ChemicalProcessControl&Chemical Modeling-Stephanopulos PDF

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I:
'
THE CONTROL OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS: ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND THE ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . INCENTIVES FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL .......... ......
Chapter 1.
1.1 Suppress the Influence of External Disturbances 1.2 Ensure the Stability of a Process
.............
1.3 Optimize the Performance of a Chemical Process . . ,. . . . . Chapter 2. DESIGN ASPECTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Classification of the Variables in a Chemical Process . . . 2.2 Elements of the Design of a Control System . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Control Aspects of a Complete Chemical Plant . . . . . . .( Chapter 3: HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . ' 3.1 Hardware Elements of a Control System . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The Use of Digital Computers in Process Control . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON PART I . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES..........,.................... PROBLEMS................................ ,-
PART II:
MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 4.
4.1 Why Do We Need Mathematical Modelign for Process Control? . 4.2 State Variables and State Equations for a Chemical Process . 4.3 Additional Elements of the Mathematical Models . . . . . . . 4.4 Dead-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Additional Examples of Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . 4.6 Modeling Difficulties SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMARKS
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 5. MODELING CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTROL PURPOSES . . . . . . .
5.1 The Input-Output Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Degrees of Freedom and Process Controllers . . . . . . . . 5.4 Formulating the Scope of Modeling for Process Control . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P R O B L E MS...............................
PART III:
ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . . . COMPUTER SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6.
6.1 Computer Simulation of Process Dynamics . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Linearization of Systems With One Variable . . . . . . . . 6.3 Deviation Variables . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Linearization of Systems With Many Variables . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7. LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transform . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Definition of the Laplace 7.2 The Laplace
Transforms of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .
7.3 Laplace 7.4 Laplace
Transforms of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . Transforms of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 The Final-Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 The Initial-Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 8. SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORMS........................
8.1 A Characteristic Example and the Solution Procedure . . . 8.2 Inversion of Laplace Transforms. Heaviside Expansion . . .
8.3 Examples on the Soiution of Linear Differentiation Equations Using Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix Appendix Chapter 9. 8.A. 8.B. The General Solution of an n-th Order Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Solution of a General System of Linear Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUNCTIONS AND THE INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS . . . . . '.
TRANSFER
9.1 The Transfer Function of a Process with a Single Output . 9.2 The Transfer Function Matrix of a Process with Multiple outputs ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 The Poles and the Zeros of a Transfer Function . . . . . . 9.4 Qualitative Analysis of the Response of a System . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ................
c ;I
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 10. THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS .......
10.1 What is a First-Order System? 10.2 Processes Modeled as
.............. Systems . . . . . . . . .
First-Order
10.3 The Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacitive Process . . . . 10.4 The Dynamic Response of a First-Order Lag System . . . . 10.5 First-Order Systems with Variable Time Constant and Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 11. THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS ......
11.1 What is a Second-Order System?
.............
11.2 The Dynamic Response of a Second-Order System . . . . . . 11.3 11.4 Multicapacity Inherently Processes as Second-Order Systems . . . . . Second-Order Processes . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Second-Order Systems Caused by the Presence of Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . .., . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . Appendix Chapter 12. ll.A. Examples of Physical Systems with Inherent Second-Order Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF HIGHER-ORDER SYSTEMS
12.1 N Capacities in Series
................. ............. Response . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Dynamic Systems with Dead Time 12.3 Dynamic AND Systems CONCLUDING with Inverse
SUMMARY
REMARKS
.......... ; .....
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES.............................. PROBLEMS............... i...............
PART IV:
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK CONTROL ............
Chapter 13.
13.1 The Concept of Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Types of Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 13.4 13.5 Measuring Devices Lines (Sensors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... .................
Transmission Final Control
Elements
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 14. THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLED PROCESSES . .
14.1 Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop Response . . . . . . . 14.2 The Effect of Proportional Control on the Response of a Controlled Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 The Effect of Integral Control Action . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 The Effect of Derivative Control Action . . . . . . . . . 14.5 The Effect of Composite Control Actions . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ................
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 15. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS .........
15.1 The Notion of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 15.3 15.4 The The The Characteristic Routh-Hurwitz Root-Locus CONCLUDING Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criterion for Stability . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REMARKS ................
SUMMARY
AND
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 15.A. Rules for the Construction of Root-Locus Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 16.
DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1 Outline of the Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Simple Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Select the Type of Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Controller Tuning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 17. THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR PROCESSES . . .
17.1 The Response of a First-Order System to a.Sinusoidal Input.......................... 17.2 The Frequency Response Characteristics of a General Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Bode Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Nyquist AND Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCLUDING REMARKS .................
SUMMARY
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter lg. DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS USING FREQUENCY RESPONSE TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1 The Bode Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lg.2 Gain and Phase Margins lg.3 18.4 The The Ziegler-Nichols Nyquist ................. Technique ..........
Tuning
Stability
Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . , . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 18.A. Complex Mapping and the Nyquist Criterion for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES.............................. PROBLEMS...............................
PART V:
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH LARGE DEAD-TIME OR INVERSE RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 19.
19.1 Processes with Large Dead-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Dead-Time Compensation i ..... t ........... ........
19.3 Control of Systems with Inverse Response SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
................
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 20. CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1 Cascade Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Selective Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 SUMMARY Split-Range AND Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REMARKS ................
CONCLUDING
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 21. FEEDFORWARD AND RATIO CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............
21.1 The Logic of Feedforward Control
21.2 The Problem of Designing Feedforward Controllers . . . . 21.3 Practical Aspects on the Design of Feedforward Controllers . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Feedforward-Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 21.5 Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ................
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 22. ADAPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS ........
22.1 The Concept of Adaptive Control . . . . . . ., . . . . . . 22.2 Self-Tuning Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 22.3 The Concept of Inferential Control . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 23. EXPERIMENTAL MODELING OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . . . . . . .
23.1 Why Do We Need Experimental Identification of Process Dynamics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2 23.3 Least-Squares Regression for Linear and Systems ................. Pulse AND Nonlinear . .......
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCLUDING REMARKS ................
SUMMARY
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. .
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART VI:
MULTIVARIABLE
CONTROL
SYSTEMS FOR
COMPLEX
PROCESSES
Chapter 24.
THE CONTROL OF PROCESSES WITH MULTIPLE INPUTS, MULTIPLE OUTPUTS (MIMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1 Formulation of the Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 24.3 Degrees of Freedom of ................... Control Systems . . . . . . . .
Generation
Alternative
24.4 Practical Guides for Screening the Alternatives . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDINGREMARKS : ...............
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 25. 25.1 25.2 INTERACTION The AND DECOUPLING ............... ............
Interaction of Control Loops the Loops.
Selecting
The Relative-Gain Array Method . .
25.3 Design of Non-Interacting Control Loops . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY.AND CONCLUDINGREMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 26.
CONTROL OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
.......... ...... Manipulations
. . .
. . ,
. . .
. . .
. . .
26.1 The Characteristics of the Problem 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 Selecting The A An Control Objectives Diagram and
Cause-and-Effect Decomposition Example
......... . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
Strategy
...........
.................. REMARKS ...........
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . PROBLEMS.......: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART VII:
PROCESS
CONTROL
USING
DIGITAL
COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 27. 27.1 27.2 27.3
THE DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . The The A Hardware Design Physical AND Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics Example ............... ;
.................. ................
SUMMARY
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 28. SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTING CONTINUOUS SIGNALS . . . . .
28.1 Sampling Continuous Signals. The Impulse Sampler . . . . 28.2 The Reconstruction of Continuous Signals . . . . , . . . 28.3 Types of Hold-Elements and Their Characteristics . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 29. 29.1 DISCRETE-TIME Converting Difference SYSTEMS AND THE Z-TRANSFORMS .......
Continuous to Discrete-Time Systems. The Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 The z-Transform and Its Properties
........... ; ..
29.3 The z-Transform of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .
29.4 The Inversion of z-Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.5 The Relationship Between Laplace and z-Transforms . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . . Chapter 30. THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF SAMPLED-DATA SYSTEMS . . . . . .
30.1 The Pulse Transfer Function of a Continuous Dynamic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.2 The Transfer Function of Discrete-Time Dynamic Systems . 30.3 The Equivalence Relationship between Continuous and Discrete Time Dynamic Systems . . . . . . , . . . . . . .
SLWARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 31. FEEDBACK CONTROL USING DIGITAL CO>fPUTERS . . . . . . . .
31.1 The Block Diagram and the Transfer Function of a Closed-Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 The Response of a Closed-Loop System and Its Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . SUWARY AND CONCLUDIXG REXARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 32. THE DESIGN OF SAMPLED-DATA,

FEEDBACK
CONTROL SYSTEMS . .
32.1 Conditions for Stability of Sampled-Data Systems . . . . 32.2 The Effect of Sampling on the Closed-Loop Response of of Sampled-Data Systems . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3 The Design of Sampled-Data, Feedback Loops Using Frequency Response Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXJNNARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 33.
33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4
THE DESIGN OF ADDITIONAL SAMPLED-DATA, CONTROL CONFIGURATIONS ..................... Feedforward Cascade Adaptive Control and Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . .
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control ....................
Supervisory
Control . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROBLEMS : ................................
I.
PART I THE CONTROL OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS: ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND THE
The purpose of the following three introductory chapters is: - to define what we mean by chemical process control, - to describe the needs and the incentives for controlling a chemical process,
- to analyse the characteristics of a control system and to formulate the problems that must be solved during the design of a control system, and finally - to provide the rationale for studying the material that follows in the subsequent chapters. In order to achieve the above objectives we will use a series of examples taken from the chemical industry. ,These usually simplified tlualit.i3tive examples are
and serve only to demonstrate the various
points made.
/3
CHAPTER INCENTIVES FOR CHEMICAL
1 PROCESS CONTROL
A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat exchangers, pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks, The etc.),
integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner.
plant's
overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input feedstock) into desired products using available sources of energy, in the most economic,way. During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements
imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic and social conditions in the presence of ever-changing external influences (disturbances).
Among such requirements are the following: - Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement,
for the well being of the people in the plant and its continued contribution to the economic development. temperatures, allowable Thus, the operating pressures,
concentration of chemicals, etc. should always be within

limits.
For example, if a reactor has been designed to operate

system
at a pressure up to 100 psig, we should have a control maintain the pressure below this value.
that will
As another example, we should try
to avoid the development of explosive mixtures during the operation of a plant. Production specifications: The plant should produce the desired amounts For example, we may require the pro-
and quality of the final products.
duction of two million pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity, from an ethylene plant. Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure that
the production level (2 million pounds per day) and the purity specifications (99.5% ethylene) are satisfied.
Environmental
regulations:
Various federal and state laws may specify
that the temperatures, concentrations of chemicals and flowrates of the effluents from a plant be within certain limits. Such regulations for
example exist on the amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject to the atmosphere, and the quality of water returned to a river or a lake. Operational constraints: The various types of equipments used in a chemical Such constraints should
plant have constraints inherent to their operation.
be satisfied throughout the operation of a plant. For example, pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction head; tanks should not overflow or go dry; distillation columns should not be flooded: the temperature in a catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will be destroyed. Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational
constraints. - Economics: The operation of a plant must conform with the market con-
ditions, i.e. the availability of raw materials and the demand of the final products. Furthermore, it should be as economic as possible in its Thus, it
utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human labor.
is required that the operating conditions are controlled at given optimum levels
of
minimum operating cost, or maximum profit; etc.
All the above requirements dictate the need for a continuous monitoring of the operation of a chemical plant and an external intervention (control) to guarantee the satisfaction of the operational objectives. This is accomplished
through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring devices, valves, controllers,

operators),
computers) and human intervention (plant designers, plant constitutes the control system.
which
There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called to satisfy:
- Suppress the influence of external disturbances, - ensure the 'stability of a chemical process, and - optimize the performance of a chemical process. Let us examine these needs using various examples. 1.1 SUPPRESS THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES. Suppressing the influence of the external disturbances on a process is the most common objective of a controller in a chemical plant. Such dis-
turbances denote the effect that the surroundings (external world) have on a reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, etc., and usually they are out Consequently, we need to introduce a
of the reach of the human operator.
control mechanism that will make the proper changes on the process to cancel the negative impact that such disturbances may have on the desired operation of a chemical plant.
Example
1.1 - Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater
Consider the tank heater system shown in Figure 1.1. A liquid enters the tank with a flowrate Fi (ft3/min), and a temperature Ti (OF), where it is
heated with steam (having a flowrate flowrate
Fs, lb/min). Let F and T be the
and temperature of the stream leaving the tank. The tank is con-
sidered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of the effluent is equal to the temperature of the liquid in the tank. The operational objectives of this heater are: - Keep the effluent temperature T at a desired value Ts. - Keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value Vs. The operation of the heater is disturbed by external factors like changes in the feed flowrate and temperature Fi and Ti' If nothing changed, then
after attaining T = Ts
and V=Vs, we could leave the system alone without It is clear though that this cannot be true Consequently, some form
any supervision and control. since T i and Fi
are subject to frequent changes.
of control action is needed to alleviate the impact of the changing disturbances and keep T and V at the desired values. In Figure 1.2 we see such a control action to keep T = Ts when Ti or Fi changes. A thermocouple measures the temperature T of the liquid in the yielding a deviation
tank. e=T
S
Then T is compared with the desired value Ts -T. The value of the deviation E
is sent to a control mechanism T to return
which decides what must be done in order for the temperature back to the desired value Ts.
If E > 0 which implies T < Ts, the conO n t h e It
troller opens the steam valve so that more heat can be supplied. contrary, the controller closes the steam valve when e-c0
or T>Ts.
is clear that when T = Ts, i.e. E. = 0 the controller does nothing. This control system that measures the variable'of direct importance (T in this
case) after a disturbance had its effect on it, is called Feedback control system. The desired value Ts is called the Set Point and is supplied
externally by the person in charge of production. A similar configuration can be used if we want to keep the volume V, or '. equivalently the liquid level h, at its set point hs Fi changes. In this case we measure the level of the liquid in the tank and we.open or close when flowrate F or Fi (see Figure. 1.3). It is
the valve that affects theaeffluent
clear that the control systems shown in Figure 1.3 are also feedback control systems. All feedback systems shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3 act post facto
(after the fact), i.e. after the effect of the disturbances has been felt by the process. Returning back to the tank heater example, we realize that we can use a different control arrangement to maintain T = Ts when Ti
changes.
Measure'
the temperature of the.inlet stream provide more or less steam. Such
and open or close the steam valve to configuration notice that is called Feedforward control
control We
control and is shown in Figure 1.4.
the'feedforward
does not wait until the effect of the disturbances has been felt by the system, but acts appropriately before the external disturbance affects the system, anticipating what its effect will be. The characteristics of the feedback and
feedforward control systems will be studied in detail in subsequent chapters. The suppression of the impact that disturbances have on the operating behavior of processing units is one of the main reasons for the usage of control in the chemical industry.
1.2 ENSURE THE STABILITY OF A PROCESS. Consider the behavior of the variable x shown in Figure 1.5. Notice that at time t = to the constant value of x is disturbed by some external
factors, but that as the time progresses the value of x returns to its initial value to stay. pressure, concentration, If x is a process variable like temperature, flowrate, etc., we say that the process is stable o r It
self-regulating and needs no external intervention for its stabilization. is clear that no control mechanism is needed to force x to return to its initial value.
In contrast to the above behavior, the variable y shown in Figure 1.6 does not return to,its incluences. initial value after it is disturbed by external
Processes whose variables follow the pattern indicated by y
in Figure 1.6 (curves a,b,c) are called unstable processes and require external control for the stabilization of their behavior. The explosion of a
hydrocarbon duel with air is such an unstable system. Riding a bicycle is an
attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we attain that by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.
Example 1.2 - Controlling the Operation of an Unstable Reactor Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) where an irreversible exothermic reaction A+B takes place. The reaction mixture is cooled by a
coolant medium that flows through a jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.7). As it is known from the analysis of a CSTR system, the curve that describes the amount of heat released by the exothermic reaction is a sigmoidal function of the temperature T in the reactor (curve A in Figure 1.8). On the other hand, the heat removed by the coolant is a linear function of the temperature T (curve B in Figure 1.8). Consequently, when the CSTR is at steady state,
i.e. nothing is changing, the heat produced by the reaction should be equal to . thus yielding the steady states Pl, P2, Pg the heat removed by the coolant, at the'intersection of the curves A and B (Figure 1.8). The steady states To understand the
I 5
p1 and Pg are called stable while the P2 is unstable. concept of stability let us consider the steady state P2.
Assume that we are able to start the reactor at the temperature T2, and the that corresponds to this temperature. Consider that 2 the temperature of the feed Ti increases. This will cause an increase in the temperature of the reacting mixture, say T;. by the reaction (Q;) At, T; the heat released concentration cA
is mqre than the heat removed by the coolant, ,Q; (see
Figure 1.8) thus leading to higher temperatures in the reactor and consequently to increased rates of reaction. Increased rates of reaction produce larger
amounts of heat released by the exothermic reaction which in turn lead to higher temperatures and so on. Therefore, we see that an increase in Ti
?ij : E
takes the reactor temperature away from the steady state P2 perature will eventually reach the value of the steady state P3 Similarly, if Ti off from P2
(Figure
and that the tem1.9a).
were to decrease, the temperature of the reactor would take
. : i
and end up at Pl (Figure 1.9b). By contrast, if we were P3 or Pl. and we perturbed the operation of or Pl where
operating at the steady state
the reactor, it would return naturally back to the point P3 it started from (see Figures 1.5c,d). assertion. Note:
The reader should verify this
Sometimes we would like to operate the CSTR at the middle unstable steady state for the following reasons: (i) the low temperature steady state P1 is very low. (ii) the
causes very low yields because the temperature Tl high temperature steady state P3
may be very high causing unsafe conditions,
destroying the catalyst for a catalytic reactor, or degrading the product B, etc. In such cases we need a controller which will ensure the stability of the operation at the middle steady state. Question: The reader should suggest a
control mechanism to stabilize the operation of the reactor at the unstable steady state P2. This example demonstrates very vividly the need for
stabilizing the operation of a system using some type of control in the presence of external disturbances that tend to take the system away from the desired point.
\ :*: ,.:; :4
1.3 OPTIMIZE THE PERFORMANCE OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS. Safety and the satisfaction of the production specifications are the main two operational objectives for a chemical plant. Once these are achieved, the Given the
/ ::t / ::! .
next goal is how to make the operation of the plant more profitable.
:. : ',..: ',i! 1
$ \ ':. , ,
fact that the conditions that
affect the operation of the plant do not remain
the same, it is clear that we would like to be able to change the operation of the plant (flowrates, pressures, concentrations, temperatures) in such a way that an economic objective (profit) is always maximized. This task is under-
taken by the automatic controllers of the plant and its human operators. Let us now see an example from the chemical processing industry where the controller is used to optimize the economic performance of a single unit.
Example 1.3 - Optimizing the Performance of a Batch Reactor Consider a batch reactor where the following two consecutive reactions take place: A +B 1 -t C 2 The
Both reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first order kinetics.
heat required for the reactions is supplied by steam which flows through the jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.10). The desired product is B while C is an undesired waste. The economic objective for the operation of the batch @ over a period of time tR, i.e.
reactor is to maximize the profit tR ,Maximize @= I 0 where
{[Revenue from the sales of product B]- [cost of purchasing A + cost of steam]] dt .' (1.1)
revenue from product B = p cB(t) cost of raw material A = crcA(0) cost of steam P
C
= Ch Q(t)
= price per lb-mole of product B r = price per lb-mole of raw material A
'h = cost per lb of steam c A (0) = concentration of A at the beginning of the batch reaction and tR = the period of reaction. The only variable that we can change freely to maximize the profit is the steam flowrate Q(t) which can vary with time. The steam flowrate will
affect the temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature in turn will affect the rates of the desired and undesired reactions, The question is how
should we vary Q(t) with time so that the profit @ is maximized. Let us examine some special policies with respect to Q(t). a. If Q(t) is given the largest value that we can for the whole reaction period tR, then the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the Initially, when
CA
largest value that is possible.
is large, we will
have high yields of B but we will also pay more for the steam. As time goes on and the concentration of also the increases. temperature Consequently, must B increases the yield of C
towards the end of the reaction period decrease in the steam
decrease, necessitating
flowrate. b. If the steam flowrate is kept at its lowest value, i.e. Q(t) = 0, for the entire reaction period tR, we will not have any steam cost, but also we will not have any production of B. We see clearly from the above two extreme cases that Q(t) will vary between its lowest and highest values during the reaction period tRa How should it vary in order to maximize the profit is not trivial and requires the solution of the above optimization problem. must
In Figure 1.11 we see a general trend that the steam flowrate
follow in order to optimize the profit a. Therefore, a control system is
needed which will:
(a) compute the best steam flowrate
for every time during
the reaction period and (b) will adjust the valve (inserted in the steam line) so that the steam flowrate takes its best value (computed above in (a)). Such
problems as the above are known as optimal control problems.
This
example indicates that the control of the steam flowrate
is
not used to ensure the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of external disturbances on the reactor but to optimize its economic performance.
CHAPTER 2 DESIGN ASPECTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIABLES IN A CHEMICAL PROCESS. The variables (flowrates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations, etc.)
associated with a chemical process are classified into: a. Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on a chemical b. process, and
output variables, which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings.
Example
2.1
For the CSTR reactor discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7) we have: input variables: cA , Ti, Ti, Tc , Fe(F) i i
0
output variables: cA, T, F, Tc , V
Notice that the effluent flowrate output.
F can be considered either as input or
If there is a control valve on the effluent stream so that its flow-
rate can be manipulated by a controller, the variable F is an input, since the opening of the valve is adjusted externally, otherwise F is an output variable.
Example -.
2.2
For the tank heater discussed in Example 1.1 (Figure 1.1) we have: input variables: Fi, Ti, Fs(F) output variables: F, V, T
The input variables can be further classified into the following categories: . Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, if their values 1. :can be adjusted freely by the human operator or a con&rol ii. mechanism and if their values are not the result of
disturbances,
adjustment by an operator or a control system. The output variables are also classified into the following categories: i. Measured output variables, if their values are known by directly measuring them, and
ii.
unmeasured be measured
output
variables, if they are not or cannot
directly.
Example 2.3 Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTK system (Figure 1.7) comes from an upstream unit over which we have no control. 1 disturbances. then F T ci Also, if the flowrate of the effluent stream is controlled by a valve, then
C
Then, CA , Fi, Ti are i If the coolant flow-rate is controlled by a control valve,
is a manipulated variable, while is a disturbance.
F is a manipulated variable, otherwise it is an output variable. With respect to the output variables we have the following: T, F, Tc ,
0
V are measured outputs since their values can be known easily using thermocouples (T, Tc ), a venturi meter (F), and a differential pressure cell (V).
0
The concentration chromatograph, stream. infrared
CA
can be's
measured variable if an analyzer (gas
spectrometer, etc.) is attached to the effluent
In many industrial plants such analyzers are not available because
they are expensive and/or have low reliability (give poor measurements or break down easily). Consequently, in such cases cA is an unmeasured output
variable.
Example
2.4 are dis-
For the tank heater system (Figure l.l>, the inputs Fi and T. 1 turbances, while FS and F are manipulated inputs. The output
variables
V and T can be measured easily and they are considered measured outputs.
According to their direct measurability or not the disturbances are classified into two categories: the -measured - - - and the unmeasured disturbances.
2 Example .
5 of the stirred tank heater (Figure 1.1) considered measured disturbances.
The disturbances Fi and Ti are easily measured; thus they are
On the other hand, the feed composition for a distillation column, extraction quently is unit, reactors and the like, is not normally measured and conseconsidered an unmeasured disturbance.
As we will see later on, unmeasured trol problems.
disturbances
generate
difficult
con-
Figure 2.1 sununarizes all the classes of variables that we have around a 5 chemical process. 2.2 ELEMENTS OF THE DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM Let us see now what are the basic questions that we must ask while attempting to design a control system that will satisfy the control needs for a A. chemical Define process. Control Objectives
The central element in any control configuration is the process that we want to control. is: Question 1: "What are the operational objectives that a control system is called to achieve?" The answer to this question determines the so-called control objectives. may have to do with: - Ensuring the stability of the process, or suppressing the influence of external disturbances, or They The first question that is raised by the control designer
- optimizing the economic performance of a plant, or ' - combination of the above. At the beginning the control objectives are 'defined qualitatively and subsequently they are quantifi'ed, usually in terms of the output variables.
Example
2.6
For the CSTR system discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7), the control objective (qualitatively defined) is to ensure the stability of the middle, unstable steady state. But such a qualitative description of the control
objectives is not useful for the design of a control system and must be quantified. A quantitative translation of the qualitative control objective
requires that the temperature (an output variable) does not deviate more than
5% from its nominal value at the unstable steady state.
Example
2.7
For the stirred tank heater of Example 1.1 the control objectives are to maintain the temperature of the outlet (T) and the volume of the fluid in the tank at desired values. objectives is T v where T = = and direct Ts vs vs are given, desired values. and For this example the quantification of the control straightforward, i.e. *
Example
2.8
For the batch reactor of Example 1.3 the qualitative control objective is the maxfmization of the profit. objective is rather complex. The quantitative description of this
It requires the solution of a maximization
problem, which will yield the value of the steam flowrate, Q(t), at each instant during the reaction period.
B.
Select Whatever
Measurements are the our control objectives, we need some means to monitor the This is done by measuring the values of
performance
of
chemical
process.
certain processing variables (temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flowrates, etc.). The second question that arises is: "What variables should we measure in order to monitor the operational performance of a plant?"
Question 2:
It is self-evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables that represent Such our control are objectives, and this is what is done whenever possible. called primary measurements.
measurements
Example
2.9
For the tank heater system (Example 1.1) our control objectives are to keep the volume and the temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired levels, i.e. keep T = TS Consequently, monitor a T and V = vs.
our first attempt is to install measuring devices that will and V (for directly. For the present system this is simple by using
thermocouple
T) and a differential pressure cell (for V).
Sometimes it happens quantities,
that our control objectives are not measurable In such
i.e. they belong to the class of unmeasured outputs.
cases we must measure other variables which can be measured easily and rcl..Lably. Then and the Such we supporting measurements are called secondary - measurements. -between the unmeasured outputs
develop
mathematical
relationships
secondary
measurements, output
i.e.
unmeasured
= f (secondary measurements)
which allow us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs (once the values of the secondary measurements are,available). In a subsequent chapter
we will see that the above mathematical relationship between measured and unmeasured outputs results from empirical, experimental or theoretical
considerations.
Example
2.10
Consider a simple distillation column separating a binary mixture of pentane and hexane into two produce streams of pentane (distillate) and hexane (bottoms). Our control objective'is to maintain the production of a
distillate stream with 95% by mole in pentane in the presence of changes in the feed composition
It is clear that our first reaction is to use a composition analyzer to measure the concentration of pentane in the distillate and tllcn using fcrtl-
back control to manipulate the reflux ratio, so that we can keep the distillate 95% in pentane. This control scheme is shown in Figure 2.2a. An
alternative control system is to use a composition analyzer to monitor the concentration of pentane in the feed. Then in a feedforward arrangement we This control scheme is
can change the reflux ratio to achieve our objective. shown in Figure 2.2b. sition analyzers.
Both of the a'bove control systems depend on the compo-
It is possible that such measuring devices are either very
costly or of very low reliability for an industrial environment (failing quite often or not providing accurate measurements). In such cases we can
measure the temperature at various plates along the length of the column quite reliably, using simple thermocouples. Then using the material and energy
balances around the plates of the column and the thermodynamic equilibrium relationship between liquid and vapor streams, we can develop a.mathematical
relationship that gives us the composition of the distillate if the temperatures of some selected trays are known. scheme that uses temperature measurements Figure 2.2~ shows such a control measurements) to estimate
(secondary
or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate, i.e. the value of the control objective.
The third class of measurements that we can make to monitor the behavior of a chemical process includes the direct measurement of the external disturbances. G Measuring the disturbances before they enter the process can be
highly advantageous because it allows us to know a priori what the behavior of the, chemical process will be and thus take remedial control action to any of undesired the consequences. (see Feedforward Figure 1.4). control uses direct
alleviate
measurements c. Select
disturbances
Manipulated
Variables
Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measurements identified, the next question is how do we effect a change on the
process, i.e. C&estion 3: "What are the manipulated variables to be used in order to control a chemical process?" Usually in a process we have a number of available input variables which can be adjusted freely. Which ones we select' to use as manipulated variables
is a crucial question as the choice will affect the quality of the control actions we take.
Example
2.11
In order to control the level of liquid in a tank we can either adjust . _I the flowrate of the inlet stream (Figure 1.3b) or the flowrate of the outlet stream (Figure 1.3a). will analyse later. Which one is better is an important question that we
31
D.
Select After
the the
Control control
Configuration objectives, been the possible measurements, and the available
manipulated that of
variables the
have
identified, the final problem to be solved is
defining
control
configuration.
Before we define what a control configuration is, let us look at some control systems with different control configurations.
The two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b constitute two different liquid control flows configurations. to different Similarly, Thus, the manipulated the same information i.e. system (measurement of
level)
variables, control
F (Figure 1.3a) (Figure 1.2)
and Fi (Figure 1.3b).
feedback
and the feedforward control system (Figure 1.4) for the tank heater constitute two distinctly different control configurations. FOP these two control sysbut different measurements.
tems we use the same manipulated variable, i.e. Fs
Thus, for the feedback system of Figure~l.2 we use the temperature of the liquid in the tank, while for the feedforward system of Figure 1.4 we measure the temperature of the inlet. In the above examples we notice that two control configurations differ either in: - The information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated variable or - the manipulated variable where the information flows to. Thus, for the two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b we use the same information (measurement of the liquid level) but different manipulated variables (F or Fi). On the contrary, for the control systems Ti) which are
in Figures 1.2 and 1.4, we have different measurements (T or used to adjust the value of the same manipulated variable (Fs).
Later on we will also study other types 0E control configurations, but for the time being we can define a control configuration (or ~. control ---...__structure_)
as
follows:
Definition --II_Control configuration we will call the information structure which is used to connect the available measurements to the available manipulated variables. It is clear from the previous examples that normally we will have many different the control configurations for a given'chemical process, which raises
following
question: "What is the best control configuration for a given chemical process control situation?"
Question 4:
The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the control system we are asked to design. Depending in,a on how many controlled outputs and manipulated inputs we have
chemical process we can distinguish the control configurations into: single-input, multiple-input, single-output (SISO) or control systems.
multiple-output
(MIMO)
For example, for the tank heater system: - If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level at a desired value by manipulating the effluent flowrate, then we have a SISO system. - On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values, by manipulating (more than one) the steam flowrate a MIMO system. In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are mulitpleinput, multiple-output systems. Since the design of SISO systems is simpler and the effluent flowrate, then we have
we will start first with them and progressively we will cover the design of MIMO systems.
Let us close this paragraph by defining three general types of control configurations. a. Feedback - control configuration: Uses direct measurements of the con-
trolled variables to adjust the values of the manipulated variables (Figure 2.3). The objective is to keep the controlled variables at desired levels We can see examples of feedback control in Figures 1.2 and 1.3. Uses secondary measurements, because
(set points). b. the
Inferential control configzration: controlled variables (Figure at are not
measured, to adjust the values of the maniThe objective here is to keep the (unmeasured) levels.
pulated
variables
2.4). desired
controlled
variables
The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, along with the material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute mathematically (estimate) the values of the unmeasured controlled variables.
These estimates in turn are used by the controller to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. An example of inferential control configuration can be
seen in Figure 2.2~.

