& DAMCONSTRUCTION

Design of pervious pressure tunnels

By A. J. Schleiss
Reprinted from WATER POWER & DAM CONSTRUCTION May 1986
l1li
I
article presents the summarized results of a study carried out by the author on the
into account seepage forces and secondary permeability in lining and rock. The UUUIILUUIII
traditional tunnel statics" f which assume lining and rock as impervious, is discussed. New
pervious pressure tunnels are recommended.
r1n'pr>t",An for the
the that as long as the
compared with the rock
is in lining, accordmctv
lining transmits only mechanical nounoarv
mass. Ifthe is """"UH'P'U permeable
Fig. 2) the pressure
the outside of the lining. In the
and its reach depends on internal pressure
in the rock. A single rock mass element
Fig. 2) is loaded on all sides by a U"?'U'r1'O
resulting force (the seepage nrpee11,'p
dimension, like a body quantrtatrve
seepage pressures on pressure tunnels
Until now, these papers have given no inducement
ing new design procedures for pervious pressure tunnels.
Fractures and pores, which cause the of the rock
mass, are deformed by the forces.
rock mass around the pressure tunnel will be ' .... r .."""",,'r1
internal pressure. This change in permeability, in turn,
the seepage flow and therefore, the seepage forces. This
mechanical-hydraulic coupling is shown schematically in Fig.
3. Due to the latest scientific findings, in rock mechanics and
above all in rock hydraulics, such coupled can be
solved theoretically", Inspite of this,
coupling is rarely considered in pressure tunnel
The porous, thick-walled cylinder
Differential equation for the radial The state of
stress due to internal water pressure in a porous cylinder, with
homogeneous, isotropic material behaviour, is radially
symmetrical. In contrast to the impervious cylinder, the
elementary volume ofthe permeable cylinder is loaded not only
by radial and tangential stresses but also by pore pressure (Fig.
4). The efficiency of this water pressure can be reduced by
factor y/(O Y/ 1). In the past the factor Y/ was often equated with
the superficial porosity of the material". In the meantime,
experimental work has shown that Y/ is equal to unity, if rupture
conditions are considered" 8. 9 The same is valid in highly
I1
continues to be used, because ofthe
uncertainties in describing in situ behaviour.
!\/lr,.. "".,",u,"'" there are no adequately realistic criteria for
n""rrnp",lhlp pressure tunnels. This article presents a new design
which takes into account the pressures and
influence of fracture deformation on permeability
rock masses.
Problematic nature of pressure tunnels
U/-,',<4n,<");;,, water on an impervious
nenaves as a load; uniformly distributed and
perpendicular the surface (Fig. la). If the medium is
permeable, water infiltrates cavities (pores, cracks, fissures, and
and again exerts a surface pressure (Fig. 1b). In this case
water pressure is gradually reduced by friction within the
cavities. The force applied to the structure is transmitted along
lines of seepage as a body force I. A permeable medium is
therefore not loaded by the purely mechanical effect of water
the boundary loading, but by hydraulic body forces.
forces can be illustrated for a concrete-lined pressure
tunnel (Fig.
The traditional' 'pressure tunnel statics" theory is based on
pressure on an impervious and pervious 1: Effect of
R
rock hydraulics
/ 7](p +
(per cent)
. - impervious cylinder (ry = 0)
pervious cylinder (ry 0.9 and rl = 1.0)
linear pressure gradient
--Iogarithmical pressure gradient
Fig. 5: Radial stresses in a thick-walled cylinder under internal and
external pressure.
Influence of mechanical boundary loads. Mechanical
boundary loads pF(ri) andpF(ra) in addition to the water pressure
only change the boundary conditions. Therefore the
resulting stresses and deformations can be calculated for the
impervious cylinder. The effect of mechanical loads at the
internal and external surface can be considered in Table 11 by
adding the following expressions:
in the tension zone (see Fig. 5). On the other side, in an
impervious cylinder (YJ = 0) only radial compressive stresses are
possible. The linear pore pressure distribution causes greater
radial stresses (tension) than the logarithmic distribution. With
YJ< 1the radial tensile stresses are somewhat reduced compared
with YJ = I and displaced in the compressive zone towards the
internal boundary of the cylinder. The maximum of the radial
tensile stress is located throughout in the inner third of the
cylinder, but not at the inner surface as inthe impervious cylinder
(compressive stress).
In Fig. 6, it can be seen that the tangential tensile stresses in
the permeable cylinder are always higher than in the impervious
cylinder. Again the linear pore pressure distribution results in
higher tangential tensile stresses. The same can be noted for the
longitudinal stresses, whereby contrary to the impervious
cylinder, considerable tensile stresses occur in the longitudinal
direction.
