palace in Kalinganagari at a cost of
thirty eight hundred thousand coins which stood to personify in all its grandeur
the great victory a great conqueror.
The tenth year witnessed another expedition towards north. According to
Hathigumpha inscription that year he caused his army much towards Bharatavarsha.
Dr Sahu remarks:
“In the epigraphic records of India the name Bharatavarsha appears for the first
time in Hathigumpha inscription. This name however, denoted to Northern India by
that time.”
When the twelfth year of his reign dawned Kharavela marched against Uttarapatha
(Northwest India) with a vast army. This was his third onslaught against North
India, forcing several chiefs to submission, who were very likely the Indo-Greeks.
On his return from Uttarapatha Kharavela planned for the final encounter against
Magadha and the Kalingan army encamped on the banks of the Ganges not far off
Pataliputra. The people of Magadha were struck with terror at the sight of the
elephants and horses and Brhaspatimitra, the king of Magadha was humbled by
Kharavela and made the Magadhan king touch his feet. Many renowned scholars equate
Brhaspatimitra with Pushyamitra, the founder of Sunga dynasty.
It is worth nothing in the present context that for recording the events of his
reign Kharavela chose the Hathigumpha in the southern side of Udayagiri hill which
faces straight towards the Dhauli hill bearing Rock Edicts of Ashoka. In the
former hill we find the inscription of the victory of Magadha and in the latter
that of the victory of Kalinga. Kharavela’s inscription seems to have been
intended to counter affect Asoka’s inscription.
Before his home ward march the monarch brought back from Magadha the greatest and
by far the most significant war trophy to his home land was the Original Idol of
Kalinga's Jain Tirthankars (Gods) Idol that adorned the spiritual realm of
Magadha. This Kalinga Tirthankars (Jain God) was once the invaluable religious
property of Kalinga but was carried away from Kalinga during the first wave of the
northern invasion under Mahapadmananda emperor of Magadha.
Dr. N.K.Sahu aptly remarks about his expeditions: “Thus within a short span of ten
years (form his 2nd to 12th regnal years.) Kharavela could achieve a series of
brilliant victories extending his suzerainty from the North-Western part of India
to the farthest extend in the South. “
The political and military performances of Kharavela have, in fact, no parallel in
history and this great monarch fully justifies the epithet Chakravarti given to
him in the inscription of his chief queen.
He seems to have abandoned his throne in the 13th year of his reign, and was
succeeded by his son Kudepasiri.
[edit] Dynasty
In the first line of Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela styles himself as
IAST-Airena Mahārājena Mahāmeghavāhana Chetarāja vasa Vadhanena xxx
Kalimgādhipatinā Siri Khāravelan
(Devanagari:ऐरेण मिाराजेन मिामेघवािनने चेतराज वस वधनने पसथ सुभलखलेन चतुरत े किलंगािधपितना िसिर
ं लुठन गुणउपेनत
खारवेलेन)
While the earliest scholar J. Princep and R. L. Mitra take the word Aira as the
name of the king of Kalinga eulogised in the inscription, other few scholars are
inclined to take the word as dynastic name and connected the ancestry of Kharavela
with the puranic Aila belonging to the lunar Kshatriya dynasty. Bhagwan Lal
Indraji is the first scholar to assert that the King whose activities are
glorified in the inscription in named Kharavela.
It is a significant to note here that there is also no direct evidence in
Hathigumpha inscription to show that Kharavela belongs to Cedi Dynasty. The only
meaning conveyed by this expression is that Kharavela was the son of Cetarāja
(Devanagari:चेतराज).
There is a small crack in the stone above the letter ta (त) giving the impression
of medial i. this crack misled some eminent scholars like R.D. Banerji and D.C.
Sircar to decipher the word as Ceti (Devanagari:चेित) and this conjectural reading
led the renowned scholars to hold the view that Kharavela belongs to Cedi dynasty.
But in no way this can be accepted. It is pertinent to note in this context that a
small inscription is found engraved in the Mancapuri Cave where King Kudepasiri
(one of the successor of Kharavela) styled himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati
Mahameghavahana (Devanagari:ऐरे मिाराजा किलंगािधपितना मिामेघवािन).
The King Sada has also been styled himself as Maharaja Kalinga Mahisika Adhipati
Mahameghavahana. Both Kudepasiri and Sada, happen to be the successors of
Kharavela, have never been stated in their respective inscription to be belonging
to Cedi dysasty. It is significant that the word Aira has not been prefixed with
the name of Sada.
The Vahana ending dynastic (and personal) names were quite popular during the few
centuries preceding. The meaning of Mahameghavahana is the great one riding on
clouds. Dr. Sahu takes Maha as the prefix of Megha and opines: “ Mahameghavahana
literary means one whose vehicle is great cloud”.
In line 17 of the Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela claims to have been descended
from Rajarsi Vasu Kula. King Vasu recorded in Hathigumpha inscription can not be
taken as Cedi king. It is pertinent to note in the context that in Mahabharata,
Meghavahana as a dynastic name is found mentioned (Sabha Parva, XIV, 13) while the
same epic preserves detailed accounts regarding the activities of Cedi dynasty.
Cedi and Meghavahana have been flourished as two distinct dynasties since the
early times, so both the dynasties should not be equated.
Cetaraja was the father of Kharavela and it seems probable that he was the
immediate predecessor of Kharavela, belonging to be the second king in the
Mahameghavahana line in Kalinga.
The line-7 of the Hathigumpha inscription indicates that the Queen of Vajiraghara
(Chief Queen of Kharavela ?) gave birth to a son. Another inscription in the lower
storey of the same caves informs us that it had been executed by the Aira Maharaja
Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana Kudepasiri. In this cave another inscription is
incised which reveals the name of Kumara Badukha. It is to be noted here that
Kumara Badukha has not assumed any royal title. However, it is difficult to be
sure of the relationship between Kharavela and Kudepasir. As no available record
speaks any thing more about prince Badukha, he stands an obscure figures, in
history but seems to be the son or brother Kudepasiri.
Mahiska country denoted the modern coastal Andhra (Guntur – Krishna region) which
was apparently added to the Mahameghavahana kingdom at least during the reign of
Maharaja Sada.
The Sada rule came to an end during end first century / early second century A.D.
On basis of above discussion we can say that Kharavela belonged to Mahameghavahana
dynasty and the Genealogical chart of can be given as under:
1- Mahameghavahana 2- Cetaraja 3- Kharavela 4- Kudepasiri 5- Badukha 6- Mahasada
7- Sada’s successors.
[edit] Queens of Kharavela
The Hathigumpha inscription mentions that in the seventh year of his reign [the
Queen] of Vajiraghara was blessed with a son attained motherhood. Sometime before
his coronation the prince very probably married chief queen as per presence was
essentially required in anointation ceremony. The chief queen, whose record has
been engraved in the upper storey of Mancapuri Cave, was the great-grand daughter
of Hastisimha and the daughter of king Lalaka or Lalarka. It is to be pointed out
here that not much is known about Hastisimha and Lalarka from any other source. We
find mention of Lal (लल) as a gotra of Jats living in Muzaffarnagar district in
Uttar Pradesh, India, who originated from mahapurusha Lala (लल). The famous
Panjtar stone inscription, now in (Pakistan), written in the year 122 of Saka ara,
referse to one “ Lala, the protector of the Kushana dynasty of Maharaja Kanishka”.
This Lala, was a Lalli “Jat” It also refers to the gift of two trees by one Moika
in the eastern region of “ Kasua”. That last word Kasua is the same as Kasuan the
name of the Kushana clan (and territory) which is still existing. [3][4]
R. D. Banerjee has identified Vayiraghara with Wairagarh in present Chanda
district of Maharastra, because in some medieval inscription this place is found
referred to as Vayirakara. However, Dr. M. K. Sahu identifies this place with
Vajradantadesa mentioned in the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana.
King Kharavela is known to have two queens. Line-15 of the Haithgumpha inscription
refers to the queen of Simhapatha, who was very likely his second queen.
Simhapatha may be same as Simhapura which was the capital of Kalinga during the
rule of the Matharas in the 4th century A.D. The place is identified with modern
Singupuram in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
[edit] Remembering Kharavela
Kharavela Nagar is an important commercial district of Bhubaneswar and home to the
city's first mall. With the rise of industry, in particular IT and higher
education, the history of ancient Kalinga and in particular Kharavela is being
revived as Orissa's golden age.
Kuninda Kingdom
Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE.

Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a
lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah
Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas").
Rev: Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a
swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from
righ to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of
the Kunindas").
The Kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) was an ancient central
Himalayan kingdom from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century, located in
the modern state of Uttarakhand and southern areas of Himachal in northern India.
The history of the kingdom is documented from around the 2nd century BCE. They are
mentioned in Indian epics and puranas. The Mahabharata relates they were defeated
by Arjuna.
One of the first kings of the Kuninda was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the mountainous
valley of the Jamuna and Sutlej rivers (in today's Uttarakhand and southern
Himachal in northern India).
The Greek historian Ptolemy linked the origin of the Kuninda to the country where
the rivers Ganges, Yamuna, and Sutlej originate.[1]
One the Edicts of Ashoka on a pillar is also present at Kalsi, in the region of
Garhwal, indicating the spread of Buddhism to the region from the 4th century BCE.
The Kuninda kingdom disappeared around the 3rd century, and from the 4th century,
it seems the region shifted to Shaivite beliefs.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Coinage
• 2 Rulers
• 3 See also
• 5 Notes
[edit] Coinage
There are two types of Kuninda coinage, the first one issued around the 1st
century BCE, and the second around the 2nd century CE. The first coins of the
Kuninda were influenced by the numismatic model of their predecessor Indo-Greek
kingdoms, and incorporated Buddhist symbolism such as the triratna. These coins
typically follow the Indo-Greek weight and size standards (drachms, of about 2.14g
in weight and 19 mm in diameter), and their coins are often found together with
Indo-Greek coins in hoards, such as those of the Yaudheyas, or the Audumbaras.
They represent the first effort by an Indian to produce coins that could compare
with those of the Indo-Greeks.
[edit] Rulers
• Amoghabhuti (late 2nd century-1st century BCE)
Indo-Scythians
Indo-Scythian Kingdom
←
200 BCE–400 CE →
Territories (full line) and expansion (dotted line) of the Indo-Scythians Kingdom
at its greatest extent.
Capital
Sigal
Taxila
Mathura
Language(s) Scythian language

Persian language
Pali (Kharoshthi script)
Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script)
Possibly Aramaic
Religion
Buddhism
Ancient Greek religion
Hinduism
Zoroastrianism
Government
Monarchy
King
- 85-60 BCE Maues

- 10s CE Hajatria
- Established 200 BCE

- Disestablished 400 CE
The Indo-Scythians are a branch of Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern
Siberia into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into
parts of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the
middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in India
was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended
supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the
last Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE.
The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as
the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as
well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in
the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with
Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and India as
well as far off Rome in the west.
The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included
besides the Sakas[1] other allied tribes, such as the Medii[2], Xanthii[3][4],
Massagetae[5], Getae[6], Parama Kambojas, Avars, Bahlikas, Rishikas and Paradas.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Origins
o 1.1 Yuezhi expansion
• 2 Settlement in Sakastan
• 3 Indo-Scythian kingdoms
o 3.1 Abiria to Surastrene
o 3.2 Gandhara and Punjab
3.2.1 Sculpture
3.2.2 Bimaran casket
o 3.3 Mathura area ("Northern Satraps")
o 3.4 Pataliputra
o 3.5 Kushan and Indo-Parthian conquests
o 3.6 Western Kshatrapas legacy
• 4 Indo-Scythian coinage
• 5 Depiction of Indo-Scythians
o 5.1 Buner reliefs
o 5.2 Stone palettes
• 6 The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism
o 6.1 Butkara Stupa
o 6.2 Gandharan sculptures
o 6.3 Mathura lion capital
• 7 Indo-Scythians in Western sources
• 8 Indo-Scythians in Indian literature
• 9 Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin
• 10 Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India
• 11 Evidence about joint invasions
• 12 Main Indo-Scythian rulers
o 12.1 Northwestern India
o 12.2 Kshaharatas
o 12.3 Apracarajas (Bajaur area)
o 12.4 Paratarajas
o 12.5 "Northern Satraps" (Mathura area)
o 12.6 Minor local rulers
o 12.7 Western Satraps
o 12.8 "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the northwest
o 12.9 Military actions
12.9.1 Ancient wars (1500–500 BC)
o 12.10 Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 BC)
12.10.1 Invasion of India (c 180 BC)
12.10.2 Extinction
12.10.3 Relation between the descendants of Indo-Scythians
• 13 Descendants of the Indo-Scythians
• 14 See also
• 15 Footnotes
• 16 References
[edit] Origins
Main article: Sakas
A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c 300 BCE.
The treasure of the royal burial Tillia tepe is attributed to 1st century BCE
Sakas in Bactria.
Bearded man with cap, probably Scythian, Bamiyan, 3rd–4th centuries.

The ancestors of the Indo-Scythians are thought to be Sakas (Scythian) tribes,
originally settled in southern Siberia, in the Ili river area.
[edit] Yuezhi expansion
In the second century BCE, a fresh nomadic movement started among the Central
Asian tribes, producing lasting effects on the history of Rome in Europe and
Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India in the east. Recorded in the annals of the Han
dynasty and other Chinese records, this great tribal movement began after the
Yuezhi tribe was defeated by the Xiongnu, fleeing westwards after their defeat and
creating a domino effect as they displaced other central Asian tribes in their
path.
According to these ancient sources Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of Mongolia
attacked the Yuezhi and evicted them from their homeland Kansu (Nan-shan).[7]
Leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved westwards,
and following the route north of Takla Makan, entered the lands of the Haumavarka
Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake through the passes of Tien-shan. Unable to withstand the
assault, the Haumavarka Sakas allowed the Yue-chi to settle in their lands. In the
years to come, the Haumavarka Sakas (Sakas of Wu-sun?) sought the help of the
Hsiung-nu people and evicted the Yue-chi.
Even so, the initial clash with the invading Yue-chi caused a large group of the
Haumavarka Shakas to leave their ancestral home. These Sakas journeyed through
Tashkent and Ferghana (Sogdiana) (inhabited by the Sugud or Shulik tribe of the
Iranians) and occupied the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes, also overrunning the western
parts of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.[8] Others suggest Tukhara (India and Central
Asia, 1955, p 125, P. C. Bagchi). D. C. Sircar reconciles the difference by
suggesting that Ta-hia referred to Tukhara and the eastern parts of Bactria.[9]
After being defeated and evicted by the joint forces of the Wu-sun and Hsiung-nu
people, the Ta Yue-chis also moved southwards, overrunning in their path the
Rishikas, Parama-Kambojas, Lohas and other allied Scythian clans living in the
Transoxian regions as far as Fargana. Many fled in a southwesterly direction and
joined the Haumavarka Sakas in Bactria. The Yue-chi followed behind. Once again
under extreme pressure, the Sakas and other allied Scythian groups including the
Kambojas were forced to leave Bactria.
They first tried to enter India via the Kabul valley but were vigorously opposed
by the Indo-Greek powers there. Rebuffed, the clans turned westwards to Herat and
then took a southerly direction, reaching Helmund valley (Sigal) in south-west
Afghanistan, the region later called Sakasthan or Seistan. Some scholars believe
that this Indo-Scythian migration through Herat to Drangiana was accompanied by
groups of Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas), Rishikas and other allied tribes from
Transoxiana that were also displaced by the Yuezhi.[10][11]
Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi tribes (probable related to the Tocharians) who lived
in eastern Tarim Basin area, were defeated by the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu or Hun)
tribes, and fled west into the Ili river area. There, they displaced the Sakas,
who migrated south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. According to the Chinese historical
chronicles (who call the Sakas, "Sai" 塞):
"The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a considerable distance to the
south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands" (Han Shu 61 4B).
Sometime after 155 BCE, the Yuezhi were again defeated by an alliance of the Wusun
and the Xiongnu, and were forced to move south, again displacing the Scythians,
who migrated south towards Bactria, and south-west towards Parthia and
Afghanistan.
The Sakas seem to have entered the territory of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom around
145 BCE, where they burnt to the ground the Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus.
The Yuezhi remained in Sogdiana on the northern bank of the Oxus, but they became
suzerains of the Sakas in Bactrian territory, as described by the Chinese
ambassador Zhang Qian who visited the region around 126 BCE.
In Parthia, between 138–124 BCE, the Sakas tribes of the Massagetae and Sacaraucae
came into conflict with the Parthian Empire, winning several battles, and killing
successively King Phraates II and King Artabanus I.
The Parthian king Mithridates II finally retook control of Central Asia, first by
defeating the Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BCE, and then defeating the Scythians in
Parthia and Seistan around 100 BCE.
After their defeat, the Yuezhi tribes migrated into Bactria, which they were to
control for several centuries, and from which they later conquered northern India
to found the Kushan Empire. The area of Bactria they settled came to be known as
Tocharistan, since the Yuezhi were called Tocharians by the Greeks.
[edit] Settlement in Sakastan
Map of Sakastan around 100 BCE.

The Sakas settled in areas of southern Afghanistan, still called after them
Sakastan. From there, they progressively expanded into the Indian subcontinent,
where they established various kingdoms, and where they are known as "Indo-
Scythians".
The Arsacid emperor Mithridates II (c 123–88/87 BCE) had scored many successes
against the Scythians and added many provinces to the Parthian empire,[12] and
apparently the Bactrian Scythian hordes were also conquered by him. A section of
these people moved from Bactria to Lake Helmond in the wake of Yue-chi pressure
and settled about Drangiana (Sigal), a region which later came to be called
"Sakistana of the Skythian (Scythian) Sakai",[13] towards the end of first century
BCE.[14] The region is still known as Seistan.
Sakistan or Seistan of Drangiana may not only have been the habitat of the Saka
alone but may also have contained population of the Pahlavas and the Kambojas.[15]
The Rock Edicts of King Ashoka only refer to the Yavanas, Kambojas and the
Gandharas in the northwest, but no mention is made of the Sakas, who immigrated in
the region more than a century later. It is thus likely that the immigrant Saka
populations who settled in Afghanistan did so among or near the Kambojas and
nearby Greek cities.[16] Numerous scholars believe that during centuries
immediately preceding Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and
cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the
Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas etc.... such that their cultures and social customs
had become almost identical.
The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE is mentioned by
Isidore of Charax in his "Parthian stations". He explained that they were bordered
at that time by Greek cities to the east (Alexandria of the Caucasus and
Alexandria of the Arachosians), and the Parthian-controlled territory of Arachosia
to the south:
"Beyond is Sacastana of the Scythian Sacae, which is also Paraetacena, 63 schoeni.
There are the city of Barda and the city of Min and the city of Palacenti and the
city of Sigal; in that place is the royal residence of the Sacae; and nearby is
the city of Alexandria (and nearby is the city of Alexandropolis), and six
villages." Parthian stations, 18.[17]
[edit] Indo-Scythian kingdoms
Asia in AD 1, showing the Indo-Scythians and their neighbors.
Early anepigraphic coinage of the Indo-Scythians (c 110–100 BCE).

Obv: Horse walking right with her head turned back.
Rev: Goddess Nike walking right. Control mark, possibly for Khandahar,
Afghanistan.
[edit] Abiria to Surastrene
The first Indo-Scythian kingdom in the Indian subcontinent occupied the southern
part of Pakistan (which they accessed from southern Afghanistan), in the areas
from Abiria (Sindh) to Surastrene (Gujarat), from around 110 to 80 BCE. They
progressively further moved north into Indo-Greek territory until the conquests of
Maues, c 80 BCE.
The 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the Scythian
territories there:
"Beyond this region (Gedrosia), the continent making a wide curve from the east
across the depths of the bays, there follows the coast district of Scythia, which
lies above toward the north; the whole marshy; from which flows down the river
Sinthus, the greatest of all the rivers that flow into the Erythraean Sea,
bringing down an enormous volume of water (...) This river has seven mouths, very
shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the middle;
at which by the shore, is the market-town, Barbaricum. Before it there lies a
small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara."[18]
The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest, based in
Taxila, with two Great Satraps, one in Mathura in the east, and one in Surastrene
(Gujarat) in the southwest.
In the southeast, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain, but were
subsequently repelled in 57 BCE by the Malwa king Vikramaditya. To commemorate the
event Vikramaditya established the Vikrama era, a specific Indian calendar
starting in 57 BCE. More than a century later, in 78 CE the Sakas would again
invade Ujjain and establish the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived
Saka Western Satraps kingdom.[19]
[edit] Gandhara and Punjab
A coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II.

The presence of the Scythians in north-western India during the 1st century BCE
was contemporary with that of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms there, and it seems they
initially recognized the power of the local Greek rulers.
Maues first conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE, but his kingdom
disintegrated after his death. In the east, the Indian king Vikrama retook Ujjain
from the Indo-Scythians, celebrating his victory by the creation of the Vikrama
Era (starting 58 BCE). Indo-Greek kings again ruled after Maues, and prospered, as
indicated by the profusion of coins from Kings Apollodotus II and Hippostratos.
Not until Azes I, in 55 BCE, did the Indo-Scythians take final control of
northwestern India, with his victory over Hippostratos.
[edit] Sculpture
A toilet tray of the type found in the Early Saka layer at Sirkap.
Several stone sculptures have been found in the Early Saka layer (Layer No4,
corresponding to the period of Azes I, in which numerous coins of the latter were
found) in the ruins of Sirkap, during the excavations organized by John Marshall.
The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra
(right) was found inside a stupa with coins of Azes II inside. British Museum.
Several of them are toilet trays (also called Stone palettes) roughly imitative of
earlier, and finer, Hellenistic ones found in the earlier layers. Marshall
comments that "we have a praiseworthy effort to copy a Hellenistic original but
obviously without the appreciation of form and skill which were necessary for the
task". From the same layer, several statuettes in the round are also known, in
very rigid and frontal style.
[edit] Bimaran casket
Main article: Bimaran casket
Azes II is connected to the Bimaran casket, one of the earliest representations of
the Buddha. The casket was used for the dedication of a stupa in Bamiran, near
Jalalabad in Afghanistan, and placed inside the stupa with several coins of Azes
II. This event may have happened during the reign of Azes II (30–10 BCE), or
slightly later. The Indo-Scythians are otherwise connected with Buddhism (see
Mathura lion capital), and it is indeed possible they would have commended the
work.
[edit] Mathura area ("Northern Satraps")
Coin of Rajuvula (c 10 CE), AE, Mathura.

Obv: Bust of King Rajuvula, with Greek legend.
Rev: Pallas standing right (crude). Kharoshthi legend.
The Mathura lion capital is an important Indo-Scythian monument dedicated to the

Buddhist religion (British Museum).
In central India, the Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over Indian
kings around 60 BCE. Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in
turn followed by the Saca Great Satrap Rajuvula.
The Mathura lion capital, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, from
Mathura in Central India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes in kharoshthi
the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Nadasi Kasa, the wife of
the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, Rajuvula. The capital also mentions the
genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura.
Rajuvula apparently eliminated the last of the Indo-Greek kings Strato II around
10 CE, and took his capital city, Sagala.
The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very crude
and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content becoming
lower and lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an alloying
technique (billon) suggesting less than wealthy finances.
The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that Mathura fell under the control
of the Sakas. The inscriptions contain references to Kharaosta Kamuio and Aiyasi
Kamuia. Yuvaraja Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the son of Arta as is attested by his
own coins.[20] Arta is stated to be brother of King Moga or Maues.[21] Princess
Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called Kambojika, was the chief queen of Shaka
Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in Mathura is also verified from some
verses of epic Mahabharata which are believed to have been composed around this
period.[22] This may suggest that Sakas and Kambojas may have jointly ruled over
Mathura/Uttara Pradesh. It is revealing that Mahabharata verses only attest the
Kambojas and Yavanas as the inhabitants of Mathura, but do not make any reference
to the Sakas.[23] Probably, the epic has reckoned the Sakas of Mathura among the
Kambojas (J. L. Kamboj) or else have addressed them as Yavanas, unless the
Mahabharata verses refer to the previous period of invasion occupation by the
Yavanas around 150 BCE.
The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps",
in opposition to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. After
Rajuvula, several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans,
such as the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, who are known
from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka
(c 130 CE), in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushans.[24]
[edit] Pataliputra
Silver coin of Vijayamitra in the name of Azes II. Buddhist triratna symbol in the
left field on the reverse.
Profile of the Indo-Scythian King Azes II on one of his coins.