C.
Feedforward
control
configuration.
Uses direct measurements of the dis-
turbances to adjust the values of the manipulated variables (Figure 2.5). The objective here is to keep the values of the controlled output variables at desired levels. in Figure 1.4. E. Design In receives the Controller control information configuration, the controller is the active element that from the measurements and takes appropriate control An example of feedforward control configuration we can see
every the
actions to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. the controller we must answer the following question: Question 5:
For the design of
"How is the information taken from the measurements used to adjllst the val.ues of the manipulated variables?"
The answer to this question constitutes the control law, which is imple_ mented automatically by the controller.
Example
2.12
Let us consider the problem of controlling the liquid level (h) in a tank (Figure 2.6), in the presence of changes in the inlet flowrate Fi. Our
measurement will be the liquid level and the manipulated variable the outlet flowrate. The feedback control configuration used is shown in Figure 2.6. "How should F change with time to keep the liquid level i changes?" In other words, we want to develop the control
The question is: constant law. wlien 17
Let us assume that the heater has been operating for some time and that 1 its liquid level has been kept constant at hs has remained constant at a value T s' while the liquid temperature
We I say that the heater has been Under these conditions
operating, at a steady state (where nothing changes). the material balance around the tank yields, 0 where F Let hs i,s = F i,s Fs
(2.1)
and s F
are the inlet and outlet flowrates at steady-state. Suppose
be the liquid level corresponding to steady state operation. Fi increases suddenly as it is shown in Figure 2.7. h will start rising with time.
that the
If nothing is How h changes
done on F, the liquid level
with time will be given from the transient material balance around the tank,
i.e.
dV dt or
Fi
Adh=F dt i
-F
(2.2)
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank. Subtract eqn. (2.1) from (2.2) and take
* dt
(F i Fi,s)
- (F -u Fs)
d(h - hs>
A dt = (Fi - Fi,s) - (F - Fs)
(2.3)
since h S = const. The variable h = h - hs denotes the error or deviation of the liquid We want to drive this error to zero by
level from the desired value hs. manipulating the flowrate F.
The simplest control law is to require that the flowrate or decreases proportionally to the error h - h S i.e. F = a(h hs) + b
F increases
(2.4)
This law is called Proportional Control law, and the parameter a is known as Proportional From Gain. equation (2.4) we notice that when h - hs = 0 then F = Fs Thus the proportional control takes the form, - hs)
(2.5)
and
consequently b = Fs. F = Fs
+ a(h
If we substitute F given from equation (2.5) into equation (2.3) we take,
d(h - $1
A dt + a(h - hs) - Vi - Fi,J
(2.6)
This last differential equation is solved for (h - hs), and for various values of the proportional gain a yields the solutions shown in Figure 2.8. Thus,
We notice that none of the solutions is satisfactory since h - hs # 0. we conclude that the proportional control law-is not acceptable.
Considerable improvement in the quality of the resulting control can be obtained if we use a different control law known as Integral Control.
According to this law the value of the manipulated variable F is proportional to the time integral of the error (h - hs), i.e.
a'
(h - hs)dt 0
+ b'
When we are at steady statd b' = Fs. Thus, the 0
(h - hs)dt
= 0 and F = Fs.
Consequently,
integral control law takes the form
F=F + a '
S
(h - hs)dt 0
(2.7)
Substituting F from eqn. (2.7) into eqn. (2.3) we take,
(2.8)
The solution of eqn. (2.8) f or various values of the parameter a' in Figure 2.9. 1
is shown
We notice that integral control is an acceptable control law to zero. We also notice that depending on
since it drives the error h - h S the value of a' the error h - hs
returns to zero faster or slower; In other words, the quality of Note: In
oscillates for a longer or shorter time, etc. control depends on the value of a' subsequent chapters we will see how
in a very profound manner. to solve integrodifferential
equations
like eqn. (2.8). Combining the proportional control action with the integral control
action we have a new control law, known as Proportional-Integral Control. According to this law the value of the outlet flowrate is given by,
Fs
a(h
hs>
a'
I 0
(h - hs)dt
37
In subsequent chapters we will study the characteristics of various forms of control laws, but it should be remembered that the selection of the appropriate control law is a very important question to be decided by the chemical engineer control designer.
2.3 THE CONTROL ASPECTS OF A COMPLETE CHEMICAL PUNT The examples that we discussed in the previous sections were concerned with the control of single units like a CSTR, a tank heater, and a batch reactor. lt should be emphasized a,s early as possible that rarely if ever is On the contrary, a chemical
a chemical process composed of one unit only.
process is composed of a large number of units (reactors, separators, heat exchangers, tanks, pumps, compressors,, etc.) which are interconnected with ,
each other through the flow of materials and energy.
For such a process the
problem of designing a control system is not simple but it requires experience and good chemical engineering background.
Without dwelling too much on the control problems of integrated chemical processes, let us see some of their characteristic features which do not show up in the control of single units,,
Example
2.13 a CSTR and a
Consider a simple chemical plant composed of two units: distillation column (Figure 2.10).
The raw materials entering the reactor are TB respectively.
A and B with flowrates FA, FB and temperatures TA, They react to yield C, i.e. A + B - C
The reaction is endothermic and the heat is supplied by steam around the jacket of the reactor. The mixture of C, plus unreacted A and R enters
the
distillation
column
where
A + B is separated from the top as the over-
head product and C is taken as the bottoms product. The operational objectives for this simple plant are: 1. Product specifications:
- keep the flowrate of the desired product stream at the specified level, and P - keep the required purity of C in the product stream.
ii.
Operational
constraints:
- do not overflow the CSTR, and - do not flood the distillation column, or let it go dry. iii. Economic considerations:
- Maximize the profit from the operation of this plant. Since the flowrate stream are and the composition of the product
specified, maximizing the profit is
equivalent to minimizing the operating costs. It should be noted that the operating cost involves the cost for purchasing the raw materials, the cost of steam used in the CSTR and the reboiler of the distillation column, as well as the cost of the cooling
water used in the condenser. The disturbances that will affect the above operational objectives are: The raw flowrates, materials. compositions, and temperatures of the streams of the two
- The pressure in the distillation column. - The temperature of the coolant used in the condenser of the distillation column. (For example, if the coolant is water it will have a different
temperature during the day time than during the night.) At first glance the problem of designing a control system even for this simple plant looks very complex. Indeed it is.
The basically new feature for the control design of such a system is the interaction between the units (reactor, column). The output of the reactor
affects in a profound way the operation of the column and the overhead product of the column influences the conversion in the CSTR. This tight interaction
between the two units complicates seriously the design of the control system for the overall process. Suppose that we want to control the composition of the bottoms product by manipulating the steam in the reboiler. This control action will aEfect the
composition of the overhead product (A+B) which in turn will affect the reaction conversion in the CSTR. On the other hand in order to keep the conversion in the CSTR constant at the desired level, we try to keep the ratio *A'53 = constant and the tem-
perature T in the CSTR constant. Any changes in FA/FB or T will affect the conversion in the reactor and thus the composition of the feed in the distillation column. A change in the feed composition of the column will
affect the purity of the two product streams. The control of integrated processes is the basic objective for a chemical engineer. Due to its complexity though, we will start by analyzing the cgn-
trol problems for single units and eventually we will treat the integrated processes.
CHAPTER 3 HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
In the previous chapter we examined the various considerations that must be taken into account during the design of a control system and the associated problems that must be resolved. In this chapter we will discuss the physical
elements (hardware) constituting a control system as it is implemented in practice for the control of real physical processes.
3.1 IIARDWARI:,- ELRMMENTS In elements: a. The chemical every control
OF A CONTROL - - -SYSTEM. configuration we can distinguish the following hardware
process:
It
represents
the
material
equipment
together
with
the physical or chemical operations that occur there, b. to The measuring the instruments or sensors: Such instruments are used
measure
disturbances, the controlled output variables or to measure

is
secondary variables, and are the main sources of information about what going on in the process. thermocouples or Characteristic resistance examples are: , measuring the temperature,
thermometers, for
- venturi meters, for measuring the flowrate, - gas chromatographs, for measuring the composition of a stream, etc.
A mercury thermometer is not a good measuring device to be used for control since its measurement cannot be readily transmitted. On the other hand the
thermocouple is acceptable because it develops an electric voltage which can be the readily transmitted. devices. Thus, transmission is a very crucial factor in selecting
measuring
Since good measurements are very crucial for good control, the measuring devices should be rugged and reliable for an industrial environment.
C.
Transducers
or
transmitters:
Many measurements cannot be used for con-
trol until they are converted to physical quantities (like electric voltage or current, or a pneumatic signal, i.e. compressed air or liquid) which can be transmitted For easily. The transducers or transmitters are used for that purpose.
example, the Strain Gauges are metallic conductors which change their when subjected to mechanical strain. Thus, they can be used to
resistance
convert a pressure signal to an electric one. d. Transmission lines: They are used to carry the measurement signal from In the past the transmission lines
the measuring device to the controller.
were pneumatic (compressed air or compressed liquids) but with the advent of the electronic analog controllers and especially the expanding usage of digital computers for control, the transmission lines carry electric signals.
Many times the measurement signal coming out from a measuring device is very weak, and it cannot be transmitted over a long distance. In such cases the
transmission lines are equipped with amplifiers which raise the level of the signal. For example, the output of a thermocouple is of the order of a few Before it is transmitted to the controller, it is amplified to
mil 3.iv0I.t s .
the level of a few volts. e. The controller: This is the hardware element that has "intelligence".
It receives the information from the measuring devices and decides what action should be taken. The older controllers were of limited ,"intelligence",
could perform very simple operations and implement simple control laws. Today with the increasing usage of digital computers as controllers the available machine intelligence has expanded tremendously, and very compli-
cated control laws can be implemented. f. The final control element: This is the hardware element that implements For example, if the
in real life the decision taken by the controller.
controller
decides that the flowrate of the outlet stream should
be increased
(or decreased) in order to keep the liquid level in the tank at,the desired
value (see Example 1.1, Figure 1.3a), it is the valve (on the effluent stream)
: that will implement this decision, opening (or closing) by the commanded , amount . The controi valve is the most frequently encountered final control element but Other typical final control elements for a chemical proces,s ,
not the only one. are :
- Relay switches, providing on-off control, 1 ,. *:~II - variable speed pumps,I, 1 - variable speed speed compressors,
. ,. . . i t .
,? Si * &.? , .s ~! Recording elements : These are used to provide. a visual demonstration of 83. : i; ) si : 1 3: how the chemical firoce&behaves. Usua%~y the variables recorded are the 2. I ~._<. : -1 a,.$ variables which are directly Ameasured as a part of the control &stw.
,? Si
etc.
.*
l
Various types-of
2:; ! ._ g:. *, . _, .) 3 I ra~orders,(te&erature, pre_ssure,.flewrate;
1.,.* ., composition, etc.) .
can be seen in the control room of: a chtsmica), p&ant, monitor&q continuously *z 51 ,.,: : / ,.~J :, >; ,..... 3.r ,r. the behavior of the p&e&$ . The -recent introduction of the digital computers
in the process d&trol 4
has also expanded the rekording
.,
.(^
T,.= ,,I opportunities, through
the video display units (VQU). .,. , .G f. Figure 3.1 des&ib& the hhrdiare el.esien~ts
L .fi used for the cqntrdl of the :
.:
stirred tank heater. .3.2, THE USE DTCITAL -COMPUTES TN : PROCRSS. ; OP. I ,CONTRO&.
Th he e rap pi d d technologica+ @+opment @velopment of,d$gital.,.eomputers of,d$gital.,.eomputers during during t th he e last * * ten years, coupled with. s$gpifieant .reduction of their cost, had a very pro., found effect on how the ohemical-plants are controlled.*,The il :: ; . . . expected future . .
,,
improvements aqng niquesmake
of the control design tech& " :: :. . ' i the digital computer the centerpiece.for the development of a ;'-~'-+:f7;r. 9 .,
with the growing sophistic ation
control syitem for chemical processes.. , . ,i 'i ._ . .' :I:,i -, .:' plants like petroleum refineries, ethylene pla&,. i Already large-. chemi'cal ti ' / I I i, .8. ~ , 1 Ji, O. .r :a i. ::I ammonia,plants and many others , are wnder digital computer control. The been-very substantial, leading 'to better-control andreduced , I' .*v4 i, ! ._: operating costs. 1 r '.,., . ). ' '_ '., -'~. _ 7 '. : In the past the control laws that ceuld be imoloment& a-rontroller ~ -..= ---_-__--- hv -, --. , were very simple like the proportional control wa ) or i ,progotifional-integral '5 ," w '. I ~. ,:i ' 'i discussed in'section'2.2. .The fu en& revolution introduced s., by,fhe". ,, digital computer in the.prahtice'of process'Mntro~1 is the virtually unlimited, ._,; '. "' !,. intelligence that can be exhibited;by such 'un,irs. .,'I&& phencmenon imilies . >.'; : ,'. _, : that the control laws that can.be u,sed are'&.u$ m&e comple?i ar&sophisficsted. .C i *.. ,: ., 7". ,~ ,::, ( ) .;.z,: .T. Furthermore, the'digital computer with i!--,eas,ily yropr d inherent !I * . . J : ; ,~ 'II 3 :, 1', intelligence " can learn" as it receivks aieasur&en$s from-the proces,s, and it 1 i ,', .,,*,. ,%' ;l;<:~, >: : 79; 1 can' change the control law that is imple&en&& in:tfie actual' :.operation of ,.-4, '-' . *1 ,( ;1_ . 7:s: the plant. < .:. ; ' b ,c>.: ,: The digita computers have found very~~diversi$&@control applicat$+s ,". 2'. ,, j I . 3 '~ * i I, in the process industry. In subsequent cha'&zrs we,pill.study both the. .' ;. j - !?'. ,::,c* ,, 'p : ,*, -*, : .&',I' '. theoretical and practical aspects associated with the us,e of,,digital computers '** "j$ 7,(J &A for process control. In thefollow%ng psragrophs~,$a i'the time being, we'5:: ." ./ #~,*":.; j : :. :.'r.",, ,J,( l,r *_. ,,'.*, will diecues some applications characreristic'of'.the diverse usaBe gf the '; 1~ '. ;) digital computers. *f. ',.l,., a. , Direct Dig&al Control (DDC$i .'~R,.BUldhl86~~'i~~~~o~~~ the c&put& riceives I ? <,+. : , >_ directly the measurements from'theSproces8' and b&&6'&~theicontrol law, which / I is @ready programmed and,resides %a ite:?eolrjrjr,~~alh~ata;Lb~the'valuos of the ,, :, manipulated variables, i These,dec&ons, are,nois- implemented direc$ly on the process by the computer through the proper adjustment of the final control,
:.
* -<
effects have*
r 3
, ,
elements
(valves,
pumps,
compressors,
switches,
etc.).
This dfrect
imple-
mentation of the control decisions gave rise
to .the
name direct digital con-
trol, or sim& DDC.' Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical DDC configuration. The process can be a&of separators, ware element6 etc. the units'we,have already considered such as; heaters, reac and after' the &&pitter are hard-
The two interfaceslbefore
and they are used to create the interface 1 between the computer In a let& cbapter"we.wiil diecuss the nature of these' 'the Computir and
and the' process.: interfaces.
Finally.,
the human operator c&"%nteradt~ititb
affect the operation of the DDC'si Today the chemical industry is moving more and more towards the DDC of A typical system oYf DDC's for an ethylene plant can include ,. i ' *. P between 300 and 400 control loops. aAl1 the compan&es which furnish the con, r /: , .," ' '., i -, trol systems for the chemical industry: rely 'more and more on.,DDC. 1 ' ,_ ad,,, '; L ,-. ! I " v. Supervisory computer control: -Aswe discussed earlier one of ;the b. incentives for process control is the .opt&zat%on,of the pla&'s economic A.. .:r " .; i : . i _ . I, i I ,a I performance. Many times the human operatordoes not or cannot find the best , ' ; .j *$. *;,*,'&! .'. :".r. ' :A. .z This operating policy for a plant which 'y..will _.( minidil&th~ '/, operating ; is. cost. : ! p t ?'S 1 ,. I ' deficiency is due to the -enormous esmplexity of.a'typlcal chemical plant.' t ,.. ; ," .*$~1 , j ; I,' : ( ,, >ti L +..i \ I,:. j In such cases we can use the,s#eed &d the progreamn;hd of a.,i' 1 .: /, :j: .%%. intelligence ,. j : : ..J.% /" .* _.b.I..:,* :' 4; 5" I digital computer to analyze the sit&j&on and'tosuggest the best policy.. .. I. , j , 2;s ," ,. j .: 1 _ I': In doing so the computer coordinates the act$vit&es of the basjc DDC loops , : (see Figure 3.3). Finally, the computer can be.used to -.I schedule the operation kof a plant. For example, the conditions in the market
C*
the plants.
Sch,eduling
computer control.
(demand, supply, prices) change with time, requiring the'management of the ): chem&l plant to change its op.erational schedule like cutting:production avoid overstocking, increasing prodticti'on to
to meet the demand, changing-over
to a new production line, etc. These decision These decision can canbe be$made $made rationally rationally with with then aid aid of.a &.a digital digital cpmputer computer ~ then ~ .. . r -3 . . . .' . . ii ,_.i, I ,_.'i, ,, !.. ,, !.. 7 7 -3 which in, turn will communicate these ds$.sions to the supenrisptiy computer ./ .; these supervisory eontrollers will .,..' implement the,se .i", ; / . ..'I ,< 2 decisions on the chemical plant through$the ;DDC'8+ !. .L , * I .i -II shapters DDC aI .s we ~i$l. +++Z .: and i ;" In subsequent / , !, ; .px!,edominantly~with -^ .' &he ,', little with superyisory computer : %ent&.~,wh~ile not'conkern ourselves i we..$ll not'conkern '.i ,'.t/I :.I . 2. ,. with 'the scheguling computer c*t$;ol $$ch $~,the subject u&pr qf ii dif- : I. : '; ferent field. _, .I i._' / " '_ ,. .<' _, r d,. ..;' , /'. ', CONCLJDlNG R&g ON PART I i. L :(. : .j ', It is hoped that the reader now his a sk&chy outl$ne oft I ,.*:. -;:.. ,_ ,Tf .6 _' , ~5: :,:' . i ,;, ; I _ ,l. St \, I.- 'I%0 iced8 &id 'the incen~tives for' 'procees ~:onerol,:~I'~ .< ,;,.$;t "' : ,* /_ :;; ,~ 1 > -i $ ', ', .',. 1. .: ;* : - the basic questions involved'during the design 6f'a control syst.enfor a / ** * : 14 .,,r+ : .' 3,.:- ' ~ /'l.l : b ( * .,' chemical process, ,s , I (' ,, ), I.,. . I , :a:$,' ' . - thehardware elements involved in a; &on& 8ys't&~;&,4 I : 'j-k'* .;' 'fJ :" * ,?j;i -,z.f , .:," ,' -F ..;i - the importance of the digital,comput&s~f& the pres.en.t"a~ future * , ,z d$:'yje ; I ,: , '; . ~I implementation of advanced control'teohriiques.~ _ '~~~'~~~~ I. j I *:,r ,,&:$;.! " -1,. ,$;? : '. I (.: b In the remaining chapters we~will~~s&~t'~ we~will.~~s&~t'~ ay~tkmatic analysis &,the various questions raised in thi.s chept$F:, -wfW'the final, controllers. . . .I Pinally,
., -'
design a rational control system f,or a':$i.v&n proce .,. ,I ,) ,( i :; (.: :' _ " .', . ;:.i$. i. ,. chapters will be leas chatty and more &&xH$~~~-~
I,
REFERENCES ChaRter 1:
(1
.. . Numerous examples of the needs and %ncent%ves'for the following booti: of Process .Cqmts@, by Fi Si 'Buckley, John Wiley & ', N&# T*yii (~9~4),V _ ', : c prowess '* control can bc'foun&'& (1)
Techn-Jl&@ Son&, Inc. ,
2nd/ edition, by F. G. Shifnsky, (2) Process Control Systems, .* ;4 McGraiw-Hi&I, dew York -(19@]:;' ' ',
, I
More on the stability &haracter,istics of, &TR's , ; ., i:b,. - /, can be found in: ' c . (31 Ele
tith'exokhermfq
reactions I.
> r. > ( The reader is encouraged to return to these articles later after he has become ': ". ,I familiar w&h the terminology' nIncluded in the above refere&ea, . Chapter 3: Details on the chslracteristice and th6 design of the measuring + devices, recorders, Oransducersi transmitters, controllers, final d4 control elements and $ 1
I& p. 2 (1976)
can be found in: :
4
, I 3%
(7) The Chemidal
Engineer\8
Handbook; J. H. Perry (editor), 5th
edi$n, MqGrqyHill, New Vprk (1974). ,. I .* (8). Pro&a Instruments and,bontrdls X&dbqqk,, D. M. Considine ,: (editor.), ,2qd .* eaitiqn, l&&aw$iill;. New York _, .: (19Jk).., I An excellent reference for the cor&ter; contgo;;l ,& th&_ch+cel pro:
cessea
is the boa&:
(~
SC.'
(9) Digital Computer Pn,,c&s
,i.'c_-I s. . ;: ._ Con&&, by,,C,:L, Smi&, Intext Educ,, ..I' . ', ,' ;,I ,>
:.
.Publ. ,. New York' (l!T$TZ$, Applications of computer contro4 (10) "Digida Cmtro~ I. C. A.,McCain'and . / -.' (11)
.I I,
qan be found in the following articles:~.~~.~~+~~ellano, 56 <i