... (1)
Pi In(ra/r)+Pa In(r/ri)
1n(ra/ri)
porous cylinder
(potential flow)
p
dp pa-pi
dr r'ln(r
a
/ fi)
(Pi-Pa)2rc' K
q Qw' g'ln(r
a/ri)
y/dp (1+v)(1-2v)
dr E(1-v)
(potential flow)
radial
cracked cylinder
dp pa-pi
dr ra-ri
p
q
~ + du 1 + d
2
u
r
2
dr r dr2
water losses q
pressure gra-
dientdp/dr
permeability
properties
of cylinder
pore pressure
distribution per)
The differential equation contains another unknown, namely
the gradient of pore pressure in the cylinder, which, in the
radially symmetrical case, is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient. According to the permeability properties ofthe thick-
walled cylinder, one can imagine different pore pressure
distributions (Table 1). If the cylinder has a high porosity, theory
would, potentially, lead to a logarithmic pore pressure
distribution. If the permeability is caused by a great number of
radial cracks, the pressure distribution would be linear,
assuming laminar flow in the cracks. In acylindrical zone of
highly fractured rock mass, pore pressure distribution would be
somewhere between these two assumptions.
Table I Distribution of pore pressure, pressure gradient and water
losses for thick-walled porous and cracked cylinders.
elementary volume combined with the plain strain relations
derived from Hooke's law gives the following relation for the
unknown radial displacement u(r):
Deformations and stresses. Inserting one of the pressure
gradients from Table I in Eq. 1, gives the well known
inhomogeneous Euler differential equation. The general solution
is found by superposition ofthe homogeneous with a particular
solution. Eliminating the integration constants by the boundary
conditions Or(n) = (1-YJ)Pi and Or(ra) (1-YJ)P
a
, deforma-
tions and stresses can be calculated. For the logarithmic and
linear pore pressure distribution the corresponding relations are
summarized in Table 11. If the cylinder is impervious, ie, YJ =
0, the relations in Table 11 are reduced to the well-known Lame
formula.
Fig. 5 shows the radial stress distribution in a thick-walled
cylinder for logarithmic and linear pore pressure. If the pore
pressure is fully effective (YJ = 1), the radial stresses lie entirely
internal n .. o c:",,, .. ,,
tunnel
function of the
ratio
boundary stress is
would develop
greater the lining trnckness
higher is the tensile
tends to from the
is the rock mass.
similar to cooling of the
varying the ratio
in tensile stress between lining and rock if ~ . The
boundary stress lining-rock is not influenced by the ratio
if Kc/Kr>l.
The natural tensile strength of the oounoarv 11n"n....._..r'f>v
normally very small. High tensile
transmitted to the if the lining is nrestressed
lining fair,
Fig. 8: Concrete-lined pressure tunnel. Mechanical boundary-
stress between lining and rock versus lining thickness for different
ratio of elasticity modulus.
(per
... (5)
... (4)
rock zone.
r /r.
Computation of pressure tunnels
Around a pressure tunnel there are zones with different
mechanical and permeability properties (lining, grouted zone,
cracked and fractured zones, etc). Ifthe zones are approximately
radially and have a homogeneous isotropic material
behaviour, they could be modelled with thick-walled cylinders.
Furthermore, it is assumed that fractured roC;k masses behave
+
+------"-
linear pore pressure gradient
the
at the inner (due
strength of concrete. The
the tensile
only
stresses and the pressure gradient seepage flow is
The head at the outside ofthe cracked lining (pa) or rock
mass is the continuity condition. Normally, the
head in the cracked zones (ie, unreinforced linings) is
neatunbte and therefore nearly the whole internal pressure
becomes effective the boundary of the uncracked zones
(Pi ::::; p, ::::; Pf). The total width of the cracks in the lining has to
correspond with the tangential displacement of the rock mass.
This relation allows the estimation of crack width (Eq,
(2a) = u(r
a)2rr/n
. . . (7)
New cracks develop only in unfractured (bulky) rock mass.
Otherwise the existing fractures are opened radially so much that
they loose any contact. In such cracked or fractured zones the
relation between width and tangential displacement is given by
(2a) u(rf)x2rr/n ... (8)
Contrary to concrete linings (Eq. 7), the fractures in rock masses
are enlarged only by a part of the tangential displacement. This
reduction, due to the elastic compression strain, is considered
in Eq. 8 with the factor x, which is approximately 1 Er/Eh.
Normally the rock modulus Eh (measured from hand-piece)
exceeds considerable the rock mass modulus Er and therefore x
is near 1.