The text of the Yuga Purana describes an invasion of Pataliputra by the Scythians
sometimes during the 1st century BCE, after seven great kings had ruled in
succession in Saketa following the retreat of the Yavanas. The Yuga Purana
explains that the king of the Sakas killed one fourth of the population, before he
was himself slain by the Kalinga king Shata and a group of Sabalas (Sabaras).[25]
[edit] Kushan and Indo-Parthian conquests
After the death of Azes II, the rule of the Indo-Scythians in northwestern India
finally crumbled with the conquest of the Kushans, one of the five tribes of the
Yuezhi who had lived in Bactria for more than a century, and were now expanding
into India to create a Kushan Empire. Soon after, the Parthians invaded from the
west. Their leader Gondophares temporarily displaced the Kushans and founded the
Indo-Parthian Kingdom that was to last towards the middle of the 1st century CE.
The Kushans ultimately regained northwestern India from around 75 CE, and the area
of Mathura from around 100 CE, where they were to prosper for several centuries.
[edit] Western Kshatrapas legacy
Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Bhratadaman (278 to 295 CE), a descendant of
the Indo-Scythians.
Main article: Western Kshatrapas
The Indo-Scythians continued to hold the area of Seistan until the reign of Bahram
II (276–293 CE), and held several areas of India well into the 1st millennium:
Kathiawar and Gujarat were under their rule until the 5th century under the
designation of Western Kshatrapas, until they were eventually conquered by the
Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (also called Vikramaditya).
The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshmendra (10/1/285-86) informs us that around 400
CE the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had unburdened the sacred earth
of the Barbarians like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas,
Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinners completely.
The 10th century CE Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch 17) still lists the Shakas,
Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc.
together and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha division.
[edit] Indo-Scythian coinage
Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Scythian king Maues (85–60 BCE).
Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it clearly
deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around 20 CE (coins
of Rajuvula). A fairly high-quality but rather stereotypical coinage would
continue in the Western Satraps until the 4th century CE.
Indo-Scythian coinage is generally quite realistic, artistically somewhere between
Indo-Greek and Kushan coinage. It is often suggested Indo-Scythian coinage
benefited from the help of Greek celators (Boppearachchi).
Indo-Scythian coins essentially continue the Indo-Greek tradition, by using the
Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse. The
portrait of the king is never shown however, and is replaced by depictions of the
king on horse (and sometimes on camel), or sometimes sitting cross-legged on a
cushion. The reverse of their coins typically show Greek divinities.
Buddhist symbolism is present throughout Indo-Scythian coinage. In particular,
they adopted the Indo-Greek practice since Menander I of showing divinities
forming the vitarka mudra with their right hand (as for the mudra-forming Zeus on
the coins of Maues or Azes II), or the presence of the Buddhist lion on the coins
of the same two kings, or the triratana symbol on the coins of Zeionises.
[edit] Depiction of Indo-Scythians
Azilises on horse, wearing a tunic.

Besides coinage, few works of art are known to indisputably represent Indo-
Scythians. Indo-Scythians rulers are usually depicted on horseback in armour, but
the coins of Azilises show the king in a simple, undecorated, tunic.
Several Gandharan sculptures also show foreigner in soft tunics, sometimes wearing
the typical Scythian cap. They stand in contrast to representations of Kushan men,
who seem to wear thicks, rigid, tunics, and who are generally represented in a
much more simplistic manner.[26]
[edit] Buner reliefs
Indo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in Buddhist
friezes in the art of Gandhara (particularly in Buner reliefs). They are depicted
in ample tunics with trousers, and have heavy straight sword as a weapon. They
wear a pointed hood (the Scythian cap or bashlyk), which distinguishes them from
the Indo-Parthians who only wore a simple fillet over their bushy hair,[27] and
which is also systematically worn by Indo-Scythian rulers on their coins. With the
right hand, some of them are forming the Karana mudra against evil spirits. In
Gandhara, such friezes were used as decorations on the pedestals of Buddhist
stupas. They are contemporary with other friezes representing people in purely
Greek attire, hinting at an intermixing of Indo-Scythians (holding military power)
and Indo-Greeks (confined, under Indo-Scythian rule, to civilian life).
Another relief is known where the same type of soldiers are playing musical
instruments and dancing, activities which are widely represented elsewhere in
Gandharan art: Indo-Scythians are typically shown as reveling devotees.
Indo-Scythians pushing along the Greek god Dyonisos with Ariadne.[28]
Hunting scene.
Hunting scene.
Hunting scene.
[edit] Stone palettes
Main article: Stone palette
Numerous stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered as good representatives
of Indo-Scythian art. These palettes combine Greek and Iranian influences, and are
often realized in a simple, archaic style. Stone palettes have only been found in
archaeological layers corresponding to Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian
rule, and are essentially unknown the preceding Mauryan layers or the succeeding
Kushan layers.[29]
Very often these palettes represent people in Greek dress in mythological scenes,
a few in Parthian dress (head-bands over bushy hair, crossed-over jacket on a bare
chest, jewelry, belt, baggy trousers), and even fewer in Indo-Scythian dress
(Phrygian hat, tunic and comparatively straight trousers). A palette found in
Sirkap and now in the New Delhi Museum shows a winged Indo-Scythian horseman
riding winged deer, and being attacked by a lion.
[edit] The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism
The Taxila copper plate records Buddhist dedications by Indo-Scythian rulers

(British Museum).
The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their
practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks. They are known for their
numerous Buddhist dedications, recorded through such epigraphic material as the
Taxila copper plate inscription or the Mathura lion capital inscription.
[edit] Butkara Stupa
Buddhist stupas during the late Indo-Greek/Indo-Scythian period were highly

decorated structures with columns, flights of stairs, and decorative Acanthus
leave friezes. Butkara stupa, Swat, 1st century BCE.[30]
Possible Scythian devotee couple (extreme left and right, often described as
"Scytho-Parthian"[31]), around the Buddha, Brahma and Indra.
Excavation at the Butkara Stupa in Swat by an Italian archaeological team have
yielded various Buddhist sculptures thought to belong to the Indo-Scythian period.
In particular, an Indo-Corinthian capital representing a Buddhist devotee within
foliage has been found which had a reliquary and a coins of Azes II buried at its
base, securely dating the sculpture to around 20 BCE.[32] A contemporary pilaster
with the image of a Buddhist devotee in Greek dress has also been found at the
same spot, again suggesting a mingling of the two populations.[33] Various reliefs
at the same location show Indo-Scythians with their characteristics tunics and
pointed hoods within a Buddhist context, and side-by-side with reliefs of standing
Buddhas.[34]
[edit] Gandharan sculptures
Other reliefs have been found, which show Indo-Scythian men with their
characteristic pointed cap pushing a cart on which is reclining the Greek god
Dionysos with his consort Ariadne.
[edit] Mathura lion capital
The Mathura lion capital, which associates many of the Indo-Scythian rulers from
Maues to Rajuvula, mentions a dedication of a relic of the Buddha in a stupa. It
also bears centrally the Buddhist symbol of the triratana, and is also filled with
mentions of the bhagavat Buddha Sakyamuni, and characteristically Buddhist phrases
such as:
"sarvabudhana puya dhamasa puya saghasa puya"
"Revere all the Buddhas, revere the dharma, revere the sangha"
(Mathura lion capital, inscription O1/O2)
Indo-Corinthian capital from Butkara Stupa, dated to 20 BCE, during the reign of
Azes II. Turin City Museum of Ancient Art.
Dancing Indo-Scythians (top) and hunting scene (bottom). Buddhist relief from
Swat, Gandhara.
Butkara door jamb, with Indo-Scythians dancing and reveling. On the back side is a
relief of a standing Buddha[35]
[edit] Indo-Scythians in Western sources

"Scythia" appears around the mouth of the river Indus and along the western coast
of India, in the Roman period Tabula Peutingeriana.
The presence of Scythian territory in northwestern India, and especially around
the mouth of the Indus is mentioned extensively in Western maps and travel
descriptions of the period. The Ptolemy world map, as well as the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea mention prominently Scythia in the Indus area, as well as Roman
Tabula Peutingeriana. The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital of
Scythia, and that Parthian king were fighting for it during the 1st century CE. It
also distinguishes Scythia with Ariaca further east (centered in Gujarat and
Malwa), over which ruled the Western Satrap king Nahapana.
[edit] Indo-Scythians in Indian literature
Main article: Indo-Scythians in Indian literature
The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saka used
by the Persians to designate Scythians. From the time of the Mahabharata wars
(4000–1500 BCE roughly[citation needed]) Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts
like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Mahabhasiya
of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Vraha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-
Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. They are
described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest.
[edit] Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin
Coin of Azes II, with king seated, holding a drawn sword and a whip.
A section of the Central Asian Scythians (under Sai-Wang) is said to have taken
southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs it entered the Chipin or
Kipin after crossing the Hasuna-tu (Hanging Pass) located above the valley of
Kanda in Swat country.[36] Chipin has been identified by Pelliot, Bagchi,
Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir[37] while other scholars identify it
with Kapisha (Kafirstan).[38][39] The Sai-Wang had established his kingdom in
Kipin. S. Konow interprets the Sai-Wang as Saka Murunda of Indian literature,
Murunda being equal to Wang i.e. king, master or lord,[40] but Bagchi who takes
the word Wang in the sense of the king of the Scythians but he distinguishes the
Sai Sakas from the Murunda Sakas.[41] There are reasons to believe that Sai
Scythians were Kamboja Scythians and therefore Sai-Wang belonged to the
Scythianised Kambojas (i.e. Parama-Kambojas) of the Transoxiana region and came
back to settle among his own stock after being evicted from his ancestral land
located in Scythia or Shakadvipa. King Moga or Maues could have belonged to this
group of Scythians who had migrated from the Sai country (Central Asia) to
Chipin.[42] The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that the members of the
family of King Moga (q.v.) had last name Kamuia or Kamuio (q.v.) which Khroshthi
term has been identified by scholars with Sanskrit Kamboja or Kambojaka.[43] Thus,
Sai-Wang and his migrant hordes which came to settle in Kabol valley in Kapisha
may indeed have been from the transoxian Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa or
Scythian land.[44]
[edit] Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India
Coin of Maues depicting Balarama, 1st century BCE. British Museum.

The mixed Scythian hordes that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding regions,
later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus valley.
Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern India,
including kingdoms in the Indian mainland.
There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas,
Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also.[45]
Leading Indologists like H. C. Raychadhury glimpses in these verses the struggles
between the Hindus and the invading hordes of Mlechcha barbarians from the
northwest. The time frame for these struggles is the second century BCE onwards.
Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around
or after the second century CE.[46]
This picture presented by the Ramayana probably refers to the political scenario
that emerged when the mixed hordes descended from Sakasthan and advanced into the
lower Indus valley via Bolan Pass and beyond into the Indian mainland. It refers
to the hordes' struggle to seize political control of Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Malwa, Maharashtra and further areas of eastern, central and southern
India.
Mahabharata too furnishes a veiled hint about the invasion of the mixed hordes
from the northwest. Vanaparava by Mahabharata contains verses in the form of
prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the Shakas,
Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc. shall rule the earth (i.e. India) un-righteously
in Kaliyuga..".[47]
According to H. C. Ray Chaudhury, this is too clear a statement to be ignored or
explained away.
Mahabharata's epic reference apparently alludes to the chaotic politics which
followed the collapse of the Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and the
area's subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Saka, Yavana, Kamboja,
Pahlavas, Bahlika, Shudra and Rishika tribes from the northwest.
See also: Migration of Kambojas
[edit] Evidence about joint invasions
The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included
besides the Sakas[48] other allied tribes, such as the Medii[49],
Xanthii[50][51],Massagetae[52], Getae[53]. These peoples were all absorbed into
the community of Kshatriyas of mainstream Indian society.[54]
The Shakas were formerly a people of trans-Hemodos region---the Shakadvipa of the
Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Isidor of Charax (beginning of
first c AD) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). First century CE Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea (c AD 70–80) also attests a Scythian district in lower Indus
with Minnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c AD 140) also attests Indo-Scythia in
south-western India which comprised Patalene, Abhira and the Surastrene
(Saurashtra) territories.
• H.S. Williams wrote:
“ The extent of the Scythian invasion has been variously estimated. Some
scholars believe that they virtually supplanted the previous population of the
Punjab region and there seems little doubt that by far the most numerous section
of the Punjab population is of Scythian origin.[55]
”
The second century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability carried
out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other allied
tribes from the northwest.[56] As a result, groups of these people who had
originally lived in the northwest before the Christian era, were also found to
have lived in southwest India in post-Christian times. All these groups of north-
western peoples apparently entered Indian mainland following the Scythian invasion
of India.
[edit] Main Indo-Scythian rulers
[edit] Northwestern India
• Maues, c 90–60 BCE
• Vonones, c 75–65 BCE
• Spalahores, c 75–65 BCE, satrap and brother of King Vonones, and probably
the later King Spalirises.
• Spalirises, c 60–57 BCE, king and brother of King Vonones.
• Spalagadames c 50 BCE, satrap, and son of Spalahores.
• Azes I, c 57–35 BCE
• Azilises, c 57–35 BCE
• Azes II, c 35–12 BCE
• Zeionises, c 10 BCE – 10 CE
• Kharahostes, c 10 BCE – 10 CE
• Indravarman
• Hajatria
[edit] Kshaharatas
Main article: Kshaharatas
• Liaka Kusuluka, satrap of Chuksa
• Kusulaka Patika, satrap of Chuksa and son of Liaka Kusulaka
• Abhiraka
• Bhumaka
• Nahapana (founder of the Western Satraps)
[edit] Apracarajas (Bajaur area)
Main article: Apracarajas
• Vijayamitra (12 BCE – 15 CE)
• Itravasu (c 20 CE)
• Aspavarma (15–45 CE)
[edit] Paratarajas
Main article: Paratarajas
Bi-drachm of Parataraja Bhimajhunasa.

Obv: Robed bust of Bhimajhunasa left, wearing tiara-shaped diadem.
Rev: Swastika with legend around.
1.70g. Senior (Indo-Scythian) 286.1
• Kuvhusuvhume
• Spajhana
• Spajhayam
• Bhimajhuna
• Yolamira, son of Bagavera (2nd century)
• Arjuna, son of Yolamira (2nd century)
• Karyyanapa
• Hvaramira, another son of Yolamira(2nd century)
• Mirahvara, son of Hvaramira (2nd century)
• Miratakhma, another son of Hvaramira (2nd century)
[edit] "Northern Satraps" (Mathura area)
• Hagamasha (satrap, 1st century BCE)
• Hagana (satrap, 1st century BCE)
• Rajuvula, c 10 CE (Great Satrap)
• Sodasa, son of Rajuvula
• "Great Satrap" Kharapallana (c 130 CE)
• "Satrap" Vanaspara (c 130 CE)
[edit] Minor local rulers
• Bhadayasa
• Mamvadi
• Arsakes
[edit] Western Satraps
Main article: Western Satraps
• Nahapana (119–124)
• Chastana (c 120), son of Ghsamotika
• Jayadaman, son of Chastana
• Rudradaman I (c 130–150), son of Jayadaman
• Damajadasri I (170–175)
• Jivadaman (175 d 199)
• Rudrasimha I (175–188 d 197)
• Isvaradatta (188–191)
• Rudrasimha I (restored) (191–197)
• Jivadaman (restored) (197–199)
• Rudrasena I (200–222)
• Samghadaman (222–223)
• Damasena (223–232)
• Damajadasri II (232–239) with
• Viradaman (234–238)
• Yasodaman I (239)
• Vijayasena (239–250)
• Damajadasri III (251–255)
• Rudrasena II (255–277)
• Visvasimha (277–282)
• Bhratadarman (282–295) with
• Visvasena (293–304)
• Rudrasimha II, son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman (304–348) with
• Yasodaman II (317–332)
• Rudradaman II (332–348)
• Rudrasena III (348–380)
• Simhasena (380– ?)
• Rudrasena IV (382–388)
• Rudrasimha III (388–395)
[edit] "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the northwest
The Manusmriti, written about 200, groups the Shakas with the Yavanas, Kambojas,
Paradas, Pahlavas, Kiratas and the Daradas, etc., and addresses them all as
"degraded warriors" or Kshatriyas" (X/43-44). Anushasanaparva of the Mahabharata
also views the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas etc... in the same light. Patanjali in
his Mahabhashya regards the Shakas and Yavanas as pure Shudras (II.4.10). The
Vartika of the Katyayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas,
like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal
names. The Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the Yavanas, Gandharas,
Kambojas, Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all as
the Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha. In another verse, the same epic groups the
Shakas and Kambojas and Khashas and addresses them as the tribes from Udichya i.e.
north division (5/169/20). Also, the Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana locates the
Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat
(i.e. Hindukush) (43/12).
[edit] Military actions
[edit] Ancient wars (1500–500 BC)
According to numerous Puranas, the military corporations of the Shakas, Yavanas,
Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas, known as "five hordes" (pānca-ganah), had
militarily supported the Haihaya and Talajunga Kshatriyas in depriving Ikshvaku
king Bahu (the 7th king in descent from Harishchandra), of his Ayodhya kingdom.
A generation later, Bahu's son Sagara managed to recapture Ayodhya after defeating
these foreign hordes. Sagara punished them by meting out to them weird
punishments. He made the Shakas shave half of their heads, the Kambojas and the
Yavanas the totality, the Pahlavas to keep their beards and the Paradas to let
their hair go free.
The Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war between
king Kalika king Kali and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas, etc. as a powerful
military allies of King Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarians take
the orders from their women (Ref: Kalika Purana, III(6), 22–40).
The Balakanda of the Ramayana also groups the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas,
Pahlavas and Mlechhas and refers to them as military allies of sage Vedic
Vashistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra (55/2-3).
The Udyogaparva of the Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite army
of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under
the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina. The epic repeatedly applauds this
composite army as being very fierce and wrathful.
[edit] Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 BC)
The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta and the Jaina works
Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka.
This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the
frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc.
which he utilised to defeat the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and thus establishing his
Mauryan Empire in northern India (See: Mudrarakshas, II).
[edit] Invasion of India (c 180 BC)
The Vanaparva of the Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy that the
kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas and Abhiras etc. shall rule
unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 3/188/34-36).
This reference apparently alludes to the precarious political scenario following
the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its occupation
by foreign hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas.
[edit] Extinction
The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshemendra (10/1/285-86) relates that around 400
AD, the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth
of the barbarians" like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas,
Parasikas, Hunas, etc., by annihilating these "sinners" completely.
The 10th century Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch. 17) still lists the Sakas,
Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc.
together, and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha division.
[edit] Relation between the descendants of Indo-Scythians
The Punjabi tribes having Indo-Scythian origin (Khatri, Jatt, Tarkhan, Gujjar,
Rajput, Lohar and Kamboj) are genetically and ethnically closely related to each
other.[citation needed] These tribes are said to be related to various tribes of
Central Asia and Eastern Europe.[citation needed]
[edit] Descendants of the Indo-Scythians
There is speculation that a number of communities in South Asia, mainly in the
northwestern regions, are partly descended from the Indo-Scythians. These include:
• Ahirs[57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64]
• Gujjars
• Jats[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79]
• Kambohs
• Kodavas[80][81]
• Lohars
• Nairs[82][83]
• Bunts
• Pashtuns
• Tarkhan[84]
• Rajputs[85]
• Khatris[86][87][88][89]
Chera Dynasty
For district of Kuala Lumpur, see Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, the town in Spain, see
Chera, Valencia, for the town in Selangor, see Cheras, Selangor.
ேேரர்
Cheras
Chera territories
Official language
Tamil
Capitals
Kizhanthur-Kandallur (Vanchi Muthur , Kodungallur)
Government
Monarchy
Preceding state Unknown