Cont.p3i,*!..by
oi a Dis.~~~Jatisn,Sye'~,l~.by, * .:' , F. W."fFblas, (1

,
me+. J&. Erogr., :74(4), -. : :I (3 (. _
(197t3j. "Ener@
.
,: . I Conser&ionl~ia
'_ ,,'
)L,
',
Process Computer
P. R.zsi. n
Pr0&~.,,;12(4) , 76*;.(19i@b ~' " _/ :'; ,, .. !> 7' (52) 'Qhnppr Co&l of Aqm+&&anfq~,ll,,: !yL. C. Daig$e;III and .i.' ~, .;; 1. G. I(, Nieman, C&m. .&g, progri;',.~70(2)j..Hf.11974),,~ ": ' .', " , ,_ " ., ;.:.i. _, '_ ;(13) "Applying Cpn*ol, (Sompuzt&/ t&a'& X~t$y$ .' .* I.( , Nisenfeld, Ch". Eng. Progr.;.,-
LaWuS,,,
Chem.,
Fpg,;
.
---
..-----------------,
,, :
.-b---b
c..
,,'
Coolant Water
COLUMN Controller I
Contrdller
I-----y----,
-4 --a
I
.:
5-J
Reflux
Distillate '
. Feed /I
The three control schemes of the Example 2.8: ' 1 feedback (a)'; fet%-lforward (b); inferentia) (c) a
I
-1 : I d
1
.
kimat& o f t h e Values zrf the Unmeasured CX&rolled k-ti -4 VariabIes f

.
----w-a ,
Estimates of the
,:
Unmrzrsured Controlhd Variables ., 3,. I. : :
./ i a
T h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e dnFetenfia1 c o n t r o l configurntim.
Measured,, Oukputs.
,
U n m e a s u r e d
outputs
The gcnernl. s t r u c t u r e OC t h e CeodCorward
control
COIIC
J:;+II-;:t
i,,lI.
4:
.,
, . . . . C-...-w-. * -...a -. .-...L-w-.. . . ..-. -.___ ,, ., ..-. . a.. ...d. 1
..
-, . _ - . --- _ _. -. .-._ . . *. . . . .. .I . . - . . . . . 5q ,. :.
ir,-
--g* ----I--l
Disturbances
-..+-+Measured c . .
Unmeasured
L : Intertace
L,-
,y- ..- -3 -
..-- L
4 .-e-J - - - .A... _- ,-I 4. I-..
.+ -1-1 ,w-..
.- J..- .-A -- ,w-' .Y
c CHEMICAL
PLtiT
> -J .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.
What is the control objective while you are riding a unicycle or a 9 bicycle? What are the measurements that you instinctively make while rid&g, and what are the manipulated variables at yourdiaposal?
2. 2.
While you are taking a morning shower, what $8 your control ob.jective, your measurement and the manipulated variab,les at your disposal? q + i. Compare a ,sifple feedback to., a ,sfmple f,yedf,orward control configuration . 1 ) i (Figure Q.I-1). Which one would you trust to better in 8 .perform _- ~achieving you r . c o n t r,( o l *:obj,ect$ve? ,;., $2 , W h y ? :I,.j,.. : What factors >should you co&ider : &n l,l diter$?nir$gwhat to .a..- , J variable? . ,1 measure for. 1 the control. $f .a t$p$$$~~'~~~oces~~.~, $+wer qualitatively. ,:, _* ., .ydl.l.i; .I I j -
3. 3.
4. 4. I 5 .. 5
6 6.
7.
When is: an -inferentia;l., ,contkol configg$re&n .: ,neede@ .& . ., ,:.$&at do you think I ) . i s i t s primary* weaknes$ Compare* *t to p,,s>mple feedback control cbnf: ; &->, I ,_ *., figuration. Which one is prefhrabla? 7 q* ,i :, 9; :. . i i .Describe Describe the the steps steps that'jmu that*u would would go go through through inorder inorder to to dCsign*a con,,,/Lo trol system for maintaining* .the pH of the liquid i in .i , i.a stirred tank ., ,: I,< .<.,?. .I (see Figure Q.I-2) at a deetred deetred value. What questions mu+ you ryolve? , f. _. ., ip 4 Develop a feedback and afeedfoiward control configuration for this !i, I ..* ,.L, system. , .,, II ,I { What is a SISO and what is a MIMi system? Give examples gram the chemical engineering field for both. ~ Define the term control configuration and develop three different control configurations for the pH control problem presented above in item 6.
8.
9.
In the tank system shown below (Figure Q.I-3),the
flowrate F of the effluent s
is proportional to the square root of theliquid level h in the,tank. Show that such a system is self-regulating, i.e. if the inlet flowrate
,!
. t
increase or decrease by a unit, the tank will not overflow or empty ., f, completely. 31 .*
8
10.
. ..
.: :
I.
:; i
F ! . ,:.
cell and how doee it measure the liquid I 1 i
What is a differential.pr&sure level in& tank? )- .

_
11.
12.
.$
14.
Is a Venturi meter a good me&zing device for monitoring and trans+ J ,. . . i d ,. mitting the U&rate vaJ%eof a i&earn? 8 I , ,:,;! Determine the hardivareelem~~tequired for the feedback co&&con-. ^. . ,( f. i figuration of- the pli in the &&red tank de&ibid inqu&tion 5 above. i ./ ;,, { 9. If you were to use a digital computer ita your controller in. the control : . ., r ,., *:;, I_ i, configuration above (queer tion 8) &at &w hard&& element@ would $0~ I _ . I. . . 1 : J , -. ::..g ,_ $-j :f .I; i,..~ , .: a need? ._ i (i ~ ,., t,. What ire the,b&ic and moB<i.import!ant advantages offered by the digital , i $ - ; :- . _ . I cornput ere in process control? Discuss thesj size, Cbp&ilities and ,the /,(I : 5, t :rP %. =f :.< : :. . prices of the most recenthigital m~croprochaeore~ evailable in the , ,a I 1 t.: market. Do you realize the inexpensive potential, tha?. they offer for *, s * ., t <<.,. ;: . I 2 process Atroi? :,. . , 2,
~:
:?
.:
I.
i.9.
,1
.I.
I. pRoBLEMs , . * 1
: ~$7 :; e.,
1.
Consider;the (a)
heat exchangei: shown in Figure'P.I-1, objectives fok this system,
Identify:.; I ':], ~ i
The'control
(b) All'the. extetial
dis&bances'thdt
will .affect the tieration-of
(c) All the available $Xnipulated
variables for the contm-1 disturbances. ," P;I-'Q', considtir
of the i(
exchanger; in the presenc%"df 2, For the same heat exchang&
&kiwn in F%.gu3e
that'thie:
~,, ",,, /" * I'
3.
temperature T2 k 190'F is our bakfc contrd$,objootive (i.e. maintain ,. *. : QMstruct two',difthird temper$turk in the pr+ese%ce,:of ~d;tstiikbsnc&)~ , ,I.' ;, ., i ferent f&dbsck and txqo: diffeknt feed@&?& &Mrol~conf$$qations . . .' '. .; : ,' . :, that will satisfy the:co~:~~~~objec~~~~~i~-theipr~nqe of4disturbances. ,: ..r..f.*. li ,; '7 I . j.4 1 ,i: . i A seke &rl>k&q$r~*~m a :'k &&+&(pQp @+ !Wb&2 lo;ad cs$ Clml~~:r ,. . ', with'time; *$1$$%1 v&&ions -$n:'the-&aft speed i6fL~4h~~tu~bfne gre con- . . _ a; ,:* ,:,: ,'.I t$olledLthrough the use .of* a-flybsll sfroad~-.,~ove~~~~' Ofroad.-.,gove&qk.<' Fok'thit system,. " I' ai .",( (a) : Identify '41.' th.e$&,ternal d&turb&tci&' an@+ va&&&:". . . Lj:! ..:I I : t~~:"j ~a&&&~"~ t~~F?j ._'. . Also $Ctermine and-ku&st~~a $&.d&& con,,') ' i .;i ; troller that would try to satisfy it. !.' _I. i I , In Figure P,I-3 the dkWillation configukation fur these@k?ation~of these&zation~of ;'. benzens fromitulqens is Biven. The 1 feed &"the,distillat,&& icomes _' from the reactor where tolu&e hks been :deh$dxodeakk&ted &produce .,:' /' .i":. ,.: <benzene, Ai;. e. 5 1:: 'I' *. _ , j .' r '_ Toluene + H2 --+ Benzene + CH; after the excess 'H2 'flash unit. For the and 'ihe'produced distillation CH; have .' .system, ' deenrem&ed in a @),-L&&l @),-/h&l -the avaiiab~~.~&&$at&i avaiiab~~.~&&$at~ . :ttr~'~a8i~~~oon;trsl"object,i~~
\' :,_ r
4.
'.,, .i
L'
L
, I ' I
%I (a) Identify all the control objectives (make sure that you have ,,I,! I . included all the operational object,ives) , , t. 3 : .;.I ,, I (b) identify all external ,disturbapces, and,, , (c), all ,.t$e available ,measurementa, end ~mar$pulated
5.
,i
variables. .
*For the distillation system of Figure P.I-3, t: 1 (a) Wggest a feedfoxward ,&ntrolJ.er that ~$11 oontrol the operation I of the column in tha presence of changes in the feed flowrate, +, (b) . suggest a if eedback. co@& co&&ration, to account.. for changes , * in the feed Llowrate~:. I ,Xi ,,._.,, a
(e) if the control objective. is to; keep the purity of fhe..~@#h@, ,: :,. r ~,: J:., _: ,prodpce (benzene) constant and.: the .use of, concencratiqn rn&$&?#g .* d e v i c e s . ( g a s lchromatographs,z infrared;l,anaiyzerS,;le~~?)a~B:ao~ *, .:, : ,recommended d% fo. their low relwility;,i sugge#; , + control configuration. What secondary mea&em _ * 31; ,, ..une?. How would you use them in principle.. to.Se$t,ima~+4,;& .; ~,,
-x ,:i,i+ ,-
6.
(jonsider
the air-heating system used to regu&&..the l~~~,~=~~~.~~. .A . _,_: a house (Figure P.I-4). The .heat is.,, e&&i& tOrom: ,&he., ,combust@n of G, i 1 , i * . .;, .; /I,,:, < -? :. ) _ j i,! wr fuel oil. !Y, (a) Identify the control ohjec&ive&&#e %&i&b&s! m&suremente; i ,c man&pulated variable& What are the &xtQbme% Gar : ?. fgg thfa a-,g&qjs sy&&, I I, ;, $5 ::..:+%,y ? ;T *
;A
(b) Develop a feedback co.ntrol >, objectives. :
configuration to achieve your -control,

1 .-, . ,*(
(c) Is a f card&ward control conf igurat,iLan /:poaaible;*for 7 2 achieving: >, * ., ~ + your control objectives? 3. , .i
I:.
,, I 1. . ,_
7.
Ftgure ,P.I-5 shows a system of tw0 tanks which are used fur the temporary (Tank 1) and longer term (Tank.2), sborage of a liquid chemical product. .: I he d,hand d. s satisfied from the temporary Tatorage -tank, while Tank 2 lis used. :to a&uimA%te the l&@id. product in excess of the demand. (a) 1, Idi?nt!Lfy: :! i, MIMO (b) E%ternal diatur~arices, , : control objectives, mbasurements Is this a. SISO or a 1 > : i
J -\ and- manPpuk&ted systemT
variables available to you.
Develop alhernAtive
~ < feedback sand/or f e&f or-ward Control conf igu% i , (i q
rat ions to achieve your control ob j etitives . (c)
_. .f 8 . Consider ii s&em of two ~contitiuou~~~ stirred Gnkreactors in%&.& x (Ffgure P. I-&) wh e r e t h V e , - ? foll&#ing &ndqth&mic Tre@tion takds pltitie: (. . l / . A + Cataiybt,t 4 B 1 t , ,::. ,~ .:.I-. ,,, t ;,,Z-:T i, .j. i .:t (a) fdentffy t+ c,,&ro~-.odj$&&!!& xrbr the ~pe+a&+ &;thg &o 1 : : / +* , * G>,. CSTRS.~ ), (1;)
Cl-&y
Is ther e any si$,uation, that may arise durgng which you&&not I .: avoid overflotiing the storage tanks3 !A
the ~va&.abl& of &c *syst& ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4, .,. P ,. 1. ( ,.C * I

classify ,:: '&& o&ji,ts :the and
z.
1. ti _I
subsequent&y
variabJ..
irtputs"in,~~"dist~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aaipulated , ,/ ., 1 T', ',, : '.; &to measbked as ;~,&,~a#&~' &&,&&~ ,,, ,it
.1 5
d J CI .!,i,.i .b i: --r (/ , _- *. ; )~ :.i*-! : k. $ \., i f ..,.; :c (c) Develop .a feedback control &nf i&rat& chat! iatiif&&&ur i. :j objectives using a c&iporition ~naljio;cit4~~~exit it&m or . L ,$ I I ,/ . : he second CSTR. ., (df Developan Inferential controlcdnfigurat~on that uses.tempetatures Is aj this ,a SISO or aMIM0 system? + ! _,
?I ( '. ., "
and flowrates only, assuming that a composition analyzer is not !~ (, available. !1
(e)
Develop a feedforward control configuration whiti composition analyzers if they are needed.
can also use ; the two CSTR
(f) In your opinion, which syst@
is easier to .control,
2 9.
system shown in Blgure P,lI+$~'or~an equltvaXent one CSTR,system ' that achieves the,,saple ~nve;r;aQu~? Explain, qualitatively why. tubular cataly,ti@ Ssactor ,The where an endothermic reaction reacting mixture is heeted'with stream of the can b
Con8ider.a
A$B takes place (Figure P.I-?i).
,:. steam flowing in a jac&t around the: tubular reac&orz. ,The the raw &&+a1
A 'includes s,lso a chemical C .which,poisons' t' catalyatover ,a period of, five days.. As the catalyst decayswe increase the supply of heat to the,Yeaetor through;the s
steapl,thus
: increasing -the temperature of thereacting mixtuke and:.Fonsequ&iy ,' t,he.conversion to .B. &at us.,assuw &hat th+ reacrtor -is isothe I"_ , ^. * ,Jc i', along its lengrh.;. Pigure P.-I-'lb,:: shows thotempersture inthe reao%or during,the reaction pqriod, fl~#~ imize+.the profit fromthe'operation I, ' of the tubular reactor. c,' ,.;. '( 1 (a?.,. Fo,qm.d.,~t~ .the optijmiqsy+, ~~~blem~E~~~;~~~eld~~:the ..temperat&: '. 4 pro$$I$ of F&g&e PUtlb its sqlu,9i411~ , ~7. ._. .I ..as, 1 .*: d.
.:
:co@r~l &y@em the ':..tC'^. ._.^@ich.~ill,reguIate .I_ .' .i tern.i what perature of the rd[actor to ,t@t,.sh#k T, /' iqP~gur= P.I-?b..< ,,I.' " 'E ,.i.: .-F , !,, l'. ., ..i, Q? the:- kontfol $@hm 1.: j .<' ' , , . "y:. 1'bed <:t I Cc) Draw a control uses ,&digital- computer for the .L.~ I system * : . that .&Se -'i,.. I implementation of the feedback system in (b), Include measuring I devices, transmissionlines,,:final ,. * ', con,trol elements and whatever
(b)
DweloR a .feedb,ack.^
,>
10.
., else is necessary,.. , .,' r:p ;)Y * TWO liquid streams with flowrates Fl, F2 ~j and temperatures T1, T2". .~ ' flow through two separate pipes which converge at a mixing functkon .* /. .: :.r.,i
(Figure P.I-8). the temperature
We want to maintain constant the ,flowrate .Fj and .T3
of th.9 fir& z4. .; : *(a) Ide@.fy the control objectives, ,disturbances, available ,P/ .measurements and manipulased variables. Is this a SISO or a MIM&'system? .
of the liquid stream resulting from the mixing \ / two.etreama.
(b) Develop a control system that uses only feedback,controllers. (c) Develop a cotitrol system that uses only feedforward controllers.
(d) Develop two different control systems that use both feedback and Y.
I- C-T - v
S?ART II MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVI6R OF CR~EMICAL $8. : PROCESSES
In order to analyze the behavior of a chemical..process and to ansyer some of the questions raised in the previous chapters about its control, we need a mathematical ,%epresentation of the physical and *
chemical phenom&a taking place in it.. Such a- mathematical representation : constitutes the model of the system, while the activities leading to the
:
construction, of of the the modei' modei' will will be be, r&f&rid r&f&&d to to .as .as modeping. modeping. r , : Modeling a chemical process is $i very synthetic activity,requiring the , / use of all the basic principle&of the chemical.pn@eering science, such as thermodynamics ;* kinetics, ,trane,port phenomena, etc. For the design of con-* .
trollers for chemical processes, modeling is a very critical step,,.-It should .a7 , be approached with care and th&htf.ulGese. The purpose of the following two Ichapters is :
- to explain why we need to deve,lop a iathematical description (model) of a chemical process as a pr,er&iei.te,to the design of its controller, , I; L_ - to describe a methodology for the modeling of a chemical process s using the balance equations and provide examples of its implementation, and finally - to determine the scope and the difficulties of the mathematical modeling -., for process control purposes. ? It should-be noted that the isubeequent chapters do; not constitute a fi complete treatment of ali the aspects on mathematical modeling but it is * limited to those of interest for process control.
THE ~EVELOIWNT DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL ,.
.fd '_ _ !'!. processing system with.its associated variables as ./ shown in Fig&e 2.1.' To investigate 'how a chemical process (i.ei i t s 'outprr~ts) , ;. "3 _.. ~_ changes:kth tiny@ time under under the~'ix&enca theinfluenca of of the the external external disturbancesand disturbances and mani. pulated variables and consequently design an appropriate controller, we can r: use two different approaches: . ', , ', -. Kxjjerimental approach: ' ii this case the physical equipment.(s) of the i, i , ; .L ch&&kl process. is available to us. Consequently, we change,deliberately I -:-';~..', i( : _' , : *, the values of various inputs -(disturbances, manipulated variables) and . .I. 1 .f, , _ : ( L :,, .,G ,I) ;I* :, through appropriate me&.&&g devices we obser&e,how the outputs itemw J. j_. $ peratures, -pressures, ,flo#rates, condentrations) of the chemkk process uy;i$i, ,A : , , I .qi, ,,j.: f Y 1 ;, ; I . :.*z : change with time..i, . S u c h pro&dure i s t i m e a n d effort consuming an&it as&it i is s i !<., !<'.', : ,y-: L,, /Y >! f. n n" fj$ )~, + . tJy I T ( -' i "i * : I;* usually quite costly because 8 large number of such experime&ts muqt.~;#e-:, ,. : ,: p , .:,-jj . ,) $1 . r 1 ,. . -. .( F : * & /( h ,--ki 4, . . . f p e r f o r m e d . , . 1. ,I ;._>h; 1. ; ^. { ,-.iT, : ..*= : _ ii::! ;e&& ,~,:~~v i&C.? t: .:.c $ 7 I,, . - y&J&icalT ap;;ohc;; It:,$s quite -of ten the case: that we Bkve .t& .desXgn k. , i:: ,. .:. : , .* ; 2:; < . . G*&,>. t h e c o n t r o l sy&em 'ko$"a ch,emical p r o c e s s before,&'bkas,been c&nstruct&& 'I I'9 ' . i. , ., " In such a casa we cannot rely on the experimental procedure, and we need IL ,. ',.I ,_ Consider a general '. a d i f f e r e n t
*;
'
re~~eeenra~~n'of!.;~~~~~~~~l'pr~ess im ordar,~~o.e~yit.~;~ ^( .. "' .: ; d y n a m i c b&h&orr ~Thie~r&tired ropressnta$t9n is ~usiq&Q @A& kn twml

i:
" I ' o,f'a s e t o f ma.then%at&al
_ .j> _
'_
squations
(diffirkkQIS~
'&kg&&c)
wh.088:~
',&,
solution yields the dynamic or2.stati.c under quest ion) ~, i ,i_ ,.,
behavior' ofa&& ehe~i&l.'procel~s * ) . f ,. ; .. j I
In the/present tex,t tie wiIl-~discuss both:aQproaches of a modelfor a, chemical process; approach.while
for%tW development
IQitialZy, we. we. will will examine examine:the :the theoretikal &apt&r (Chapter ).
leaving the experiment&l for a,subsequent
4.1 WHY DO WE NEED MATHENATICAL MODEIZNC FOR PROCESS CONTROL? ( Let us repeat Ghat that ourgoal is to develop,s control system for a chemgcal process wh$ch
/ . ., !
will guarantee that the operational objectives of our process