The cracked or fractured zones in rock will expand as far as
the natural compressive rock stresses surrounding the tunnel are
greater than the stresses fromthe internal pressure. Ifthe natural
rock stresses cannot restrict the cracked zone, the bearing
f"H'V""1h, of the rock masses is exceeded.
number of cracks weak zones and
in an unreinforced concrete
transition floor-wall.
E
E
radius r (m) r
a
Fig. 12: Distribution of radial displacement in a thick-walled,
fractured cylinder. Comparison of deformation-dependent with
constant permeability.
(Assumed parameters: E/Pi 1000, U 0.2, Ko = 10-
6
m/s,
"L1/bi 10,y/ x 1.0)
Naturally the coupled calculation is only sensible if the permea-
bility properties of the rock masses are known adequately.
Design criteria for pervious pressure tunnels
For designing pervious pressure tunnels, three criteria are
important:
Avoiding cracks in the lining;
Limiting water losses;
Ensuring the bearing capacity of the rock masses.
Which one of these criteria governs the design in a particular case
depends on the respective boundary conditions.
Avoiding cracks in lining. Cracks in the lining caused by
internal water pressure can be prevented either by reducing
forces in lining or by increasing resistance of the lining.
Measures for reducing forces in lining are: increasing thickness
of lining, rock grouting, drainage and controlled commencement
of operation. These measures are successful only at relatively
small internal pressure head (Pi <20 bar) and good rock quality
(Ei/E, <3). At higher pressure heads cracks can be avoided
only by increasing lining resistance, which is possible by
prestressing. Different prestressing techniques have been
developed: prestressing by rock grouting'? or gap
medium rock
400 1--... ..- ----------+- --..... 1
... (9)
(per cent) r-r-:- -,-- -,
Km + --=---'-'---
6
3( 1 1)2
V
w
ttr 7i; + 7h
K(r)
It can be
~ .. , , ' t i n ~ reduces the
in linings and could therefore reduce
cracks. Grouting is most effective in
rock masses (see Fig. 11 right).
economical depth of grouting is
about 1 to 2 radius of the tunnel. The
influence of grouting quality is more
important than the grouting depth (see
Fig. 11). Therefore it is better to lessen
the distance between the boreholes than
to lengthen the boreholes.
Mechanical-hydraulic coupling
Influence of fracture deformation on
secondary permeability. Due to internal.
water pressure around the -nmnel, the
width of the fracture will increase. In the
following it is assumed that the natural
rock stresses exceed the stresses due to
internal pressure. Thus the fractures are
able to transmit restricted tensile
stresses, otherwise a "cracked" zone
(see "Influence of cracks") would be
formed.
The coupling between stresses or
deformations and rock mass permea-
bility is based on the following statement: In a fixed circle
around the tunnel the total sum of change in fracture width
is equal to the tangential displacement due to internal water
pressure. Assuming laminar, parallel flow in the fractures this
relationship is:
Thick-walled cylinder with stress-dependant permeability.
Assuming Darcy flow, the pressure gradient dp/dr in the
cylinder with variable permeability K(r) is derived from the
continuity condition:
With the above equation the change in permeability in fractured
rock masses is proportional to the cube of the radial displacement
u(r) and inversely proportional to the square of fracture density
(l/b, + l/b
2
)2. Eq. 9 is only valid for high fracture density (see
earlier section).
1
dp
dr - (Pi pal r, ... (10)
f
dr
K(r).r
r.
This pressure gradient, combined with Eq. 9 and inserted in
Eq. 1, gives a differential equation which can be solved only with
a numerical method, for example with the finite difference
method. Fig. 12 shows the calculated distribution of radial
displacements in a thick-walled cylinder; the permeability is
dominated from two fracture sets. The mechanical-hydraulic
coupling results in an increase of radial displacement compared
with the cylinder with constant permeability. The difference is
obvious above all towards the outside.
Pressure tunnel with stress-dependant permeability. As
mentioned before, in the radial-symmetrical case, pressure
tunnels can be modelled with several thick-walled cylinders.
Detailed studies of the main parameters have shown that the
effect of mechanical-hydraulic coupling is insignificant in
calculating pure mechanical data such as stresses and
deformations of pressure tunnels. However for the quantitative
description of water losses and reach of seepage flow pattern it
is essential to use a stress-dependant permeability (see Fig. 13).
Laboratory of
Conclusions
The consideration
mathematical rennement
1973.
6. BROWN, E. T., AND BRAY,J. W., "Rock-support interaction calculations
for pressure shafts and tunnels. " ISRM Symposium Aachen , Vol. 2; 1982.