Succeeding states Gangas, Zamorins, Kochi, Travancore, Hoysala, Vijayanagara
Stone Age
before 3300 BCE
• 7000–3300 BCE
3300–1700 BCE
• 1700–1300 BCE
Vedic Civilization
2000–600 BCE
Iron Age
1200–1 BCE
• Maha Janapadas
• 700–300 BCE
• Magadha Empire
• 684–424 BCE
• Nanda Empire
• 424-321 BCE
• Maurya Empire
• 321–184 BCE
• Sunga Empire
• 185-73 BCE
• Kanva Empire
• 75-26 BCE
• 209–170 BCE
• Kuninda Kingdom
• 200s BCE–300s CE
• 200 BC–400 CE
• Chera Kingdom • 300 BCE–1200 CE
• Chola Empire
• 300 BCE–1279 CE
• Pandyan Kingdom
• 250 BCE–1345 CE
• 230 BCE–220 CE
• 180 BCE–10 CE
Middle Kingdoms
1CE–1279 CE
• 21–130s CE
• 35–405 CE
• Kushan Empire
• 60–240 CE
• 230–360 CE
• Vakataka Empire
• 250–500 CE
• 250–600 CE
• Gupta Empire
• 280–550 CE
• Pallava Kingdom
• 275–800 CE
• Kadamba Empire
• 345–525 CE
• 350–1000 CE
• 420-624 CE
• Huna Kingdom
• 475-576 CE
• Chalukya Empire
• 543–753 CE
• Harsha Empire
• 590-647 CE
• Shahi Kingdom
• 565-670 CE
• 624-1075 CE
• 650–1036 CE
• Pala Empire
• 750–1174 CE
• 753–982 CE
• 800–1327 CE
• Yadava Empire
• 850–1334 CE
• Solanki Kingdom
• 942–1244 CE
• 973–1189 CE
• Hoysala Empire
• 1040–1346 CE
• Sena Empire
• 1070–1230 CE
• 1078–1434 CE
• 1083–1323 CE
• 1130–1184 CE
Islamic Sultanates
1206–1596 CE
• Delhi Sultanate
• 1206–1526 CE
• 1490–1596 CE
Ahom Kingdom
1228–1826 CE
Vijayanagara Empire
1336–1646 CE
Mysore Kingdom
1399–1947 CE
Mughal Empire
1526–1858 CE
1559 –1736 CE
1572–1918 CE
Maratha Empire
1674–1818 CE
Sikh Confederacy
1716–1799 CE
Sikh Empire
1799–1849 CE
1757–1858 CE
British India
1858–1947 CE
Partition of India
1947 CE
Nation histories
Regional histories
The Chera Dynasty (Tamil: ேேரர்) was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled in
southern India from before the Sangam era (300 BC - 250 AD) until the twelfth
century AD. The early Cheras ruled Kerala, Kongu Nadu and Salem. Their capital was
Vanchi Muthur, this have been located at present-day Kodungallur in Thrissur
district of Kerala .[1]. Since they were a hill tribe, their ancient capital could
not be on the plains or on the coast. Karur is on the plains and Kodungallur is on
the sea coast. They cannot be considered as their ancient capital, Vanchi Muthur.
Their ancient capital Vanchi Muthur is in Kanthallur-Kizhanthur region of Idukki
District of Kerala, for obvious reasons.[citation needed] They moved their
administrative capital to Karur (Karur Vanchi) in second century, until the first
dynasty perished in 3rd Century AD.[citation needed] The second dynasty ruled from
out skirts of Muziris on the banks of River Periyar [2] from 8th century CE.
The other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coromandel
Coast and Pandyas in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in frequent
warfare as well as constant intermarriage with the Pandyas and Cholas. Throughout
the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to the then Tamil
Country (part of which was modern-day Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, pearls
and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia.
Evidence of extensive foreign trade from the ancient period is available
throughout the Malabar Coast, from the Greek, Roman and Arabic coins unearthed
from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Thrissur) etc in Kerala. Muziris has been
referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably near Kodungallur. Sangam Chera coins
and inscriptions are found in Pattanam, near Kodungallur in Kerala, Karur,
Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu.
While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism), other religious traditions like
Buddhism came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings. Jainism came to
Chera Kingdom by the second century BCE.[3] Some adhered to Islam as well,
notably, Cheraman Perunal who ruled the Chera Dynasty in the late 8th century.[4]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
o 2.1 Sangam Cheras
o 2.2 Bhakti era Cheras
• 3 Notes
• 4 References
[edit] Etymology
The word Chera is derived from the word Cheral meaning declivity of a hill or a
mountain slope in classical Tamil[5]. This is supported by the fact that the Chera
Kings were called Chera-alatan which means Lord of the Slopes in classical
Tamil[6].
[edit] History
The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a continent
called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to
the South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between
the then Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras
supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought and
defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another species
of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of
Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), who fought
a fierce war against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and
subsequently Central India to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be the
equivalent rulers in North India.
Also, the Cheras, along with the Pandyas and the Cholas, find mention as one of
the three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, in
the very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[7][8] They are also mentioned in
the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they (along with the Pandyas and
the Cholas) are believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great
War.[9][10][11][12]
Again in other early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as
Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called
Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general.
The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not appear in Sangam
Literature. Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name
Kedalaputho, who were outside Ashoka's empire.
The unknown author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra
("Keralaputhra") whose capital is Karur, while Pliny, the Roman historian of the
first century, calls it Caelobothras. It is believed that religiously the Cheras
were Shaivites.[13] Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as
Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc.[14]
[edit] Sangam Cheras
The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the
anthologies of the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this
literature belongs to the first few centuries AD.[15] The internal chronology of
this literature is still far from settled. The Sangam literature is full of names
of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich
literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these are not worked
into connected history so far. Their capital is stated to be modern Karur in Tamil
Nadu.
Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of
Chera Kings of the Chera dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the
Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order:
1. Nedum Cheralathan
2. Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan
3. Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
4. Chenkuttuvan Cheran (Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan)
5. Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan
6. Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan
7. Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai
8. Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai.
The first recorded King was the son of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan Nallini.
The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the mother
of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Princess Manikilli. Chelva
Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan
Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Vazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral
Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral
Irumporai).[citation needed]
Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early Cheras of
recorded history.[16]. Some inscriptions trace the Chera Dynasty from Puranic
Kings of Chandraditya Dynasty, meaning that they descended from both the Solar and
Lunar Races. The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai)
inscription. This inscription refers to three generations of Chera Rulers, namely
Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter
was issued when Perum Kadungo was the Ruler Monarch and Ilam Kadungo was appointed
Prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty who accepted this
title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was the son of Perum
Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo was the son of a crowned
King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that he was the Senior Ko (Senior
ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamil Nadu side of the Sahya Mountains. Athan
Cheral Irumporai was probably the last crowned king of the first dynasty.
'Purananuru' refers to a certain Udiyan Cheral. It is said that he fed the rival
armies during the war of Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another
Sangam Age King claimed to have conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to
have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was another
famous Chera, whose contemporary Gajabahu II of Lanka according to Mahavamsa
visited the Chera country.[17]
The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the Kongu region. They also ruled
the Kodunthamizh regions of Travancore (Venadu) and the Malabar (Kuttanadu) West
Coast through vassals. They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and
with the Romans and Greeks.[18] Trade flourished overseas and there was a
considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and
literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper)
from Malainadu. [2]
[edit] Bhakti era Cheras
Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century AD and the eight century
AD. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the
existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the
Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century AD. A Pandya Ruler, Arikesari
Parankusa Maravarman (c.730 – 765AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate
inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have defeated
a prominent Chera King. The name of the Chera King is not known, however from the
details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded
seems to have included the entire Malabar and Travancore (Kuttanadu and Venadu)
and the Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, the seat of the
Cheras being in Karur Kongu Nadu. The Chera kings took the title of Perumal during
this period and patronised the Vaishnavite sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the
8th century became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also mention in their
inscriptions their battles with the Cheras. Pulakesin II, in his Aihole
inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the forts of
Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity to
the Chola, Chera and Pandya".[19]
During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 – 790), the Cheras were
still in Karur and were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman
defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts
between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.[20] The Saivite saint
Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite saint Kulasekhara, were famous
in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated Alvars
and his poems came to be called the Perumal Thirumozhi. Cheraman Perumal ruled
around the eighth and the ninth centuries. In this Kulasekhara calls himself
Kongar Kon (the king of the Kongu people) hailing from Kollinagar (Karur). Adi
Shankara was his contemporary. Kongumandala Satakam also says that Cheraman
Perumal went to Kayilai with Sundarar from Kongu Nadu.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Nagaswami, R. (1995). Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Brahad
Prakashan, Madras.http://www.tamilartsacademy.com/books/roman%20karur/cover.html
2. ^ (Ancient name, Chully ref: Akam. 149)
3. ^ akananuru
4. ^ A social history of India, By S. N. Sadasivan, pg.306
5. ^ A Survey of Kerala History by A. Sreedhara Menon - Kerala (India) - 1967
6. ^ The Chronology of the Early Tamils - Based on the Synchronistic Tables of
Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature By Sivaraja
Pillai
7. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm
8. ^ http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp
9. ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html
10. ^ http://www.tamilnation.org/heritage/chera/index.htm
11. ^ http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-War-and-
World-History/Page1.html
12. ^ http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/10-07/features806.htm
13. ^ P. 104 Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological
Association By Indian Anthropological Association
14. ^ P. 15 The Ācārya, Śaṅkara of Kāladī: A Story By Savita R. Bhave, M. G.
Gyaltsan, Muṣṭafá Amīn, 1933- Madugula, I S Madugula
15. ^ The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the
evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and
Romans such as Periplus of the Erythrian Sea. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History
of South India, pp 106
16. ^ See report in Frontline, June/July 2003 [1]
17. ^ See Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal
pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu II he was the Chera
King during 170-185 AD.
18. ^ These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times
19. ^ See Verse 31 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II -
http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscripti
on.htm
20. ^ See A History of South India – pp 146 – 147
Chola Dynasty
(Redirected from Chola Empire)
"Chola" redirects here. For the Spanish term, see Cholo.
ேேோழர் குலம்
Chola Dynasty
300s BC–1279 CE →
Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. 1050)
Capital
Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur,
Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Language(s) Tamil
Religion
Hinduism
Government
Monarchy
King
- 848-871 Vijayalaya Chola
- 1246-1279 Rajendra Chola III
Historical era Middle Ages
- Established 300s BC
- Rise of the medieval Cholas 848
- Disestablished 1279 CE
The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: ேேோழர் குலம், IPA: ['t͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Dravidian Tamil
dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty
originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the most
famous among the early Chola kings, while Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajaraja Chola I,
Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, Kulothunga Chola I,
Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga Chola III were notable emperors of the medieval
Cholas.
The Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half of
the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th centuries.[1] Under Rajaraja Chola
I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and
cultural power in Asia.[2][3] During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories
stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the
banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[4] Rajaraja Chola conquered
peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the
islands of the Maldives.[3] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North
India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra,
Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago as well
as expanding the empire from coastal Burma to Vietnam.[5][6]
The Chola tottered at the beginning of the thirteenth century and vanished with
the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala. [7]
The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their
zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and
architecture.[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in
their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic
activity.[8][9] They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a
disciplined bureaucracy.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Origins
o 1.1 Clan
o 1.2 Etymology of Chola
• 2 History
o 2.1 Early Cholas
o 2.2 Interregnum
o 2.3 Medieval Cholas
o 2.4 Later Cholas
• 3 Government and society
o 3.1 Chola country
o 3.2 Nature of government
o 3.3 Local government
o 3.4 Foreign trade
o 3.5 Chola society
• 4 Cultural contributions
o 4.1 Art
o 4.2 Literature
o 4.3 Religion
• 5 In popular culture
• 6 See also
• 7 Notes
• 8 References
[edit] Origins
Part of a series on
History of Tamil Nadu
Chronology of Tamil history
Sangam period
Sources
Government • Economy
Society • Religion • Music
Early Cholas • Early Pandyans
Medieval history
Pallavas
Pandyas
Chola Empire
Chera Dynasty
Vijayanagara Empire
Madurai Nayaks
Tanjore Nayaks

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem
of the Cholas.In Grantha Tamil.[10][11]
There is very little information available regarding the origin of the Chola
Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in ancient
Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long
and ancient lineage to their dynasty. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c.
150 CE)[12] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE.
Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this
could be the name of an ancient king.
[edit] Clan
The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of
the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity.[13][14]
On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence
available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on
the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature,
oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main
source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil
literature of the Sangam Period.[15] There are also brief notices on the Chola
country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei).[16] Periplus is a work by an anonymous
Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81–96) and contains very
little information of the Chola country.[17] Writing half a century later, the
geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its
inland cities.[18] Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, recounts a number of conflicts
between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants.[19] Cholas are
mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) inscriptions, where
they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on
friendly terms with him.[20][21][22]
[edit] Etymology of Chola
In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in
the lines of Pandya or the old country. However Sanskrit scholars deem that the
word Chola is derived from the Tamil word Sora or Chora.[23] Numerous inscriptions
by Brahmin scribes mention the Dynasty as Chora or Sora but pronounced as
Chozha.[24] Sora or Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda
in Telugu.[25]
[edit] History
List of Chola kings
Early Cholas
Ilamcetcenni • Karikala Chola
Nedunkilli •
Killivalavan • Kopperuncholan
Kocengannan • Perunarkilli
Interregnum (c.200–848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola
848–871(?)
Aditya I
871–907
Parantaka Chola I
907–950
Gandaraditya
950–957
Arinjaya Chola
956–957
Sundara Chola
957–970
Uttama Chola
970–985
Rajaraja Chola I
985–1014
Rajendra Chola I
1012–1044
Rajadhiraja Chola
1018–1054
Rajendra Chola II
1051–1063
Virarajendra Chola
1063–1070
Athirajendra Chola
1067–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga Chola I
1070–1120
Vikrama Chola
1118–1135
Kulothunga Chola II
1133–1150
Rajaraja Chola II
1146–1163
Rajadhiraja Chola II
1163–1178
Kulothunga Chola III
1178–1218
Rajaraja Chola III
1216–1256
Rajendra Chola III
1246–1279
Chola society
Chola government
Chola military • Chola Navy
Chola art • Chola literature
Solesvara Temples
Poompuhar • Urayur
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Thanjavur • Telugu Cholas
edit
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam
literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of
the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and
finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of
the eleventh century.[26]
[edit] Early Cholas
Main article: Early Cholas
The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the
Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the
first few centuries of the common era.[12] The internal chronology of this
literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the
history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature records the names
of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich
literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked
into connected history.[27]
The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.[28][29]
[30][31] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of
the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.[32][33]
Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known to have
existed, who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola[34][35][36] and
Kocengannan.[37] There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, of
fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of about
the same period.[38][39] Urayur (now in/part-of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest
capital.[30] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital.[40] The
Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Elara,
invaded the island around 235 BCE and that King Gajabahu visited Chera Cenguttuvan
around 108 CE.[30][41]
[edit] Interregnum
There is not much information about the transition period of around three
centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and
Pallavas dominate the Tamil country.[42] An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras,
invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around
three centuries.[43][44][45] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas
in the 6th century.[35][46] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the
succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter
of the ninth century.[47]
Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that
came over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. What is certain is
that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas
and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[36][48] this dynasty was
compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[2][49]
The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of
Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the
Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of
regard for their reputation.[50] Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and
Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'.[51][52] Despite
this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip
of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to
prominence hailed from this geographical area.[53][54]
Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra
Pradesh.[53] These Telugu Cholas (or Chodas) traced their descent to the early
Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early
Cholas.[55] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during
the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the
dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.[56] The Chinese pilgrim
Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the
'kingdom of Culi-ya', in an apparent reference to the Telugu Chodas.[47][57][58]
[edit] Medieval Cholas
Main article: Medieval Cholas
Detail of the statue of Rajaraja Chola at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.

While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during the period between
the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an abundance of materials from
diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the Later Chola dynasties. A large number of
stone inscriptions by the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and
Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing the
history of Cholas of that period.[59][60] Around 850, Vijayalaya rose from
obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and
Pallavas,[61] captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of
the medieval Cholas.[62][63]
The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval
period.[1] Through their leadership and vision, kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and
Rajendra Chola I extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a
Tamil kingdom.[2][3] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of
Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.[64] The kingdoms along
the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[4]
Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[5][6][65]
Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient
Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka,[66][67] Pandya
princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories, and by
the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan.[68] This period saw
constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of power
existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, with the Chola forces penetrating
deep in to the Kannada country up to Tungabhadra in Central Karnataka and
controlling the Konkan coast up to Bhatkal where a Chola temple exists even today.
In contrast, the Chalukyas never rose to any kind of prominence, they never were
able to occupy any territory in Chola country during their entire existence,
excepting mounting some invasions in and around the Chola protectorate of Vengi or
hegemony during the existence of the Cholas and they predeceased the Cholas around
1198 when Kulothunga III collaborated with Veera Ballala II and his son Narasimha
to sound the death-knell of the Chalukya Kingdom.[69] However, the bone of
contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi
kingdom.[70] The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage
the Chola emperors in war and except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories
between 1118-1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive Chola
emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. It is
also pertinent to note that even under the not so strong emperors of the Cholas
like Kulothunga I, Vikrama Chola etc. the wars against the Chalukyas were mainly
fought in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi,
Kakinada or Anantapur or Gutti. In any case, in the internecine wars among the
small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas or Kalachuris, the
Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms steadily
increasing their stock and ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Kalachuris
and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sending them into oblivion.[71] With
the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years sometime after
1135 and with the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas
under Vishnuvardhana where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at
the Hoysala capital Dorasamudra around AD 1149, the Chalukya kingdom was already
starting to dissolve, mainly due to incompetency of its rulers, while the Cholas
would be stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the Pandiyan empire
[72] The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III even contributed to the downfall and
dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-
in-law of the Chola monarch, in a series of wars with Somesvara IV the last
Chalukya king whose territories did not include the erstwhile Chalukyan capital
Manyakheta, around AD 1190. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power[73]
though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135-1140.
[edit] Later Cholas
Main article: Later Cholas
(1070-1279 AD)
Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. 1120

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the
reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.[74] Rajaraja Chola's daughter
married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya.[75] Rajendra Chola's daughter was also
married to an eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.[76]
Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil
disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Rajaraja Narendra,
ascended the Chola throne starting the Later Chola dynasty.[69][76][77]
The Later Chola dynasty saw capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama
Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II and the great
Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam and Kataha; however, the rule of
the later Cholas was not as strong as those of the emperors up to Rajendra Chola
II. While the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to
1215 AD, during his time itself, the decline of the Chola power started beginning
with his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in1215-16 AD.[78] The Cholas
lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala
power. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and
Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysalas. However, these were only
temporary setbacks, because under king Vikrama Chola successor of Kulothunga Chola
I, the Cholas lost no time shortly after his accession in recovering the province
of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Somesvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from
the Hoysalas. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central
administration prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a
civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy.[79][80]
The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III,
were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the
Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for
sometime.[81][82] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the
Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada
country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris
who were occupying Chalukya capital for those empires were their new rivals. So
naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the
Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera
Ballala II but who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This
continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of
Kulothunga Chola III[78][83] The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a
great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas who were allies of the Cholas
from Tamil country and subsequently causing the demise of the Cholas themselves in
AD 1279. They first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as
territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara
Pandiyan II his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting
several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, his
successor Rajendra Chola III and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son
Ramanatha[78] Rajendra III tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava Pallavas
and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter the constantly rising power of the
Pandiyans who were a major players in the Tamil Kingdom from AD 1215 and had
intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu and
Kanniyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the
Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri
Delta i.e. Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching
all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250
AD. The Pandiyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas.[84] They also
dispossessed the Hoysalas, who had been overestimating their power by interfering
in the politics of Tamil country by routing them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan
at Kannanur Kuppam and chased the Hoysalas back to the Mysore plateau and stopped
the war only thereafter. [85] At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan empire
was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the
eyes of the foreign observers.[86] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279.
There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola
prince.[87][88] The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by
Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was
routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was
completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end
of the 13th century.[82][88]
[edit] Government and society
Main article: Chola Government
[edit] Chola country
According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that
includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District and the Thanjavur District in
Tamil Nadu. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of
generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major
hills or valleys. The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a
special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an
occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part.
Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.[30]
Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most
important centres of Cholas.[18] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce
and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[89] Roman ships found
their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the
common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.[90][91]
The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as
Kumbakonam.[30] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Thanjavur lost its importance.[92] The later Chola kings moved around their
capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram
their regional capitals.
[edit] Nature of government
In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time,
brought under a single government,[93] when a serious attempt was made to face and
solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government was
monarchical, as in the Sangam age.[35] However, there was little in common between
the local chiefdoms of the earlier time and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja
Chola and his successors.[94]
Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south Indian
peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north by
an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier.[2][4][64]
Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to the
Chola Empire and, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to
the banks of the Godavari river.[95]
Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However
both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals, in which
occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent
dictator.[96] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to
responsible officers when representations were made to him.[97] A powerful
bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his
orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern
sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in
his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice.
The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth.[8][98] The
temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic
activity, benefiting their entire community.[8][99]
[edit] Local government
Every village was a self-governing unit.[100] A number of villages constituted a
larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the
area.[100][101][101][102] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.[103] These
structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola
period.[104]
Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled
at the village level.[102] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines
or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even
crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the
state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical
punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of
property.[105]
[edit] Foreign trade
See also: Chola Navy
Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian architectural

influences
[106]
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their
influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[107] Towards the end of the 9th
century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial
activity.[108][109] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and
the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these
ventures.[110][111][112] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the
Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were
the main trading partners.[113]
Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached
the Chinese court in the year 1077,[114][115][116] and that the king of the
Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[117] It is possible that these
syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a
trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with
'81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including
glass articles, and spices'.[118]
A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant
guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the
four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola
country.[109] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active
overseas trade during the Chola period.[115]
[edit] Chola society
There is little information on the size and the density of the population during
the Chola reign.[119] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to
lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil
disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign.[120] However, there were
reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.[121][122]
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of high level
of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was
written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the
contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence
to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of
reading and writing to children,[123] although there is no evidence of systematic
educational system for the masses.[124] Vocational education was through
hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil
was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit education was restricted to
the Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning,
which were supported by the government.[125][126][127]
[edit] Cultural contributions
Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple
Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art,
religion and literature.[128] In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the
culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the
Pallavas.[129][130] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and
sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in
India.[131]
The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued
commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local
cultures.[132] Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence
found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the
Cholas.[133][134]
[edit] Art
Main article: Chola Art
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and
contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.[135] They built a number
of Siva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were not on a
large scale until the end of the 10th century.[129][136][137]
With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detail and richly sculpted walls, the
Airavateswara temple at Darasuram is a classic example of Chola art and
architecture
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of
Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[138] The maturity and grandeur to
which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur,
completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the
time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is
at the apex of South Indian architecture.[74][139]
The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of
Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor.[140][141] Completed around
1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the
greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola
Empire under Rajendra.[135][142]
The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at
Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as
World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great living Chola
temples.[143]
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[144][145][146]
Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of
South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu
and his consort Lakshmi, and the Saivaite saints.[135] Though conforming generally
to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors
worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic
grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja
the Divine Dancer.[147][148]
Chola bronze from the Ulster Museum

[edit] Literature
Main article: Chola literature
The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200) was the golden age of Tamil culture,
marked by the importance of literature.[3] Chola inscriptions cite many works, the
majority of which have been lost.[149]
The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the
construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava
devotional literature.[150] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although
in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.[151] Jivaka-chintamani by
Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu
authors.[152][153][154] The art of Tirutakkatevar is marked by all the qualities
of great poetry.[155] It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece
Ramavataram.[156]
Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III.[157] His Ramavatharam
(also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a great epic in Tamil literature, and
although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally
accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit
epic: Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time;
his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola
country.[154][158][159]
Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that
draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes
the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war in Kalinga and depicts not only the
pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the
field.[159][160][161] The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of
Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's
successors.[156][159][160][162] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem
extolling the virtues of the Chola king.[163]
The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola
period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books was the work of Nambi
Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10th century.[164][165] However,
relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the later Chola period,
possibly because of the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Later
Chola monarchs.[166]
[edit] Religion
Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they
were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the
Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the early Cholas followed a version of the
classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola’s faith
in the Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country.[167] Kocengannan, another early Chola,
was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint.[37]
Later Cholas were also staunch Saivites,[168] although there was a sense of
toleration towards other sects and religions.[169] Parantaka I and Sundara Chola
endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu.[170] Rajaraja Chola I
patronised Buddhists, and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara (a
Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya Sailendra
king.[29][171][172][173] While it is true that the biggest and grandest temples of
the Cholas were dedicated to Lord Siva, all Chola kings especially from Aditya to
Rajendra IV not only built great temples for Lord Vishnu but also gave numerous
grants and gifts to them (***) In fact during the time of Aditya I (871-903 AD)
the Gangas of Kannada country had recognized his superiority which he acknowledged
by marrying into that family and making grant contributions to the construction of
the Sri Ranganatha temple at modern Srirangapatnam. In fact it was Aditya I's
dictat which was faithfully carried out by his illustrious son Parantaka I and his
successors wherein it was declared in edicts that the Siva Temple of Chidambaram
(at that time the grand Siva temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram were
not in existence) and the Sri Ranganatha Swami temple of Srirangam were the
'Kuladhanams' i.e. tutelary (deities) treasures of the Chola emperors(***) In fact
this dictat was repeated around 300 years back when the last great Chola King,
Kulothunga III, the builder of the great Sarabeswarar Temple at Tribhuvanam on the
outskirts of Kumbakonam, hails Lord Ranganatha at Srirangam in an inscription in
the Srirangam Koil, as his 'tutelary deity' (***) As per findings of Dr. Hultzsch,
the great epigraphist, in this very inscription acknowledgment is made to the
earlier great Chola king Parantaka about declaring the Chidambaram (Siva) Koil and
the Srirangam (Vishnu) Koil as 'Kuladhanams' of the Cholas, which is a pointer to
the fact that the Cholas were secular and patronized equally all religions and
sub-sects within the same religion(***) Another proof of this fact is the
existence of as many as 40 Vaishnava Divyadesams out of 108 such temples in the
Chola country, which are functioning and flourishing even today. In fact, Chola
king Sundara (Parantaka-II) was a staunch devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu
Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil in the banks of Cauvery on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to
whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments, and prayed before him by keeping
his sword before the deity, prior to his proceeding for war for regaining the
territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while
leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). (***)
During the period of Later Cholas, there were assumed to be instances of
intolerance towards Vaishnavites,[174] especially towards Ramanuja, the acharya of
the Vaishnavites.[175] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Saivite, is said to have
removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram, though this is
only a probability[176][177][178]
[edit] In popular culture
Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11thCentury.