L :. a*: , 1, < .. 1; ( ,,, ci ;;
are satisfied in the presence of ever dhangiag .,!C r . :4 d i
disturbances. ?
need to develop a mathematical description (model) for the process @z2.,want,ztAa
Then,whydoye *t, , ; ::I 2. : 2,,I ;;.
..
: : f
,,~.
;i. .. ~.,f&:, I- I7. I / 1s i *.,;;ty ,:;, ;; s In the introductory paragraphs of the .previous page :&at, ,I :.~ we noticed * .I x *_, often times the physical equipment of the c&mica1 process we want to control -.,e /, -. L..i hi-- , ; L; : : b :: ! .d have not been constructed . Consequently we cannot experiment to determine ,J* , _. . , ,:,k. how the process reacts to various inputs and therefore design the appropriate - _I *:. , .:,. : 1 a,,* ,-f r-fq I, 1 ~. control system, But,. even if the process equipments a&available fop. I/h,-er 8, .P+ : I, . . : .:.:. I . j ,a.:,,. *_*. , .,< .. . experimentation, the procedure is usually very costly. ). Therefore, a I ; ii x.$ Lq weneed .- . +. .) i.:x . ::,. i - m I. I .: simple description of how the process reacts to various, .&iputs; ;a& this- is ., a> : I r; ,~i ;.; ,: ii &s$ .T- & _ .:Q,f; ,: : : .& what the mathematical models ,can provide to \&a control d&ig&&. :, . .,I / :,;, ;- x: -~,) .,., 3%. *. ; , ;. . 1 i$ .,4 i, fI. ;, 1. 1.. ;r ,. _ Let us demonstrate nbw in terms of some : -*I&es th&*nee& for the ,i r _ ,.,, .. , development of a mathematical model before we $&sign the control., system ,for *, I e. : .. , , I ,. ,_.. : a ., .I-. _/I i .,: .1 f. I.~,j:I;, :-;-I .:,i~ ..,I J 9 e.. .i I 1, :, , z a chemical process. : & 5 * : , i I, .*) 1..i , ?\, + c :i, -I , ( *. b ,. ss ,, ;: , -, i). d i . \ 11 ;. me / r ,: . ; ,. : ,I Example 4,l t Design && Integral &o~ro&&~t~ Ll,q~id Level. , I_ . .,-in e Tank I, , : . Consrlder .the. problem. of ..con.trolling the IeveJ~of the Uquld 3n a tank, ; ., + . % f . * . using integral control., <:@xample- $612) .1 i From F&@re 2.@.&~no%ic$ that the - I quality of the.,control depends$on the &&ue:o-f~ the pet&m&er: a. B u t ! th&j: quas tion is : best value? . of control and-what is it; I To answer &his: question we:n&ed, to, know how-- the value-of the how does a affect the quagity :> .
control?
liquid,, level h 1s af f egted. by. changes!& the value, of.* the itilet$!lowrate inlet$!lowrate 1 * : Pi or the integral ,acltion of the controller; This.,is given byfequation (2.g) (: , __ ,. i
^ ,
which constitutes the mathematical
model of the tank with integral control.
. L Example 4.2 - Design a Feedforward Controller for s^Process , :: < In the feedforward control arrangement shown in Figure 4.1 we measure . ,.. ,: the value ofth,e disturbance and we hnticipate __ what ! its effect will,be I on the ., . ofi. output of the process that we want to control. In order to keap the value I P <.& __ : 2. ) : n ., : this output at the desired level,. weneed to change the value of the msni> .- ., I: ., : i ,. ,/-I 3 pulated ,vrriable by such &~u&uni ae t,o d&Rat& the impact that .iha I .: . disturbance would have on the output. &e ques(ion is: how much should, we .I r s <.I ; ..change the manipulated variable in order., to,,; c&&cel thb effect of the disj :L; I :- ( _/ $ . ,I& i; , : q,:: turbance? To answer this qupat$on tie must kno; the following two I * / .( .) ; relationships, ; i _,* output - f l (disturba&%?) :* . ; ,, , 3?I,.. f, f.. . output - f2 (mani&ated v a r i a b l e ) ,) _I / ..i. ::Q is : .: .t:., ~ . : ., I which are provided by a mathematical ,model of the process. ,Indeed, if the. ,A-;, . . ,. .+. 1 +: .. $ +<I; : 2 s,+s; ., 14:; i-i ( f r :I. : : manipulated variable &st. take such :W valu&, output is to remain the fsame,, , ;, the . , ., ,.&7:< .*. ; p& -*,,: j , &A.- , * ..,_ -* .i : .B ,. ; / , ., that . s :;#.& ( -*$ A , * fl (dis++&)~~ f;i.:~m&ipulat& &&blG$ : S , ,, ,f j:
t ,. This example demons&&s very vividly how important is the mathematical ,. _~ .i . -, t.7, iI .j ~ 1 , I ! .,. <i modeling for the ,deaign of a feedforward control system. In fact, iwithout. : /. .good and accurate: mathematical modeling we .can&t desigti efficient feedfarward . 5, . ~ ., *: control sys terns. : . i; : $. : 2 , I i. I .
Example 4.3 - The I&sign of an Inf.erential Contr:ol System P In the inf ereptial control *s&me .shown in Figure 4.2 we ,measure the measured output and we try to regtilate the value of the unmeasuredcontrol
objective at al:desired
value.
Since the control objective+3
not .measured *
d:irectly, it can only be estimated from: the value of the measured output if a relationship like the following is available, 9. ,. control objective - f (me&red output). .
*,
I 4
Such a relatio&hip in turn Is not poss$ble3f we do .not have a mathematical .:. ,I , , ;. i ; ) , , ~I representat&.of the process (mathematical model) ;. Once the value of the ,,>a control ob objective j e&e can can be bee&mated e&mated ofof tomtom- a a &atXonship &.atXonship like like the the above, above, it can iL, j > : ,;j, _~ _ .) -8 ,., f b; compared tothe desired-value (set po;nt) and,,sctivate the iontroller for i: , .a ;. ,~ / , .,, 6 .I$,I .J _* $,, an appropriate action like ,:.: in the control* /. feedback ,../ I! .,; . ,I, * I ,I, We notice therefore that the availability of a good mathematical mod& 1. : I, .>,I** (, .:.. .. ._: ~ -:L * 3 for the process is indispensable: for the dt;arign of good inferential control -. I ,y , I ,. i \, .ri !,r .) A* . ,:,i i .., systems. : s1 * ::. I : .:. _. I .,*_a : ,.. i %- >, 3 -I :,* ., ..,l/ ,i rr, i , f * , . i ! 3 ,~, .:.**.. .,. * 3 . J: .* /. : . I. ., .-> The above very clearly ttit the mathemst$&l 7 three exkmples ind!lcate _ : ,1 a:. f. modeling of a process. is of parsmount Gportance for ihe des%gn 02 good and ~ ,*. :., f. : t : , . : 1 . ef f iciest control systems for a chemical process. ,In the follow& sections + rr j ) _ 1 f !. : we will develop a mathodology for the con&e modeling of &&&al pr.ocesses. . 4.2 STATE VARIABLES AND STATE EQUATIONS..FQRA I, I e?-- CHEMICAL PgOC&SS~, In order to characterIzea? proceeelng dly$tem (tar& heater; b,atch* *: ;. ..:I reactor, ; _I , i : , 5 ; * ),, ,; i , .I i. 1.. .~ distillation column, heat exchanger,. etc.)., and its, behavAor we. ne+l: , *.a- , :f i QF.> I .*., - A set of fundamental dependent quantities whose values .will describe the . ,_ , 7, c ,(/ ., ,., i 1 . ,i SF, , I a :, *I : I natural state of agiven system, and .: a . . - a set of equations in the above variables-which will describe how, the r.r. natural state of the given system changes with time. For most of the processing system of interTat to a izhe&icalI&ginesr there : are only three such fundamental quanti&es,, i.e. mass, energy, and momentum.~. ,. . . ._ i , *..- j ._: J_.*
.,
;a
::
_.
_ r
Quite often though the fundamental dependent variables cannotbe~measured . I dir eetlv and conv&ientlv. In such cases we select other variables which can he measured .i conveniently and when grouped appropriately they determine- the _ L value of the. fundamental variables. Thus, mass, energy, and momentum can be * characteriped by va&riablea ouch ai danbity, roncentxation, t&mpsiature, These characterizing variables are tailed .state IL 6 i variable<s and their values define the state of a proces~~&system. _f\ .F:,; rf ; +The equattons :w&~ich relite the state mar&ah&& (de@$dent variables) to &! the varlouq, indgpendenti,,varLrtblee are > ,der$ved from >the app~lication of the 1 . ;.; conservation principle on the fund,&ea;tal tiqugntikies and ,:z&re called Hate ,. I. I , : . j. < <&! ; 8 equations. ,. ._, ; , :, The principle 03 cons&vat&on of a quantity. .iS:; etatsr *h&t t: ;:-:. ,, ,;,: :,..*:. : ,/ pressure, flowrate, etc.
The quantity. S - total mass,

,\ ., I
can be any of the following fundamental3 qu$ntities: :1 i L /., a .. , ) , *

I 02,. , , ;, )
.y j :
.; - mass of individual components

i .
!1 i
i
- total energy, and - .momentum.
..i
))
j.
!_
$.,
jl _2.48 ., :, I : . I a I.$ Remark. It should be remembered that for the phy&al chemical processes Y? .: . .P , and 40 ;,_ , . .*a. 7 . . 5; _ i $ 1 . L rJe will be studying, the total mask and total energy can not be ,: generated from nothing neither they disappear. : .; J -._ l__l . < ,L,..; _I j Let us review now the most often used formsfor the balance equations. I , ,,. dl. Consider the sys tern shown in Figure 4.3. Then, we have: . . . ,,., I, : ! c
Total Mass Balance
r; Mass. Balance on a Component A ? :R ,: 1 F ,. , . : , ,d(c,V) d(q) ii piet cIA~i I,- : j :;;t;;; ci PJ 4 . aL UI. i j ,P; Z ,? 7 ,.j, . L 5 i ,_,
ky s, (4vTb) ,,I i:,?,, 1
: ./ pi .( I
P j
is; the .dens.ity of the matergal in thesystem; . r is the de&y of the material in an inlet s.tream; . is the dens&ty sofa tha,materiial in an aut.k.ez: bstreami s
, . -. ,-, * ,
I. Ll c .
,I ,.: I.) is the total volume of the system; , #$ 1 :;. \ : , is the v%lumetric flowrate of an .&E&i stream; : . I . I:, ! _( . Fi ,,, . is the v.olumetr$c flowrate ofianioutlet ~tr~eam; *r .% .-, I. Fj .! ,_, :: ..,1 i ,. ,I_ & nA , is the number -of moles of colapanent A in the system;. _ ., A, x .. : _:. ;.,: is the.molar concentration (moleri;/vol.ume) of A in theiystem; cA _ .vy /.,A, , * . . ,I is the molar concentration of A in an &&et; * *; CAi I . ,: /_ ,.A CA is the molar concen tratlon of A in an outlet; 2. ; r : , 5.I .I ) .., r is the reaction rate per unit volume #or c0mponent.A in the system; . . : _., ., < I ia the specific enthalpy of the ma,t&ial in an inlet stream; : I, i hi y; y::,, : is the specj.fic enthalpy of the material in an outlet .s&eam; hj * : :. : . . L .,.I, * , . U,K,P are the internal, kinetic and potential energies of the systea, L- ._ . , ~ -5 a* , l$,. ,, :. :. . * /. respectively; ., ? :, ,, r: 8 i.. ), ),, . ! is the amount of heat exchanged between the system and its s&rQu.ndlngs Q . : 7 .e per unit time; ., 1 ., .y,: . . , 9: ( : A$+ is the shaft. work exchanged between the system and its surroundings I wS per unit time.
? I
j ; ,.
L ,
j/O-
- The total mass in the tank is total mass - pV
/ , (4.2)
where
- pAh j. p the density of liquid; V the volume of liquid; A the cross h the height of the liquid level.
sectional area, of the tank and
- The tohal energy of the liquid in the tank is E = U+K+P _ t
but since the tank does not move, dK/dt - dP/dt * 0 and dE/dt = * ..# .: ,, , 1 dU/dt. For liquid systems *
,, ,_:.
dU/dt
a .dM/dt Furthermore,
where H is the total enthalpy of the liquid in the tank. H pVcp
(4-3) (T - Tref) - pAhc (T - Tref j, , :p . ,:_ , I,Y) 9 . t :.a,$ : where . .( La, . ,. L; .:..a;. :: is the heat capacity of. the, l,iquid the tank, and __, in cP , I I + ;i i ri ; _ ), ..L. T -,c is the reference tsmper~fur&:~ where the sPe$if,lc en thalpy of LtzI. ,: y $k> -i ,. ; _the liquid is assumed to b& %ero., 2 Lb, . . eqne, - ( 4 . 2 ) i&f- (49) qii;i+i$adi t&at the eta&i &i$$+~ f o r . a Frmi ._ (. . :: ,Y : 7 the. stirred tank .. heate) t&& t~~~~~$&wln$; , a : . . ~:, . , I 5 I *,,. ,, :,i ., ,_ , ;,.> s,tate variablesi >:.t: :. h, I and -,?P , _ . .; 6 I , while the . 4 I, 1, : , 4\ * . ) .I . constant parameters: p, A,.c p; are characteristic of the tank systemi4, Note: It has been assumed that the d&si.ty , p ,. 2e.i independ&nt of: the ..,/I, i $ : , 1 Let us proceed now to develop the state equations for the stirred tank temperature. *, .- : .
b
) *
Tref
2.
heater .
We will apply the conservation principle on the two fundamental. ,; quantities, i.e. the total mass and total energy-.
(a) Total Mass Balance . or ,f . Accumulation of total mass time .< :*fdW$! I, + p ,, piEi ( _
,!
, : j
Input of. ,Output 0.f 3 total mass t o t a l mass t&me . j ,time A pF i I ; c. . i
:..,q
.(&-
/ 3 . +: where Fi and F are the volumetric f iowrates , i .e, volupe beti unit;of time ,, ,i ( . . ;t: /- c? d : ke (ft3/min, or m3]min), for the inlet and outlet streams respectively. l Assuming s $ / .* 4:.:i .; t constant density (independent of temperature) (4.4) becomes: _ eqn . .;,I :. : . . /i. la\ L .s P P. - u
or
where 0 is the amount of heat suppliedb~.;hC..c can take the following simpler form Casske T.~ .,
Additkonal
a l g e b r a i c mnipulations o n . eqn. (4.%$ y&e,-. Id:-. $ FT.+.--q-.,: ..FiTi i 2 pc,