ZIENKIEWICZ, O. "Stress of hydraulic structures including pore
pressure effects." 1963.
8. ROBINSON, L. H. , "Some interpretation of pore fluid
effects in rock failure." 11th Rock Mechanics, Berkeley,
California, USA; 1969.
9. SERAFIM, J. L., "Influence of joint water in the stability of structures in rock
drainage measure." Proceeding ISRM-Symposium: Percolation through
fissured rock, Stuttgart T4 (General Report) 1972.
10. WITTKE W., Felsmechanik, "Grundlagen fur wirtschaftliches Bauen im
Fels.' Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo; 1984.
11. G. , "Wirkung des Kluftwasserdruckes auf einen
Felskorper. Felsbau 2 No. 1984.
12. SCHLEISS, A., "Bemessung von Druckstollen. Teil I: Literatur,
Grundlagen, Felshydraulik insbesondere Sickerstromungen durch
Auskleidung und Fels." Mitteilung der Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau,
Hydrologie und Glaziologie an der ETH Zurich, Switzerland, No. 78; 1985.
13. SEEBER, G., "Power conduits for high-head plants." Water Power & Dam
Construction, June 1985; July 1985.
14. BouvARD, M., "Les fuites des galeries en charge en terrain sec. Role du
revetement, des injections, du terrain." In Houille Blanche, No. 4; 1975.
15. BOUVARD, M., AND NIQUET, J., "Ecoulernent transitoires dans les massifs
autour d'une galerie en charge." In Houille Blanche, No. 3; 1980.
16. PONIMATKIN, P. U. "Calculation of pressure tunnels with a concrete lining
and grouting considering the formation of cracks in the lining and rock. "
Hvdrotechnical Construction, No. 3; March 1977.
17. KUNJUNDZIC, IVANOVIC, K., 0., AND
storage hydroelectric
18. KIESER, A., "Druckstollenbau.
19. H., 'Vorspanninjektion
No.
and active
Ee/Er 3.0;
Bearing capacity ofrock masses. Ifthe stresses in rock due to
internal water pressure are greater than the natural stresses, the
tunnel will probably fail because the expansion of the "cracked"
rock zone cannot be limited. Considering a single fracture, for
example in the tunnel roof, this hydro-fracturing is often
compared with the effect of a hydraulic press": 13. Assuming
that natural (primary) stresses in rock masses are influenced
mainly by overburden, the criteria of bearing capacity is
normally reduced to a criteria of minimal overburden
28
,29,3o. But
such rule-of-thumb criteria are bound up with the local
geological situation and therefore are not generally applicable.
Of course the natural stresses in rock masses can be influenced
locating the tunnel deep enough
capacity of
'rI'\1'\""rUl'Ar.c tunnels with
of influence around the tunnel
losses. of a
pressure tunnel is dictated and depth under
water table as well as long as the safety of the
n r ~ ' C C ' l T ' ' ' ' tunnel is not the allowable amount of water
determined only by economic considerations. Besides
limiting water losses should
r!1c,,,,,t,,,,,,,'r<:>t',nn of some (anhydrite, rI'\'I'lrwl1t""
etc) or washing out of joint-fillings">'. In addition,
water losses reaching the natural ground surface have
occasionally in the past produced landslides-l-":". Water losses
can be limited avoiding cracks in the concrete lining (see
above) and to some extent by reinforcing as well as rock
grouting. If these measures are not effective, special sealings
such as plastic sheeting or thin steel tubes have to be used
27
, 13,2o .
Scandinavia. "
in Druckstollen.' und
tngenieurueotogte. Supplement IV; 1968.
Auskleidung von Druckstollen und Druckschachten."
Verlag Berlin W. Germany; 1926.
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Bauwesen, Vol. 22, No. 2; 1956.
WENZEL, K., "Neue Moglichkeiten zur wasserdichten
Stollenauskleidung." Nos. 26,27,28; 1963.
28. BROCH, E., "The development of unlined pressure shafts and tunnels in
Norway." ISRM Symposium Aachen, Vol. 2; 1982.
BROCH, E., "Unlined high tunnels in areas
phy." Water Power & Dam November;
30. SHARP, J. C., AND GONANO, C. P., ing
concrete lined pressure tunnels of Drakensberg. " IS1W-Symposium
Vol. 2; 1982.
31. JAEGER, C., "Present trends in the design of pressure tunnels and shafts for
underground hydroelectric power stations. " Paper No. 5978, Proceedings
Institution Civil Engineers, Part I, Vol. 4, March; 1955.
32. KASTNER, H., "Statik des Tunnel- und Stollenbaues." Springer-Verlag
Berlin/Gottingen/Heidelberg, W. Germany 1962.