The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to produce
literary and artistic creations during the last several decades.[179] These works
of popular literature have helped continue the memory of the great Cholas in the
minds of the Tamil people. The most important work of this genre is the popular
Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki
Krishnamurthy.[180] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja
Chola.[181] Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension of
Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Kalki had cleverly utilised the confusion in the
succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Sundara Chola.[182] This book
was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid 1950s.[183] The
serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was
awaited with great interest.[184]
Kalki perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier historical
romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of an imaginary Chola
prince Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king
Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the
interregnum during which the Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola
revived their fortune.[181] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki
weekly during the early 1950s. Raghu Kasthuri is a great descendent from the area
previously ruled by the Cholas.
Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was
serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when
Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, after he was denied the
throne that was rightfully his. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts of
Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in the
early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola.[185] More recently,
Balakumaran wrote the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja Chola's
construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[186]
There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s
and in 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of this play titled
Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game,
produced by Avalon Hill.
[edit] See also
• History of Tamil Nadu
• Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in Malaysia
[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 5
2. ^ a b c d Kulke and Rothermund, p 115
3. ^ a b c d e Keay, p 215
4. ^ a b c Majumdar, p 407
5. ^ a b The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions
dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 211–220
6. ^ a b Meyer, p 73
7. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 192
8. ^ a b c Vasudevan, pp 20–22
9. ^ Keay, pp 217–218
11. ^ Chopra et al., p 31
12. ^ a b The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the
evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and
Romans such as Periplus. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 106
13. ^ Tirukkural poem 955. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of
people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are
forever generous in spite of their reduced means".
14. ^ Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan
(வளவன்) and Sembiyan (ேேம்பியன்). Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்)
meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land.
This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli,
Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most
probably connected with 'valam' (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a
fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a
legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon
figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi
Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp
19–20
15. ^ The period covered by the Sangam poetry is likely to extend not longer
than five or six generations - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 3
16. ^ The Periplus refers to the region of the eastern seaboard of South India
as Damirica - The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Ancient History source book).
18. ^ a b Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form Khaberis)
- Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (1978), vol. 122, No. 6, p 414
19. ^ Mahavamsa eText - http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/
20. ^ The Asokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in plural, implying that, in
his time, there were more than one Chola - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 20
21. ^ The Edicts of Ashoka, issued around 250 BCE by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka,
mention the Cholas as recipients of his Buddhist prozelitism: "The conquest by
Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–
9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)". S. Dhammika,
The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering
22. ^ Smith, p viii
23. ^ Tripathi, p 456
24. ^ Archaeological News A. L. Frothingham, Jr. The American Journal of
Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1888), pp.
69–125
25. ^ "The name Coromandel is used for the east coast of India from Cape Comorin
to Nellore, or from point Calimere to the mouth of Krishna. The word is a corrupt
form of Choramandala or the Realm of Chora, which is the Tamil form of the title
of the Chola dynasty". - Gupta AN, p 182
26. ^ The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to an end with
the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son Athirajendra
Chola. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A
History of South India, pp 170–172
27. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 19–20, pp 104–106
28. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 104–116
29. ^ a b South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 3
30. ^ a b c d e Tripathi, p 457
31. ^ Manimekalai (poem 00-10)
33. ^ Manimekalai (poem 22-030)
34. ^ Majumdar, p 137
35. ^ a b c Kulke and Rothermund, p 104
36. ^ a b Tripathi, p 458
39. ^ The only evidence for the approximate period of these early kings is the
Sangam Literature and the synchronization with the history of Sri Lanka as given
in the Mahavamsa. Gajabahu I who is said to be the contemporary of the Chera
Senguttuvan is determined to belong to the 2nd century. This leads us to date the
poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries to belong to this period.
41. ^ Gnanaprakasar, Nallur Swami. "Beginnings of tamil rule in ceylon".
lankalibrary.com. http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/tamil%20rule.htm.
43. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 135, 137
44. ^ Majumdar, Ancient India. p 139
45. ^ Thapar, p 268
47. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 133.
Quote:"The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this
debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the period in
Rayalaseema - the Telugu-Chodas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the
seventh century A.D
48. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 102
49. ^ Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras.
Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king - Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p
102
50. ^ Periyapuranam, a Saiva religious work of 12th century tells us of the
Pandya king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola princess. Chopra et
al., p 95
51. ^ Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman(late 4th century) mention
that the king as the 'underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of the Chola army'.
- Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 104–105
52. ^ Simhavishnu (575–600) is also stated to have seized the Chola country.
Mahendravarman I was called the 'crown of the Chola country' in his inscriptions.
The Chalukya Pulakesin II in his inscriptions in Aihole states that he defeated
the Pallavas and brought relief to the Cholas. - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas,
p 105
53. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 95
54. ^ Tripathi, p459
55. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 4. Quote:"it is not
known what relation, if any, the Telugu-Chodas of the Renadu country in the Ceded
District, bore to their namesakes of the Tamil land, though they claimed descent
from Karikala, the most celebrated of the early Chola monarchs of the Sangam age"
56. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between
the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country. The northward
migration probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri
also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Karikala
Chola - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 107
58. ^ Tripathi, pp 458–459
59. ^ The Chola inscriptions followed the practice of prefacing the intended
text with a historical recounting, in a poetic and ornate style of Tamil, of the
main achievements of the reign and the descent of the king and of his ancestors -
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 2
61. ^ The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam
between the Pallava ally Ganga Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna. K.A. Nilakanta
Sastri, A History of South India, p 158
62. ^ Vijayalaya invaded Thanjavur and defeated the Muttarayar king, feudatory
of the Pandyas. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158
63. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 122–123
64. ^ a b Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and
captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V prisoner. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas pp
194–210
65. ^ Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat - The Archaeology, History and
Legends of a Southern Thai Town, p 18, ISBN 9747534738
68. ^ Chopra et al., pp 107–109
69. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India,
71. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India,
72. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.179
73. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 180
74. ^ a b Keay, p 216
78. ^ a b c Tripathi, p 471
79. ^ Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and
Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai
Inscriptions. South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 12
80. ^ Chopra et al., pp 128–129
82. ^ a b Tripathi, p 472
89. ^ The Buddhist work Milinda Panha dated to the early Christian era, mentions
Kolapttna among the best-known sea ports on the Chola coast. Nilakanta Sastri, The
CōĻas, p 23
90. ^ Nagaswamy, Tamil Coins - a study
93. ^ The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one
umbrella before the Independence was during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1614)
94. ^ Stein, p 26
96. ^ There were no legislature or controls on the executive. The king ruled by
edicts, which generally followed dharma a culturally mediated concept of 'fair and
proper' practice. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 451, 460–461
97. ^ For example, Rajaraja is mentioned in the Layden copperplate grant to have
issued an oral order for a gift to a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam, and his
orders were written out by a clerk - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 461
98. ^ Keay, p 218
99. ^ Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples
that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The
temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the
integrity of the kingdom. - Keay, pp 217–218
100. ^ a b Tripathi, pp 474–475
101. ^ a b Stein, p 20
108. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 12
109. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 118
114. ^ Keay, p 223
115. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 117
116. ^ See Thapar, p xv
118. ^ The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros horns,
ivory, rose water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves, etc. K.A. Nilakanta
Sastri, A History of South India, p 173
120. ^ —during the short reign of Virarajendra Chola, which possibly had some
sectarian roots.
123. ^ Scharfe, p 180
124. ^ 17th century Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (1623) has given a vivid
account of the village schools in South India. These accounts reflect the system
of primary education in existence until the morder times in Tamil Nadu
125. ^ Rajendra Chola I endowed a large college in which more than 280 students
learnt from 14 teachers - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 293
126. ^ The students studied a number of subjects in these colleges, including
philosophy (anvikshiki), Vedas (trayi – the threefold Vedas of Rigveda, Yajurveda
and Samaveda. The fourth Atharvaveda was considered a non-religious text.),
economics (vartta), government (dandaniti), grammar, prosody, etymology,
astronomy, logic (tarka), medicine (ayurveda), politics (arthasastra) and music. -
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 292
127. ^ Scharfe, pp 172–173
128. ^ Mitter, p 2
130. ^ Keay, p 174
131. ^ It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen excelled,
producing images rivalling the best anywhere. Thapar, p 403
133. ^ The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of
similarities with the South Indian architecture. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas,
p 709
135. ^ a b c Tripathi, p 479
136. ^ Harle, p 295
137. ^ Mitter, p 57
138. ^ Vasudevan, pp 21–24
140. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p423
141. ^ Keay, p221
142. ^ Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram
143. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250.
145. ^ Mitter, p 163
146. ^ Thapar, pp 309–310
147. ^ Wolpert, p174
148. ^ By common consent, the finest Cola masterpieces are the bronze images of
Siva Nataraja. Mitter, p 59
149. ^ , including Rajarajesvara Natakam- a work on drama, Viranukkaviyam by one
Virasola Anukkar, and Kannivana Puranam, a work of popular nature. K.A. Nilakanta
Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 663–664
154. ^ a b Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 2, p 1195
159. ^ a b c Chopra et al., p 116
163. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, p 307
167. ^ Purananuru (poem 224) movingly expresses his faith and the grief caused by
his passing away.
168. ^ Vasudevan, p 22
171. ^ The name of the Sailendra king was Sri Chulamanivarman and the Vihara was
named 'Chudamani vihara' in his honour. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 214
172. ^ Keay, pp 222–223
174. ^ Stein, p 134
177. ^ There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples who
had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property.
K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 645
179. ^ Das, p 108
180. ^ "Versatile writer and patriot". The Hindu.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/03/20/stories/13200178.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-
29.
181. ^ a b Das, p 109
182. ^ Das, pp 108–109
183. ^ "English translation of Ponniyin Selvan". The Hindu.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500100100.htm.
184. ^ "Lines that Speak". The Hindu.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/07/23/stories/13230766.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-
29.
185. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, pp 631–632
186. ^ "Book review of Udaiyar". The Hindu.
http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200101501.htm. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
(***) www.whatsindia.com/south_indian_inscriptions (Vol.24)
Pandyan Kingdom
போண்டியர்
Pandyas
Extent of the Pandya Territories c. 1250 C.E.

Official language
Tamil
Capitals
Korkai
Madurai
Government
Monarchy
Preceding state Kalabhras
Succeeding states Delhi Sultanate,Vijayanagar, Nayaks of Madurai,
The Pandyan Kingdom (Tamil: போண்டியர்) was an ancient Tamil state in South India.
The Pandyas, Chola, Chera and Pallava Dynasties are the four Dravidian Tamil
Dynasties which ruled South India till the 15th century CE. They initially ruled
from Korkai, a seaport on the Southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in
later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since the ancient period,
with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century
of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest kingdom in
existence[1].
The Pandyan Kingdom of Southern India is believed to have been founded around five
to six centuries before the Christian Era. Their recorded existence and mention
are found in records dating to as early as 550 BC. Emperor Augustus of Rome at
Antioch knew of the Pandion of Dramira and received a Pandyan ambassador with
letters and gifts from this ancient Tamil Kingdom. Strabo described an ambassador
to emperor Augustus Caesar from a South Indian King called Pandion. The country of
the Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandionis Mediterranea by Periplus
and Modura Regia Pandionis by Ptolemy[2].
The early Pandyan Dynasty of the Sangam Literature went into obscurity during the
invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th
century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai[3].
They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century and
were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the
Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an
opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century.
The Later Pandyas (1150-1350)entered their golden age under Maravman Sundara
Pandiyan and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251), who expanded the empire into
Telugu country, conquered Kalinga (Orissa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka.
They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of
Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly
in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders
from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the
establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 16th century.
The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature from before the Christian Era.
They controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri
Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls known in the known
ancient world. Tradition holds that the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai
under their patronage, and that some of the Pandya Kings were poets themselves.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology
• 2 Sources
o 2.1 Sangam Literature
o 2.2 Epigraphy
o 2.3 Foreign Sources
• 3 History
o 3.1 Early Pandyas
o 3.2 First Empire
o 3.3 Under the Cholas
o 3.4 Pandya Revival
o 3.5 Zenith followed by the end of Pandyas
• 4 Government and Society
o 4.1 Trade
• 5 Religion
• 6 Culture
• 7 Notes
• 8 References
[edit] Etymology
Historians have used several sources to identify the origins of the early Pandyan
dynasty with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of the
Pandyan kings. Pandyas were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history.
Unfortunately, the exact genealogy of these kings has not been authoritatively
established yet.
[edit] Sources
Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom
[edit] Sangam Literature
Four-armed Vishnu, Pandya Dynasty, 8-9th century CE.

Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam Literature.
Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', and Mudukudimi
Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Beside several short
poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major
works — Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) —
which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan
kingdom during the Sangam age.
It is difficult to estimate the exact dates of these Sangam age Pandyas. The
period covered by the extant literature of the Sangam is unfortunately not easy to
determine with any measure of certainty. Except the longer epics Silapathikaram
and Manimekalai, which by common consent belong to an age later than the Sangam
age, the poems have reached us in the forms of systematic anthologies. Each
individual poem has generally attached to it a colophon on the authorship and
subject matter of the poem. The name of the king or chieftain to whom the poem
relates and the occasion which called forth the eulogy are also found.
It is from these colophons, and rarely from the texts of the poems themselves,
that we gather the names of many kings and chieftains and the poets and poetesses
patronized by them. The task of reducing these names to an ordered scheme in which
the different generations of contemporaries can be marked off one another has not
been easy. To add to the confusions, some historians have even denounced these
colophons as later additions and untrustworthy as historical documents.
Any attempt at extracting a systematic chronology from these poems should take
into consideration the casual nature of these poems and the wide differences
between the purposes of the anthologist who collected these poems and the
historian’s attempts to arrive at a continuous history.
[edit] Epigraphy
The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the
Minakshipuram record assigned from the second to the first centuries BCE. The
record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. Punch marked coins in
the Pandya country dating from around the same time have also been found.
Pandyas are also mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE). In
his inscriptions Asoka refers to the peoples of south India — the Cholas, Cheras,
Pandyas and Satiyaputras — as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism.[4][5] These
kingdoms, although not part of the Mauryan Empire, were on friendly terms with
Asoka:
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred
yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there
where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise
in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)."
[6]
Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the second century BCE, in his
Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states
(‘’Tamiradesasanghatam’’) which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large
quantity of pearls from the Pandyas.[5]
[edit] Foreign Sources
Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India.
Megasthenes knew of the Pandyan kingdom around 300 BC. He described it in Indika
as occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea.
According to his account, it had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet
the needs of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the Pandyan
queen at the time, Pandaia as a daughter of Heracles.[7].
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 - 100 CE) describes the riches of a
'Pandian Kingdom':
...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia,
and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river,
about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.... [8]
According to Hiuen-Tsang, the Pandya country was a depot for sea pearls, its
people were harsh and of different religions. They were very good at trade[3].
The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century text, the Weilüe, mentions The
Kingdom of Panyue:
...The kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li to
the southeast of Tianzhu (Northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they are
the same height as the Chinese...[9]
The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361. A Roman
trading centre was located on the Pandyan coast at the mouth of the Vaigai river,
southeast of Madurai).
Pandyas also had trade contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Rome
by the first century, and with China by the 3rd century. The 1st century Greek
historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Damascus, the ambassador sent by a king
from Dramira "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus
around 13 CE (Strabo XV.1-4, and Strabo XV.1-73).[10][11]
In 1288 and again in 1293 the Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the Pandyan
kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people. Polo exclaimed
that:
"The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and considered better than the
others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and
depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow. For they
say that God and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is
why they portray them as I have described."
[edit] History
The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a continent
called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to
the South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between
the then Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras
supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought and
defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another species
of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of
Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas), who fought a fierce war
against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and subsequently
Central India to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be the equivalent
rulers in North India.
Also, the Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, find mention as one of
the three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, in
the very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[12][13] They are also mentioned in
the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they are (along with the Cheras
and the Cholas) believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great
War.[14][15]
Although there are many instances of the Pandya Kingdom being referred to in
surviving ancient Hindu texts including the Mahabharata, we currently have no way
of determining a cogent genealogy of these ancient kings. In order to maintain
verifiability of this article, the names of these early Pandya Kings have been
omitted. We have a connected history of the Pandyas from the fall of Kalabhras
during the middle of the 6th century. Kalittokai mentions that many ethnically
different non Tamil Naga tribes such as Maravar, Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, Aruvalur
and Parathavar migrated to the Pandyan kingdom and started living there in the
Third Tamil Sangam period 2000 years ago.[16]. The Pandyan kings had the title
Maran.
The following lists of the Pandya kings are based on the authoritative A History
of South India from the Early Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar by K.A.N. Sastri,
Oxford U Press, New Delhi (Reprinted 1998).
[edit] Early Pandyas
Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom
The following is a partial list of Pandyan emperors who ruled during the Sangam
age:[17][18][19]
• Nedunj Cheliyan I ( Aariyap Padai Kadantha Nedunj Cheliyan )
• Pudappandiyan
• Mudukudumi Paruvaludhi
• Nedunj Cheliyan II
• Nan Maran
• Nedunj Cheliyan III ( Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra Nedunj Cheliyan )
• Maran Valudi
• Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
• Ukkirap Peruvaludi
[edit] First Empire
After the close of the Sangam age, the first Pandyan empire was established by
Kadungon in the 6th century by defeating the Kalabhras. The following
chronological list of the Pandya emperors is based on an inscription found on the
Vaigai riverbeds.
• Kadungon 560 - 590 A.D
• Maravarman Avani Culamani 590 - 620 A.D
• Cezhiyan Cendan 620 - 640 A.D
• Arikesari Maravarman Nindraseer Nedumaaran 670 - 710 A.D
• Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran 710 - 735 A.D.
• Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman Rajasimha I 735 - 765 A.D
• Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan 765 - 790 A.D
• Rasasingan II 790 - 800 A.D
• Varagunan I 800 - 830 A.D
• Sirmara Srivallabha 830 - 862 A.D
• Varagunavarman II 862 - 880 A.D
• Parantaka Viranarayana 880 - 900 A.D
• Maravarman Rajasimha II 900 - 920 A.D
After the defeat of the Kalabhras, the Pandya kingdom grew steadily in power and
territory. With the Cholas in obscurity, the Tamil country was divided between the
Pallavas and the Pandyas, the river Kaveri being the frontier between them.
After Vijayalaya Chola conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar chieftains
around 850, the Pandyas went into a period of decline. They were constantly
harassing their Chola overlords by occupying their territories. Parantaka Chola I
invaded the Pandya territories and defeated Rajasinha III. However, the Pandyas
reversed this defeat to regain most of their lost territories.
[edit] Under the Cholas
The Chola domination of the Tamil country began in earnest during the reign of
Parantaka Chola II. Chola armies led by Aditya Karikala, son of Parantaka Chola II
defeated Vira Pandya in battle. The Pandyas were assisted by the Sinhalese forces
of Mahinda IVPandyas were driven out of their territories and had to seek refuge
on the island of Sri Lanka. This was the start of the long exile of the Pandyas.
They were replaced by a series of Chola viceroys with the title Chola Pandyas who
ruled from Madurai from c. 1020.
The following list gives the names of the Pandya kings who were active during the
10th century and the first half of 11th century. It is difficult to give their
dates of accession and the duration of their rule. Nevertheless, their presence in
the southern country requires recognition.
• Sundara Pandya I
• Vira Pandya I
• Vira Pandya II
• Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa
• Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya
• Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandya
• Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandya
• Jatavarman Chola Pandya
• Srivallabha Manakulachala (1101 - 1124)
• Maaravaramban Seervallaban (1132 - 1161)
• Parakrama Pandiyan (1161 - 1162)
• Kulasekara Pandyan III
• Vira Pandyan III
• Jatavarman Srivallaban (1175 - 1180)
• Jatavarman Kulasekara Devan (1180 - 1216)
[edit] Pandya Revival
A Pandya sculpture
The 13th century is the greatest period in the history of the Pandyan Empire.
Their power reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in the middle of
the 13th century. The foundation for such a great empire was laid by Maravarman
Sundara Pandya early in the 13th century.
• Maravarman Sundara Pandya (1216 - 1238)
• Sundaravaramban Kulasekaran II (1238 - 1240)
• Maaravaramban Sundara Pandiyan II (1241 - 1251)
• Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251 - 1268)
• Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268 - 1308)
• Sundara Pandyan IV (1309 - 1327)
• Vira Pandyan IV (1309 - 1345)
[edit] Zenith followed by the end of Pandyas
The Pandyan kingdom was replaced by the Chola princes who assumed the title as
Chola Pandyas in the 11th century. After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and
Cholas for centuries, Pandyan glory was briefly revived by Maravaramban Sundara
Pandyan and by (probably his younger brother or son) the much celebrated
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in 1251. The Pandya power extended from the Telugu
countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. The
revival of the Pandyan dynasty was to coincide with the gradual but steady decline
of the Chola empire. The last two or three Chola kings who followed Kulothunga III
were either very weak or incompetent. The Cholas of course did not lack valour but
had been unable to stop the revival of the Pandiyan empire from the times of
Maravaramban Sundara Pandyan, the revival of the Kadava Pallavas at Kanchi under
Kopperinchunga I and indeed the growing power and status of the Telugu Cholas, the
Renanti and the Irungola Cholas of the Telugu country; for the last three-named
had been very trusted allies of the Cholas up to Kulothunga III, having helped him
in conquering Kalinga. The marital alliance of Kulothunga III and one of his
successors, Raja Raja III, with the Hoysalas did not yield any advantage, though
(initially, at least) Kulothunga III took the help of the Hoysalas in countering
the Pandiyan resurgence. Kulothunga III had even conquered Karur, Cheranadu in
addition to Madurai, Ilam and Kalinga. However, his strength rested on support
from Hoysalas, whose king Veera Ballala II was his son-in-law. However, Veera
Ballala II himself had lost quite a bit of his territories between 1208-1212 to
his local adversaries in Kannada country, like the Kalachuris, Seunas etc. The
resurgent Pandiyans under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan went to war against
Kulothunga and first at Kandai and then near Manaparai on the outskirts of modern
Tiruchirappalli, the Pandiyans routed the Chola army and entered Tiruchy,
Srirangam and Thanjavur victorious in war. But it appears that in the Tiruchy and
Srirangam areas, there was renewed control of the Cholas, presumably with the help
of the Hoysalas under Vira Someswara with the Hoysalas later shifting their
allegiance to the Pandyans either during the last years of Maravarman Sundara
Pandyan or the early years of his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan was a very brave, ambitious warrior king, who wanted
to completely subjugate the Cholas. He initially tolerated the presence of the
Hoysalas under Vira Someshwara with his son Visvanatha or Ramanatha ruling from
Kuppam near Samayapuram on the outskirts of Srirangam. This was because other
feudatories of the Hoysalas were also growing in power and threatening the Hoysala
kingdom itself. Besides, the Muslim invasion of the Deccan had started under Malik
Kafur. The challenged Hoysalas did have a foothold in and around Tiruchy and
Srirangam for a few years and seemed to have indulged in some temple building
activity at Srirangam also. But Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, who subdued Rajendra
Chola III in around 1258-1260 AD was an equal antagonist of the Hoysalas whose
presence he absolutely disliked in the Tamil country. He first vanquished the
Kadava Pallavas under Kopperinchungan-II, who had challenged the Hoysala army
stationed in and around Kanchi and killed a few of their commanders. Though
Rajendra III suffered another defeat at the hands of Vira Someshwara, because of
the growing power of Pandiyans being felt by both Cholas and Hoysalas, there was a
political affinity between the two which was cemented also by marital relations.
At the time the Pandiyans and the Kadava Pallavas,with an earlier Chola, Raja Raja
III, having been held in captivity by Kopperinchunga II and his release being
secured by the Hoysalas. Ultimately, the Kadava Pallavas, Hoysalas and also the
Telugu Choda Timma who invaded Kanchi were all one by one vanquished by Jatavarman
Sundara Pandiyan with the Cholas finally becoming extinct after defeat of Hoysala
Ramanatha as well as his ally Rajendra iii around 1279 by Maravarman Kulasekhara
Pandiyan.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan seized the opportunity with the Hoysalas being in
Tiruchy and not having any ally, the rapidly weakening Cholas seeking alliance
with the Kadava Pallavas who were themselves being threatened by the Telugu
Cholas. In 1254 (or 1260) Jatavarman first dragged the Hoysalas into war by
routing his son Ramanatha out of Tiruchy. Vira Someshwara Hoysala, who had given
the control of the empire to his sons, had to come out of his slumber and tried to
challenge Jatavarman. Between Samayapuram and Tiruchy, the armies of Vira
Someshwara were routed with Vira Someshwara losing his life in this battle. This
ended the presence of the Hoysalas in Tamil country. Jatavarman did not stop
there: he went inside Kannada country after conquering Tiruchy and occupied parts
of Hoysala territory up to the Konkana coast and established his son Vira Pandiyan
as ruler of those territories. Temporarily, at least, the Hoysalas were in
disarray in Kannada country itself.
Next the Pandiyan prince Jatavarman concentrated on completely wiping out the
Chola empire. Rajadhiraja III had interfered in an earlier Pandiyan war of
succession and defeated a confederation of Pandiyan princes. The predecessors of
Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan had suffered at the time of the Chola invasion and he
wanted to take revenge. This was his opportunity. Rajendra III had been counting
on Hoysala assistance in case he was challenged by the Pandiyans, keeping in mind
the earlier marital alliance of the Cholas with the Hoysalas. Unfortunately for
Rajendra III, the Hoysalas had lost any claim to regional power in Kannada and the
Tamil countries, as they had been wiped out of Tamizhagam and indeed lost
territories inside Kannada country itself to Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan.
Initially, Jatavarman consodlidated the Pandiyan hold on Tiruchy and Srirangam and
marched towards Tanjore and Kumbakonam. The Chola capital of
Gangaikondacholapuram, too, was not far from reach. During the years 1270-1276 it
appeared that Rajendra III ruled mainly in and around Gangaikondacholapuram and
Tanjore. Tiruchy and Srirangam had been lost to the Cholas forever, at least from
1254 AD. Though Rajendra III had been opposed to the Hoysalas due to their
alliance with the Pandiyans, with new hostilities emerging between Hoysalas and
the Pandiyans, Rajendra III had hoped for renewed friendship and military alliance
with the Hoysalas. When challenged by Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, the brave but
tactically naive Rajendra III marched against the Pandiyans between Tanjore and
Tiruchy, hoping for assistance and participation in war from the Hoysalas.
However, the already vanquished Hoysalas were in a defensive position. They did
not want to go to war and risk yet another defeat by the resurgent Pandiyans.
Rajendra III, hopelessly isolated, was thoroughly routed and humiliated in this
war, which is variously dated as between 1268-1270. The known rule of Jatavarman
Sundara Pandiyan is of course, up to 1268 only. Probably Rajendra III fled the
battlefield and had continued in obscurity up to 1279 but without any of the
erstwhile Chola territories. By 1280 AD, the Chola empire was no more.
On the death of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1308, a conflict stemming from
succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandyan and Vira Pandyan
fought each other for the throne. Sundara Pandyan however with the help of his
loyal generals and Veera Ballala III was successful in supressing Vira Pandyan
into a petty army chief with just 500 Maravars who was indeed supported for the
throne by his father Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I and the people of madurai.
Since then an uneasy truce existed between the two brothers. The Kingdom now under
Sundara Pandyan revived its infrastructure and military strength to gain autonomy
and drive out Hoysala Empire from its political affairs.
Scenarios changed during 1311, when Alauddin Khilji of Khilji dynasty sent his
favourite slave general, Malik Kafur, on a buccaneering expedition to the kingdoms
of the South. Malik Khafur was not seeking to expand the borders of the Delhi
Sultanate; he was merely engaging in a military treasure-hunt on the Sultan's
behalf. Malik's victory over Veera Ballala III and loot of hindu temples at
Halebidu sent alarming bells to the Pandyan Kingdom. Kafur on the other hand,
heard about the raised strength of the pandyan army and its defensive position
within the walls of madurai was reluctant in carrying out his expedition further
south. It was Alauddin Khilji himself ordered and sent reinforcements to Kafur to
attack Madurai after hearing the richness of it via Veera Virupaksha Ballala who
was sent to Delhi as an act of peace by his defeated father Veera Ballala III.
Being a strong Saivite, Sundara Pandyan was enraged by the destruction of the
hindu temples by the invading muslim armies. He assembled his army and planned to
march them at once to face the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate. This idea
was however opposed by Vira Pandyan who felt that taking a defensive position
might be more advantageous. Sundara Pandyan ignored his words and ordered his army
to march leaving Vira Pandyan to safeguard madurai with his men. The pandyan army
managed to march well intact till Melaithirukattupalli. But their reliance on the
river Kaveri as the water source turned disastrous as the river ran dry during the
hot summer of 1311. The already exhausted pandyan army planned to march west in
search of nearby water source. Their speed was drastically reduced due to the
general's decision of marching on the dried beds of River Kaveri. Kafur's forces
on the other hand tactically planned on their ration and water supplies, met
Sundara Pandyan much before Thiruchirapalli. The physically exhausted Pandyan
infantry easily fell prey for the Sultanate's army. However, the Pandyan cavalry
revived its attack on the mulsim cavalry. But, the mulsim cavaliers were well
armed with turcopoles and chain mail armors while pandyan horsemen were inferiorly
armored and heavily relied on heavy swords. Tactical strikes by Kafur's crossbow
men over the hindu cavalry, followed by the muslim infantry's attack blocked any
possible retreat for the Sundara Pandyan's army. The generals of Kafur's army took
Sundara Pandyan as captive and beheaded all the others captured. Few Pandyan
cavaliers managed to escape to Madurai to report their defeat to Vira Pandya. The
victorious sultanate went on plundering the temples of Thiruchirapalli and
Srirangam.
The walled city of Madurai was now left only with the Vira pandyan's men along
with the aid from maravars of Ramanathapuram. Their sole aim was to safeguard
Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple and also yield time for the safe passage of women
and children to the hilly regions of present day Kerala. Understanding the fact
that they were largely outnumbered, the defenders' only hope is to delay their
enemies long enough for them to negotiate. Kafur's siege on Madurai continued for
weeks, however, it turned futile as his army lacked any Ballistas or Trebuchets
and relied on Battering Rams of inferior quality. On the other hand, continuous
archery attack by Maravars and surprise cavalry attacks on the Muslim infantry
during night times tremendously increased the casualties on Kafur's side. Kafur
lost about half of his army, and then managed to breach the wall after weeks of
siege. Vira Pandyan and his maravars still managed to hold the line, thus making
Kafur to finally come down for negotiation. Kafur offered the following terms to
Vira Pandyan: 1. Hand over all the treasures belonging to the Meenakshi Temple and
Madurai Treasury which included 96,000 gold coins and precious stones 2. Half of
the Rice rationed inside the walls of madurai 3. All the elephants and horses
available with Pandyas. In return, Vira Pandyan was promised the release of his
brother, Sundara Pandyan and safety of the idols in the inner sanctum of the
Meenakshi Temple.
Following this there were two other expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate in 1314
CE led by Khusrav Khan and in 1323 CE by Ulugh Khan. These expeditions led the
already weakened Pandyas to confine around the small region of Tirunelveli. No
inscriptions about Pandyas are known since then. Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan was
appointed governor of the newly created southern-most Ma'bar province of the Delhi
sultanate by Muhammad bin Tughluq. In 1333 CE, Sayyid declared his independence
and created Madurai Sultanate which was replaced by Vijayanagar Empire in 1378.
Telugu kamma Nayak governors were appointed to rule Madurai. These Nayaks
continued to govern Madurai until the arrival of British forces.
[edit] Government and Society
[edit] Trade
Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries of the Pandyas, indicating that the
Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade. [20][21]
[edit] Religion
Historical Madurai was a stronghold of Saivism. Following the invasion of
Kalabhras, Jainism gained a foothold in the Pandyan kingdom. Jainism was something
not new to the land of Pandyas as references to a jainist (and buddhist) past are
found in ancient Tamil literature (see Civaka Cintamani). With the advent of
Bhakti movements, Saivism and Vaishnavism resurfaced. The latter-day Pandyas after
600 AD were Hindus who claimed to descend from Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati.
Pandyan Nedumchadayan was a staunch Vaishnavite.[22]
[edit] Culture
6th century BCE