IT &dT ,!
,* 7.
,,
i, i L .i
p.4
dt
= Fi (Ti' - T) + + .: p ,
.: L .
(4.5b)
: J.
Summarliziag i.
the above modeling steps we havel t&Eat* auua~l~ns
5 : : ,I Li/ , (4.4a) _, (4.5b)
Ah dT dt (,
The variables in j Section Z.1)
Fi (Ti - 0 + $P F4qns. (4.4a). .h,T
.I
.and 4.: 5b) can be classif ..
ied a$ follows (see
~~~-stke variabies:%: ,output v&fabl:es :
h,T (both measured)
d&sturbances:.
Ti;
Fii
. ,_
.,
, .,:;f, -J,, controls)
- manipulated var iabiea :
:Q, F ( f o r feedbhck
and the Parameters constitute heater. I
the mathem&ttc
We need only solve them in : orqer 7 *.,I , to ..fin38 its .A
behavior. Let us now rtudy the dynamic end atatie be&?&x of thentf-ynd: tqtilc .a L i
..:.. ) .,> . .
. he&er using the 8 tatq
eqns , ..*
: ,..
w-
(4.4id c?nd (4&) g ,,.,F ci, , .-.,

.
initially the tank hea.ter is at steady state, i.d.,]noth:

,i 1
situation
is
described by the state equation?, if thetate o II <, ,..I t I
(ieft-hand s i d e s o f (4.4a) a n d (4,5b) i s . aet,te zero, $:e* I i , Fi,s Fs 0 \, r *I , >,

rj.,
Fi,i (Tg,s - 5) + g O ,, P
1
The subscript :s
,denotes
the steady state value of the, corresponding variable. the steady state situation df any of
The system will be disturbed~from' the input variabfes situations: i. k changes value,
Let: us examine the following two I' Ti
6,
c decreases by 10%. 'from,- its ..: Q j ,,-~- I ,::,,,' p .* steady state value, Then value.:qf,~~he,l~~uid. leve!, wil,l remain thq . +i f / , ' same at t,he steady state value, hs,.since 'Ti does not influt&ee 1) .:~I' .:~& .+ ,.' the tot&mass,in the tank (see aJ,so equation (4.4a). ,$n t&condecreasing with, .:, :
j;.& Consider that the inlet temperature :
trary, the temperature of tke,liqlr~d,wilZ,$lso.~tart time.
1 t
ii.
How the temperature T, changes with 'time will be detsrmined i* from the,golution of eqn. (4.5b) using & inj.t$al condition .--.- the ,I steady state value of ,T, +.e, 3. Y ..' i 8' ;.: . L . T (q$-ll ..= Ts. ,_ I.: ' .i i i Figure 4.4 indicates the static and dynamio'behavior of the'tank:,for * :~ I ..', !1' '. .,.. ai: 1% $1. '. ~~ .,- ii i this case. We observe that after a.~ert&~time the tank heater .has 1) ;. _ '5 : ,$ : ,;- , I;'$ : ,8 ., '?,': ,j : ; .reachas again steady 'stste 'izondit~ons. I i : i - i ", r' , "ST,. ;, : , . '&& : Tr& '*i ;~ .P," , ), ;: : Consider tL;;t inirially ;hg*'g&k ,$-key t& I;;:;Ke&$;i;@ts ,, ':$: .!':> _, I ':I, .'. ,': .- -.,; r. -1:.-I ., 1 '.' i >* Thg& 'it' tim.&f q&g, .ihZ $$& fiLrate hs; Ti,s' Qs* "i,s and %* .? ., : decreases by 10%. It is,:clear that&$& the id& and the temperature '. ,,'
change
;1I \_'_," i' fi(4.5b) using as initial conditions, (tco) p hs ' ^,v '_ .'.;T~!p'*) 6,' Ts*:' " h and '*' ,, ,,* ,,, Figure 4.5 summarizes the static &d dynamic behavior of the tank heater for this case. .
I_
By coriue&on, aquantity and negati&$if
is considered positive- if it fl&s in - the system j it flows out. with the aqkociated st8te variables constitute the
The statecequa,tiong mathematicil
model of a process whiqh gields the dynamic or static behavior The ap$l&tion of th;e conservation $rincipleas defined by
of the process. eqn .
(4.1) will yield a set of d$f.ferantial equations wi,th the fundaI
mental quantities as the dependent vari@les,, and time ~ths,Jndependent , 1.
time,, i-e8 :it wfll determine the. :.. d.ynam&cihehsv$or of ,the prjcess. ,.
Consider the stirred tank. heater of tha &ample, l..l:(F&& 1.1) r The : fundamental quantities whose values, provfde every information about the: -G : ,. ., I : >, reactor are: - the total maas mass of the liquid in the tank, * , ,.*. ~ y
- the total energy of the material in the tank, and - its momentum.
The momentum of the heater rematns constdint even when tb,di&turb&nzes Change value and will not be further c@sider?ed. Let us now identify the state variables for the tank heater.
Remark:
It. is worth noticing that, after
Fi. has changed,,. the level h .I)
,_
i : . -
and the temperature. T reach their~new steady states with 1 z.: .different speeds. In particular,, the level, h, achi&es its new-: . . .
In a subsequent chapter : . ,; :, . D ,II we. will analyze the reasons fo>r ,- such behavior:., ,,,>.*: 1 _,:I , s1 .-+ ,~ 1 :st _ . ..I> : i i . I II ,, / . i, ,, : ;$ i,r : , .? -I. ,I> .. .A.:.! , ; I .il, , 4.3 ADDITIONALRLWRNTS OF TUZ, MATIiEMAqICAL MOD&$ ~_ ; ., * ., A, ,;: ; iy In additianto the balance equations , we need other reldtion$hi$ to 4 ,. ; j . 0 I. ). G ;.:: < . . express thedodynamic equilibria, react.ion rates, t$ansp&t ra&e for h&t, 1I :d , ; 5, p, ,f i : / :* mass, momentum, etc. Such additional r$a&onshiRs~needed to comple& the Y *,
steady state fast,er than the.,.temperature.
where .* u At
TS
j_
* :. : :,
.,/ / -. ,,
i s t h e o v e r a l l . h e a t transfer; cbefficleat, T 9 : :c., , ,+s the total area of heat transfer, and . ,*. i( is the temperature of the steam. .: i I . : .c
heeded todescribe the rates of chem+cal reactions taking place in a syst& l:s: s&h equations are developed : iti 3 course on Chemical Kinetics.
Example 4,6
L1
) ,:
i ;. ~., .
The .. reaction rate of a first-orde? reaction taking #acf: in the C$3lY$ is i .j given by ,ul s % ; ., ,,h ., I .-: :. i
(i .
where
Needed to describe the equilibriunt t$ttia.tiona reackyd: king a ah&i&l... !. , j + t *,j 22,;:. ) . :l: , reaction, or by mc) or more phases. These ~elacionah& .&e dev@X6&ed. In x1 .,_ ,,,, .,*-: y.<.t ,d., _ : :, ;5* course8 on Th&nodynami&~ I ,$yy
Example 4.7
----------1--_____ -T---C-T---..---..=--~---_T~ .Y _.,x I _. d 8..
p r e s s u r e yf fnd temp,Frature Tf . I f the pres;ti;y pf is .l(lT~ .th&n, t h e j nx ;-. 7 .,> bubble-point pressure of the liquid. at t9periitur.e Tf, no vapor phase $.ll be , i i , present. The liquid stream passes $h&&h a resjzriction (waive) and is l!. r i --.i, , j, * flashed in a drum. i.e. its oressure is reduced from D, to D fF*owp b.6) . \ ....-., . . , I
i I
If ^ the pressure -_ b in the drum is smaller than tha bubble-point pressure:-of the liquid stream . , ; ; .) : : ( at the ,.t,emperature .T ,,f the will partially vaporize and two phases at I ,tiqu,id ~ equilibrium with each other wifl.he present in the flash drum. I The thermodynamic equilibrium .,betwee& the vapor and liquid phases imposes .I Is certain r.estrictions on the state variables ,:of the system which must be .;,* .\ included in the mathematical model of t&e. flas,h,drum; if it ,is to. bk c9n~ sistent and Correct. These equilibrium relationships, as. it is known ~from~ * i < , I
This abrupt expansion takes place under constant enthalpy.
chemical thermodynamics, are: (1) , (ii)l
t&perature of liquid phase - temperature of vapar phase * ,,:. pressure of liquid phase,t; &essure ,&ase, : : _ of vapor p ,._
Needed: to . describe ,,the relat&nsh<p ,a&+g the intensivi< variabl.es des_/ , _i ic&: : +* ..( * $ cribing the thermodynamic s&te of a sy.st,e&~~, The ideal gas law, the Van d,er .I. Ia.: ^ Waals equation, are two typic& e&ations :$fstate foe g&zous.-systems; ,f r ^ I, ~,. , . :. ;. _/,I. I.^!-I, d ). , 7 : -. 3. : , , ,A_, : k > y ) >_,. ;,, ;: j f I , ;, 2 ? ,. .,.: :. , j % .b .:-i : : Example 4 .g li . . ., .,i , i: (. L I * _( ,I *y* _! ? : ,.:./ /, x ,I / : : . .a _ 4 :> Let us return to the flash drum ,ey,stem discussed above in Example 4.7. t ,. .r .,_ ; SF. f I/ L. I 1 . For the vapor phase from the idealgas law we have: i < *<. : j, >. . -c pP R)aRT (4.6) . D%a$or i (moles ofQ + / moles, I c>,,. : !,i ,, ,
(iii) chemical ptent,ial of, con~opent, i; in the liquid phase = .. L1 chemical pp tentiai of!: ;~rn~~~nent.,! ,, i &n1 th.i; vapor phase q %I, The equilibrium Cela!:~~nsq~ps~.....int~roP~~~ a$Id$tional,l @@ations among the . ., ,_, + state variables of a system and reduce the them. Care mu& be * numb& of,, f exercised so that all the equilib,sium re&tion&ips h&& been accounted fhr, ,. : i : _. P i 2: , 1 6, ,:;II. *I .;I i i : *. I . ; _,, a-*, ci ., * .,:, , ~ p<,; , I ,~.v.(. _* i.: ., .__,, ,,.: ,. .i: p, :z$ I ,:.I j l .I , ,.I k 1 4. : ;< D. Equations of State (\ , ,;, $& ) : i-p, _4 I , :, ,;:&I(. ,9 -I. ,i
I -
. ,G I .i !
~. , 8,
.
or
considering'that
, Weight = yAMA' + ys% I". 1 _- . *,!~:, ', " i "< ?. " '-
Average Molecular we have P vapor where yA9 yB
(4.6a) .?; ,I, A and I.,'B and MA, MB j ,. _
are the molar fractions of componen& -_
are the molecular we&h& oi 'A-. and "k?. ."
'
liqyiid
- IO,&,)
In all the modeling e@n$les

,?J
discussed in the e&lCei

.
b. I sections'it has
been assumed thatfshenever (disturbances, manipulated
a cha& takes &a&in&e variables), 2ts outputs.\ effect is
of, the input variables instantaneously observed 9 .
in the state variables ana.the *. c. , or the feed knroerature.

I Ai-
Thus, whenever the feed qomposition, in
T,. or the coolant temperature, T,, change i 1' Y'c-. -.
the CSTR of Example 4.4, the effect of the change is fek: immediately and the
k
temperature, T, or conc,entration, : ii I themselves.
start changing CA, o.f the outlet stream /, ;*,
The above oversimplified picture is contrary to our physical experience, :, i / i > which dictatesthat: whenever- &$n input variable of a system changes, there is a time interval (short or long) during which no I effect is observed on. the system itself. :, This t&me interval ,j.s caller&dead o r p u r e delay* o r dfstanceyelokity . ., . j_ Example II * leg!. , * 4) : I
time,
_ or transportation .lag, ; : .,: :>,, I.
_.
g.* 4.9 ,:,:A. .L , , *r . f;:, p 9: Pi Consider the f:low of an imcompres$ble, nonreacting .llqutd,, through.,k#pe _. f ., (Figure 4.7a). If the pipe 3s completely dr.1;,. thermally insu&ed and the . : i; -heat : . ,,i ,. y: : .I . ,C : *. + is negligJble, i t i s +sy generated the friction of the flowing. r . by ,:. I I t: oY( .,;s: fluid . *,i .? j , r: ,, :. the ._ outlet ,stream will be. see that at steady state the temperature ToUe.,. of % ,f a ,. , ,Q; i.* equal to that of the inlet, Tin. AssuM now that starting ._ at ,I MO, theVtek+, I, a..: I_, ,* 1 perature of the inlet changes as shown by curve A in Figure-%%7b, It ,,.* *isi clear that the temperature of the outlet,: T out; L will remain same until if. . the> . / temperature the change reaches the end of &e pipe. Then, we will observe.the . *, i .., : I & I % > ,,!: > , F ( J ,+ _ , iI of the outlet changing, as shown b$ curve..B in I) Figure .4.7bi . - We notice that t the change of the outlet temperati&e~follows :the same pattern ,as the change I 2,. / of the Inlet temperature with a delay of td aeconda . td is the d~acJ,S,Gne a* , (.I and from physical considerationa ., -* .r * thsf,, 3 i.,;to see (i .I.,>2 : _ *c :!,/ 1 _* it I< is;; raay , .,. volume of : the :p&pe ,.Jy. L&t.. p e (&& ,:, td * voldinetrfc~fldw.rate I ,. I ,.I where ,. + I ,&f~. U av is the average-velocity of the f&id over the croks sectional if., areaof the pipe.
,I
1 ,
Fuuctionafly,
4 .i ,
we can relate '-Ti end To as follows: - Tin(t - td)

/, :_ ,. $!
,, ., ;', .F, (4.7)

:-. ,-$;: . ., . .:: rr ., t,;-
T o;t( t3
. _ 2 .i.
:
,
;. .(
,. .
I~ ,
The dead time is an impor,tant el;ement,fn the mathematical modeling of chctnicnl processes and has aserious rrol%ers. 'impact on the design of efrtectivc conthe presence of deid":time can /
3 I' r. ;'
As'~e.~will see in a later s-ectiou,
dest&il~~-~,v~~~ [, ; Ij
easily the dyna@.c-bghau;jor aE,n,ayatem. ; 'i. ',I . "' _1 , . .' : ** ADDITrONhL 's&r,i~s .' .iOF ~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~
/ ,:. I
- the mass of the chemical A "Yn,-the
react&d
- 'the total energy of'the'rea,&ing m$xture ,; * 'Remarks : (1) The mass of component B can be fouti ,)?, *_ :.. ((,. - .,_
. I
mixture, and' -' L in the 't'&nk. "
'
from sthe,total ma& it iinot,.a *
and the mass'of +fundamental (2) Themomentum
component A.
Therefore,
quantity. of the'CSTR
-* : .< <
: does no; 'change under any operating

*-
conditions for the reactor and wiil sequent 'ppragraphs; f$. ?.I
be neglected in sub-
Let us apply the conservation principle on the three fundamental quantities:,, I : I/ _ ,
QFi where pi *i and p
- .P,F
f .! 0 ;-:!
represent the densities
i: (4.3 :,' " .": / 8, _ of &he ,.&let: and o&et-&reams," <' i: , ,I , .
.,>
;-
and F represent t~e'volumeti-ic',fl~.~rgtes of thFinlet.@and, , , .' .i ,': :., : IL l,,:' p;'_: .3I ,A- ', outlet str@~t$iS8.e. ft3/6in or m /min, &fid ;; ' ;r -, : I 3,. * : / 'A I ; . .: (:x (. i, :;*'). I V is the volume of the reacting"$ixture; J" ':, :. . .i ,;' (b) Mass Balance on Component A ;:' Accumulation of A L-.--m 'time *.' Input df ;A j fime
. < --r _ / i'_j" _
represents the rate,of reaction-per.un@ ,. .i ii i
$&me,:
._ ,d is the number .of mqlas of A,in.'&he,.;ir et&n& '&~yprq. ,, , , ' ., "A _-a. ..'.I :r 4'( -'v-q , i, I T,,. , I', .'&. (c) TotaSEng,rgy , Balance .c... $:;;j &c I, i , ) : -lz ,~? ' '.', t " f ,. Accumulation of Input o f tqq$: _ output /of tbral Merge removed Energy removed total energy total 'energy energy .with 'energy.with fked$ f Bed> enilsrgy. enilsrgy.w:$eoutXetw:$eyutXet. _by by coota;; coota;; time ,I time . . .b,b.i, 1 i , * / ; .< $, I . In the above'b&nce we have'neglected the &ft,work done by the impeller of . . _, ,I. ..f ', :., < : .' the stirring mechanism. The total energy,df'hhe reacting mixture is P ,,f (-I I ,fi 9;
j *( . ; ,,
where U is the internal energy, K the kinetic energy
and P the potential
energy of the reacting mixture. Thefefore, assuming that the reactor does not .> :I ,#:>f.-., : move? i,e-. dK/dt - dP/dt - 0 , the left-hand side of the total energy balance yields , ,.
dE TE-
d(U + K + P) d t
dU -xi :
Since the system ii a liquid system, we -canmake the following approximation, 1 ., .: 2 .. Accumulation of total energy of the material in- the CSTE per unit time * ^ i : ,*:: ._ Furthermore,
.i *._.a4,.: I L I I j2) _:/ ^. I t 4 ~:. *,: . (Input of total energy-&th;feed per unrt,t!ej ~$,p,~Fi lhi(Ti); : ,. -2 , :i , ~1 . ., :. , ?, ,; . a 1 > . i and, 5. ; *,. . .? T$, i ,, _. ,?. ,\ i ). (Output of total o&ergy with the. ou,t&$$&$#n ,per .un@~$@& A. pF h(T) :{,* -) .I , .: ,. ._ .$: :., ,, _,_ :: 2 .: :,b,.: ._, i.1 ?: : ) where hi is the specific enth&y (&Ghalpy per un$ maas)&&,:the fee& at$,eam >$ ,% I. 6. ,L I ,,i .: , ..-,: .z and h is the specific enthalpy of dhe cid.et % tF&rni (kqkytadti+, the total I i ;. @ ). . , energy balance leads to the foll~~i~~~~~~~uafr,~n, I .I i. ; , : h .I *-: i. . . . . : . ., ;, : r. r , - Qrz Q is the amount of. heat &moved by the. coolaqt ,per unit: t&me. .a : , , I. :; ; :i;* $.Y 1;; ; ., : ,.,. .::.:$ .I ,_,.( a ;;, _ ,;,: Equations (4.8)) (4.9) and (4.10) are %ot t&heir f&a! and most con: ,< ., I ,(,. :.,~ ~ -! I< i 1 y,.:.. ,i : ? . . S to such form 1 venieht form for process control design. studies. To bring them I ;,~*..?f~,; ,i ( , ^, :., ., i L I we need to identify the appropriate state v&tab&; I qf4, : t $ :: - Characterize total mass: We need the denCity of the reactingmixture, p, and its volume, V. CA on and =B
; .+
where
, I . j
.7
,._
._
,.
-1
i/
z ;
( I . -
1:
.e,.
_I
;,i*
,,The density will be a functioh of- the co&&ntration Quite often the dependence of p
., WI
and of the temperature T.
A B
and T Is weak and the density can be .roosidered constants as , : :a. 8 :; ,., I
the reaction proceeds.
Therefore, the left-hand side of eqn. (q.8) yields
Und,er &he ab&ve ,assumptLon , V is the need&j itti ..i. / only. state variable which is f?.( ,., 4;: 8. .:r.... r I -i-i:,, .<,i ., characterize the..total masse. Then eqn. (4.8) becomes: j li i ._j ;. ,&i: .I *> :,. .,, 3; # I i , dV 2 ,~ dt ; Fi ,L : F : , (4&) - Characterize the ma& of compo&nt A.[ _ This is .simple.. From eqn.S.;(4.9),iwe ~, fy ;; , 1:. II r _ . ,_ *is realize thiit the state variables needed are: ,I ; .-: , --,. _c: Algebraicm&.$<ti&s on eqn. (4.9) lead to, d(cAq? x.&~ : d,fA d t - ~y4.zF : .y dt _. :,:, ,1 a or , dcA . 1. v-z,-. - CA<Fi : 7 -E/&T F - cAF LI- .ko / A . _ I I* : i, .B / ., i; cAv i _.*,
enthalpy of. a Z&quid .&Q&I is a fu sition of .the liquid symtebn, i.e. H - H(Ts A, .!$$ 3 ,J ,i -+ of A . .> _, j 1 : ,) , , :. *. 1 . ,,_ :: ,,
where nA and -4 iy~~~~e m o d e s the above expression we take, dnA dH aH, -aH :dT - + dt - aT dt ?nA d t +
. .snd B ..,?n j&e CSTR. Differentiating _ .
j- .,%
as d
ali
d%
i (4.11)
. : .<
,. ,
l+l,t, ; a , I . i ;_. .-. ) L: : 1: .(,I. ., aI4 fiA(.T) aT. - PVC P *m an,
~.
, - fig(T)
(be>;
:,. 2.
: a,
,; I I
where cp: 3s the specific heat capacity of the reactihg miiture and A, the partial molar enthalpies of A and B. HB 1. : (4.9)
H -Le
Furthermore,
/ ,
from
eqn:
dn.. dt
d(c.V) n P
and a similar balance
on component B,
Substitut.e dH dt
the above quantities in eqn. (4.11) and take: < _.
, ,. i g. :>, ,,. I <. :. : I * ,JM &k&, ) < i ,) ,.
* PV c,$ + $1 cA Fi - cAF - rV1 + ,f& I-cBF + rV 1 . i ? .(.,I ; :, Sub,stituting the dH!dt by. its equal., in &he .t total energy balance ., i ; 1 ,. __ PF%-Q(4d?&) - ,tq -,, , iiB [-ch,F.. + r&J + p iF i h, &:L -HA[cA~F~ AF, ,. .^ .I: ._ , Let us now notice that W
Consequently: ,
eqn.
(4.lOa)
becomes
9 : , i i
i.,
* et : Q
dT PV cp dt - -iiAcAIpi
+ fiAcA + n,ri + &cBF, y, fiBrV : i .i Pi, (Ti A A - FcB%. :
i or
that temperature T is the state variable .; .,*. !ne&yof rthe. system. -: j ,. ;, i .,T ^) SE: . . :. y -: 7 - _..,_ ___ .e steps in tha;mathemitical modeling of a CSTR tie , i ; ;: b . , .; ,: have the following : *~,, ,i g ; I / :s t a t e v a r i a b l e s ; V , cA, T , : > I .; i t . . .* . state :equatAons : ._, _/ 2. ,;
input variables:
cA q R,,.$ii $.F (when feedback control IS tied) i (L : , . . >A_ . .,

. . ,.:
Among the input variables the most ;~a&& &&rub&&ss are : .- ,l : I disturbances: cA , ,Pi, Ti ,., . . . . . ! 1 ij :_ _s :,, zIIz,.. ,.:,i: I i, ,. 1,*1- ., )I * -\ _,.,; f while the usual manipulated variables atie: I ~. : manipulatgd variables: Q; F (oocasionally Fe o r T i ) x _ : I , + . ;i The remaining (variables are parameters cha~acter&lc of the reactor system, i.. e. . constant parameters : I p, cp9 (-PII,) ,A ko, E, (activatYon energy), R. i I
,*
_-
In the presence bi changes in the input change.
variables, the state variables
Integration of eqns. (4.8a), (4.9a) and (4.10b) yields the CA(t),. ' 'r V(t) and' T;(t) as funrtions of' time. '. / : : I; 1,;j. . Theieteady state behavior of the CSTR is given by eqns. (4,8a), (4.9a) and (4.10b) Setheir left-hand sides are set equal to zero, i.e. from the'solution a_ ' :.
of the following set of algebraic equations:

.,
Example 4.11 - 'J&e Mathematical Model Q& a Mixing Pro;cess Two streams 1 and .2 are being m+ced~i&~a.well product stream 3 (Figure 4.8). two components. A respectively. and ..B, with, Each 'of theltio moilar
.I
(,
stlrred:tank, feed streams&+
prtiducing a composed?of
Let also ,F1 and F2
c.-~.., c iandjc % Bl.' A2 ' cB2* bra the volumetric flswrlrtes of the two :&mperatures. fl&r,ate and ternl
.&&entrat%ons
streams (ft3/min, m3/m%n> &?W-T 1, T2- their cprre&ondtig Finally, let C~ , cB , F3 ,and ;'T3 be the concentrati&,, 3 3 ,the product str~pm. A cqii. is also immerspd.,k .,
perature.of
the; li#iid of the with steam or
tank and it is used to SUDD~V or remove heat from the svstem 'cooling
water, :,>, i -I : 'ii . L ; , ', ,~ 3;:. ,,_, The fundamental quantities neefled to deecribe#th$ mixing t,ank,are: _ .' 'L the total mass in the tank,:; , >Z' - the amounts of components A and B in the tank,. : - the total energy, and - the momentum of the material in the tank. : ;.i: .: ;v ,'/ '..
. . lr
.'Remarks:"'
(l),,The
momentum doas not change under, any op&rat$ng:condit$dns will.be neglicted.in further treatment,
,$nd*.it
(2) We:"only need to constie;
twofof I the foiiowfng three quanThe third can .
tities; ,total mass, mass of A, mass of B. be computed from the&her two. . :.
,. .'
',
u I .-
Con,s%der nuw the balances on the -fundamental quantities: ,, / .: -i : i ,(a) ,% Total Mass Balance ,_ ,, ,
,(~~,~~i:he:a~~tal) (m;;;;;qf+-Q;;.k) (
t,im,e
,:Y
in ,
time
_ mass from the tank
@Jtput.;
of
to.t@
>,
agLl where % p2,.p3
blF1
2; p2F2)
!biF3
.I ,.
(4;15j. :.. . .
are the densities of the streams 1, 2, 3, respectively.
Since the tank is well mixed the density of the product stream., p3 is equal , to the density of th,e material in t&e tank, p, i;e. ~3 * p. V is the volume of the material in the tank which Ia charaeterizM by the cross +ectional area .: ! ( of the tank, A;* and the height, h, of $he liquid level, ire. > ._ _ 4, : . ;,a i A*h,. V I _~ . In general, the densities -p, pl trations and tes@eratures, I, e.
P. = Pp = ~(CA~Y.~~YT~)Y PI +
i. i
and
6, ,, depend on thq corresponding conce~ *;r* , .I : ) ,, 1 ,, , ly: _: ,%.$ . 2 ,,:

iii ~~~~~~~~C~2~,~2~k&) .>: I\ li,.i!:f: /
-i
f(CA~,yA~,T1) I
i, ._ ,i; Usually (but not always) the above de&&&n&s &ati&ak wd assume.!Lhat the : ., , s: %,, . Ths,r&~$k.;; . densities are independent of the concentrations id. and tem&atures. : ,, .,) ,s: .i& . j* **. . . we assunK? thbt, J; > : c. ,; ,( *, . (t ; B . \ r : * i , ,;*..
Pl P2 =
P3
Q*
.,
..*
,.
[,.
L ,
: t?
This transforms, eqn. (4.12) to the following: , dV

dt
) iL
<I
, .i I. ;, >
:: i ,, )( . . 87 (4,12a) >% * ; / :
dh AZ
(Fl
+ h
F2)
- F3 L:;
..( (b) Balance
OB damponent
Accumulation of , T o t a l in&t o f Total.output of (component A in ) i component A ) ( component A ) t h e t a n Lk in; t h e t a n k _ ? f r o m t h e tank time time : i .< time j : o r , T., , :
Vdt
dcA
., (cAIF1
.. cA2F2) -i CA3F3 .,.
+cfi .,:.i A dt =
(4.13)
Substituting dY/dt by fts equal from eqn. (4,lia) we have, Y dcA x +CA
cAflFl *
3
F+ 1 i31
= (cAIF1
+ cA2F2)
- cA3F3 i
,I . .
and since CA =
due to the we!@st$rring assumption, ,
.,.
;i.
i.
(Heat. added or r.gmoved ) with, ,the coil 1, .I :? t&g, *, i ; The total energy of the meterig& in the,+ E - U (internal) +, K ,(kinet$) $ P (pot 2: ) Since the tank is not movi,ng , dK/dt * *dP/dt *s- 0. 3%~ uip, dE/dt - dU/dt and for . . liquid sys terns, dU -. dH ,dt - dt .I I _. +a,<, :7 1 Fuf t h e r m o r e , ,. I.
where H is, the total enthalpy t3f the- material. in the ., *tank. . Input of total with. feed stream per unit time and 4 F2h2) . 1 v %li. ,,
4.
Output of total energy with product stream :. = per unit time 1 where h 1, h2, ,h3 streams 1, 2 and 3.
p,F3h3
) ,,
<,
,:.
,_
are the specific enthalpies (enthalpy per unit mass of
Due to the perfect stirring ,: assumption: , the specific A, enthalpy of the material *in stream 3 ia ithe:, aa& aa ,$be specifi$ enthalpy of , ,,. . a9 : the material in the tank, Thus, :f I ,i ) H - pV h3 I _ * i i \ Consequently, the total, energy balance yields,, ,, d(pV dt h3) - p(Flhl + F2h2) - .: FP3h3
.t
.?-y .t 4. : .;..:. ,. +, Q ,:
(4.?4)
in terms bf. ether . variables, i.e.. temperatures, concentrattons, etc. , Weiknow, thao;di- . _ ,+ *. ,A. . r; ; h3(T3$ 9 h3(To)-, t, 6 %T .- T 1, ~
The question now Is how to characterize .,I hi, :h, and 63
.. r
where To
is the reference temperaturer:,. At this tkmpekature I Ph3(To)

&(T,)
(4.16a) ;,
(4439)
J .
,. ,: $ I :
,(. .j =, cA2tiA +b$iw . +; cA2A$2(To) .;, ,
ph2qbl
(4.16~)
where 8, and fi B
are the molarenthalpka (en$halpy
~*!. per mole).of components ,
A and B at temperature To. gs , A$ , A$3 ,.are t&heat -of solution for ,;1 2 , : J ,. . streams 1, 2 and 3 per moie of A at temperature To. Substituting eqns. (4.16a,b,c)
