Thermodynamics and heat transfer 3.1 Heat 3.1.1 Heat capacity Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body or quantity of substance by 1K. The symbol is C (units joules per kelvin, JK ~) Heat supplied Q=C(t,—t,) where: ¢, and ¢, are the initial and final temperatures. 3.1.2 Specific heat capacity This is the heat to raise 1 kg of substance by 1 K. The is joules per kilogram per kelvin, Q=me(t,—t) where: m= mass. 3.13 Latent heat Thisis the quantity of heat required to change the state of I kg of substance. For example: Solid to liquid: specific heat of melting; hy (ke~! Liquid to gas: specific heat of evaporation, hig (J KB~ 2.1.4 Mixing of fluids fm, kg of luid 1 at temperature ¢, is mixed with m, ke of fluid 2 at temperature ¢,, then Final mass m=m, +m, at a temperature miesty +mycaty myc) + Macs 3.2 Perfect gases 3.2 Gas laws For a so-called ‘perfect gas" Boyle's law: pr=constant for a constant temperature T v Charles law: -=constant for a constant pressure p where: p= pressure, V=volume, T=absolute temperature. ‘Combining the two laws: py 2 constant =mR P= constant where: m=mass, R=the gas constant v specific volume v= — (m?kg”) so that: po= RT 3.2.2. Universal gas constant If Ris multiplied by M the molecular weight of the gas, then: Universal gas constant R,=MR=8,3143, Kyke™!K~! (for all perfect gases)APPLIED MECHANICS My, 5% % a0, 101THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER 3.2.3. Specific heat relationships ‘There are two particular values of specific heat: that at constant volume c,, and that at constant pressure cy, ¢ Ratio of specific heats 7="® 3.2.4 Internal energy This is the energy of a gas by virtue of its temperature. u=c,T (specific internal energy) U=me,T (total internal energy) Change in internal energy: J—U,=me,(T,—T,) ayy =e(T2—T) 3.25 Enthalpy Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and pressure energy pV, i hau po, or H=U +p¥ where: h=specific enthalpy, H =total enthalpy and it can be shown that he Change in enthalpy hy Plo, =0,)=¢,(T3—T1) H,—Hy,=me,(T,—T,) = ly -u))+ 3.2.6 Energy equations Non-flow energy equation Gain in internal energy = Heat supplied — Work done Steady flow energy equation This includes kinetic energy and enthalpy =9- w-(258 103 or, if the kinetic energy is small (which is usually the case) hy hy =Q—W (neglecting height differences) 3.2.7 Entropy Entropy, when plotted versus temperature, gives a curve under which the area is heat. The symbol for entropy is s and the units are kilojoules per kilogram per kelvin (kJkg”*K~'). Tds 3.2.8 Exergy and anergy Ina heat engine process from state | with surroundings at state 2 exergy is that part of the total enthalpy drop available for work production.