5th century BCE
4th century BCE
3rd century BCE

2nd century BCE
1st century BCE

1st century CE
2nd century
3rd century
4th century
5th century
6th century
7th century
8th century
9th century
10th century
• Nanda empire
• Kalinga
• Maurya Empire
• Sunga Empire
• Kuninda Kingdom
• Western Satraps
• Gupta Empire
• Harsha
• Pala Empire
• Solanki
• Sena dynasty
Satavahana
Satavahana Empire
←
230 BC–220 AD ↓
Territorial extent of the Satavahana Empire (continuous line), and conquests

(dotted line).
Capital
Paithan, Junnar near Pune and Kotilingala near Godavari River at Karimnagar
Language(s) Prakrit
Maharashtri[1]
Telugu[2]
Religion
Buddhism
Vedic
Government
Monarchy
King
- 230-207 BC Simuka
- 190s AD Madhariputra Svami Sakasena(?)

- Disestablished 220 AD
Preceded by Succeeded by
Mauryan Empire
Kadamba
Ikshvaku
Western Satraps
Chutu
Pallava
The Sātavāhana Empire also known as Andhras[3][4] were a dynasty which ruled from
Junnar (Pune), Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra and Kotilingala (Karimnagar)
in Andhra Pradesh over Southern and Central India from around 230 BCE onward.
Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most
liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The
Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the
onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan empire.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Origins
• 2 Early rulers
o 2.1 Simuka (c.230-207 BCE)
o 2.2 Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE)
o 2.3 Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE)
• 3 Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas
o 3.1 Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE)
• 4 Successors
o 4.1 Decline of the Satavahanas
• 5 Coinage
• 6 Cultural achievements
o 6.1 Art of Amaravati
o 6.2 Art of Sanchi
• 7 List of rulers
• 8 References
• 9 See also
[edit] Origins
The first mention of the Satavahana is in the Aitareya Brahmana, dating back to
the 8th century BCE mentioning them to be of Vishwamitra's lineage.In the Pūrānas
and on their coins the dynasty is variously referred to as the Sātavāhanas,
Sātakarnīs, Andhras and Andhrabhrityas. A reference to the Sātavāhanas by the
Greek traveller Megasthenes indicates that they possessed 100,000 infantry, 1,000
elephants, and had more than 30 well built fortified towns:
Next come the Andarae, a still more powerful race, which possesses numerous
villages, and thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and which supplies its
king with an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
—Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11., quoting Megasthenes[5]
The Sātavāhanas ruled a large and powerful empire that withstood the onslaughts
from Central Asia. Aside from their military power, their commercialism and naval
activity is evidenced by establishment of Indian colonies in southeast Asia.
The Edicts of Ashoka mention the Sātavāhanas as feudatories of Emperor Ashoka.

Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone.
British Museum.
The Sātavāhanas began as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have been
under the control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims they were in his domain, and that
he introduced Buddhism among them:
Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas,
the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas,
everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma.
—Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
The Satavahanas declared independence sometime after the death of Ashoka (232
BCE), as the Maurya Empire began to weaken.
It is believed that they were Buddhistic Brahmins.[6] Some rulers like Maharaja
Satakarni are believed to have performed Vedic sacrifices as well.[7]
They were not only worshipers of The Buddha, but also other incarnations of Vishnu
and Shiva, Gauri, Indra, the sun and moon.[8] They were mostly Buddhistic
Vaishnavites. Under their reign, Buddha had been worshiped as a form of Vishnu in
Amaravati[9]
[edit] Early rulers
The Satavahanas/ Andhras initially ruled in the area of Andhradesa, the Telugu
name for the people country between the rivers Krishna and Godavari[10], which was
always their heartland. The Pūrānas list 30 Andhra rulers. Many are known from
their coins and inscriptions as well.
[edit] Simuka (c.230-207 BCE)
After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty,
conquered Maharashtra, Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh. He was succeeded by his
brother Kanha (or Krishna) (r. 207-189 BCE), who further extended his kingdom to
the west and the south.
[edit] Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE)
Early Satakarni issue, Maharashtra - Vidarbha type.
Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British

Museum.
His successor Sātakarnī I was the sixth ruler of the Satavahana. He is said in the
Puranas to have ruled for 56 years.
Satakarni defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India by wrestling Western Malwa
from them, and performed several Vedic sacrifices at huge cost, including the
Horse Sacrifice - Ashwamedha yajna. He also was in conflict with the Kalinga ruler
Kharavela, who mentions him in the Hathigumpha inscription. According to the Yuga
Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of Kharavela. He extended
Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the Sakas from Pataliputra (he
is thought to be the Yuga Purana's "Shata", an abbreviation of the full name “Shri
Sata” that occurs on coins from Ujjain), where he subsequently ruled for 10 years.
By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital at
Pratishthānapura (Paithan) in Maharashtra, and its power spreading into all of
South India.
[edit] Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE)
Many small rulers succeeded Satakarni, such as Lambodara, Apilaka, Meghasvati and
Kuntala Satakarni, who are thought to have been under the suzerainty of the Kanva
dynasty. The Puranas (the Matsya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Brahmanda Purana,
the Vishnu Purana) all state that the first of the Andhra kings rose to power in
the 1st century BCE, by slaying Susarman, the last ruler of the Kanvas.[11] This
feat is usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi (c. 30-6 BCE), who
then ruled over Pataliputra.
[edit] Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas
The first century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central Asia into
India, where they formed the dynasty of the Western Kshatrapas. The four immediate
successors of Hāla (r. 20-24 CE) had short reigns totalling about a dozen years.
During the reign of the Western Satrap Nahapana, the Satavahanas lost a
considerable territory to the satraps, including eastern Malwa, Southern Gujarat,
and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts.[12]
[edit] Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE)
Coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Obv: King in profile. Prakrit legend "Rano Gotamiputasa Siri Yana Satakarnisa":
"In the reign of Gautamiputra Sri Yana Satakarni"
Rev: Hill with Satavahana symbol, sun and moon. Dravidian legend "Arahanaku gotami
putaku Hiru Yana Hatakanaku".[13]
Eventually Gautamiputra (Sri Yagna) Sātakarni (also known as Shalivahan) (r. 78-
106 CE) defeated the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, restoring the prestige of his
dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Sātavāhanas.
He was an ardent supporter of Hinduism.
According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balasri, he is the
one...
...who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas (the native Indian
princes, the Rajputs of Rajputana, Gujarat and Central India); who destroyed the
Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-
Parthians),... who rooted the Khakharata family (The Kshaharata family of
Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race[14]
Gautamiputra Satakarni may also have defeated Shaka king Vikramaditya in 78 AD and
started the calendar known as Shalivahana era or Shaka era, which is followed by
the Marathi and Telugu people.
Gautamiputra Sātakarni's son, Vashishtiputra Pulumāyi (r. 106-130 CE), succeeded
him. Gautamiputra was the first Sātavāhana king to issue the portrait-type
coinage, in a style derived from the Western Satraps.[15]
[edit] Successors
Silver coin of king Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (c. 160 CE).

Obv: Bust of king. Prakrit legend in the Brahmi script: "Siri Satakanisa Rano ...
Vasithiputasa": "King Vasishtiputra Sri Satakarni"
Rev: Ujjain/Sātavāhana symbol left. Crescented six-arch chaitya hill right. River
below. Dravidian legend in the Brahmi script: "Arahanaku Vahitti makanaku Tiru
Hatakaniko" - rendered as classical Tamil to "The ruler, Vasitti's son, Highness
Satakani" - -ko being the royal name suffix
Gautamiputra's brother, Vashishtiputra Sātakarni, married the daughter of
Rudradaman I of the Western Satraps dynasty. Around 150 CE, Rudradaman I, now his
father-in-law, waged war against the Satavahanas, who were defeated twice in these
conflicts. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was only spared his life because of his family
links with Rudradaman:[16]
"Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in
fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of
the nearness of their connection did not destroy him."
—Junagadh rock inscription [17]
As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories
previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Poona and
Nasik.[18] Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan
and eastern central India around Amaravati.
However, the last great king of this dynasty, Yajna Satakarni, defeated the
Western Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and central
India. [19] During the reign of Sri Yajna Sātakarni (170-199 CE) the Sātavāhanas
regained some prosperity, and some of his coins have been found in Surashtra[20]
but around the middle of the third century, the dynasty came to an end.
[edit] Decline of the Satavahanas
Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167-196 CE).

Four or five kings of Yajna Satakarni's line succeeded him, and continued to rule
till about the mid 200s CE. However, the dynasty was soon extinguished following
the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[21]
Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves. Among them
were:
• Western Satraps in the northwestern part of the kingdom.
• Andhra Ikshvakus (or Srīparvatiyas) in the Krishna-Guntur region. (r. 220-
320 CE).
• Abhiras in the western part of the kingdom. They were ultimately to succeed
the Sātavāhanas in their capital Pratishthānapura.
• Chutus of Banavasi in North Karnataka.
• Kadambas of Banavasi in North Karnataka.
• Pallavas of Kanchipuram, of whom the first ruler was Simhavarman I (r. 275-
300 CE).
[edit] Coinage
Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century BCE.
The Satavahanas are the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with
portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice
derived from that of the Western Satraps he defeated, itself originating with the
Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.
Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and
even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly
lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over
coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings.
The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit
dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in a Dravidian language
in Telugu or Tamil[22] , which seems to have been in use in their heartland
abutting the godavari,probably Kotilingala, Karimnagar district and Krishna,
probably Amaravati, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.[23]
Their coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions,
horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four
circles at the end. The legendary Ujjayini emperor Vikramditiya on whose name the
Vikram Samvat is initiated might be Satakarni II a Satavahana emperor as the
Ujjayini symbol also appeared on the Satavahana coins.
[edit] Cultural achievements
An aniconic representation of Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE,

Amaravati.
Of the Sātavāhana kings, Hāla (r. 20-24 CE) is famous for compiling the collection
of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī),
although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been
re-edited in the succeeding century or two. The Lilavati describes his marriage
with a Ceylonese Princess.
The Satavahanas influenced South-East Asia to a great extent, spreading Hindu
culture, language and religion into that part of the world. Their coins had images
of ships.
[edit] Art of Amaravati
Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd-3rd century CE.

The Sātavāhana kings are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art
and architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including
the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble
slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a
characteristic slim and elegant style. The Satavahana empire colonized southeast
Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts. Mahayana Buddhism, which may have
originated in Andhra (northwestern India being the alternative candidate), was
carried to many parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of the Satavahanas. The
Amaravati style of sculpture spread to Southeast Asia at this time.
[edit] Art of Sanchi
The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of
Sanchi. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to
have been commissioned by them. An inscription records the gift of one of the top
architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana king
Satakarni:
Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri
Satakarni[24]
Throughout, the Buddhist art of the Satavahanas remained aniconic, denying any
human representation of the Buddha, even in highly descriptive scenes. This
remained true until the end of the Satavahana rule, in the 2nd century CE.
[edit] List of rulers
Puranic list of Andhra/ Satavahana kings (Source: "A Catalogue of Indian coins in
the British Museum. Andhras etc...", Rapson). This list, the most complete one
with 30 kings, is based on the Matsya Purana.
• Simuka or Sisuka (r. 230-207 BCE). Also (271-248 BCE), ruled 23 years.
• Krishna (r. 207-189 BCE), ruled 18 years.
• Sri Mallakarni (or Sri Satakarni), ruled 10 years.
• Purnotsanga, ruled 18 years
• Skandhastambhi, ruled 18 years
• Sātakarnī I (195 BCE), ruled 56 years
• Lambodara, ruled 18 years.(r. 87-67 BCE)
Probably as vassals of Kanva dynasty (75-35 BCE):
• Apilaka, ruled 12 years.
• Meghasvati (or Saudasa), ruled 18 years.
• Svati (or Svami), ruled 18 years.
• Skandasvati, ruled 7 years.
• Mahendra Satakarni (or Mrgendra Svatikarna, Satakarni II), ruled 8 years.
• Kuntala Satakarni (or Kuntala Svatikarna), ruled 8 years.
• Svatikarna, ruled 1 year.
• Pulomavi (or Patumavi), ruled 36 years.
• Riktavarna (or Aristakarman), ruled 25 years.
• Hāla (r. 20-24 CE), author of the Gathasaptasati, an Indian literature
classic, ruled 5 years.
• Mandalaka (or Bhavaka, Puttalaka), ruled 5 years.
• Purindrasena, ruled 5 years.
• Sundara Satakarni, ruled 1 year.
• Cakora Satakarni (or Cakora Svatikarna), ruled 6 months.
• Sivasvati, ruled 28 years.
• Gautamiputra Sātakarni, or Gautamiputra, popularly known as Shalivahan (r.
25-78 CE), ruled 21 years.
• Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, or Puloma, Puliman (r. 78-114 CE), ruled 28
years.
• Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (r. 130-160), or Shiva Sri, Sivasri, ruled 7 years.
• Shivaskanda Satakarni, (157-159), ruled 7 years.

• Yajna Sri Satakarni, (r. 167-196 CE), ruled 29 years.
• Vijaya, ruled 6 years.
• Canda Sri Satakarni, ruled 10 years.
• Puloma, 7 years.
• Madhariputra Svami Sakasena? (r. c.190)
[edit] References
General
• Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India.
Madras: Oxford University Press.
• Rapson, E. J. (1990). A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum.
Coins of Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas etc.. Patna.
• Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Notes
1. ^ ""Marathi History, Bhasha India, Microsoft".
http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/Marathi.aspx. Retrieved on 2009-06-27.
2. ^ ""Telugu History,Bhasha India Microsoft".

http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/TeluguFeatures.aspx. Retrieved on
2009-06-27.
3. ^ http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577583/Andhra_Dynasty.html
4. ^ http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/05/stories/2007090559120400.htm
5. ^ Source:fragment LVI.
6. ^ HISTORY – ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND ITS
FEUDATORIES*"
7. ^ HISTORY – ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND ITS
FEUDATORIES*"
8. ^ Mahajan, P. 400 Ancient India
9. ^ G. Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D., P.G. Publishers,
Guntur, p. 116
10. ^ Ancient India: English translation of 'Kitab-ul Hind' by Al-Biruni,
National Book Trust, New Delhi
11. ^ (Rapson, LXIV)
12. ^ "The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were
gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas (Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata
Nahapana's coins in the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled
this region by the first century CE. By becoming master of wide regions including
Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik
and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year
41 (58 CE) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 CE)." in "History of the
Andhras"
13. ^ Source for coin information
14. ^ (Rapson, XXXVII) Original Prakrit, line 5 and 6 of the inscription:
"Khatiya-dapa-mana-madanasa Saka-Yavana-Palhava-nisudanasa — Khakharatavamsa-
niravasesa-karasa Satavahana-kula-yasa patithapana-karasa"
15. ^ (Rapson)
16. ^ "Satakarni, Lord of the Deccan, [whom Rudradaman] (inscription dated Saka
72=150 CE) twice in a fair fight was completely defeated, but did not destroy on
account of the nearness of their connection" (Rapson, XXXVIII, quoting the
Junagadh inscription)
17. ^ "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman".
http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRoc
kInscription.htm.
18. ^ (Rapson)
19. ^ "later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the
Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships,
probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but
probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces" (Majumdar, p. 135)
20. ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVI)
21. ^ ""The different branches of the Satavahana family, which ruled in
different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority, weres soon
ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the outset."
(Majumdar)
22. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2003). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men:
Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press.
ISBN 0-5202-4500-8. p. 291
23. ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVII)
24. ^ Original text "L1: Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2: avesanisa vasithiputasa L3:
Anamdasa danam", Marshall, John. A guide to Sanchi. p. 52
Indo-Greeks
(Redirected from Indo-Greek Kingdom)
Indo-Greek Kingdom
←
180 BC–10 →
Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 BC.