I
and (4.16a,b,c) into the totsi energy balance eqn. (4,14) we have:,
:,
f, + cA A*
)'+
s3
i,
= F,(CAfin+ca
Cp3@3
- To)
dt i J.
i$+~~Afi~)+pF c
1
To)
I ,1 1 ~. 1 .(Tl-To) PI
nln
D1
\ . ATI
.: 4 F,(c. ii. +'c i$ + cA Ati ) + PF 2 'c p2 (T 2 L-A 2 A, B2 2 s2, 1 - F3c"& + cB:$&.' cn,hti ) QF c iT3 -'To) 3, ;3 3 s3' , ? -P3 j _A' ':.
^,
%,Q
.'
4 0 @alance
on A)
.a _-
= Fp*,'"S, + PFlcP. 01 - Tb> + F2cA2AHs2 J. J. -L .' ,'.

I
4 pF2cp2(T2 '.
- To) : "
; ,
PF~c~,($~
F3CA3AHS3
.ld
.a
- To)
.
,/,
and
finally,
72
pc
dT .t'$ p3
cA F;[Aiig L AI? ] p':.+ 1 1' .g3

+
CA P2[Ad ! - Ai& 1' 32 2, 3

F 1 1 cp (T - To) - :c
+ PF~~~~~,(T~ - To - cp3(T3-T$1
(T3-To)
2 2 If we'aesume t&t c = c - c - c , we have: , ' p 2 q3 p pl .!
. p3
f Q -:. , .*'. ..
+ P1 cp(T1 - T3) + H2 cp(Ti - T31 * Q Summarizing the, above -steps we have: . .! 1 state variables: V, c 'T A3' .3 t., ,l state equations: '8 < ' .g, :, ,. i - i,Tl" +,F2)+ ,- F3 i^ ., .; ' A' ' /', ,' ,' ,' j Iy i '0' . 1 ,' ,I~ ',':
(4':14a). :-c -. .' . :,.(4.12;) $.p II. :- . (4.13a)
"
.: I .,* ,I ., .,,:.r' '. , :% 'i dT3. ' _f?cpvdt- c F fAii -Atis ] "cA F2[A# -Aii ~+PP~c~(T~-T~)+PF;C~(~~-T~)~I~Q _: Al l s1 3 2 i s2 Is3 :+ : -,/". ' :, : ii _ (4.14a) ) '. input variables: F1s cA1' T1s F22 cAiP T2,, 'I! ,3 (for fa&bac~~~i$ntroL) I:< .I b' output variablea: :?
:dcA.' ,I' .: y-2 'I @A - kA )F + PA dt 1 3l 2 - 'A3)'2 1f 'I . 'I :, .I .,
*V (,or equi;d;entQ theheight oE ,liqaidl.eve~: h)';' ;*:' .? , , , *,I. .;: i -. a n d T3i, =A3 : t , -. 1%.' . ., I ~:, .'*. _, parameters (constant): p, c p,s,dfis ,, Aii; A& : s2' . ? _( t;l. r* I/ Remar lcs : (3) U&ally a mixing tank is equipped writh aeooiing or heating : coil or jacket through,which released,during : t 0, , flows a coolant (if heat is ' 1'
' 3 (*'2, 4, , ,. : . ,. c*,'! : :
the mixing of the two solutions) or a heating ' i \" . 1/ ,
during mixing:) in an attempt to keep .I ) L( , -.. . the mixing, isothermal. _ *. ~: (4) If the,heat of solution..sre @rang functions of concentration, i.e. ?: i f [hii - A6 ] and [Afi - Afi, ] a r e n o t s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s , % ,s3 ,! s2 3, then from the total energy balance eqn. (4.14a) we notice that 7: : *, i.. * i I :+ 7 T3. depends strongly on the *concentrations of the jI tqgiderature . ., .) ; 7 . - ;feed,strear& and their temperatures. If on -the o&r ha& ;
medium (if heat is~absorbed
Consider. the shell-an&t flows through the Snner tub~aird ,.it is being h~,~,ted~:by:+team ttfiieh flows outside ,I : ; ~ ~, ,_ /* the tube. The temperature of the .liquid. does c&t,only change.<wS& time ,but it ,y; .:. ,i ,_, . ,. also changes along the axial direction t ~&NU thi :I$. at the $ntrance :. _ :valua i . I,. ~ ,, . ;. L i I t o t h e v a l u e T2 a t t h e e x i t . We wiil &&I& t&t the t~emp&ature does not ;I the radius. qf the pipe,. S&J.:- .we will+~ssitimp p$.& nlh. CO& . \ , ;.!J. .me..stgt$ i _ sequently, we have two indep.endents variable& $..$. ,;ti.! a$ni,;:t,: 1 , variable. of interest for t&e h e a t +&hanger i; .th&&peratt&. l(T) bf the , ;., ., f , heated liquid. Therefore, we need the energy baltitic.e;-foi;i..athe $b&&!briiation of the temperature. > : i the element of . length 1, 1 / AZ defined in Figure 4.9 by, the dotted lines. Fori this syatcin, andl,over a :ii ;,r .* , 1:_i /r . ,: a _. . *. period of time At we have: c$ / ,,)I i i .. Energy Balance . C ,/(. ., / .^: . . ):A - ( T ) ] - p cpvA(T):- *At -. p cpvA(T) Q*t + p ypA*bz- [(T) t?f*t 1 ./. e . I 2 I ( I z+Az Accumulation of enthalpy during the time period i At r.r \ :, _ 8; ! Flow- .in of enthalpy during the time period At /. Flow out of enthalpy during the t i m e period At To perform this balance consid.er change, al.qng
, r,
73
)r 1
Enthalpy trans&rred from the steam $0 the I. . . . liquid ,1 through the wall ,. during s&e time 7% !, .. ,,:: period, At. .I_ 1 1 I,I, tt . . II where .d;., f _ *i ;yri _ ! * Q is the amount of heat transferred. from the steam to the liquid per unit of time. and unlit ,u$,heat tratisfer ,greo, -1. ,:, .j : i 1. 1 A is the $ross section& :ar,ea of .the ,inmr tube,. 7 v is the velocity of. the liquid, an$ 1 .:;; L :, D is the eFterna1 diameter of the inner tube. : , Dividing both sides of eqn. (4.17) by Az*At and letting A&& and AtA, i ,< we take, . ,
I,, I',,
,,
+ Q*Dt*(vrD*Az)
.:,
(4.17)
Q,:** ,:* " I.).' \',, .:, :. (4vW 5, *.'I *.I In eqn* eqn* (4*18) (4*18) we we can subst'it&&. substit&&. Q.:!:'gf~&& Q.:!:gf~&& e*ai e*ai - ' :, jj'J J 5:: 5:: . . ..y. :, _ i , , Q - h(Ts h(Ts I T) ~; : - ; t y :::.a:::.a, ', ", , 1 1 ~.,I ~.,I i.' i. , , ..u ..u ' ,' , .; .; 00 t : **j : .*: .*: j j 1 ,{ 1 ,{ i;; i;; "j j : '$i $i : . .'
and take / : ST 1 pcpAat,, + P c V P J iT 1 , : I i ,j ) i i, ;*, :. A - --h*D;(Ts-T) a?.>!,:,.::~ i i , ,*:A .$, Z$ : ;A, :i q I, ;.
aT P cp AGE +
cp
v+$
,F$,*
:I
,, 1
(4.19) :. This is. the equation of st.&te that models t.ha- behavior of the, liquid51 tern., perature (state variable) along .thp~.~eng~~..of!-thre .exehanger. S&me e&.~~(.4.& L, is a partial differential .eq&ion: we say$+&at the -changer *has baen*modeled ,&S. v I I ,i> ( 5 0~ 41 ~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter ~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter syatct,, syatct,, t * t : * : .; ., j . , :; .i .e ...e....mW.I
:
Example 4.13. 4.13.
s : I-,: ,. t
i .
._
The Mathematical Model of~&~$&, Binary.,DSsti$J.ation CQ~U~ , i:,. .,*, I ,;r .1: Consider a binary mixture of components A atid B to be separated into ;. 1. : , J . two product streams usingconventional dlstillatian, The rn+5ke is is fed in 1 m+5ke . ;<.a .I, :, the column as a saturated liquid, i.e. at its bubble .point, onto the feed tray Nf (Figure 4..10): with a molar flowrate (,moles/mi&te).Ff ani a molar fraction : : *, ;g, ?l
-(. ,-
..'The overhead vapo r stream is cooled and completely conf' I dPnsed,band then it flows into the reflux drum. The cooling of the overhead r vador is acoomdlished with cooling, water. The liquid from the'reflux drum is 'L partly pumped back in the column (top tray, N) with a molar flowrate Fk (reflux stream) and partly is removed as the distillate product Qith a molar *.flowrate FI,. 'Let us call MRD the'1iqu.i.d holdup in the reflux drum and xD the molar fraction of component A in theliquid clear that xD is-the composition"Yd"r ,both of'the.re'flux'drum, It& ./ 'the r&l& ,and dis'til.l~te &reams,
of c'omponent A, c
' At .the base of the distil,lation column, a'liquid &duct ,&'eirn (the' , bottoms product) is removed with 'a 'flo&a'tb'~'~b, and's com#osition xB (molar 3 ' >. -A liibid stream w$& ,& wlar flowrate 6s' i# "&&A &$,, fr<im, fraction of A). : the bottom of the column and after it has been heated pith steam,&t'retucns ,.I to the base of the column." The~'-Eompoeition of the recirculaddng',back to column '_. : stream is xB* Let s, be the,S&iquid .h+dup at,the baee og:%the column. The column contains the top. Let Mi N trays~nnmbered from thebottom o-f..the:,&lumn to A the i-&h, tray, ~The vapor holdupon ,+, j ; .: '. ..'9
be the liquid.holdupon
each tray will be, assumed to be, neglig-ible. __
In Figure 4.11a we see the material flows in and out of the feed,,,hray,. Figures 4.11b and.4.llc (1-st) trays. show the material flows for the tag (n-rth) and" bottom ' II
Figure 4.11d
refers to any other (,. tray. . ,',.J..,' I. ,
To simplify the system we are considering, w,ecwfll, make the following assumptions: - Vapor holdup on each tray will be neglected. .;: j % :,The molar heats of vaporization of bo,$h'components mately equal., This( means that one mole,of i ' A and i i are approxi-' condensing vapor releases enough ,A .: heat to vaporize one mole of liquid., 4 ! P 1, - The heat losses from the column to th,e surroundings are assumed to be , negligible. 1 : " * ." I .,
- JThe relative~,volatil*ty relativei,volatil&ty ~ : ,-. L #
a c(
of the t@ components remains constant through1
88
!out ,the column. '. 1 ." I ., : ,< -" - Each tray 4' is assume< to be 100% efficient, i.e. the vapor leaving each tray .' ~7 f : 5 \ la in~.equil.&brium pith the liquid,,on ..?.# the tray. '. .-, ,, i ..a ,",, : ., &e :/,T6e f f*~stthr~~'agsumptions iret thr& . .imply,that .imply ,$hat :: :/,.arraumptioF,e . . ,a,-> ..,, t ,a,-> t :: ' :: ... ." --,,.. :: tt *,?.$ *,?.$ ,w-v -. ,w-v -. V V j & 2 ,* 'Y; ., 7:: VN ,;' t , z .' .l .' ' . ' * L-Y .i , jl _., ' :* and,there is no,peed for! energy each,tray.. '.,,, ,, .L : a" '~ala~cq~around + : ,' I The last&m, ! , . ,-, ,..) vaporrliquid equ,ilibrium , h~-~ , assump~~qns~.~~~y"thaf'a.,Bampl~ L .* ./.j j relationship c&n beai,used rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,.frs,ction of A in the;,~yap~~~, ,"":; to rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,frs,ction . __ ,O, ) ;r, I ' leaving the i-th tray (yi) with the,molar~.f9~aci$on~ of A in the liquid leaving I ,a; :: .; the same tray (xi); i.e. I. _ , j 4,,_ 2" ,. *,; ; , i ', , / , I" "I ; :. _. a: * a* ax ._ 2' ': :,;. 1,; '1 * ,. : J"/, : rr: 1 (4.20) yi 7 ,1 + (a-lhi *. ., f _<' :I. .I ; " r .i, I. " f !',$ I+ AandB. i *!-' where a is the relative vola~ility'.o~.th~'twc~.~ornponeqts ' , ., e,7 ' The final assumption$ that tie ~~~i~riU?e'@&&hb~ Wil'i :ni&ee$klthd fo&x#ihg: fo&mihg: '** ;:Neglect the dynamics of the cond'enser~%nrd 'the r'kboiler, it :is clear: that : these two units (heat exchangers) consfktute ~roces$ing'syefems on their ,' 'own right and ds such they have'ti'dynaniic behavior (see &ax$le 4.12). Therefore, any good'modeling should include she state'equations . tribe their- dynamic behavior. .' ' - Negl.ect tihich : des' '
, II
.,
the momentum balance.& each tray and assume that t-tie molar flow' ,
of ". I.,rate of the liquid leaving each tray is related to the f;iquid,holdup .!i the tray through Francis weir foir&tA; -1 $ ..*** *ii wi - 1,2,***,f,***,N (4:21.) - f(M$ f(M$ Li Li i :I Let us now davelop the state equat$&which will detkiba'the dynanic behavior of a 'distillation column. The Fndamental i. and mass of component' ,A. But the 'question is: quantities are total iaass i <i
will make the'.balances?" F+om a + pract;fcal point of view, the bound,ary of the system of interest' is outlined by :.* .I ,I. '. dotted lines &-I Pigurt 4.10. Such's boundary clearly identifies the inputs and outputs of practical significance for the overall system. evident that, unless we can desctibe-how Tt -is also
"What is the system around which.we
, I
the concentrations and liquid holdups
on each tray-change with time, we cannot find how the variables of practical *r significance, like xD and x ~khqti~e with time. Therefore, we are forced B to consider the'balances around each *tray. Thus, wehsve .*> . ,: (see also Figure < . ., f ': ,I: i 4.11):
Feed+'j"ay
(ipf)
it
-,
cr:,i.
*.:
::'
ci
'
'
CJ :
.,i^
-1 -tr -m -1 'R T VNwl - aaM - .WN - PR - UN UL " .. -, / & .' ,: '. d"!$& , 1 sComponent A: dt. - FR*xD + $R-l*~~~l - L$$.'~~~ *i* Ec r '
Tntnl
A&am.
NL.w
I tr
r:
.::
1.
'(4.23a) & ",,_ ,; (4.23b) <'I; i i. i :

i \9. apa)
1 " ,
_ Bottom Tray (i=l)., d(M,)

&LcI.l. AIUZID. dt
.-
.j, '
*
,"
.;
-i '".
-
,'
? : vyO :~
;
j r,
-.&I 2
n-L--,--L
UXll~UWNlL~A~
L.
dfM-x-l --1--1,
.<i.,.
dt
L2x2 , :'
i-th 1tray (112,***,R-1

Total
and if = LieI - I.,~
;. 24b) I < -...' vlyI: : ." i :! ; ,'(4; - 'Llic& .,::; 1, ., ,\ ; -: ',A;. cI.I *. ; !
'. i
..Y 1 , 1; I
,:
b._ '(4,2.59)
d(Mi) Mass: .r
Reflux Drum .i D; j. , : j I, /) ! (4.26a) .I ,, ._ (4.26bj * .:i : i . (4.27a) -, (4.27b) .l)
! i4. i Compon&t 8: d(fIRDxD) dt .G,. I: Column Base J d($ Total Mass: dtI . . :i d(MB.sj 2 Component A: dt .., ! -
. c i NAYS
,I
- uR + FDjXD , .$ :. ::. .i V r -
Ll<$.
-. Llxl
EB$ ~, *. . j # _/... . Vu,
L F& ( ; ,A11 the above equations are the, state eqwtions and descrl;be the dynamic 1 ,/ 2 behavior of the distillation column. T#e stgte variable&, of the model are: A .. T$ r )~, * Liquid holdups; M1)M2, v ? ,Mf ,I FI* ,M& G, and MB v . . ,.G. * Liquid concentrations; x1x2.,;:*ixf5.* l ;,x ; $c - . i j. ~ $;* I &. ;q , 2!nd xl$ . , To complete the modeEing of the co&n, in addition to. the state equations, , ,.3 ) . ,t / I : i .i; _. , we need the following -relationships: I . 1*. I,:: 1 I, ::_, .;, , 6, . . r )I (a) Equilibrium relationships: I i , ,: .. : . : : :+, i , ,>I i,. .& .) ! -i. ., ,I axi 6 , f ,a k&NiB , i~,Q,2, (4 .20) Yi = 1 f (a-l)xi~ s * ,jr $ .:i . V . . i. ) I ( b ) H y d r a u l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( F r a n c i s we%+,, foimulg) ) ,, , ._ _ . *r * i * I %.1,2,***if,***,N (4.21) Li = f(Mi) L 1 When all the above modeling equations are solved wg find how the flowrates
l l l l *
1 t
and, concentrations of the two product s&e,ams , i(distillate, bottom) change with ; time, in the presence of changes in thevarious input variables. .;,. . . /, .& The modeling steps outlines above indicate that the overall proceduri of modeling a processing system may be tedius and fulilof simplifications. times the resulting model is overwhelming A t
in size ana the solution of the carI /. 5: responding equations may be cumbersome: For the binary distillation column we \I 1;,/ .. ,
, 1 x . .:
' have tcj s&lve~aikystem IL and
,of..
L.
.,
1 2;;
' 2N + 4 nonlinear diff&enti@ . I,. i &. , ': :'
equations (state equatioT8) (L relgtionghips) I
.ZI$ +I; algebraic equations (equilibrium,'hydr&+c
/(
: j.
4.6
MODELING DIFFICULTIES I. . : '-. ,! . 8, The modeling examples discussed in the previoue s.ections . >
1 :., .I :.
series
<..
or,tgis ghapter
should have alerted the reader to a in his efforts to develop a ~ea+ngful, of a chemical process, hi j
nf
diff+rttltJna
+lra* -ma k.-....enr-
and realist$$,mathematic -' i : I'. ,'> ;_;i, ,' 1
Example 4.X4. .Considering the Following Difficulties
the Mathematical Modeling.of.,.he ., Arise: of'various
CSTR (Example 4,lO) parameters such
- Determine with the desired accuracy the"values
as preexponential kinetic constant, ko, the activation energy, E, and the .L overall heat transfer'coefficient;'U:. " . - Although the specific heat capacities; e, and z,c have been constdered .>.P 'Pi constant, .they are in general functions of the temperature, T, and the How do we decide that this dependence is weak (so that :, wecanueeconstantvalues as 'in the e~~mple)~or &tiong (in which case the I ,: ", . modeling becomes very compli&ted)? The same '$&tions arise,for the . ( iI *Ii& de%sities, p and p i, and the hest'of r&ction,'(-AH;). / 6 "> - During the operation of,the CSTR, scaling, fouling, etc.', wiil.alter the : value of the!overall heat tranafq coefficient. How can we scco~np for ; '_ i : '.a. ,+this effect in the mathemgticaf model?, - We have considered first-order kinetics to describe the reaction-rat&. IS, c' .:$ this correct? .I (' _. i * We can classify the difficulties encountered during the mathematical _I modeling of a process in three categories: (a) 'those arising from poorly understood chemical or physical phenomena, (b) those caused from inaccurate values of various parameters, and (c) those caused from the size and the complexity of the resulting model. A .._ I' Poorly ., ; To understand completely the physical and chemical phenomena occurring impossible. Even <an aaceptable degree of Understood Processes ,; "_ ,~ 'I, concentration, cA '
in a chemical process is,virtually
knowledge is at, times very difficult. Typical examples include: - Multicomponent various 6 4 /' 1 . reaction systems with poorly known interactions among the and imprecisely known kinetics.
components
- Vapor-liquid,or liquid-liquid thermodynamic equilibria for multicomponent systeI5. : nonideal
- Heat and mass transfer interactions in distillation columnswith multi@om@Xent .:. mixtdres, .azeotropic mixtures, etc.
IZxample
4.15
Consider. the ffuidimd catalytic reactor shown in Figure 4.12. An oil _1 ,.? -., feed composed of heavy,*hydrocarbon molecules ia mix&d gith catalyst and enters a fluidized * bed reactor. The long molecut+ react on the surface . , of the t&$ecules (like ga&&.ne)
catalyst and they are cracked in& light&product
regenerator where the,,materiLl deposited on its surface 1s burned~~~ith .I ~I ,L~ c . The regenerated catalyst returns then to the reactor ,aft& it.,,i;i&x& f r e s h f e e d . *?, ,, j, I J- ( I . i ,
air;:.! be ; W&h j I v
I n o r d e r t o modekthe.,two u n i t s , t h e foilowing ii&&mat&n must.be . I * ? , .a 5<* . , available: , .:i <. . - The reaction rate of the cracking ijraci?ss; , . ; - The rate with which. carbon and heavy material are deposited %n the catalyst catafyst~deactivatioh) ; .. I_ ,., ,.+ - The dependence of the above two rates on the temperature of the reactor and . . the quality of the feed (light or heavy) ; - The rate of combustion of the carbonaceous material deposited on the catalyst, in the regenerator , and its dependence on temperature. All the above information is not only difficult to acquire but at times it leads to contradicting contentions. For example, in l?igure 4.13 we see two (this will determine the rate of
,, .
.:. ._
/w
models that describe the ef f ec,t, of the heavy ;;Jn?l$.l 9 feed , . k rite. on the reactor temi _ , .; pera ture. We notice that the qualitative behavior predicted by the two models , 1 ) i is quite different. ,_ ,2i:r * L Finally, the two units (reactor ,reg.enerator) are fluidized beds and it is : well known how poorly~ understood are the fluid mechanical characteristics of such units. B-. Imprecisely E 4 Known , Parameters _/ -.: / I, * :I ,11 I
The availability of accurate va$ues,: for the p9rameter.s of a model is indispensable for any quantitative. analysis of the behatior of a, process. . * Unfortunately, this. is not always possible. Typical examples incl+de-. the ,- : constant of a kinetic rate expression, : ,Y :: It should also be poi+ed out; that the yaJ,ues of the peametire doApt :! rema*<n constant over long per&de. jnodeliryl i . of time., Therefore EorV,:8ffective t. weneed not drily accurate values but alap some qu&sitasive description on how! the parametric values change with time. are the activity of a cafalyst, Typical examples of changing,.$arameters preexponential
.a@ the iver&Ll; heat tr&sf,er, coefficient of _I ,
heat transfer systems (heat exchangers,n jacketd reactors, etc.). , cisely known.
The dead time is also a critical. parameter whose va1,u.e +$a usuelly; impre.+ we will see in; a,,later sect$on.,,, the poor ,knowledge Sof the j_,
dead time can lead to .s+riou#~ I stlility jroblems for the proce$s,l When no r&able, for the : . values. , c, pa&u&a,. are available, we .-rwor t t o . experiments tin the real process in an.,effort $.a estimate: some goodj~ values i % for them. Moreon the experimental. prqcedures ,; 1. will be dispussed in a subsequent chapter. ,c * , 1/ . . ,~,: ,. i,,,
C.
The Size and Complexity of a Mod& *$ ,>.' i: i f;nan effort to develop as accurate and precise a mathemat+al,model as : iI :, .:.: .:9.. ii possible!, th& size ano,the complexity pf the model increases,si.gnificantly.
Consider a-distillation column with 20 trays, a rebsiler and a-condeker. ,. ; The feed,.is;.~,two-&omp.onent mixture.. Then , as',wc have seen in Extim#le 4.13, *: : v:.. the mathematical.~model is ,composed of: .:/ ' 2N + c, = 2(20) + 4 = 2N + 1 -"2,f20) ,.f X 44 differential equations';'and ', 41: algebraic equatfone, : altady : I'
prohibit&e. Since ', the common distillation systems include feeds'with mo& tha&.two compt.k&n$r and ~ " (li. ,%.' possess larger numbers'af trays, it is clear that such .an~:~xten~iv~:'md;d~~ing ', :: I. would lead to cumbersome and hard to use mod&. .1 q 9.:, ,9 0. , :, ;.:. $i " Care must be exercised too that the size.and the comglexity,,,of c:~odel do '; / ,,ap_) , I not exceed certain manageable levels,,geyond Gh$ch the model,:%$ses its vgfue: " : and becomes less attractive. ,: '. : I SUMMAk AND CONCLUDING REXARKS ' : " a I
The size.of the model ,for such simple syetemsis
I i J. '. modeling of processing systems $e need to: ,-:j+. 9 : * a. kL - identify the st&$,variables whose values charagterizs-the fundameztal j !: 'f ! I. .." ). I quantities of th&process, and .,! , 9'
FQr the math&atical
*:farmulate the state equations whose solutibn depicts ,ho$the values of the #. ,sttitevariables, art? consequently the -uatural state of the process, changes ,j .-we ; ! ; -_ :. t . c with t i m e . The state equatjzons are developed from the application of the cgnservation : principle on fundamental quantities like. totaltiass . * mass ., of various ~comp&&hts, tot41 ,_ :~ :: t ?. I. 1 I. i i. energy, momentum. To complete the .mathematioaLmodeUng .; ,, 1 are needed to Bescribe the: reaction kinetic rates : : ,: :_s -, of a process, ad&itional :. . .( * * ; i: ,: ,i I, t, ,,. ;:$ ;; equations i., ._.
.:
- rates of mass,. energy or momeritum tranifer . a . - equilibrium conditions of reacting sy&eti
/ ,, .*. : ,._I: ~~,a > ./ - (equilibrium conditions Yamong *various phases .i:, i + i. . - thermodynamic equations of state-(40 descr,ib.e, the behavior&f varioug :,. 1;. _. i ,materiale (gcfeas, l i q u i d s , ,mix#Cyyecq, @XL+). . , :. I., ~: ::. _, ,: 1 j i:- / < . ~ i V+z,.:, ,I 3 . ,, The modelgng a process should a&aye consider t&: poss4~ility &! thi-; ..,,y, ( 3 r: ,I; . tj presence of etgnificant dead time. %mportant f*ea,ture, ( The :dead time Is i v&y 1 : .,J :; .z , ,;~,? I : ( I and it plays a ,significant roleinWtfie &sign of effective controllers -for a : I u ,. . chemfcal process. Only when the de&* t$@a is very amall (sincei& priaciple (. _/,_, it will never b,e zero) it can be neglected from the d&iopmentof a mod+. :t Several difficulties arise during .the modeling, of a &he&c& process.:: j . . These difficulties can be classified int the following,, categories: ;. q 1. - Difficulties arising from Amprecisely known phenomegi, /,. : 4:i chemical ~ -. _ or.chemical ;,: .,. affecting the,, eff ectiveness of the selected equilibrium nor rate reJ.at$onships. P . - Difficulties arising from the inaccurate values of the various model
of
parameters an& how they change.
- Practical difficulties caused by the large size and complexity of the resulting model.
/ :. , q
A-mode1 is considered acceptable when it can predict the dynamic behavior j. .? : of a syste& with at? acceptable degree of accuracy. h The assumptions made by the , modeler will influence the, quality, of the resulting model. Consequently, the mathematical modeling is an- art not very well defined, where the previous I* _, \ 1, ,: 5, :. rt :;, educati&, ,practical experience and intuition play a very important role. .:,, . Although the modeling procedure outlined in this chapter is in principle 1 : ;I .:_ *ir * ,: feasible, additional practical considerationa motivated by the, needs of process . control dictate certain char&es that will be discussed in Chapter 6,. ,
8 , ( *
2.
3.