Capital
Alexandria in the Caucasus
Sirkap/Taxila
Sagala/Sialkot
Pushkalavati/Peucela
Language(s) Greek (Greek alphabet)

Pali (Kharoshthi script)
Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script)
Possibly Aramaic
Religion
Buddhism
Ancient Greek religion
Hinduism
Zoroastrianism
Government
Monarchy
King
- 180-160 BC Apollodotus I
- 25 BC-10 Strato II
- Disestablished 10
Indo-Greek Kingdom
Ancient sources
History
Religion
Art
Legacy
The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom[1]) covered various

parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two
centuries BC, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings,[2] often in
conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king
Demetrius invaded India early in the second century BC; in this context the
boundary of "India" is the Hindu Kush. The Greeks in India were eventually divided
from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between
Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes
a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as
Taxila[3] Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.[4] These cities would
house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia and
the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also
probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.
During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek
and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended ancient
Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological
remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism,
pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[5] The diffusion
of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly
through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art.
The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD
following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek
populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent
rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.[6]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Background
o 1.1 Preliminary Greek presence in India
o 1.2 Greek rule in Bactria
o 1.3 Rise of the Sungas (185 BC)
• 2 History of the Indo-Greek kingdom
o 2.1 Nature and quality of the sources
o 2.2 Demetrius
2.2.1 After Demetrius I
2.2.2 The first conquests
o 2.3 Consolidation
2.3.1 The fall of Bactria and death of Menander
o 2.4 Later History
2.4.1 Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 BC)
2.4.2 Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 AD)
2.4.3 Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 BC-)
• 3 Ideology
• 4 Religion
• 5 Art
• 6 Economy
o 6.1 Tribute payments
o 6.2 Trade with China
o 6.3 Indian Ocean trade
• 7 Armed forces
o 7.1 Military technology
o 7.2 Size of Indo-Greek armies
• 8 Legacy of the Indo-Greeks
• 9 List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories
• 10 Footnotes
• 11 References
• 12 See also
[edit] Background
[edit] Preliminary Greek presence in India
In 326 BC Alexander the Great conquered the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis River, and established satrapies as well as
several cities, such as Bucephala, until his troops refused to go further east.[7]
The Indian satrapies of the Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles, who
were confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BC, and remaining Greek
troops in these satrapies were left under the command of general Eudemus. Sometime
after 321 Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 BC. Another general
also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor,[8] until
his departure for Babylon in 316 BC.
In 305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus, where he encountered Chandragupta.
The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage agreement"
(Epigamia, Greek: Επιγαμια), meaning either a dynastic marriage or an agreement
for intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded to
Chandragupta his northwestern territories, possibly as far as Arachosia and
received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in the victory of Seleucus at
the Battle of Ipsus):[9]
"The Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which
formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and
established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to
Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five
hundred elephants."
—Strabo 15.2.1(9)[10]
Also several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes,[11] followed by Deimachus
and Dionysius, were sent to reside at the Mauryan court.[12] Presents continued to
be exchanged between the two rulers.[13] The intensity of these contacts is
testified by the existence of a dedicated Mauryan state department for Greek
(Yavana) and Persian foreigners,[14] or the remains of Hellenistic pottery that
can be found throughout northern India.[15]
Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum
(click image for translation).[16]
On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the
Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka, who had
converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone,
some of them written in Greek,[17][18] that Greek populations within his realm
also had converted to Buddhism:[19]
"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere
people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma."
—Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).
In his edicts, Ashoka claims he sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as
the Mediterranean (Edict No. 13),[20][21] and that he developed herbal medicine in
their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No. 2).[22]
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of
Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita,[23] or the
teacher Mahadharmaraksita,[24] are described in Pali sources as leading Greek
("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII).[25]
It is also thought that Greeks contributed to the sculptural work of the Pillars
of Ashoka,[26] and more generally to the blossoming of Mauryan art.[27]
Again in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an army into India, where he
received war elephants and presents from the king Sophagasenus:[28]
"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into India;
renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more
elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more
provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving
Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had
agreed to hand over to him."
—Polybius 11.39[29]
[edit] Greek rule in Bactria
Greco-Bactrian statue of an old man or philosopher, Ai Khanoum, Bactria, 2nd

century BC
Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Alexander had also established several colonies in neighbouring Bactria, such as
Alexandria on the Oxus (modern Ai-Khanoum) and Alexandria of the Caucasus
(medieval Kapisa, modern Bagram). After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Bactria
became a Satrapy of the Seleucid Empire. In 250 BC the Satrap Diodotus of Bactria
rebelled against the Seleucids and proclaimed himself King of the Greco-Bactrian
Kingdom. According to Ranajit Pal[2] he was the same as the great Ashoka.
Diodotus' son was overthrown by Euthydemus I in 230 BC, who founded the Euthydemid
Dynasty. The Greco-Bactrians maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the door
of India during the rule of the Mauryan empire in India, as exemplified by the
archaeological site of Ai-Khanoum.[30][31]
The Greeks in Bactria (Greco-Bactrians) remained in close contact with the Greeks
in the Mauryan Empire.[32] When the Mauryan empire was overthrown by the Sunga
Dynasty around 185 BC, an army led by King Demetrius I of Bactria invaded India
and seized the lands of the Kabul Valley.
[edit] Rise of the Sungas (185 BC)
Main article: Sunga Empire
In India, the Maurya Dynasty was overthrown around 185 BC when Pusyamitra Sunga,
the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Imperial forces and a Brahmin, assassinated the
last of the Mauryan emperors Brhadrata.[33][34] Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the
throne and established the Sunga Empire, which extended its control as far west as
the Punjab.
Buddhist sources, such as the Asokavadana, mention that Pusyamitra was hostile
towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. A large number of
Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were allegedly converted to Hindu temples, in such
places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath or Mathura. While it is established by
secular sources that Hinduism and Buddhism were in competition during this time,
with the Sungas preferring the former to the latter, historians such as Etienne
Lamotte[35] and Romila Thapar[36] argue that Buddhist accounts of persecution of
Buddhists by Sungas are largely exaggerated.
[edit] History of the Indo-Greek kingdom
Main article: History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
[edit] Nature and quality of the sources
Main article: Indo-Greeks (sources)
Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hellenistic world, at least of
the kings and the wars;[37] this is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman source
on the Indo-Greeks is Justin, who wrote an anthology drawn from the Roman
historian Pompeius Trogus, who in turn wrote, from Greek sources, at the time of
Augustus Caesar.[38] Justin tells the parts of Trogus' history he finds
particularly interesting at some length; he connects them by short and simplified
summaries of the rest of the material. In the process he has left 85% to 90% of
Trogus out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like "meanwhile" (eodem
tempore) and "thereafter" (deinde), which he uses very loosely. Where Justin
covers periods for which there are other and better sources, he has occasionally
made provable mistakes. As Develin, the recent annotator of Justin, and Tarn both
point out, Justin is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he is
collecting instructive moral anecdotes.[39] Justin does find the customs and
growth of the Parthians, which were covered in Trogus' 41st book, quite
interesting, and discusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of the
kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India.[40]
Menander I (155-130 BC) is one of the few Indo-Greek kings mentioned in both
Graeco-Roman and Indian sources.
In addition to these dozen sentences, the geographer Strabo mentions India a few
times in the course of his long dispute with Eratosthenes about the shape of
Eurasia. Most of these are purely geographical claims, but he does mention that
Eratosthenes' sources say that some of the Greek kings conquered further than
Alexander; Strabo does not believe them on this, but modern historians do; nor
does he believe that Menander and Demetrius son of Euthydemus conquered more
tribes than Alexander[41] There is half a story about Menander in one of the books
of Polybius which has not come down to us intact.[42]
There are Indian literary sources, ranging from the Milinda Panha, a dialogue
between a Buddhist sage Nagasena and King Menander I, which includes some
incidental information on Menander's biography and the geography and institutions
of his kingdom, down to a sentence about Menander (presumably the same Menander)
and his attack on Pataliputra which happens to have survived as a standard example
in grammar texts; none is a narrative history. Names in these sources are
consistently Indianized, and there is some dispute whether, for example,
Dharmamitra represents "Demetrius" or is an Indian prince with that name. There
was also a Chinese expedition to Bactria by Chang-k'ien under the Emperor Wu of
Han, recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian and Book of the Former Han,
with additional evidence in the Book of the Later Han; the identification of
places and peoples behind transcriptions into Chinese is difficult, and several
alternate interpretations have been proposed.[43]
There is also significant archaeological evidence, including some epigraphic
evidence, for the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana" embassy of
king Antialcidas on the Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha,[44] primarily in Indic
languages, which has the same problems with names as the Indic literary evidence.
But the chief archaeological evidence is the coins.
There are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers in India; exactly how many
is complicated to determine, because the Greeks did not number their kings, and
the eastern Greeks did not date their coins. For example, there are a substantial
number of coin finds for a King Demetrius, but authors have postulated one, two,
or three Demetrii, and the same coins have been identified by different enquirers
as describing Demetrius I, Demetrius II, or Demetrius III.[45] The following
deductions have been made from coins, in addition to mere existence:
• Kings who left many coins reigned long and prosperously.
• Hoards which contain many coins of the same king come from his realm.
• Kings who use the same iconography are friendly, and may well be from the
same family,
• If a king overstrikes another king's coins, this is an important evidence to
show that the overstriker reigned after the overstruck. Overstrikes may indicate
that the two kings were enemies.
• Indo-Greek coins, like other Hellenistic coins, have monograms in addition
to their inscriptions. These are generally held to indicate a mint official;
therefore, if two kings issue coins with the same monogram, they reigned in the
same area, and if not immediately following one another, have no long interval
between them.
All of these arguments are arguments of probability, and have exceptions; one of
Menander's coins was found in Wales.
The exact time and progression of the Bactrian expansion into India is difficult
to ascertain, but ancient authors name Demetrius, Apollodotus, and Menander as
conquerors.[46]
[edit] Demetrius
The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (c. 205– c.170 BC), wearing the
scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquests in India.[47]
Demetrius I was the son of Euthydemus I of Bactria; there is an inscription from
his father's reign already officially hailing him as victorious. He also has one
of the few absolute dates in Indo-Greek history: after his father held off
Antiochus III for two years, 208-6 BC, the peace treaty included the offer of a
marriage between Demetrius and Antiochus' daughter.[48] Coins of Demetrius I have
been found in Arachosia and in the Kabul Valley; the latter would be the first
entry of the Greeks into India, as they defined it. There is also literary
evidence for a campaign eastward against the Seres and the Phryni; but the order
and dating of these conquests is uncertain.[49] Demetrius I seems to have
conquered the Kabul valley, Arachosia and perhaps Gandhara;[50] he struck no
Indian coins, so either his conquests did not penetrate that far into India or he
died before he could consolidate them. On his coins, Demetrius I always carries
the elephant-helmet worn by Alexander, which seems to be a token of his Indian
conquests.[51] Bopearachchi believes that Demetrius received the title of "King of
India" following his victories south of the Hindu Kush.[52] He was also given,
though perhaps only posthumously, the title ανικητος ("Anicetos", lit. Invincible)
a cult title of Heracles, which Alexander had assumed; the later Indo-Greek kings
Lysias, Philoxenus, and Artemidorus also took it.[53] Finally, Demetrius may have
been the founder of a newly discovered Greek Era, starting in 186/5 BC.[54]
[edit] After Demetrius I
Indo-Greek territory, with known campaigns and battles.[55][56][57]

After the death of Demetrius, the Bactrian kings Pantaleon and Agathocles struck
the first bilingual coins with Indian inscriptions found as far east as Taxila[58]
so in their time (c. 185-170 BC) the Bactrian kingdom seems to have included
Gandhara.[59] Several Bactrian kings followed after Demetrius' death, and it seems
likely that the civil wars between them made it possible for Apollodotus I (from
c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king
(who did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins have been found in
India, and he seems to have reigned in Gandhara as well as western Punjab.
Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of
the Bactrian king Antimachus I.[60]
The next important Indo-Greek king was Menander (from c. 165/155 BC) whose coins
are frequently found even in eastern Punjab. Menander seems to have begun a second
wave of conquests, and since he already ruled in India, it seems likely that the
easternmost conquests were made by him.[61]
According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek territory
for a while included the Indian coastal provinces of Sindh and possibly
Gujarat.[62] With archaeological methods, the Indo-Greek territory can however
only be confirmed from the Kabul Valley to the eastern Punjab, so Greek presence
outside was probably short-lived or less significant.
Western and Indian sources also indicate that the Indo-Greeks may have captured
the Sunga capital Pataliputra in northeastern India, but if this was the case,
they did not hold it for long but were forced to retreat, probably due to wars in
their own territories.[63] Menander's reign saw the end of the Indo-Greek
expansion.
An Indo-Greek stone palette showing Poseidon with attendants. He wears a chiton

tunic, a chlamys cape, and boots. 2nd-1st century BC, Gandhara, Ancient Orient
Museum.
[edit] The first conquests
Greek presence in Arachosia, where Greek populations had been living since before
the acquisition of the territory by Chandragupta from Seleucus is mentioned by
Isidore of Charax. He describes Greek cities there, one of them called Demetrias,
probably in honour of the conqueror Demetrius.[64]
Apollodotus I (and Menander I) were mentioned by Pompejus Trogus as important
Indo-Greek kings.[65] It is theorized that Greek advances temporarily went as far
as the Sunga capital Pataliputra (today Patna) in eastern India. Senior considers
that these conquests can only refer to Menander:[66] Against this, John Mitchener
considers that the Greeks probably raided the Indian capital of Pataliputra during
the time of Demetrius,[67] though Mitchener's analysis is not based on numismatic
evidence.
"Of the eastern parts of India, then, there have become known to us all those
parts which lie this side of the Hypanis, and also any parts beyond the Hypanis of
which an account has been added by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the
Hypanis, to the Ganges and Pataliputra."
—Strabo, 15-1-27[68]
The seriousness of the attack is in some doubt: Menander may merely have joined a
raid led by Indian Kings down the Ganga,[69] as Indo-Greek presence has not been
confirmed this far east.
To the south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of the Sindh and Gujarat,
including the strategic harbour of Barygaza (Bharuch),[70] conquests also attested
by coins dating from the Indo-Greek ruler Apollodotus I and by several ancient
writers (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41/47):[71]
"The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the
coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis."
—Strabo 11.11.1[72]
Menander I became the most important of the Indo-Greek rulers.[73]

Narain however dismisses the account of the Periplus as "just a sailor's story",
and holds that coin finds are not necessarily indicators of occupation.[74] Coin
hoards suggest that in Central India, the area of Malwa may also have been
conquered.[75]
Various Indian records describe Yavana attacks on Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and
Pataliputra. The term Yavana is thought to be a transliteration of "Ionians" and
is known to have designated Hellenistic Greeks (starting with the Edicts of
Ashoka, where Ashoka writes about "the Yavana king Antiochus"),[76] but may have
sometimes referred to other foreigners as well after the 1st century AD.[77]
Patanjali, a grammarian and commentator on Panini around 150 BC, describes in the
Mahābhāsya, the invasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of Sanskrit,
denoting a recent event:[78][79]
• "Arunad Yavanah Sāketam" ("The Yavanas (Greeks) were besieging Saketa")
• "Arunad Yavano Madhyamikām" ("The Yavanas were besieging Madhyamika" (the
"Middle country")).
Also the Brahmanical text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical
events in the form of a prophecy, but is thought to be likely
historical,[80][81][82] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital
Pataliputra,[83] a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates
according to Megasthenes,[84] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's
walls:[85]
"Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the
Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of
the flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name of
Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all the
realm will be in disorder."
—Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47–48, quoted in Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2002 edition
Earlier authors such as Tarn have suggested that the raid on Pataliputra was made
by Demetrius.[86] According to Mitchener, the Hathigumpha inscription indicates
the presence of the Greeks led by a "Demetrius" in eastern India (Magadha)
sometime during the 1st century BC,[87] although this interpretation was
previously disputed by Narain.[88] But while this inscription may be interpreted
as an indication that Demetrius I was the king who made conquests in Punjab, it is
still true that he never issued any Indian coins, and the restoration of his name
in Kharosthi on the Hathigumpha inscription: Di-Mi-Ta, has been doubted.[89] The
"Di" is a reconstruction, and it may be noted that the name of another Indo-Greek
king, Amyntas, is spelt A-Mi-Ta in Kharosthi and may fit in.
Therefore, Menander remains the likeliest candidate for any advance east of
Punjab.
[edit] Consolidation
Eucratides I toppled the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty, and attacked the Indo-
Greeks from the west.
The important Bactrian king Eucratides seems to have attacked the Indo-Greek
kingdom during the mid 2nd century BC. A Demetrius, called "King of the Indians",
seems to have confronted Eucratides in a four month siege, reported by Justin, but
he ultimately lost.[90]
In any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory as far as the Indus,
between ca. 170 BC and 150 BC.[91] His advances were ultimately checked by the
Indo-Greek king Menander I,[92]
Menander is considered to have been probably the most successful Indo-Greek king,
and the conqueror of the largest territory.[93] The finds of his coins are the
most numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings. Menander is
also remembered in Buddhist literature, where he called Milinda, and is described
in the Milinda Panha as a convert to Buddhism:[94] he became an arhat[95] whose
relics were enshrined in a manner reminiscent of the Buddha.[96][97] He also
introduced a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") on
the reverse, which was adopted by most of his successors in the East.[98]
[edit] The fall of Bactria and death of Menander
From the mid-2nd century BC, the Scythians and then the Yuezhi, following a long
migration from the border of China, started to invade Bactria from the north.[99]
Around 130 BC the last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles was probably killed during
the invasion and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom proper ceased to exist. The Parthians
also probably played a role in the downfall of the Bactrian kingdom.
Coin of Philoxenus (c.100 BC), unarmed, making a blessing gesture with the right
hand.
The Indo-Greek states, shielded by the Hindu Kush range, were saved from the
invasions, but the civil wars which had weakened the Greeks continued. Menander I,
died around the same time, and even though the king himself seems to have been
popular among his subjects, his dynasty was at least partially dethroned (see
discussion under Menander I). Probable members of the dynasty of Menander include
the ruling queen Agathokleia, her son Strato I, and Nicias, though it is uncertain
whether they ruled directly after Menander.[100] Other kings emerged, usually in
the western part of the Indo-Greek realm, such as Zoilos I, Lysias, Antialcidas
and Philoxenos.[101] These rulers may have been relatives of either the Eucratid
or the Euthydemid dynasties. The names of later kings were often new (members of
Hellenistic dynasties usually inherited family names) but old reverses and titles
were frequently repeated by the later rulers.
While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I mainly issued bilingual (Greek and
Kharoshti) coins for circulation in their own territories, several of them also
struck rare Greek coins which have been found in Bactria. The later kings probably
struck these coins as some kind of payment to the Scythian or Yuezhi tribes who
now ruled there, though if as tribute or payment for mercenaries remains
unknown.[102] For some decades after the Bactrian invasion, relationships seem to
have been peaceful between the Indo-Greeks and these relatively hellenised nomad
tribes.
There are however no historical recordings of events in the Indo-Greek kingdom
after Menander's death around 130 BC, since the Indo-Greeks had now become very
isolated from the rest of the Graeco-Roman world. The later history of the Indo-
Greek states, which lasted to around the shift BC/AD, is reconstructed almost
entirely from archaeological and numismatical analyses.[103]
[edit] Later History
Throughout the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to the
Indians in the east, and the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in the West.
About 20 Indo-Greek king are known during this period,[104] down to the last known
Indo-Greek ruler, a king named Strato II, who ruled in the Punjab region until
around 55 BC.[105] Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign as
late as 10 AD - see below in the list of coins.
[edit] Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 BC)
Coin of the Yaudheyas.

The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura until sometime in the
1st century BC: the Maghera inscription, from a village near Mathura, records the
dedication of a well "in the one hundred and sixteenth year of the reign of the
Yavanas", which could be as late as 70 BC.[106] Soon however Indian kings
recovered the area of Mathura and south-eastern Punjab, west of the Yamuna River,
and started to mint their own coins. The Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and
Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas",
"Victory of the Yaudheyas"). During the 1st century BC, the Trigartas,
Audumbaras[107] and finally the Kunindas[108] also started to mint their own
coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek
coinage.[109][110][111][112]
The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek territory
from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 to 95 BC, after what the
territories fragmented again. The western kings regained their territory as far
west as Arachosia, and eastern kings continued to rule on and off until the
beginning of our era.
[edit] Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 AD)
Main article: Indo-Scythians
Asia in 1 AD, showing last kingdom of the Indo-Greeks.
Tetradrachm of Hippostratos, reigned circa 65-55 BC.
Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r.c. 35-12 BC).

Around 80 BC, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues, possibly a general in the service
of the Indo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the Indo-
Greeks again took control. He seems to have been married to an Indo-Greek
princess.[113] King Hippostratos (65-55 BC) seems to have been one of the most
successful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian Azes I,
who established an Indo-Scythian dynasty.[114] Various coins seem to suggest that
some sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-Greeks and the
Scythians.[115]
Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily and politically, they
remained surprisingly respectful of Greek and Indian cultures. Their coins were
minted in Greek mints, continued using proper Greek and Kharoshthi legends, and
incorporated depictions of Greek deities, particularly Zeus.[116] The Mathura lion
capital inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist faith, as do the
depictions of deities forming the vitarka mudra on their coins. Greek communities,
far from being exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian rule. There is
a possibility that a fusion, rather than a confrontation, occurred between the
Greeks and the Indo-Scythians: in a recently published coin, Artemidoros presents
himself as "son of Maues",[117] and the Buner reliefs show Indo-Greeks and Indo-
Scythians reveling in a Buddhist context.
The Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the eastern Punjab, until the
kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king Strato was taken over by the Indo-Scythian
ruler Rajuvula around 10 AD.[118]
[edit] Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 BC-)
Main article: Yuezhi
Silver bilingual drachm of Hermaeus (ruled 90-70 BC) with his wife Kalliope. King
on horse, equipped with the recurve bow of the steppes.
Around eight "western" Indo-Greek kings are known; most of them are distinguished
by their issues of Attic coins for circulation in the neighbouring.
One of the last important kings in the Paropamisadae was Hermaeus, who ruled until
around 80 BC; soon after his death the Yuezhi or Sakas took over his areas from
neighbouring Bactria. When Hermaeus is depicted on his coins riding a horse, he is
equipped with the recurve bow and bow-case of the steppes and RC Senior believes
him to be of partly nomad origin. The later king Hippostratus may however also
have held territories in the Paropamisadae.
After the death of Hermaeus, the Yuezhi or Saka nomads became the new rulers of
the Paropamisadae, and minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of Hermaeus up
to around 40 AD, when they blend with the coinage of the Kushan king Kujula
Kadphises.[119] The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20
BC, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings,
probably depending on Greek mints and celators.
The last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler is suggested by an inscription on a
signet ring of the 1st century AD in the name of a king Theodamas, from the Bajaur
area of Gandhara, in modern Pakistan. No coins of him are known, but the signet
bears in kharoshthi script the inscription "Su Theodamasa", "Su" being explained
as the Greek transliteration of the ubiquitous Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah",
"King").[120]
[edit] Ideology
Bilingual silver drachm of Menander I (160-135 BC). With obverse in Greek

"BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY" and reverse in Kharosthi "MAHARAJA TRATASA
MENADRASA": "Of The Saviour King Menander". Reverse shows Athena advancing left,
with thunderbolt and shield.
Indian-standard coin of Apollodotus I (180–160 BC).

Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of
Menander, has been remembered as benevolent. It has been suggested, although
direct evidence is lacking, that their invasion of India was intended to show
their support for the Mauryan empire which may have had a long history of marital
alliances,[121] exchange of presents,[122] demonstrations of friendship,[123]
exchange of ambassadors[124] and religious missions[125] with the Greeks. The
historian Diodorus even wrote that the king of Pataliputra had "great love for the
Greeks".[126][127]
The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek
populations in India,[128] and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious
persecutions of the Sungas.[129] The city of Sirkap founded by Demetrius combines
Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two cultures.
The first Greek coins to be minted in India, those of Menander I and Appolodotus I
bear the mention "Saviour king" (ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ), a title with high value in the
Greek world which indicated an important deflective victory. For instance, Ptolemy
I had been Soter (saviour) because he had helped save Rhodes from Demetrius the
Besieger, and Antiochus I because he had saved Asia Minor from the Gauls. The
title was also inscribed in Pali as ("Tratarasa") on the reverse of their coins.
Menander and Apollodotus may indeed have been saviours to the Greek populations
residing in India, and to some of the Indians as well.[130]
Also, most of the coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual, written in
Greek on the front and in Pali on the back (in the Kharoshthi script, derived from
Aramaic, rather than the more eastern Brahmi, which was used only once on coins of
Agathocles of Bactria), a tremendous concession to another culture never before
made in the Hellenic world.[131] From the reign of Apollodotus II, around 80 BC,
Kharoshthi letters started to be used as mintmarks on coins in combination with
Greek monograms and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of local technicians
to the minting process.[132] Incidentally, these bilingual coins of the Indo-
Greeks were the key in the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James Prinsep
(1799–1840).[133] Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century AD.
In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Yavanas (in
Sanskrit),[134][135][136] or Yonas (in Pali)[137] both thought to be
transliterations of "Ionians". In the Harivamsa the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks are
qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-
pungava i.e. foremost among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Nikaya
explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with the
numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people, Aryas and Dasas
(masters and slaves).
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religions of the Indo-Greeks
Indian-standard coinage of Menander I with a Buddhist eight-spoked wheel,[138] and

a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum).
In addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of the Greek deities found on
their coins (Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Apollo...), the Indo-Greeks were involved
with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and
Zoroastrianism.[139]
After the Greco-Bactrians militarily occupied parts of northern India from around
180 BC, numerous instances of interaction between Greeks and Buddhism are
recorded. Menander I, the "Saviour king", seems to have converted to
Buddhism,[140] and is described as a great benefactor of the religion, on a par
with Ashoka or the future Kushan emperor Kanishka.[141] The wheel he represented
on some of his coins was probably Buddhist,[138] and he is famous for his
dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milinda Panha,
which explain that he became a Buddhist arhat:
"And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) handed
over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the house-less
state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to Arahatship!"
—The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids.
Another Indian text, the Stupavadana of Ksemendra, mentions in the form of a
prophecy that Menander will build a stupa in Pataliputra.[142]
Plutarch also presents Menander as an example of benevolent rule, and explains
that upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the various
cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in "monuments" (μνημεία, probably
stupas), in a parallel with the historic Buddha:[143]
"But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died
afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his
funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last
brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry
away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him."
—Plutarch, "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6).[144]
[edit] Art
Main article: Art of the Indo-Greeks
Greek Buddhist devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style,

inside Corinthian columns, Buner relief, Victoria and Albert Museum.
In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented, and few works of art
(apart from their coins and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them.
The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is generally considered as some of the most
artistically brilliant of Antiquity.[145] The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-Khanoum)
and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would suggest a rich sculptural
tradition as well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have been
attributed to them. On the contrary, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art are
usually attributed to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in India in 1st
century AD, such as the nomadic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in an
already decadent state, the Kushans[146] In general, Gandharan sculpture cannot be
dated exactly, leaving the exact chronology open to interpretation.
Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes, amphoras, wine and
music (Detail of Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa, Hadda, Gandhara, 1st century AD).
The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist
art has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has
been extended to the first decades of the 1st century AD, with the reign of Strato
II in the Punjab.[147] Also, Foucher, Tarn, and more recently, Boardman, Bussagli
and McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works
of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later
centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to the
time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century BC:[148]
Indo-Greek princes may have been the models for the Bodhisattvas of the Greco-
Buddhist art of Gandhara.[149]
This also seems to be corroborated by Ranajit Pal's suggestion that the Indo-Greek
king Diodotus_I was the great Ashoka.[3].[150]
This is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in Hadda,
Afghanistan, an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist
sculpture in Indo-Greek style".[151] Referring to one of the Buddha triads in
Hadda, in which the Buddha is sided by very Classical depictions of
Herakles/Vajrapani and Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures "might at
first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of the
first or second century BC (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed by
artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the Classical
style".[152]
Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have been
executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the
West from the 1st to the 3rd century AD.[153]
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the omnipresence of Greek style and
stylistic elements which might be simply considered as an enduring artistic
tradition,[154] offers numerous depictions of people in Greek Classical realistic
style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the chiton and the himation, similar
in form and style to the 2nd century BC Greco-Bactrian statues of Ai-Khanoum,
hairstyle), holding contraptions which are characteristic of Greek culture
(amphoras, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which can range from
festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional.[155][156]
Seated Boddhisatva, Gandhara, 2nd century (Ostasiatische Museum, Berlin)

Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually depict
Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BC, or remaining
Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians or Kushans in the 1st and
2nd century AD. Benjamin Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the
Indo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the models for the Bodhisattva
statues of Gandhara[157]
[edit] Economy
Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks, although it seems to
have been rather vibrant.[158][159] The abundance of their coins would tend to
suggest large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous area of the
Hindu-Kush, and an important monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike bilingual
coins both in the Greek "round" standard and in the Indian "square" standard,[160]
suggesting that monetary circulation extended to all parts of society. The
adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighbouring kingdoms, such as the
Kunindas to the east and the Satavahanas to the south,[161] would also suggest
that Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border trade.
[edit] Tribute payments
Stone palette depicting a mythological scene, 2nd-1st century BC.
It would also seem that some of the coins emitted by the Indo-Greek kings,
particularly those in the monolingual Attic standard, may have been used to pay
some form of tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush.[102] This is
indicated by the coins finds of the Qunduz hoard in northern Afghanistan, which
have yielded quantities of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard (Greek
weights, Greek language), although none of the kings represented in the hoard are
known to have ruled so far north.[162] Conversely, none of these coins have ever
been found south of the Hindu-Kush.[163]
[edit] Trade with China
An indirect testimony by the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited Bactria
around 128 BC, suggests that intense trade with Southern China was going through
northern India. Zhang Qian explains that he found Chinese products in the Bactrian
markets, and that they were transiting through northwestern India, which he
incidentally describes as a civilization similar to that of Bactria:
"When I was in Bactria," Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and
cloth (silk?) made in the province of Shu. When I asked the people how they had
gotten such articles, they replied: "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of
Shendu (northwestern India). Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand li
southeast of Bactria. The people cultivate land, and live much like the people of
Bactria".
—Sima Qian, "Records of the Great Historian", trans. Burton Watson, p. 236.
[edit] Indian Ocean trade
Maritime relations across the Indian ocean started in the 3rd century BC, and
further developed during the time of the Indo-Greeks together with their
territorial expansion along the western coast of India. The first contacts started
when the Ptolemies constructed the Red Sea ports of Myos Hormos and Berenike, with
destination the Indus delta, the Kathiawar peninsula or Muziris. Around 130 BC,
Eudoxus of Cyzicus is reported (Strabo, Geog. II.3.4)[164] to have made a
successful voyage to India and returned with a cargo of perfumes and gemstones. By
the time Indo-Greek rule was ending, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year
from Myos Hormos to India (Strabo Geog. II.5.12).[165]
[edit] Armed forces
The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich clues on their uniforms and weapons.
Typical Hellenistic uniforms are depicted, with helmets being either round in the
Greco-Bactrian style, or the flat kausia of the Macedonians (coins of Apollodotus
I).
[edit] Military technology
Their weapons were spears, swords, longbow (on the coins of Agathokleia) and
arrows. Interestingly, around 130 BC the Central Asian recurve bow of the steppes
with its gorytos box starts to appear for the first time on the coins of Zoilos I,
suggesting strong interactions (and apparently an alliance) with nomadic peoples,
either Yuezhi or Scythian.[166] The recurve bow becomes a standard feature of
Indo-Greek horsemen by 90 BC, as seen on some of the coins of Hermaeus.
Generally, Indo-Greek kings are often represented riding horses, as early as the
reign of Antimachus II around 160 BC. The equestrian tradition probably goes back
to the Greco-Bactrians, who are said by Polybius to have faced a Seleucid invasion
in 210 BC with 10,000 horsemen.[167] Although war elephants are never represented
on coins, a harness plate (phalera) dated to the 3-2nd century BC, today in the
Hermitage Museum, depicts a helmetted Greek combatant on an Indian war elephant.
Indo-Greek officer (on a coin of Menander II), circa 90 BC. He is equipped with a
cuirass, lamellar armour for the thighs, and leg protections (cnemids).[168]
The Milinda Panha, in the questions of Nagasena to king Menander, provides a rare
glimpse of the military methods of the period:
"(Nagasena) Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose up against
you as enemies and opponents?
-(Menander) Yes, certainly.
-Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, and ramparts thrown up, and
watch towers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of food collected?
-Not at all. All that had been prepared beforehand.
-Or you had yourself trained in the management of war elephants, and in
horsemanship, and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery and fencing?
-Not at all. I had learnt all that before.
-But why?
-With the object of warding off future danger."
(Milinda Panha, Book III, Chap 7)
The Milinda Panha also describes the structure of Menander's army:
"Now one day Milinda the king proceeded forth out of the city to pass in review
the innumerable host of his mighty army in its fourfold array (of elephants,
cavalry, bowmen, and soldiers on foot)." (Milinda Panha, Book I)
[edit] Size of Indo-Greek armies
The Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides (171-145 BC) is said to have vanquished 60,000
Indo-Greeks, before being himself defeated by Menander.
The armed forces of the Indo-Greeks engaged in important battles with local Indian
forces. The ruler of Kalinga, Kharavela, claims in the Hathigumpha inscription
that he led a "large army" in the direction of Demetrius' own "army" and
"transports", and that he induced him to retreat from Pataliputra to Mathura. The
Greek ambassador Megasthenes took special note of the military strength of Kalinga
in his Indica in the middle of the 3rd century BC:
"The royal city of the Calingae (Kalinga) is called Parthalis. Over their king
60,000-foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward in
"procinct of war."
—Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8–23. 11.[169]
An account by the Roman writer Justin gives another hint of the size of Indo-Greek
armies, which, in the case of the conflict between the Greco-Bactrian Eucratides
and the Indo-Greek Demetrius II, he numbers at 60,000 (although they allegedly
lost to 300 Greco-Bactrians):
"Eucratides led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put
under siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and
managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after
four months, he put India under his rule"
—Justin, XLI,6[170]
These are considerable numbers, as large armies during the Hellenistic period
typically numbered between 20,000 to 30,000.[171]
The Indo-Greeks were later confronted by the nomadic tribes from Central Asia
(Yuezhi and Scythians). According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi represented a
considerable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted archer warriors,[172]
with customs identical to those of the Xiongnu.
[edit] Legacy of the Indo-Greeks
Main article: Legacy of the Indo-Greeks
The Indo-Scythian Taxila copper plate uses the Macedonian month of "Panemos" for
calendrical purposes (British Museum).[173]
From the 1st century AD, the Greek communities of central Asia and northwestern
India lived under the control of the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi, apart from a
short-lived invasion of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom.[174] The Kushans founded the
Kushan Empire, which was to prosper for several centuries. In the south, the
Greeks were under the rule of the Western Kshatrapas.
It is unclear how much longer the Greeks managed to maintain a distinct presence
in the Indian sub-continent. The legacy of the Indo-Greeks was felt however for
several centuries, from the usage of the Greek language and calendrical
methods,[175] to the influences on the numismatics of the Indian subcontinent,
tracable down to the period of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century.[176]
The Indo-Greeks may also have had some influence on the religious plan as well,
especially in relation to the developing Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism has
been described as "the form of Buddhism which (regardless of how Hinduized its
later forms became) seems to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities of
India, through a conflation of the Greek Democritean-Sophistic-Skeptical tradition
with the rudimentary and unformalized empirical and skeptical elements already
present in early Buddhism".[177]
[edit] List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories
Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in Western
and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through numismatic
evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of their rule is still a matter
of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis and
coin finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most critical
element in establishing chronological sequences). The system used here is adapted
from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and occasionally
other authorities.[178]
INDO-GREEK KINGS AND THEIR TERRITORIES
Based on Bopearachchi (1991)
Territories/
Dates PAROPAMISADE
ARACHOSIA
GANDHARA
WESTERN PUNJAB
EASTERN PUNJAB
200-190 BCE Demetrius I
190-180 BCE Agathocles

Pantaleon
185-170 BCE Antimachus I
180-160 BCE Apollodotus I
175-170 BCE Demetrius II
160-155 BCE Antimachus II
170-145 BCE Eucratides
155-130 BCE Menander I
130-120 BCE Zoilos I

Agathokleia
120-110 BCE Lysias

Strato I
110-100 BCE Antialcidas

Heliokles II
100 BCE Polyxenios

Demetrius III
100-95 BCE Philoxenus

95-90 BCE Diomedes
Amyntas
Epander
90 BCE Theophilos
Peukolaos
Thraso
90-85 BCE Nicias

Menander II
Artemidoros
90-70 BCE Hermaeus

Archebios
Yuezhi tribes
Maues (Indo-Scythian)
75-70 BCE Telephos

Apollodotus II
65-55 BCE Hippostratos

Dionysios
55-35 BCE Azes I (Indo-Scythian) Zoilos II
55-35 BCE Apollophanes
25 BCE- 10 CE Strato II
Rajuvula (Indo-Scythian)
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ As in other compounds such as "French-Canadian", "African-American" ,
"Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area of
arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" is normally a more accurate
nomenclature than "Indo-Greek". The latter however has become the general usage,
especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indo-Greeks".
2. ^ Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius11.34, a Magnesian Greek. His son,
Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity
at least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius with
a daughter of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (who had some Persian descent).
Polybius 11.34. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear ("Notes on
Hellenism in Bactria and India". W. W. Tarn. Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 22
(1902), pages 268–293). For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) may have been of Indo-
Scythian ascendency. Some level of inter-marriage may also have occurred, as
exemplified by Alexander III of Macedon (who married Roxana of Bactria) or
Seleucus (who married Apama).
3. ^ Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is
unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John Marshall's
excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have
encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of
Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city
but an Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian plan.
4. ^ "Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83.
McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian
Greek king of the Euthydemid dysnasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in
the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However,
"Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital
for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena,
just as the Ganges flows to the sea."
5. ^ "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian
symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from
Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic
influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130
6. ^ "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all
killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and
worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and
civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.278
7. ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.92-93
8. ^ :"To the colonies settled in India, Python, the son of Agenor, was sent."
Justin XIII.4
10. ^ "Strabo 15.2.1(9)". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-
bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120.
12. ^ "Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador to
Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambassador to Chandragupta's son Bindusara; and
Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, Bindusara's
son", McEvilley, p.367
13. ^ Classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta
and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various
aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of
wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And Phylarchus
confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of
the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a
wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love"
Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32.
Mentioned in McEvilley, p.367
14. ^ "The very fact that both Megasthenes and Kautilya refer to a state
department run and maintained specifically for the purpose of looking after
foreigners, who were mostly Yavanas and Persians, testifies to the impact created
by these contacts.", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p.363
15. ^ "It also explains (...) random finds from the Sarnath, Basarth, and Patna
regions of terra-cotta pieces of distinctive Hellenistic or with definite
Hellenistic motifs and designs", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.363
16. ^ "A minor rock edict, recently discovered at Kandahar, was inscribed in two
scripts, Greek and Aramaic", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.112
17. ^ "The second Kandahar edict (the purely Greek one) of Asoka is a part of
the "corpus" known as the "Fourteen-Rock-Edicts"" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003,
p.452
18. ^ "It is also in Kandahar that were found the fragments of a Greek
translation of Edicts XII and XIII, as well as the Aramean translation of another
edict of Ashoka", Bussagli, p.89
19. ^ "Within Ashoka's domain Greeks may have had special privileges, perhaps
ones established by the terms of the Seleucid alliance. Rock Edict Thirteen
indicates the existence of a Greek principality in the northwest of Ashoka's
empire -perhaps Kandahar, or Alexandria-of-the-Arachosians- which was not ruled by
him and for which he troubled to send Buddhist missionaries and published at least
some of his edicts in Greek", McEvilley, p.368
20. ^ "Thirteen, the longest and most important of the edicts, contains the
claim, seemingly outlandish t first glance, that Ashoka had sent missions to the
lands of the Greek monarchs -not only those of Asia, such as the Seleucids, but
those back in the Mediterranean also", McEvilley, p.368
21. ^ "When Ashoka was converted to Buddhism, his first thought was to despatch
missionaries to his friends, the Greek monarchs of Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia",
Rawlinson, Intercourse between India and the Western world, p.39, quoted in
McEvilley, p.368
22. ^ "In Rock Edict Two Ashoka even claims to have established hospitals for
men and beasts in the Hellenistic kingdoms", McEvilley, p.368
23. ^ "One of the most famous of these emissaries, Dharmaraksita, who was said
to have converted thousands, was a Greek (Mhv.XII.5 and 34)", McEvilley, p.370
24. ^ "The Mahavamsa tells that "the celebrated Greek teacher Mahadharmaraksita
in the second century BC led a delegation of 30,000 monks from Alexandria-of-the-
Caucasus Alexandra-of-the-Yonas, or of-the-Greeks, the Ceylonese text actually
says to the opening of the great Ruanvalli Stupa at Anuradhapura"", McEvilley,
p.370, quoting Woodcock, "The Greeks in India", p.55
25. ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII
26. ^ "The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso-Greek
sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or without foreign supervision"
Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", p4
27. ^ "A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or even the Greeks,
worked alongside the local craftsmen, and some of their skills were copied with
avidity" Burjor Avari, "India, The ancient past", p118
28. ^ "Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus I after the
aborted siege of Bactra, renewed with Sophagasenus the alliance concluded by his
ancestor Seleucos I", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.52
29. ^ "Polybius 11.39". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-
bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234&query=head%3D%23717.
30. ^ "So far, in Bactria, a theater has been identified at Ai Khanoum",
McEvilley, p.386
31. ^ "The discovery of the Bactrian Greek city of Ai-Khanoum is surely one of
the most significant gifts archaeology has given to history during the last thirty
years", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.426
32. ^ "Bactria, as part of the Persian conquests of Alexander the Great, had
become part of the Seleucid kingdom run from Syria. In the middle of the third
century BC Bactria, along with another Persian province, Parthia, revolted against
the Seleucids. (...) These Greco-Bactrian kings clashed with the Mauryans during
their forays into northwest India", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130
33. ^ "General Pusyamitra, who is at the origin of the Sunga dynasty. He was
supported by the Brahmins and even became the symbol of the Brahmanical turnover
against the Buddhism of the Mauryas. The capital was then transferred to
Pataliputra (today's Patna)", Bussagli, p.99
34. ^ Pushyamitra is described as a "senapati" (Commander-in-chief) of Brhadrata
in the Puranas
35. ^ E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-
Neuve 1988 (1958), p. 109.
36. ^ Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University
Press, 1960 P200
37. ^ See Polybius, Arrian, Livy, Cassius Dio, and Diodorus. Justin, who will be
discussed shortly, provides a summary of the histories of Hellenistic Macedonia,
Egypt, Asia, and Parthia.
38. ^ For the date of Trogus, see the OCD on "Trogus" and Yardley/Develin, p. 2;
since Trogus' father was in charge of Julius Caesar's diplomatic missions before
the history was written (Justin 43.5.11), Senior's date in the following quotation
is too early: "The Western sources for accounts of Bactrian and Indo-Greek history
are: Polybius, a Greek born c.200 BC; Strabo, a Roman who drew on the lost history
of Apollodoros of Artemita (c.130-87 BC9, and Justin, who drew on Trogus, a post
87 BC writer", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV, p.x; the extent to which Strabo is
citing Apollodorus is disputed, beyond the three places he names Apollodorus (and
he may have those through Eratosthenes). Polybius speaks of Bactria, not of India.
39. ^ Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus translated by