.( What is a mathematical modgl.ofa physical process and what do we mean ... : .a / when we talk about mathematical modeling? -. x 8. ; . _ i, &I : ., In Figure 4.13 we see two dJLfferent curves.,which relate the temperature . 1 ,.z., , _, ,,,.. ! , ~,I and the feed rate of the .reactorc in the, fluid catalytic cracking:?nPt ,.:. : _ i discussed in Example 4.15, I@ the term model approp,f,iate for each of (. : .J :. these curves? I (a%. j..?, : + t;. i. . .,. i 4 Let us recall that the Steam Tables give the temnerature .af whkh wnt& liquid and water vapor are at equilibrium for a given Gressure. They :a, *i. also give the specific values for enthalpy, ,entropy, and, volume...of both I liquid and vapor phases. Do ,these tables of values consti@ute a 1 I A-:. : i mathematical model? :i *, :. : Consider the graphs shown in the Figure Q.&l. These graphs were pro, .i. , *I duced by measuring the concentratie,n of B in, the rea$ibn,~ ,A 4 B, ; / over time, and at various temperatures. Do these glraphii i. :. represent. , _ a,
1 i
4,
mathematical model?
5.
6. , , 7.
a.
9. + I
10. 11.
Why do you need to develop the mathematical model of a process you want ,. ..:.,* s : *. to control? i : _* i,t .. What are the strte variables and what are the state equations? What are i. 1 they used for? .. How many state variables do you need to describe a system which is com: ,* I ) ,, + 8 ,, _/ i ,, ? .( . posed of M phases andN components? , - ,~ * +r We know that when two phases are at a thermodynamic equilibrium, the . li-. <, j, j .) chemical iotential of every compotient (i) in the phase I(u $,l) 2 b ( < . - 1 equal to the chemical potential of the same component in the phase II 2 (lJ i , II), Le. . i i lJ;;,.,N Q,i: - .%,I1 _: Express the above equilibrium relationship in. terms of the mole concen,, .- I ..$. tration of the N components in the two phases. The answer to this j. : , question will denianstrate to you that wedont need the concentrations k, : ,/,I of the N components in both .phaaea in order to describe the system. , Write a relationship that will give you the molar or the specific .i.) /I t, b entlialtiy of a liquid at tempe&ure, T, pressure, p, with a composition ~ of N components known. , RePeat question 8, but with a&# instead of a liquid. For the fash drum example (Examples 4.7 and 4.8) develop an expression for the density of the vapor phase , using the Van der~ Waals equation of . *. ., state. State also an expression for the d,ensity,of the liquid phase. .I When is a system at steady state? ..i / What is the main reason for the presence of dead time iua process? , ,. Do you know of any systems which do not possess dead time? How would you find the dead time of a system? In the Figure 4.4-2 we see the behsvioi of the concentration at the /)
12, 13. 14. 15. 16.
:.. _
outlet of two processes , after the concentration at the inlets and at time t=O was incrjeased by 10%. Which process possesses dead time? .
What are the assumptions leading to equimolar vapor flow rates, i.e. v1 = v2 - ,*** - VN - v 18. Why have we neglected for a binary distillation column? the energy galances for the binary ideal distillation
column of Example 4.13?

19.
What
are
the
assumptions
leading
to
the
equilibrium
relationship
(4.20)
and how is it derived? 20. Could you have dead-time between the overhead vapor and ,the distillate product? If yes, why? * *a .A.
1 (Clnmeurure
Otd --------we_ Steady Sfafe ,-e-m---\

-err----
T I
n--w ---
Neti 5Yeady Sfufk
-------
.Y
- - - - - --
-, xA& _--a..&.-i --.
f-.
^,
,;;I;
c iY.
/,Yrcxesr 45
,.
:<,:,
.,
CHAPTER 5 MODELING CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTROL PURPOSES
',The mathematical modeling of the,physical and chemical phenomena ,c .' '. encountered ,in processing systems of interest to chemical engineers is a form *,.5 _,;;. , '.<-*. ': ' I ./ .3 -of $&f&ic art. As every type of art it does not conform to neither does 1' 1 it obeyvsry clearly' specified rulee and recipes. It is an expression of all , :... i ?'i' the educations1 bk&gr&nd kud previous practical experience of the modeler. _1 Therefore, if'"the prkious sections have generated more questions to the I / , reader than answers to their modeling problems, he should not despair. Good . .,,;.' i ,1 / and efficient'modeling is acquired slowly with ever increasing ability for it. i In this chapter we will attempt to focus the mathematic&l'&deling to the ,I ; ; i _.. i(-:;: control purposes and n&s. Thus, we will examine the following issues: * ,',_. i' ? how can one develop an input-output - Starting from the state variables.model, e * _, -: .c.model which is very cbnvenient for control purposes. 8. :. - Using the mathemitidal model of a process', how can one determine the degrees of freedom inherent in the process,'and problem to be, solved. s' iconsequently, identify the control . .. _".I :_ .
~ We will close~this
chapter with soma general guidelines: which will,help of modeling fdir control pur&e~. I,,, >.
the control designer to formulatethe~scope 5.1 THE every torally INPUT-OUTPUT MODEL
chemical process and its associated variables can be described picThe main block represents the process while
as shown in Figure 5.1.
the arrows indicate the inputs and outputs of the process. The mathematical model which is convenient and useful to a control system I designer should conform with the.above picture, i.e: be such that,. given the values of the inputs it provides directly the values of the outputs. In 6
the ,model should have .I th-e- following general form for every output; ,.;. .,; output = f (Jwut ~~~f.~,+$p) ;> _, ;; ., / \! :i c. . r Using Figure 5.1 the above relationshtp implies . . . y i - f(ml,m2,*** ,mh; dl,d2,;$* ;dQ). for i 2 1,2,***,m ,; , . . ,. _I Such a model describing directly the, I relationshiP between the anPut and 2 : 1 ,F : output variables of a process is called input-output model. It is a very con -2,:. . . venient form since it represents directly.the cause-and-effect relationship in , I * /,, j * .l, 1~;. b , processing systems and it is appealing -. to process engineersand control I j I :a,, s 8 : II designers. F;,( ., , .L 5 if ,/.The mathematical models we learned to Qevelop (in the previous,:chapter) -i; $ i j :. .; .i ,J using the state variables, are not of the dfrect input-output tyPe., Neyer the. , .:- :-. less, they constitute the basis for the development of, an input-ou,tPut model, _.. ,. I , 1 This is particularly easy and stralghtfopard when the state Variables roin$ide ; I, ( j.. ; completely with rtha output variables of a. process. In such a case vei can . i integrate the state model to produce the input-output model of the process. : . Pt. :
particular,
E x a m p l e 5 . 1The - Input-output Model for the Stirred Tank,Heater
that Fi - F , which yields dV/dt only equation of the state model,
= 0, leaving.tha~total enkgy balance as ,the :.- i si, , ,, . \_ . , (47 5b)
V g b Fi(Ti :, T) +, $ P - T\
The amount of heat, Q, supplied by the steam is given by
= UAt(Ts
where U. is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A, is the area of heat f : /x transferand T, is the temperature of the steam. Use the last equation for . Q, eqn. (4.5b) becomes:
/(
dT "z or dT dt where f
UAt + (Fi + FIT P
* = FiTi +
UAt pc TS P
aT
KTs
(5.1)
, ' 1 c" ', a - -;+L
Fi LT T ,I
and
' UA, - vpCp
Equation (5.1) is the'mathematical model of the stirred tank heater with T the state variable and Ti can the input variables. Let us see how we r : I develop the corresponding input-output model. .,* .,, i'.'.. / L At steady state, eqn. (5.1) yields '? I. , , i' 7 z- . and T, O where T + aT(s) - fTr i(s) + KTs(s) _h 7, ,c;5*2) , t I
are the steady,state va&ues of Mie correspbndln$ (8) ' Ti(s)) Ts(s> variables. Subtract (5.2),from (5.1) and take, '6 ,,.' : d('r - Tts)) + a(T - T(s)) - $ ('Q - Tits)) +: K(T, -, Ts(s)) dt 1 ir ," ~ or I.1 dT' .k T' (5.3) dt + aT' = T,# i +' KT; .;: :' . * where T' = T - T(s) , T; = Ti - Ti(s) and Ti * T.%,T Ts(s) ,.' indicate the deviations' from the correspdnding steady state values. k' I I,: ! '* The solution of (5.3) is , ,'d ,: T'(t) = cleVat + : 0 '
.a
(5.4)
Assuming .that 0, we .find

t
initially the heater is at steady state, i.e. at t=O, T'(t=O) '. easily 'cl - 0. Therefore eqn. (5.4) gives
T'(tf
= !' f$ T;+ &A dt

0
(5.5) between the inputs (T;,Ti) and the This
,' Equation (5.5) expresses
,the.relationship
output (T'), and constitutes the INPUT-OUTPUTS MODEL for the tank heater. :', t relationship is also depicted p$ctorially in Figure 5.2, . :
*, ,/ : Example 5.2 - The Input-Output Model for,a Hixing Process 1 ; ,: ::. ' Consider again the mixing of two siream& process discussed in Example , .(I '_ 4.11 (Figure 4.8). Assume that: : - Fl -k F2 - F3;' which implies dV/dt = d, i.e. "V'i constant. .' - The heats ofsolut&ons'are rsl Af?d independent of the-concentration p82.-'Afis3] =' (.j ' ~ which,,z&mplie$: , i <,' ".'
* i Then, the state equations are reduced to the following: 1 I and dT3 dt t Fl ;. F2 ?j-Tl'+ 7T2 (, ,,,;iG,, ' .
F1 V.CA
dCA -2+
($++cA3
= &i; * '
+' +cA2 ~
.c
(5.6a) ,
Fl .,F2 " + \v + $T3 , ' , ,' (5 6 ; '&. I, ,; At steady state eqns, . a

-
' + -& 7,~ )' .' I' (5.6b) '*' i

: t
i '. (5.7a)
'
> F2 t+CA ,:.
*! and
U8)
Z(s)
, -- ,, ;i't.jj. : ,. F. F, F1 F2 F1 F2 Q(# f 0, .I +> Ctf. + -$T3(oj.. I T Tx(idd) + p T2(#j f -j p=p.. i ; Subtract ,$5,7a) from: (5.6a) and (S.fb) from (5.6b) and take:
!I
(5.7b)
(5.8a)
F2 ,+ 7 Td *+.,'KQ'., where A1 c' ,:.*c' Ai' c' A3' T', 1: follows: L *' ,. and ,T'2, Ti 'and Q' . ,are ,deviarjlon ,; .
,:
(4,8b), , as
vhriablesdefined 31 :.i
- =A1 - Cilo ; -. .I :.
' =i; = 'A2 - CA2(sj ' %3($;
:A3 - %3(s)
Also,
> Ti 9 T1 L Tl(s) , T; = " /.. "-( a F1 &* .v..+ F2 v; and
i li
The solution of (5+8a)
and (5.8bl)
. ,I ;i' T2 - T2(s) *, TJ .* T3 - T3(s+Q'+ Q.- Q(s) ,( i I--.;;, s-z ,, ', .,i.;,.. I x ,,: ;: j .:.:) K.+3 ql .:I:;' : " '_ ., ;:. ,. ,: yields: :, p2 *,, '- +- c' dt A1 : _r P : A2 3 I; / :i ':*
ci (t) 3. and ' L
- cleeal :
+ , : I
..,;i:- /_; " ; / ', ; '. :'. _t, : c,g,,:. ,./I 'i,'. .f,$.," .i
(5,9a)
T;(t) = c2eBat
+ 0 ( : i.e.. at tA0, at.bEeady T;(t=O) -~ 0
,.~ .,
'I'.:. . .
,$' :
,(5.9b) ': , ,
If the system is iriitially, ci 3 (VO) = 0'
state, then '
and'
Equations (5.9a) and (5.9b)
represent the input-output,model for the
mixing :. process s$ lis shown schema tic-ally in Figure 5.3 .-; c ;
R&arks : (1) ,
In Examples 5.1 and 5.2 the;.output, :. state variables of the two processes. to develop the,, input-output* modelwe
variables coincide with the @&equently, in order. I,-
need only solve the ; i dif- : ferenti+ equati&s of the: mass and energy ,balances., phi; is not always trued;. ,$umn wi have: state
-,Taks as an example the binary distfllation, . t model (Examble 4.13;: and Figure 4.10). F o r t h i s systemi : J :* :*
> variables:
,. :
Liquid holdups, Ml,M2,*,;~f,***~~,~~ a n d -M& ,: * / i , Liquid concentrations, Xl,X2,***,Xf,*** ,x,,. s ,ana output D$stillate variables: .
.: I$ ,, :
:, ., 1 t < ,.
p r o d u c t flowrate ind,, &m&si&on, TD, a n d 4. .__ : ,,I x. Bottoms product flowrate a&l tiomposltioni $R and XR I ..
We notice that we have many more state.y$rlables thin outputs. , .,, For such systems, theC.development of- the input-output. model is quite involved and difficult : E Figure, 5 P 4 depidts pfc &ally
j . :
,..,
the input-output model thet we would like to develop for t&e, binary Ideal dist,illatlon column, : :.I Lf (2) In subsequent chapters we will study the method of Laplace transforms which aalows a much sinreler develonment of innut-
5.2
DEGREESOF
FREEDOM
'
.The degrees of freedom of a processing system are the independent variables which must b? specified in order to define the process completely. Consequently , ,the desired control of alprocess when all theidegrees-fofS;freedomrhave will be.achieved when and only
been specified.
A good understanding of how many degrees of freedom are inherent in a process and whick,:are :they,.is very crucial forth& _' 2' .,. trollers. For a specifiedsystem, its mathematicil 'finding the degrees'of fi;i4edom unaer'both~dyn&ic '. : us start with't'wo characteris& &amples; design ofeffective cont
model is the basis of : : ) 'and 'static conditions. Let : I" '.
Example
'i .$. lh,,/ . i, . 5.3 - Degrees of Free&m in,a Stirred Tank Heater' ;:I'> . .. . .' c :; The mathematical model ofa'$tirred tank heat& (Example 4.4) is given by, " .'. / i A;$ p F ":a F ,. A; j$ 9: "$(Ti_ .*. ;jry + ,$ : ,;: _*/ ;] .',>,:.':)i2: (4: Sbj,, .,
p, ;;. f . .: ; ; // :jy /. ( When eqns. (4.4a) and (4.5b) are solved, simultaneously,-we ca, :fi,d.how h ;,1 *: "',.iJ ' " (liquid level) and T (liquid temperature) change with t&&e: taben the,inputs jl i ,%;. .:. '. (Ti,FiiQ) change-. Let us ask though' the following twoquestionst _ I. - Is the solution of the equations possible? ' :I::~ ' ., 6:". . *: .' c : 12 : ..
, I '
- If the solution is possible,: how many satu'tiona *e&t? .r St ;"~r '-:'.:' ,/ To answer the above questions let us count'equations -&d Lariabl~s. Number of equations = 2;; Equations (4.4a) and.'(4.@). i, Number of variables = 6s h.; T, Fit F, Ti, and Q ' We have assumed'that A, 6 and'."c We notice that P "'
.i.Vt -a are parameters with given constant values.
^ \ ._ :: f : )V. :; ,, ./. ,; 1. _-.*
3: il,
_-& .L .,.
: , -z 6 *:~. !, ~:;I1 ,: j? \ : ;,, ., -?; ,,.& If
' $mbe%iof equations I .,; ,*-: ., ,;. I; 1: Consequently,.the answer to. ths-fir.& q#@$tion.is~, .yI$S there exists at least ."; ,i : ;. -_. one solution to;the equations mode&ing,. -hank. h*ater; With respect to the I/ ;,,, .',-') ,. i; second question!we eagily+conclud$ that&here "is an' infinite number of solu~ .t -i tions since we can specify arbitrarily&e values+ four variables (4 - 6 - a . si- 1 I., and solve eqna,.,(4.4a) and (I).Sb),.~fqr th$r+nainiqg twc 3 variabl'es. _' : The arbitrariiy,specifie@ vs$iables a& tke .degreea,,>of freedom and their , ; .' z_ number is Siveni'by the:followinS ~~vioue.ie~a~~~nship,~::, ; ,~ J .' ,f - j.(Number of variables) - (I$umbqr of eq$$.onsj, -'
Number of variables I -'
>
Suppose th?t we specify the values of $I$) ,: folIowing, foyr va,niabl+s f$ 4:. and % TYs I7 Then, we can integrate eqns. (4.4a) and <4.,5bjY anb find how h ,( '4:. ' '2 -', with time. If we give different value co "' a ?UX Ti or ,P, I j., :', ,-;pi 1 /:_ T+' ,' thst h and -T,' change d,iffe"re@tly than>befoke. Consequently; .' . and T change < or , ./I Q,.we,find I ~ .
and T to change in a prescribed manner we$ho&ld,,not ; ,<: Fri?edom, i.e. vclriabl.oswlrich can. t&e a&$&~,&$$&$,uee. 'Ttijk: lc?p&us to the ,. _.i. I 4 ,. *' I '_ conclusion that,,'in order to specify compIet& a'*procesh the number of,,degress 1' * -I, : f "' /, ,( ! :: 't,"* I :v I. ;~ I, / of fre'edom shoulh be. zero. ." % ,' .i :. ,~ ; i 1%. ,., > : '. : : 3. ),, ~, + * -" -z ..,). : jr .: .~< I ,-- 1 1 I, ,: y, ,,:/. qg$ I ,i::_;, ' '.,J. I,' .A .T .' ,,: ,: .i: Example 5.4 - Degrees of I?ree&m'in -an $deal:Bin&ry Bistillat!~on@dl~mn i Consider t&e model for an idea18'Bin&y distillati~ca~~n'deire~~psd in , Example 4.13. We have: : ,; ';.. 4~: .;' ", 7 ,-., ..' _I
;f,
'if we want h' ,yr + ha& any d&reas of
Number of Equations N-b1 N 2 -'
."a<
.L
: or&+& Xeqn. (eqn. (4.20)) (4.21).) '.
: Equilibrium'reXb&&hips~ llydrtluiic relatio&hips'" ;.
Balances on"feed'tray I
(eqns. (4.22a), (4*22b)) .'
2 2 2 (N-3) 2 2 Total = 4N + 5
i; I_
Balanties o n t o p t r a y
(aqns. (4.23a);
(4.23b)) (4.24b)) (4.25a), (4.25b))
Bake&es on bottom tray I(eqna. (4..24a), Balandes on i-th tray; i # l , N , f ( e q n s .
Balances on reflux drum (eqns. (4.26a);(4.26b)) Balances on column base (eqns. (4.27a), (4.27b))
Number of Variables N-I-2

1 .i :. , J i,Msl,
m. xi i=1,,2****,f,***, N,D,B liquid compositions

s
yi # W,2,:***,f,*** ,N,B v a p o r com$&sit$zons ,Mi fnl,.2,r**,f,*;*,k;I,~ ,. ,j Li ..: i=l 2 l , liquid holdups . . .) : **,f,*** ,N l i q u i d f l o w s ; . , FB, fFR j 6 , ,!! \
-,
N+i .I ,. N
6 Total = 4N f 11
Ff c,; FD
The number of degrees of freedom For the ideal bin&y distiliation f (4N C 11) _ (4N i $ & (. .z I .f* :. ::
column is ; .I . _,
i. e, we need to specify the values of alx variabWsbefore kk c&. solve the model of the b&ary distillation. / , . . _i. ,. _; _ I ). $,I.~ .I : * :,:y : * y , L/ :* _. ,
'.gi..
I 8, ,.:$,,c :I al.. , The observations made and the conclusions drawn from the above two &tamples _,S J., / :. f * b :. i f. can now be generalized for any pradessing system deefribed by.,a s.et of E , * I equations (differential and/or algebraic) containing V varisb$es. The num,I. ., _ b e r o f d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m forsucha s y s t e m is given%:by, :, li,, . . , _ / t _/ * ,I:., ;. ; : ,) f i Y _ E ,1 v Accardfng to the value of f t we can have the falluking c@s&k: !, ,
Case 1.
If f-O., then we have a system of equant&ons variables. The sdlut,ion
w$th,?equal
of the E equations yields
numb&~~of i udique~\ralued
for the V variables. exactly specified.
In this ease we. say that: the process is
Case 2.
If f>O, then we have more variables, than equations, Multiple
soluti!yns result from the, E equat&~~ng since we can specify 'e arbitrarily L of the variables. ,In this case we say that the -: process ,) is underspecified by f equations, i.e. we need f additional squationa in order to haves uniqua solution. Case -3. If f<O, then we have more squation s than variables and in general ; > ther e%s no solution to the E 'equations, 'In this case tie say 1
~.
9. that the system system is is ovirs$ecified ovirs$ecified byby f equations, f equations, i.e."we i.e."ws need need I ,_ I ,_ *. _ : to in order t;q have a solution for the &&am, " ' " . r em&e. f <equat,ions (1) ,It is clear .fromthe above r* analysis that a sloppy.mopellng of
Remarks:
a* process may lead to a model .Y which '" does not include all the 'n ,* relevant eouations .and va&ables:o?"includes redundnti6
:.
equations and variables.
:In either'cise we have an"erroqeous ,.determination.,of;the:degr$e{'of ErFedom ,which'may imply, . I. ._ ,( , ,' I. I .; i' incorrectly that we have an infinite number of solut.ions'or 'I, .A' ." no solution at all. .; : azi::; .,:h 4'G:v q "> .,, ,* :' .:;, :. " .i /,,' (2) The presence of a cont'rol,;jloog in,~.~~~~al,,.proSeas. intro- ' duces an additiotial equation be$wedt+$the ,(I :.* _ m( I.. / . ; 4, and the manioula&l vari&bles. thus reduoir initial
:e, ' >
Example
f 5.5 six
The stirred tank heater is modeled 'hy two equations"conta&ng variables, thus:yielding foup:degreea
oft freedom (Example 5,3); This is. true by a pumpi:valve; ets.. ':-Let us
if the effluent flowrate.,F
ia detarmined
suppose that this is not the case and' that theliquid. flows out 'fromlthe tank '1
/I 3
I -, :i.:. \. % ; :
k+
,,
freely under pressure oE the liquid, ih the t&k, In tli38 cn8c .; *t the ,,,.; hydroa{atic ,: !t there is, .? an additional equation relating F to h, e.g. F = $&, which _* -i reduces the numbyr .I of degrees of freedom by one. r,
Example 5.6 '
.,
Consider again the stiired task heater, but noti &id& f.eed&ck control the. l&&d level ai a desired-'v&&&by , " measuring the revel of the liquid atid adj'ui3&lni &e va$e~of the,efflue&t flowrate. h. Therefore, Control Loop 14ntroducei a'relationship bqtw&eri F and 1 1 (Figure 5 . 5 ) Loop . %ontr& 1 inaintainlb
SimilarI)', Contrd'l Loop 2 ma&&s the &p&i&r4
bf the liquid at the
desired value by*?n&ipulatirjg
&ha,floG 02 eta&$ a&I &I~&$*&.& of heat 6. . Consequently,?&ntrol Loop 2 &trod&es'.& tela&&hip"'b&&en ' g and T. , It is cliar from the. above analysis ttiat th& two dofit& lopp.& introdtice additional equaitons, thus red&irig t&. d&$&s of fk&do!m , . *,< I% PROCESS CONTROLLERS ". I ). i ::'T ,. ., b$ two.
two
!_
5.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND
In general, a carefully modeled .I , process , . i: will.,pqqsass , ? ,: oyV9,,oi more degree? of freedom. Since for f>O L the &qxs~ +.ll .i have an @fini@ ntimber pf , solutions the following question ar+es;t '.'j:Q -I " t' "How do you reduce t& number -of d&grees of. freed4p to szaro : so that ydu can have a cromplately dpecified syst4m w&h unique behavior?" , .I . , ,frF,edc?n, we;"need
It is clear that, for an unspecified system wit$ f degreeqof .i to introduce f addtional equations to,make the Tyetem There are two sources which ,prq,vid+ the,addifional
cpmpJ+@y,
spe#ic?d,
equations$~' (a) the. I
external world and (b) the control system. the: stirred tank heater as our example,
Let us examine them closer using:
,. ,
_ , N ,I I
:* Recall from Example 5.3 that the s&red tank heater powetises four degrees of freedom. Therefore, we need four a?lditional . relation&hi&, independent of the linodeling equations (eqns J (4.4a) , (4.5b). These are provided from the following considerations:
I .
- The feed flowrate Fi and feed temperature Ti are the maiin two disturbancae for the stirred tank heater ;and they are both speclf,ied by the A& though the
external worlds, elgl th,; unit that t* r , pre&ee# the tank, hea.ter.
equations which specify Fi ( and Ti may not .be known,. te, nevertheless : . .us, ., they exist .,and remov. two (2) degrees of freedom. Tbus,,we have. 4 -2 - 2 ( . remaining ,+degrees of freedom. ., ; i ,. :! - The acceptable operation of that!,,the liqu,$d level ( the tank heater,;r<equires 3: and liquid temperature in the maintained at values. I I,.I .desired ( /.85% .I ) ,I.. tank ), heater .I are / , a , These two b,contrql ob+t+ves can be, gc;fiieved .i ,. with ,\the two. $ontEol looqs . \ shown in Figure! 5.4 . ~ r~ and .* ,*. discussed !n $.ample ,5: 6 i BQ$-~ : tp, $y$$+~tfont of the two contry ^equations ,: (see .., Example ,5.6) thus r .. loops add,s ty, cadditiqnal removing the temaining two degrees.,of freedom. Summarizing the above observations we co&lude the following: ;.; :: - The external world by specifying the values%f the.d$sturbances, :it removes I 1I >;+ -, as many degrees of freedom 8s the number of, &turba&es. . .., L The control system required to achieve: the iontrol objec&ve$, it removes as many degrees of freedom as the nurnber~~:.cdn~r;;~ During the* reduction in the numberI,,of
obf&%ies~. _ i
degrees fir. a, chemical _: :t.;-of. f?eedom I .,,i 1 process, care must be exercised not to specify more control objectives than it I - is possible for the particular system. Thus we can have tit most two control objectives for the stir&d tank heater. Attemptfng to have three controi
0 ,
objectives we are lead to an overspecif ied syst& &Yth fe0. ,, :; / i ; I. , ;,. 3 * ._ \ -_ ,L :
Example 5.7 :L Re.duce the, Degrees of Freedom of an ideal Binary Distillation Column .) , ; I ,I ; r -, Return;0 the ideal binary distillation column (Figure 4.16). The system . poss&ases six degrees of freedom (see Example 5.4) which are specified as follows : 11
;.
i ,
Specif j ,, &&on of the disturbances. . .I binary. disfil,lstlon column ; (I
Two are the main disturbances for the .i
the Ff, and the feed < feed flowrste ,., composition cf. The&r,values are speoified by the external world, e-.g. a I, I A 1 tllou~:ll reactor whose, affluent stream is :.the Feed to the JSs ti3lation L co ~mt\ I _ ;. , the equations specifying Ef ,and j Q are not known to us j nevertheless they exist and remove two degrees of freedom, leaving four for additional specifications.
:
.?,
.,
I,i
.,
Specification of the control objektives. objectives since there are four remain$ng
d.
We can have up to four control

The acceptable
degrees of freedom.