J. C. Yardley, notes and introduction by Robert Develin. (Atlanta 1994). The
source for these paragraphs, and the next insofar as it is not Justin, is the
Introduction pp. 1-11. See also Tarn (1951) p.50.
40. ^ Justin, 41.4.5, 41.4.8-9, 41.6.1-5, ed. cit.; The names of Theodotus I and
II; Eucratides and his unnamed parricidal son; and "Demetrius, king of the
Indians" (so Yardley: Indorum rex, Develin's note implies this is Demetrius II,
but suggests that Demetrius I and II may be the same person.) Theodotus in
Justin's text is clearly an error for Diodotus; the two prefixes both mean "God",
no coins support his existence, and Trogus' tables of contents (the so-called
prologues) survive (Develin and Yardley, p.284) saying Diodotus; they also include
Indicae quoque res additae, gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum "some
Indian matters, namely the achievements of the Indian kings, Apollodotus and
Menander.", although Justin does not mention Apollodotus. Tarn, Narain, and
Bopearchchi all correct to Diodotus.
41. ^ Strabo, Geographia 11.11.1 p.516 Casaubon. 15.1.2, p. 686 Casaubon,
"tribes" is Jones' version of ethne (Loeb)
42. ^ For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn's Index II; but this covers
India, Bactria, and several sources for the Hellenstic East as a whole.
43. ^ Tarn, App. 20; Narain (1957) pp. 136, 156 et alii.
44. ^ "The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the presence of the
Yavana Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa as an envoy from Taxila of king
Antialkidas around 140 BC", Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.64
45. ^ Tarn and Narain postulate two Demetrii; the former thinks the Demetrius
Anicetus coins describe Demetrius I, although actually made by Demetrius II; the
latter that they are entirely by Demetrius II, and have nothing to do with
Demetrius I. Bopearachchi ascribes one more recent find to Agathocles, but
depicting Demetrius I; he postulates a much later Demetrius III for the previously
known coins; this result is now fairly widely accepted by numismatists. The
possibility of one Demetrius is attested by Develin and Brill's New Pauly,
"Demetrius 4"
46. ^ This reconstruction is adapted mainly from the works of Bopearachchi.
Bopearachchi (1991,1998)
47. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xii
48. ^ Polybius 11.34
49. ^ The first conquests of Demetrius have usually been held to be during his
father's lifetime; the difference has been over the actual date. Tarn and Narain
agreed on having them begin around 180; Bopearachchi moved this back to 200, and
has been followed by much of the more recent literature, but see Brill's New
Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World (Boston, 2006) "Demetrius" §10, which
places the invasion "probably in 184". D.H. MacDowall, "The Role of Demetrius in
Arachosia and the Kabul Valley," published in the volume: O. Bopearachchi, Landes
(ed), Afghanistan Ancien Carrefour Entre L'Est Et L'Ouest, (Brepols 2005)
discusses an inscription dedicated to Euthydemus, "Greatest of all kings" and his
son Demetrius, who is not called king but "Victorious" (Kallinikos). This is taken
to indicate that Demetrius was his father's general during the first conquests. It
is uncertain whether the Kabul valley or Arachosia were conquered first, and
whether the latter province was taken from the Seleucids after their defeat by the
Romans in 190 BC. Peculiar enough, more coins of Euthydemus I than of Demetrius I
have been found in the mentioned provinces. The calendar of the "Yonas" is proven
by an inscription giving a triple synchronism to have begun in 186/5 BC; what
event is commemorated is itself uncertain. Richard Salomon "The Indo-Greek era of
186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription", in Afghanistan, Ancien Carrefour
cited.
50. ^ "Demetrius occupied a large part of the Indus delta, Saurashtra and
Kutch", Burjor Avari, p.130
51. ^ "It would be impossible to explain otherwise why in all his portraits
Demetrios is crowned with an elephant scalp", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.53
52. ^ "We think that the conquests of these regions south of the Hindu Kush
brought to Demetrius I the title of "King of India" given to him by Apollodorus of
Artemita." Bopearachchi, p.52
53. ^ For Heracles, see Lillian B. Lawler "Orchesis Kallinikos" Transactions and
Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 79. (1948), pp. 254-
267, p. 262; for Artemidorus, see K. Walton Dobbins "The Commerce of Kapisene and
Gandhāra after the Fall of Indo-Greek Rule" Journal of the Economic and Social
History of the Orient, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Dec., 1971), pp. 286-302 (Both JSTOR).
Tarn, p.132, argues that Alexander did not assume as a title, but was only hailed
by it, but see Peter Green, The Hellenistic Age, p.7; see also Senior, Indo-
Scythian coins, p.xii. No undisputed coins of Demetrius I himself use this title,
but it is employed on one of the pedigree coins issued by Agathocles, which bear
on the reverse the classical profile of Demetrius crowned by the elephant scalp,
with the legend DEMETRIOS ANIKETOS, and on the reverse Herakles crowning himself,
with the legend "Of king Agathocles" (Boppearachchi, "Monnaies", p.179 and Pl 8).
Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India, Chap IV.
54. ^ "It now seeems most likely that Demetrios was the founder of the newly
discovered Greek Era of 186/5", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV
55. ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian
Peninsula. Oxford University Press.
56. ^ Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek Kings. Ares. ISBN
0890051097.
57. ^ Hans Erich Stier, Georg Westermann Verlag, Ernst Kirsten, and Ekkehard
Aner. Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Vorzeit. Altertum. Mittelalter. Neuzeit.
Westermann, 1978, ISBN 3141009198.
58. ^ MacDowall, 2004
59. ^ "The only thing that seems reasonnably sure is that Taxila was part of the
domain of Agathocles", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.59
60. ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.63
61. ^ "There is certainly some truth in Apollodorus and Strabo when they
attribute to Menander the advances made by the Greeks of Bactria beyond the
Hypanis and even as far as the Ganges and Palibothra (...) That the Yavanas
advanced even beyond in the east, to the Ganges-Jamuna valley, about the middle of
the second century BC is supported by the cumulative evidence provided by Indian
sources", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" p.267.
62. ^ "The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the
rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis."
Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1)
63. ^ "The combination of textual and numismatic evidence allows to see what was
the conflict between Eucratides and Menander. When Menander was engaged in a
bloody conquest of the Ganges valley, Eucratides I would have taken advantage of
this opportunity to invade his kingdom. This would be the "civil war" mentioned in
the Yuga Purana; this would explain that Menander had to stop his conquest of the
Ganges valley, and had to return hastily to face the aggressor", Bopearachchi,
Monnaies, p.85
64. ^ In the 1st century BC, the geographer Isidorus of Charax mentions
Parthians ruling over Greek populations and cities in Arachosia: "Beyond is
Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and
the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then
Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the
river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the
Parthians." "Parthians stations", 1st century BC. Mentioned in Bopearachchi,
"Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph 19
of Parthian stations
65. ^ Pompeius Trogus, Prologue to Book XLI.
66. ^ "When Strabo mentions that "Those who after Alexander advanced beyond the
Hypanis to the Ganges and Polibothra (Pataliputra)" this can only refer to the
conquests of Menander.", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history, p.XIV
67. ^ Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2000, p.65: "In line with the above
discussion, therefore, we may infer that such an event (the incursions to
Pataliputra) took place, after the reign of Salisuka Maurya (c.200 BC) and before
that of Pusyamitra Sunga (187 BC). This would accordingly place the Yavana
incursions during the reign of the Indo-Greek kings Euthydemus (c.230-190 BC) or
Demetrios (c.205-190 as co-regent, and 190-171 BC as supreme ruler".
68. ^ According to Tarn, the word used for "advance" (Proelonthes) can only mean
a military expedition. The word generally means "going forward"; according to the
LSJ this can, but need not, imply a military expedition. See LSJ, sub προέρχομαι.
Strabo 15-1-27
69. ^ A.K. Narain and Keay 2000
70. ^ "Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of
western India, including the whole of Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. His
territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley",
Bussagli p101)
71. ^ Tarn, p.147-149
72. ^ Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-Bactrians/Indo-Greeks:
"They took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast,
of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short, Apollodorus
says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more than that,
they extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni." Strabo
11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1)
73. ^ "Numismats and historians all consider that Menander was one of the
greatest, if not the greatest, and the most illustrious of the Indo-Greek kings",
Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.76
74. ^ "the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story", Narain (p.118-119)
75. ^ "A distinctive series of Indo-Greek coins has been found at several places
in central India: including at Dewas, some 22 miles to the east of Ujjain. These
therefore add further definite support to the likelihood of an Indo-Greek presence
in Malwa" Mitchener, "The Yuga Purana", p.64
76. ^ "Because the Ionians were either the first ot the most dominant group
among the Greeks with whom people in the east came in contact, the Persians called
all of them Yauna, and the Indians used Yona and Yavana for them", Narain, The
Indo-Greeks, p.249
77. ^ "The term (Yavana) had a precise meaning until well into the Christian
era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it
degenerated into a general term for a foreigner" Narain, p.18
78. ^ "Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian
institution", Bopearachchi, p16.
79. ^ Tarn, p.145-146
80. ^ "But the real story of the Indo-Greek invasion becomes clear only on the
analysis of the material contained in the historical section of the Gargi Samhita,
the Yuga Purana" Narain, p110, The Indo-Greeks. Also "The text of the Yuga Purana,
as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion
of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the Pancalas
and the Mathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and destroyed
Pataliputra", Narain, p.112
81. ^ "For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks
or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the Yuga Purana is an important source
material" Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata,
2002
82. ^ "..further weight to the likelihood that this account of a Yavana
incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in alliance with the Pancalas and the
Mathuras- is indeed historical" Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.65
83. ^ "The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from the Indian side
in the Yuga-purana", Tarn, p.145
84. ^ "The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the
dominions of the Prasians ... Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in
the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and
that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round,
which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the
wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." Arr. Ind. 10. "Of
Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.", quoting Megasthenes Text
85. ^ "The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to
the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took
part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who
attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.112
86. ^ Tarn, p. "[132-133 INSERT TITLE]". 132-133.
87. ^ "The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of "Demetrios", and the
inscription thus indicates a Yavana presence in Magadha, probably around the
middle of the 1st century BC." Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.65
88. ^ "The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing to do with the history
of the Indo-Greeks; certainly it has nothing to do with Demetrius I", Narain, The
Indo-Greeks, p.50
89. ^ P.L.Gupta: Kushâna Coins and History, D.K.Printworld, 1994, p.184, note 5
90. ^ "Justin refers to an incident in which Eucratides with a small force of
300 was besieged for four months by "Demetrius, king of the Indians" with a large
army of 60,000. The numbers are obviously an exageration. Eucratides managed to
break out and went on to conquer India.", It is uncertain who this Demetrius was,
and when the siege happened. Some scholars believe that it was Demetrius
I."(Demetrius I) was probably the Demetrius who besieged Eucratides for four
months", D.W. Mac Dowall, p.201-202, Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et
l'ouest. This analysis goes against Bopearachchi, who has suggested that Demetrius
I died long before Eucratides came to power.
91. ^ Bopearachchi, p.72
92. ^ "As Bopearachchi has shown, Menander was able to regroup and take back the
territory that Eucratides I had conquered, perhaps after Eucratides had died
(1991, pp. 84-6). Bopearachchi demonstrates that the transition in Menander's coin
designs were in response to changes introduced by Eucratides".
93. ^ "Numismats and historians are unanimous in considering that Menander was
one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most famous of the Indo-Greek
kings. The coins to the name of Menander are incomparably more abundant than those
of any other Indo-Greek king" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-
Grecques", p76.
94. ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a
Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism
along with Ashoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p.375
95. ^ "(In the Milindapanha) Menander is declared an arhat", McEvilley, p.378
96. ^ "Plutarch, who talks of the burial of Menander's relics under monuments or
stupas, had obviously read or heard some Buddhist account of the Greek king's
death", McEvilley, p.377
97. ^ "The statement of Plutarch that when Menander died "the cities celebrated
(...) agreeing that they should divide ashes equally and go away and should erect
monuments to him in all their cities", is significant and reminds one of the story
of the Buddha", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.123, "This is unmistakably
Buddhist and recalls the similar situation at the time of the Buddha's passing
away", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.269
98. ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.86
99. ^ "By about 130 BC nomadic people from the Jaxartes region had overrun the
northern boundary of Bactria itself", McEvilley, p.372
100. ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.88
101. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xi
102. ^ a b "P.Bernard thinks that these emissions were destined to commercial
exchanges with Bactria, then controled by the Yuezhi, and were post-Greek coins
remained faithful to Greco-Bactrian coinage. In a slightly different perspective
(...) G. Le Rider considers that these emission were used to pay tribute to the
nomads of the north, who were thus incentivized not to pursue their forays in the
direction of the Indo-Greek realm", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.76.
103. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xxxiii
104. ^ "During the century that followed Menander more than twenty rulers are
known to have struck coins", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.270
105. ^ Bernard (1994), p. 126.
106. ^ The Sanskrit inscription reads "Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 100
10 6". R.Salomon, "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary
inscription", in "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest", p373
107. ^ "The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom their trade was of
importance, starts somewhere in the first century BC; they occasionally imitate
the types of Demetrius and Apollodotus I", Tarn, p.325
108. ^ The Kunindas must have been included in the Greek empire, not only because
of their geographical position, but because they started coining at the time which
saw the end of Greek rule and the establishment of their independence", Tarn,
p.238
109. ^ "Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek drachms is seen
in the fact that they influenced the coinage of the Audumbaras and the Kunindas",
Narain The Indo-Greeks, p.114
110. ^ "The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after Greek rule ended
imitated Greek types", Tarn, p.239
111. ^ "Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed as within Menander's
empire -Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins in
the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or
republics.", Tarn, p.324
112. ^ "Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amogabhuti, issued a
silver coinage "which would compete in the market with the later Indo-Greek
silver"", Tarn, p.325
113. ^ "Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) probably a daughter
of one of the Indo-Greek houses" Senior, Indo-Scythians, p.xxxvi
114. ^ G.K. Jenkins, using overstrikes and monograms, showed that, contrary to
what Narai would write two years later, Apoloodotus II and Hippostratus were
posterior, by far, to Maues. (...) He reveals an overstike if Azes I over
Hippostratus. (...) Apollodotus and Hippostratus are thus posterior to Maues and
anterior to Azes I, whose era we now starts in 57 BC." Bopearachchi, p.126-127.
115. ^ "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a type.
A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used
previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use
Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indo-Scythian
coins, p.xxvii
116. ^ "The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted the greek types,
minted money with their own names". Bopearachchci, "Monnaies", p.121
117. ^ Described in R.C. Senior "The Decline of the Indo-Greeks" [1]. See also
this source.
118. ^ "Around 10 AD, with the joint rule of Straton II and his son Straton in
the area of Sagala, le last Greek kingdom succumbed to the attacks of Rajuvula,
the Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura.", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.125
119. ^ "Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, succeeded there (in the
Paropamisadae) to the nomads who minted imitations of Hermaeus" Bopearachchi,
"Monnaies", p.117
120. ^ "We get two Greeks of the Parthian period, the first half of the first
century AD, who used the Indian form of their names, King Theodamas on his signet-
ring found in Bajaur, and Thedorus son of Theoros on two silver bowls from
Taxila." Tarn, p.389
121. ^ Marital alliances:
o Discussion on the dynastic alliance in Tarn, pp. 152–153: "It has been
recently suggested that Asoka was grandson of the Seleucid princess, whom Seleucus
gave in marriage to Chandragupta. Should this far-reaching suggestion be well
founded, it would not only throw light on the good relations between the Seleucid
and Maurya dynasties, but would mean that the Maurya dynasty was descended from,
or anyhow connected with, Seleucus... when the Mauryan line became extinct, he
(Demetrius) may well have regarded himself, if not as the next heir, at any rate
as the heir nearest at hand". Also: "The Seleucid and Maurya lines were connected
by the marriage of Seleucus' daughter (or niece) either to Chandragupta or his son
Bindusara" John Marshall, Taxila, p20. This thesis originally appeared in "The
Cambridge Shorter History of India": "If the usual oriental practice was followed
and if we regard Chandragupta as the victor, then it would mean that a daughter or
other female relative of Seleucus was given to the Indian ruler or to one of his
sons, so that Asoka may have had Greek blood in his veins." The Cambridge Shorter
History of India, J. Allan, H. H. Dodwell, T. Wolseley Haig, p33 Source.
o Description of the 302 BC marital alliance in Strabo 15.2.1(9): "The Indians
occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly
belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established
there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in
consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred
elephants." The ambassador Megasthenes was also sent to the Mauryan court on this
occasion.
122. ^ Exchange of presents:
o Classical sources have recorded that Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs
to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous
efficacy in such matters as to make people more amourous. And Phylarchus confirms
him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the
Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful
degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus
of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32
o Ashoka claims he introduced herbal medicine in the territories of the
Greeks, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No2).
o Bindusara asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a
sophist: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as
Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even
Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is
Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some
dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry
figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be
sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae"
XIV.67
123. ^ Treaties of friendship:
o When Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus, went to India
in 209 BC, he is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there
and received presents from him: "He crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and
descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the
Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and
having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army:
leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this
king had agreed to hand over to him."Polybius 11.39
124. ^ Ambassadors:
o Known ambassadors to India are Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius.
125. ^ Religious missions:
o In the Edicts of Ashoka, king Ashoka claims to have sent Buddhist emissaries
to the Hellenistic west around 250 BC.
126. ^ The historian Diodorus wrote that the king of Pataliputra, apparently a
Mauryan king, "loved the Greeks": "Iambulus, having found his way to a certain
village, was then brought by the natives into the presence of the king of
Palibothra, a city which was distant a journey of many days from the sea. And
since the king loved the Greeks ("Philhellenos") and devoted to learning he
considered Iambulus worthy of cordial welcome; and at length, upon receiving a
permission of safe-conduct, he passed over first of all into Persia and later
arrived safe in Greece" Diodorus ii,60.
127. ^ "Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of Palibothra,
apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p362
128. ^ "Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suffered from the
oppression of the Sunga (for whom they were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must
have appeared as a saviour" Mario Bussagli, p. 101
129. ^ "We can now, I think, see what the Greek 'conquest' meant and how the
Greeks were able to traverse such extraordinary distances. To parts of India,
perhaps to large parts, they came, not as conquerors, but as friends or 'saviors';
to the Buddhist world in particular they appeared to be its champions" (Tarn, p.
180)
130. ^ Tarn p. 175. Also: "The people to be 'saved' were in fact usually
Buddhists, and the common enimity of Greek and Buddhists to the Sunga king threw
them into each other's arms", Tarn p. 175. "Menander was coming to save them from
the oppression of the Sunga kings",Tarn p. 178
131. ^ Whitehead, "Indo-Greek coins", p 3-8
132. ^ Bopearachchi p. 138
133. ^ Whitehead, p.vi
134. ^ "These Indo-Greeks were called Yavanas in ancient Indian litterature" p.9
+ note 1 "The term had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, when
gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it degenerated
into a general term for a foreigner" p.18, Narain "The Indo-Greeks"
135. ^ "All Greeks in India were however known as Yavanas", Burjor Avari, "India,
the ancient past", p.130
136. ^ "The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the Indians to the
Greeks of various cities of Asia Minor who were settled in the areas contiguous to
north-west India" Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p.227
137. ^ "Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yona,
Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit
form from Yavana", Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p.228
138. ^ a b "It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected
with Buddhism", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.122
139. ^ Tarn, p.391: "Somewhere I have met with the zhole-hearted statement that
every Greek in India ended by becoming a Buddhist (...) Heliodorus the ambassador
was a Bhagavatta, a worshiper of Vshnu-Krishna as the supreme deity (...)
Theodorus the meridrarch, who established some relics of the Buddha "for the
purpose of the security of many people", was undoubtedly Buddhist". Images of the
Zoroastrian divinity Mithra - depicted with a radiated phrygian cap - appear
extensively on the Indo-Greek coinage of the Western kings. This Zeus-Mithra is
also the one represented seated (with the gloriole around the head, and a small
protrusion on the top of the head representing the cap) on many coins of Hermaeus,
Antialcidas or Heliokles II.
140. ^ "It is not unlikely that "Dikaios", which is translated Dhramaika in the
Kharosthi legend, may be connected with his adoption of the Buddhist faith."
Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.124
141. ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a
Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism
along with Asoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p.375
142. ^ Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v15. Quotes in E.Seldeslachts.
143. ^ McEvilley, p.377
144. ^ Plutarch "Political precepts", p147–148 Full text
145. ^ "The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of
Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have
come down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p134
146. ^ "Just as the Frank Clovis had no part in the development of Gallo-Roman
art, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art;
and besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art was
already stereotyped, of not decadent" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p147
147. ^ "The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration and
presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken into
account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development of
Gandharan sculpture", The Crossroads of Asia, p14
148. ^ On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school:
o 1) "It is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, to
the first half of the first century BC, or even, very probably, to the preceding
century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. (...)
Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the very
beginning of our era" Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara", p331–332
o 2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere from
the first century B.C. (which was M.Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and even
after it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route de
l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila", pp340–341). The view is also supported by Sir John
Marshall ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", pp5–6).
o 3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum confirm that "Gandharan art
descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art" (Chaibi Nustamandy, "Crossroads
of Asia", 1992).
o 4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time (100
BC) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic history:
Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a foreign
religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art" (Tarn, p393). "We
have to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual Indo-
Greek tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South (Bharhut
etc...)" (Boardman, 1993, p124). "Depending on how the dates are worked out, the
spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by Menander's
royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan sculpture,
which seems to have accompanied it" McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of ancient
thought", p378.
149. ^ Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan", John
Rosenfield, 1967
150. ^ Ranajit Pal, "An Altar of Alexander Now Standing Near Delhi", Scholia,
vol. 15, pp.78-101
151. ^ Boardman, p141
152. ^ Boardman, p143
153. ^ "Others, dating the work to the first two centuries A.D., after the waning
of Greek autonomy on the Northwest, connect it instead with the Roman Imperial
trade, which was just then getting a foothold at sites like Barbaricum (modern
Karachi) at the Indus-mouth. It has been proposed that one of the embassies from
Indian kings to Roman emperors may have brought back a master sculptorto oversee
work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist sensibility (in which the Buddha came to be
seen as a kind of deity), and that "bands of foreign workmen from the eastern
centers of the Roman Empire" were brought to India" (Mc Evilley "The shape of
ancient thought", quoting Benjamin Rowland "The art and architecture of India"
p121 and A.C. Soper "The Roman Style in Gandhara" American Journal of Archaeology
55 (1951) pp301–319)
154. ^ Boardman, p.115
155. ^ McEvilley, p.388-390
156. ^ Boardman, 109-153
157. ^ "It is noteworthy that the dress of the Gandharan Bodhisattva statues has
no resemblance whatever to that of the Kushan royal portrait statues, which has
many affiliations with Parthian costume. The finery of the Gandhara images must be
modeled on the dress of local native nobility, princes of Indian or Indo-Greek
race, who had no blood connection with the Scythian rulers. It is also evident
that the facial types are unrelated to the features of the Kushans as we know them
from their coins and fragmentary portrait statues.", Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword
to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan", John Rosenfield, 1967
158. ^ "Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have been lively and
commercially flourishing places", India: The ancient past, Burjor Avari, p.130
159. ^ "No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over a flourishing
economy. This is clearly indicated by their coinage and the monetary exchange they
had established with other currencies." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.275
161. ^ Rapson, clxxxvi-
163. ^ Fussman, JA 1993, p127 and Bopearachchi, "Graeco-Bactrian issues of the
later Indo-Greek kings", Num. Chron.1990, pp79–104)
164. ^ "Strabo II.3.4 5 on Eudoxus".
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2C*.html#3.4.
165. ^ "Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing with fleets by way
of the Nile and of the Persian Gulf as far as India, these regions also have
become far better known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any rate, when
Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as
Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and
twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos for India, whereas formerly, under
the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on
traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12
166. ^ "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a type.
A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used
previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use
Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indo-Scythian
coins, p.xxvii
167. ^ "Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-
bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+10.49.
168. ^ Photographic reference on a coin of Menander II, circa 90 BC:
Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg
169. ^ "Megasthenes Indica".
http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/
Megasthenes-Indika.htm.
170. ^ "Justin XLI". http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html.
171. ^ On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hellenistic battles by
Diodorus, books XVIII and XIX
172. ^ "They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds,
and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000
archer warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or
Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they
moved far away to the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked and conquered the
people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank
of the Gui (Oxus) river" ("Records of the Great Historian", Sima Qian, trans.
Burton Watson, p234)
173. ^ Tarn, p.494
174. ^ "Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century
BC, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, p.379
175. ^ "The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later rulers points to the
conclusion that they employed a system of dating started by their predecessors."
Narain, "Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.190
176. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II
is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those
of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek
characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for
the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the
British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli
177. ^ McEvilley, "The Shape of Ancient Thought", p503.
178. ^ Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken from Monnaies
Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991) or occasionally SNG9
(1998). Senior's chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian king
sequences in the second and first centuries BC, ONS179 Supplement (2004), whereas
the comments (down to the time of Hippostratos) are from The decline of the Indo-
Greeks (1998).
[edit] References
• Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The ancient past. A history of the Indian sub-
continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200. Routledge. ISBN 0415356164.
• Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1961). Hellenism in ancient India. Delhi: Munshi
Ram Manohar Lal.. OCLC 1837954 ISBN 0-8364-2910-9.
• Bernard, Paul (1994). "The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia." In: History of
civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic
civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, pp. 99-129. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994.
Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 92-3-102846-4.
• Boardman, John (1994). The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03680-2.
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (1991) (in French). Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-
Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné. Bibliothèque Nationale de France. ISBN 2-7177-1825-
7.
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (1998). SNG 9. New York: American Numismatic Society.
ISBN 0-89722-273-3.
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003) (in French). De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de
l'Asie Centrale. Lattes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2.
• Bopearachchi, Osmund; Smithsonian Institution; National Numismatic
Collection (U.S.) (1993). Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the
Smithsonian Institution. Washington: National Numismatic Collection, Smithsonian
Institution. OCLC 36240864.
• Bussagli, Mario; Francine Tissot; Béatrice Arnal (1996) (in French). L'art
du Gandhara. Paris: Librairie générale française. ISBN 2-253-13055-9.
• Cambon, Pierre (2007) (in French). Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés. Musée
Guimet. ISBN 9782711852185.
• Errington, Elizabeth; Joe Cribb; Maggie Claringbull; Ancient India and Iran
Trust; Fitzwilliam Museum (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image
and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Cambridge: Ancient
India and Iran Trust. ISBN 0-9518399-1-8.
• Faccenna, Domenico (1980) (in English). Butkara I (Swāt, Pakistan) 1956–
1962, Volume III 1. Rome: IsMEO (Istituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo
Oriente).
• Foltz, Richard (2000). Religions of the Silk Road: overland trade and
cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century. New York: St. Martin's
Griffin. ISBN 0-312-23338-8.
• Keown, Damien (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-860560-9.
• Lowenstein, Tom (2002). The vision of the Buddha: Buddhism, the path to
spiritual enlightenment. London: Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-91-9.
• Marshall, Sir John Hubert (2000). The Buddhist art of Gandhara: the story of
the early school, its birth, growth, and decline. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
ISBN 81-215-0967-X.
• Marshall, John (1956) (in English). Taxila. An illustrated account of
archaeological excavations carried out at Taxila (3 volumes). Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass.
• McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies
in Greek and Indian Philosophies. Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts.
ISBN 1-58115-203-5.
• Mitchiner, John E.; Garga (1986). The Yuga Purana: critically edited, with
an English translation and a detailed introduction. Calcutta, India: Asiatic
Society. OCLC 15211914 ISBN 81-7236-124-6.
• Narain, A.K. (1957) (in English). The Indo-Greeks. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
o reprinted by Oxford, 1962, 1967, 1980; reissued (2003), "revised and
supplemented," by B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
• Narain, A.K. (1976) (in English). The coin types of the Indo-Greeks kings.
Chicago, USA: Ares Publishing. ISBN 0-89005-109-7.
• Puri, Baij Nath (2000). Buddhism in Central Asia. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0372-8.
• Rosenfield, John (1967) (in English). The Dynastic art of the Kushans.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 81-215-0-579-9.
• Salomon, Richard. The "Avaca" Inscription and the Origin of the Vikrama Era.
Vol. 102.
• Seldeslachts, E. (2003) (in English). The end of the road for the Indo-
Greeks?. (Also available online): Iranica Antica, Vol XXXIX, 2004.
• Senior, R.C. (2006) (in English). Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume
IV.. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.. ISBN 0-9709268-6-3.
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Press.
o Second edition, with addenda and corrigenda, (1951). Reissued, with updating
preface by Frank Lee Holt (1985), Ares Press, Chicago ISBN 0-89005-524-6
• (in French/English) "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest".
Belgium: Brepols. 2005. ISBN 2503516815.
• 東京国立博物館 (Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan); 兵庫県立美術館 (Hyogo Kenritsu
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Indian History

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Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

"Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization

Map of North India in the late Vedic period.

Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on

Adi Shankara, an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita

Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

Kushan Empire of Ancient India.

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.

Badami Chalukya Empire

The Gupta Empire

Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijñānaśākuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta

Pala Empire under Dharmapala

Approximate extent of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.

Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals

The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India.

Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937.

Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's

Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1 Sometimes

• This page was last modified on 28 July 2009 at 23:20.

South Asian Stone Age

Stone Age before 3300 BCE

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Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Stone age writing of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

• Misra, V. N. (November 2001). "Prehistoric human colonization of India"

Preboreal (10.3 ka – 9 ka),

[edit] Lifestyle and technology

A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh.

A figurine from Mehrgarh, c. 3000 BCE. (Musée Guimet, Paris)

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The extent of Indus Valley Civilization.

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Near East (3300-1200 BC)

Discovery and excavation

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.

3300-2800 Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase)

The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro."

51. ^ "Rigveda". The Hindu Universe. HinduNet Inc.

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Map of northern India in the late Vedic period

Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.

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Ancient Near East

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Map of the Mahajanapadas

The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BC

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The Magadha state circa 600 BC, before it expanded

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent

The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan period

Extent of the Sunga Empire

The Gupta Empre under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415)

Timeline: Northern Empires Southern Dynasties Northwestern Kingdoms

6th century BCE

3rd century BCE

1st century BCE

[edit] Establishment of the dynasty

Asia in 323BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's