operation of the binary col,umn requires that$he follo@ng variabZ& be mainc tained at desired va2ues% (i) (ii) j , 7 Ei,;~~ : Ij b s:. - < 1 stream,~XB; ri 1 : : :, : . Specifi- :
c o m p o s i t i o n o f the; distillltizr &ream@ composition of the bottoms
(iii) liquid holdup in the reflux drum, J$,; (iv)
liquid holdup at the. base of the column, MB.,
Specification (i) and (ii) characterize the two product str8ams.i cations (iii) and (iv) are, required for opkrational,
feas&blii.ty; i.e. -we do . . { I. not want to flood or dry up the reflux drum or the base of therolumn for safety purposes. Figure 5.6 shows the ,four control loo,ps,which aatlsfy the
above four ob j ectives . We must note that the above four specifications of the control objectives may differ, according to the particular operating objectives. For example, in
r-
a different application we,may
impose the following control objectives: ;: * , "Keep at the desired values the distillate flowrate FD,, its com$osition xl.), and the two"liquid holdupsi,,MD and MB ! 8'
or
t . i a' "Keefi at the desired values the bottoms flowrate Fg, its comlksition xB, and the two liquid holdups MD and' MB." .' ' 1 ,. '? Care must be exercised noi'to%pecify &re'contro& objectives'than the
*
available number of degrees of fre.ed0m.i
becomes F' over_I specifiid'alta"i,f'ig'impo8aibra..tr &sign'a~control syktr& that satis&s~$ll :p ! '.,'.,,, the desire&i ~c)ntrtil'bbjbctives?,':T~~s, it is:imbossible to design a'.,dontrol " system for the"idea1 six
L
In such case the.system
biniry;'drLitlPrstion objectives: '?.
operational
(control)
column that cansatisfy the following .> 1' -' , ""'
<
"Keep at the desired values &he FI), x~; Fg, xg; MD and' I$? i 2 .:c;.. %, ,~ s': I -,o ,. %@,) ! _'
Example 5.8:+ 6cgrees:Of.~reedom~pilla Mksing$%ocess., ,I/ , . ' :, : 8. 'Consider the non-isothermal mixingiof two str'ea~$!. diPcussed 4.11 (Figure 4:'8).The mathematic& dV TE II (F1 + F*) . d c it, ; "F *1 _ .pj , - CA )t 3l
in Example ~
model.& given by the equstions,

1.
' :
":
f<.
d.. .>I
(4.12a)
( '. ' .a.I / 'i
v -4 - (c,
dT, -
.'! ..
(4.13a) I,
~F~c~(T~-T~)~~P~~c~~~~-T~)~~~Q , i (4.14a) v,c A3'. T3, pi.7 'F2', Fj I "Al' CA; 9 'Ai' Tl, T~,;Q, 6, cp, Ap, ) aii, , AtiS . 12 3 ', ;.. I
Number of variables - 17:

f
*
Number of state equations - 3
.j '. Initial degrees of freedom - 17 - 3 = 14
1. 6
: Ii
. . Further 1imLiationof the degrees of freedom. -PhysP&l @rope&& of the.liquids are specified, i.e. p and
m_ ,.
- The heats of solution, Afi, , A$, , and AiS 1 2 3 ponding concentrations, and the tefe?ence temperature To, i.e. ,.i .a Afi - fl(cAl,cB1,To). AHs2 - f2(cA2,cB2,To), $3 - f3(CA3,cB3Jof s1 These three equations reduce the degrees of freedom by 3; Consequently; a f t e r the, abwe:spec%fications 14 - 5 9 we have.left, of freedom. i . i
=P are functions of the corres-
degrees
The eight degrees of freedom are now specified as foll&s: l:*,.; , i , T h e r e , ak& pix uain- d4ifhAhmncee corni* .:., from the two feed styream, *tee., : , . /r\_ $. *,: 1 ,. ~1 ,:I. , _. 3; L* j 1 . Feed stream 1; Fl, Tl, and tii , _ :p&& stream .2; %?2~ T2. And. cA . 2 , 1 , . , L : I, *I / , . ,,.: ,I. I. The values of the dist$rbances are$pe$f&d by the extert&,world. .. ,. .;..,,. 3,s: *: ,, >.I .; s _: . Specification of,:rfie son&o& &bje&t$v&,~ a, Considering s&x disturbances * Q i+ i. ,. specified by the external world,. we ha&$&y 9 - 6 = 3. degrees o f .freedom * ,. .i I .,:,j -@..$ L,, ;....i; ;. *:,,:;- A,: j j _, : l e f t . Therefore, ye dan specify up to fhre$ controlobjectives~ I* ese are: I. ; , ,.& /& $ I Keep the volume (i) of the mixture tn ithe t&k a& tie11 &I , the temperature (T) and;;compositrtod (a& ) of! &e~eff&uent 8 , 3. stream at desired values. 3 .,*. _: 2;: .i. , Figure 5.7 shows three possible feedbaa conttol* loops which <the above : ., satisfy ! : .:., . * , _ 3 . j : 4 , < . objectives. ,_ < r, . 4, .;
It should be .clear by now that effi.c%ent modeling of B chemical process :> is a non-trivial task but, also-very crudfal. for the design: of a control system. Before closing the present chapter let usemphasizesome of the factors which
L
t
will determine will determine .the .the scope scope of modeJ.$,ng modeJ.$,ng for: .qontrol purposes, It .T Before attem4pting to mode!., a* pro!esg, tie wuqt pose the, follow$ng questions ad try to understand their +mplicat&ns well:
I
(1) What are the the control control ,objectives,we ,objectives,we must must oat&y?
(2) What are the t.he expected disturbances and their impact? (3) What are the dominant physical and chemical phenomena taking place in I,I, the- process to be ,controlled? Clear understanding of the above .questions greatly to define and simplify, /, : ,
and their, ansyera will, help _,, ,I
,-, I. (a) the system-iwhich we will attempt to.model, / *.I I. s. (b) the mass, energy. knergy. and momentum balances that we sho@tLd ,-develop and, (c) the additional equations that, will be needed: tb complete tha!,mathe-
matical mod& of. the process- i.e. transport and kineti,crrate : . (, expressions, reaction and phase equilibria relationships) etc. :, ; , -: _, !., I ! , .i . . J . . 3.7 z -1 j They will also T. help to identify, .,: . . 6. .i .6 ( i, j (. . .,>, ,i_, ;.+:rp -:,I: > I ,... 1 ~~ * ..,: ^ the stat; variables, ,: (11 , : . I : ti _* / ? a. ,. , I , . I// >I( the i,nput $put variables variables (manipu&ted (manipu&ted kr@ &d disturbances) disturbances) and and (ii) Fhe < :! . _ > I> ,, ; t.:..: : ~: i, ; : 1> (iii) the the output outptt variables, variables, ,, . : rr\* -2: ;r il. .. .: : ./. ,\ :, that the mathe&tical model sSI&EdT Ynclu&. * .I; , 1 - 1 ., . 1,: v , . . j, ; Let us now examine each of-. the above three questions and how they affect j , :, 1 t 1( .I * i:,.-, : * ? : .f the modeling of a process for control purposes through iseries of examples. A. Control Objectives As it has been discussed in Chapter 2 the,_objective.s. is calted to satisfy may have . to doi ,.. with: ., ;:; _, ! . ;.,, ,-. i
.,
that a control system .,
- knsuring bnsuring thiat the stabikl.ty stability in the the operetip)tl oper%tip)tl ,of ,of a a process, proows, or Qr l l .: - sup~,ressing t thehinflus& e influs& of, ex~ar~i,8Ssturbancas, of, ex~ar~i,8Ssturbancas, o o r - optimizing the economic performance of 9; .+ a plan!, plant, or or usually $ually ,, jj - combination of the above.
1 .
All the above.dbjectiv& terms of the floGrates; I,. 1 of the form variable variable x x
are translated in quantitative e2pr&sions
in
-temperatures, pressures, compositions, volumes, etc., b
- desired value or 2 desired value
where variable x = flowrate, temperature, pressure, volume; composition, etc. . ,, 1 J !,. j, .-I : _ ..,, ,, It is clear therefore that if we have identified the variables x which ;: S & ::define quantitatively our, control objectives the mathematical model ~that we i: , i , _( , , . ,I. will develop must descrJ,be ! ~.I will help ua how the$e variables change with time. i Also .a ;p . :. .
determine what balances are. needed for the development of the ,:.I ,*? , , r:!. +, mathematical model. t * \i., I : _ ; -: ,.. ., I , .,. _:. ,i : 1 I I , <.. ! L/ jjrl_ : E x a m p l e 5 . 9 -
A.
Consider the stirred tank heater dlscussed .in Exam$le 4.4. I ),. s,;*,,, If our control objective is to keep the -liquid level at a desired value, : i -, then the only state variable of interst is the volume if the&quid in : < a . I the tank (or* equivalently the 1 height of the liquid , l&l> %nd.,con-,, .; , .I sequently we need only consider * the-total mass balance. The d$st&bance . .: : s ; ; i of interest-is the flowrate of the inlet stream, Pi, while the manib / . ..I..~ _, A_ 6 pulated variables to be considered are the outlet flowrate $ or the , ;. y / : ., ;F i 4>,. 1~ If on the other hand our control objective fs.to k& the.tem$ature ;. :. : 3 ;: 1 :,pf y ,.,ii I/, of the outlet stream, T, at a desired value, them I we r&et .cons;Ld& _: . ~both b, : state variables, i.e. the temperature and the level t& the:%qu$d in the .,~ . . tank. This implies that we need write both total mass and lenergy l,. ,f balance. The disturbances of interest are the temperature and the flowrate of the inlet stream; while the available mani&ated.var&bles . are Fi, F and Q. _ .h, i n l e t Fi.
B.
--
c.
If, finallyr, OUT effluent s;t;re$m.
control objectivesare
to keep the temperature of the a
and ,the: liquid, level, at desired values, we ,have

..
..
situation similar to the case, , LB above. , # :. ,:* :. :

, # : :.
,:* :.
Example 5.10
! . Consider the continuous m&id proiess d&cussed in Example 4.11 (Figure : , *. ,i 4.8). We can distinguish the following control situations: :* , A. If our control objective i&o keep the concentration of the effluent /, /, , , xx - I. ii stream in A at a desired value, t&n the. state varsables of interest .I I , are the vo#.ume o,f the mixture in the ta6k and its concentration in A.
,
The relevant balances are thoaa,on total mass and on comionent A. tie F2; i0r CB 1, Fls cA ( o r cB2) a n d F21 2 1 1 : The available manipulated variables; i are: Fl, F2, F3 or the ratio 6, .:..,! Fl,/F2. : _Ij, j, k4 7 I ,. * Ir . .Lf on the other hand our conttiol objectives are . to keepthe composiion,. . I , ~, . -. 17 , ., i and the temperature of efflu?nt stream ,at .desired values, ,$i -t then .(I, we : need ~ i i .* :*- : consider a.11 three state,.,: variabl.es (c ,V,T -) and ,formula I _: ter-all thre,e ;.A.3 . (A3 .. 3 .i *s : balances (&o.tal mass, component PI, total energy). .I case the : this, r important available ( B. and disturbances are: !. Al. Fp TIT !42 s F2 ant, T2 are:.F13
_I. .
l s II The
dlsturbancfa of intereet are:
cA
manipulated Q.
variables
.Fa.
F3,
the a.. r+o
Fl/p2
a i
1 Impact .... arei expected,.to , .: /. ;, ,,
Expected Disturbances and Their /, . ,i / The external disturbances which .> .r, ( operation of a process will influence , .< 1, develop. : \ Fur thermor; , .disturbances
appear and affect the
with very small impact on the operation of the .::r Ii ./ I process ean bsheplected while while dirturbanoee dirturbanoee with significant significant Impact Impact on on the the I. ,:,, ., .. I
the mathematical model that we need>,,to ,: _ * 1 .
process must be included in the model.
This will deter&e -.,
what complexity
model is needed, i.e. what balances andiwhat state , variables should be included in the model. . t
State variables which are very little by the expected disturbances , af,fected _ it, 0 C can be eliminated from the model and.&png with them the corresponding balances. : : ) ., ~ ,
Example 5.11
;.,
Let us return to the stirred tank heater (Example 4.4). If the feed flowrate (disturbance) is not.expecte&to vary*significantly,.then.the volume + case of the liquid in the tank w$llremain almost constant. In this; ., : >,A . ./ 1 .jl . ;_ * dV/dt - Adhjdt a 0. and we can uegledt the total:mass balance and the jr &e-.;&~~aatical m;del .& inte;;st ior c*r;$rol associated state variable hi i purposes is given by the total: energy balance alone ieqn; (4, 5bj)iwith tern; 22, (,! .* Y, T:, i p paratura the o;ly && v&iabg* I .i Remark: ; Note that if the feed tempera&e, Ti, ke no&exp&ted .to qary sig- ; *_ , nificantiy but the feed floGrate, Fi, is expected to! change -substantially, above, then the mathetitical model can&$ be simpl&iedas \
but it will be given byboth eqnsi (4:4;) andi(4,%?$
can b,e deduced f-b+ the~&i&sys,&m~ ~l%~arnpie 4.10) . _ If the feed flowrate is not expected to change significantly, the model can be simplified, i.e. dV/dt = 0 and it is given by eqns. (4.9a) and (4.,lOb). f 1 . . 2 : , . : ,,,
Similar results as .above
C.
The Physical-Chemical Phenomena in a Process

r
A good understanding. of the physical, chemical phenomena taking place in a process can lead to signif icant simplifications for control purposes. simplMicot.ion can be done by excluding from the balances
This
(model) those terms
which j
have
small
contributions.
Example 5.12 Let us return to the continuous mijring ,prodess dkussed inExample 4 .ll. :. 1. Assume that for the particular combnents A and B of the mixture, tlie heat of solution do&s not depend significantly bti the.-composition of A and :. .; B. In this case (see Example 4.11) aa Ait C sl Afi z : f .
. Afi .I Afi z 0 s3 s3 3 ,~ j <i,.,. I [ ] i 1 and .the to total ealknekgy knekgy balance balance (eqn. (eqn. (4. (4. Ida)9 Ida)9 &n &n be be simplif simplif &d &d r 6 .the following: following: , a : ..(, ( :. dT3 ~ f Q PCpV.rdt - %=p% -: )T3) + cPF2CP(T2 -T) : , . 3 __ ) i-. In other words, we see that the qature of thk sr$xing . Q s&plif ication ,of the model. 7. phenomenon leacjs I_ ._- to a : ,I 1 ; j i:. ,, _
Furthermore, assuming that that from from ali~possible ali~possible compositions feed flowrates CA, F1and
disturbances,on\y the feed I II :,.
c aye expected, to change significagtly whiJe the, : by,. ,, a n d F2 and feed temperatures. Tl, and i; are expected i can I j n+gleg&from ,s t+e mathematical mbdel the total
TINIS )
to remain almoat the same w& !! ,) cucrgy balapce

.,:.
grid, from, fhs sezFr_of
state; _*.: variables the temperature Ji,
the . s i m p l i f i e d po$,el Ss &e,n o,n+y&y .L I 7. : .i; ) ;; Example 5.13
t;h,e; balegce in @nponent A ( e q n . 4.13a). ,tf . B ( -,
Consider agian the CSTR discussed ih Example 4.10.. If the heat of is :very Small. and the temper%ture _I . -. i of the feed stream is. not expected to cpange signiflcpntly, the ,Wmperature of i the reacting mixture will not change appreciably. In this case the reactor ,. /, reaction for the particular reaction A-B ,_
can bei assumed iso thermal.
We can exclude-the total energy balance from the
II
mathematical model and the temperature from the ,set of state variables; ., I . _ . (, ,., : ,. . L 5 Examples ;.9, 5.10, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 demonstrate very simply but also !; > ) vividly how the %.mathematical model o;f a process .can be simplified when we take ,y , ; : , : _ into account various consider-ations Lrelated to the nature of the process and :,t ii, 4 I the characteristics of the control problems. ~ ._ ,~, The control designer always looks out for such s f icatio.n.j$ icatio.n~~.~ ! i( ., z1 : ?I: (_,f i * I
> ! ; )
-<; i 1.., * _* F[.x 8 , 5? ,i! . _ i .*. The mathematica,l: mathematics,!: model .describing,:i,the .describingLi,the dynamic dygmic behayi&, behav,i&, of of ,$: ,a: pqoc& proces& is , the result of a series of assumptions made the modeler* : :For ;socessi &ntrol .,I purposes the !aasumptionsl made should: . , ,~ __ _ ,.L (,, (,, . . . bb: : :;, .i. 8. - identify and retain the the %tipo~tant,~iqput irn~ortant,~input v&ables) , / . (dieturl?gncesl.~~nipulated v&iabl.es) ,v (, ,. .a, - select the simplest type t&b of, of, ,model thtl& desq$bee describea tibe; proqe&Iw$,thinprooess,w$thin- the the -. 1 desired accuracy _*. ._ .;,.w - t&J., .it.:y : ! : . . :9 3 !. . : / The construction of a s&m@ s&m@ Iand and effec;tiv~~.model.,,requ~~e$: effec;tiv~~.model.,,requ~~e$: a:;goo$+ a:;goo$., knowledge knowledge df *: , ). i, : i : the physical a,nd :under.e ,. chemical ptierromena under cons~~ezario~.~~nd..a~~;,~~a~a standing of the (eig, oQi&rtjl oQntrh1 dbjact~~~ir,~~~pacted ,d control problems ,involved (eig. . 1 ,, ,I . disturbances and their magnitude, etc.): ,_I .i;t ; . *. _The input-output is a a mathematical des&ipti+ ,$aj$q ,rela$$g directly directly ,, input-output., model mo,del is matheatical ~@#r~pti+ , the inputs (disturbances ; matiipulated variables) to the outputs of a .,process . . * .d It is preferred over a stat;e model because it is simpler and depictsnicely :; 1 ; The input-output model can , be developed from the St-ate model through the integration of the ,state equations when the outputs coincide with the state variables. In Part III we the cause-and-effect logic in a physical system. output and state state yF:iabl& onlyb, ., ; .::,t 3 (
SUMMARY biND CGNCLIJDING REMARKS
will study a simpler method to develop an input-output mode3 .; I transforms,
us+ng&he , -:
Laplace
:. 2 Using the mathematical model of a process we can find the number of its r: inherent degrees of freedom. A well modeled process should never be over.. specified. Usually it isunderspecif id and we need to provide .additional >. ,, *l. equations to make it exactly speoified. Such additional equations come from ._ L I ., the specifidation of the ~externalc&&ba,nces and of the control objectives. *.,< . : J) >/ For a system with f degrees of freedqahd d ,dleturbances we can. have no ./ more than (f-d) independent control objectives, . ! 1. ,. _.; . THINGS TO THINR ABOUT 1. What is an input-output model and.haw can you develop it.froma s&t=-, I ,~ model? When is this possible? +: :. . *. I . Describe a.: procedure which would alilowyou to develop the ?&xit-output do&m~ .1i ,: : li
2.
model for an ideal, binarydistillatiod 3. I 4. Define the:.concept of E equations
of degrees of f.r&xiomand V
&lat$it to the solut$on. ~
with
&riat.il&$;
'
">' , c ~
'$:. : '
"".
How many degrees of freedom do you have in a system composed ojE P ,

p&ses.. vi& C componen&? (.&&&~~;$&.,a $;i).; ) .
5.
How many degrees of freedom do..youh&e in~~$&!m composed ok P > .> phases *w&h C components If the mass of eachphase^is gi&&, i.e. _ M1,M2,*** ,MP? (Recall Duhems ruler) ,. t .I r. . ; ^ ,
6.
How does the number of *degrees of &e&iom affect the number and the selection of the control objectives in a, chem$eal process? :.,
7 .
Why do we claim that d disturbances reduce the number of degries of frPredom by d? , * ,_ l_. b . *i ,;. : W h y c a n t y o u deuld a control, syst&a f o r an tierirpecified procelici . I. !I :*., . ,, .
8,
.,.
.,.
. . *
J5
Can. you Can you have havethe the desired desired operation operation for
an for underspecified an underspecified process? process? IfIf yes, yes, t
I
I
explain w explain why. hy. 10.
If no, no, explain explain how,can how,can you youlift lift the theunderspecification. underspecification.
ConszQler a system modeled by the following set of state equations Consi@%hi e fl(xl,x2,ml,m2,m3,dldZ) dt: dX2 dtf2h1,x3al,d2) f2h1,x3ayQ) ,
dx3 f(x f(x x x2 xx mM m3 d1 d d2 d) d) dt-, 3 1 3 2m 3 where where x1 x ,x x2 , , x x3 are the state variables, m 1' m2' m3 are tbe manipulated 1, 2 variables,.and d l , 62, d 3 are the external disturbances. (a) How How many many degrees degrees of offreedom freedom does does the the system system .possess? (b) How many control objectives can you specify at most? -; (c) Consider the above system at steady state. How many degrees of ., freedom does it possess? . i A system is described by the follow$ng , sbt of state equationsi dXl dr* fl(ml,m2~dl,d2) ..dx ~ kd ,-J$ , , <A f2(ml,n$,dl) ;i,, *,.
11.
Find the degrees of freed&n for the system at its dynamtc state &d : I. steady state. Are they equal? If ndt, why? What are the implica$ions _z 12. What are the main control conslderatsons consideratsons which afiect t.he slope of mathematical modeling for achenkl achemica1 process? 13. . on control in this case?
In what sense do the control considerations gffect the~mathematical modeling of a chemical process?
14,
What are the usual, general quantitative representations of the control I.I. objectives?, In terms of what variables are they expressed?-
..
c,
I I i
; fl\
#?N
1 I
I ,, h Ts
I /I
I I I
1Llnll-r - )UfPUT ~0DE.t. I ,_ I
I : *
L - - w e - - - -------c---m-----------c--.
; --------------------e--*-r.----r I
I 'I I I
F;qtlre d d
k.2~
II
\-,
fF, ,4(,-
a'&)
1 1
INPUTS
I I I I
OUTPUTZ
l- --------.----c&
I~~PuT-OUTPUT EJIOPEL I - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ricjure 5 . 3
..,--.
__
*. .. . . c
m 1 i \ A
, ). j
the disturbances simplify the model of a process? :i Give an example other than that discussed in the text. ", :16. G&ve examples to demonstrate how you can'simpIify the model' of a process ', ':~by'~Ef&regar$.ng'physicai and khemacal phdndmena with-sma&l impact on .the process. .' Give'an outline of the steps tbat'yo$ of the tnathema&al REFERENCES ""' eiceptional the behav.fpr of -3 ,, * ,a::. ,. should take .during the development .. 1 . ..: ', model f'or a 'cbemidai process,. I_ '\, )' , ,, references -with i:, .; , .,. : ; ,i : _';, ,"
15:+"H&w
caia the ?Jnpact'of
I 1
17.
Chapter 4: ,Three' modeliqg
' ,a .,large number of ; " process, ..
(1)
(2)
(3)
examples parer .~ .,' 5 .rl S, a = ,. " ,: :, + , .' Process Dynamics and Control.' -voi ;i j., I b$ *J, MI": Dousl&, $~eniidg-Hall, ], Inc., E~glewoO;d Cliffs, N.d. (1972). , .,:-'\ ', ,.* .,:I -f,i ,, .I 1 ./ , .~ ",. Process Modeling, Simulation and 'Control for Chemical %ngin&&, by' W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book C.o**I p 'New York (1.7,3)i, .* :. ,,:,' t: . . ;p . .%i -' Dynamic Behavior of Processes, by J. C. Fri&ly, Prentice-Hall, It&.,
Englewood Cliffs,G N.Jj. (1972) l , Iz i . ,, II I_ f7Q, + ,,~ ; _ .
For the development of the dynamic material and energy..;ktalanees, the rgader 7 could also consult &he following book mhere . Examples: 4.1-11,have been .*' ,4.l@'.and *j . . a :' : i ;. / :" 1 '. <1 I adapted from: .I .. (4) Introduction, to Chemical Engineering ~~~~sis'~:'by,lj?'.:'IW;:Pir.,RueselJ. and M. M. Denn, J;.Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1972);: / 53 o we,:: . , : ?\I* I' Additional references for material'and,energy balanoer are: : ' .s . . ,. 'j *y;; :,, ..i. '. (5) Basic Principles and Calculations,.in Chemical Engineering,'3rd Ed., by D, M. Himmelblau, Prentice-Hall, Ina*, EngL&?00&C1@!f*,.N.J* (-l.974). L. (6) Elementary Principles of Cbemieal~Pgdc~se~~~.by~~K. M...Feldsr* an&R. W, Rousseau, J. Wiley and Sons, Ink., New York,$l978), 1' :"., ,"f "/ '._ : ,. (.' s .' i For the modeling of specific unit operations and reactors, there &fists a large I '. number of textbooks that the reader could use. Not all models included'in these books are convenient for process control purposes, but they could,help
to develop simplified models. . and useful .: the following constitute a par.tial.fist: For the modeling of ch,emical (7)
(8)
Among all the available references .'-, :: , , ,:
'reactors:,
Chemical Reaction Engineering, by 0. Levenspiel, J. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1962). An Introduction to Chemical Engineering kinetics and Reactor Design, by C. G. Hill, Jr., .I, Wiley and Sons, New Yorks (1977). i* i _I Elementary Chemi'cal reactor Analys$s, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1969). by R. Aris, ;P,rentice-Hall, Inc., McGraw-
(9) (10) .
Chemical and Catalytic Reaction Engineering, by J. J ,* Carberry, Hill, New York (1976). For the modeling of transport pro&&es:"
TransportiPhenomena, by R. Bi Bird; W; E. Stewart and E. N;~Li&tfoot, 'v J. Wiley and Sons, Inc,, Naw York (1960). t I._ ,h , , ., Q, .~ (12) Mass-Transfer Operations, 2nd" Ed.; by R.'k. Treybal, M&raw-Hill Book Co., I. New York'"(1968). :. * ., : ?.' 1 .,: '. and R; M. Drake, Jr., (13) Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd Ed.', byE, R, G'.'Eckart McGraw-Hill Book Go., New, York (1959). , >.' * >. ._ For more on the reaction equilibria and'phase equilibria the reader could con sult the following books:~ ' ' ' (11) (14) Introduction to 'Chemical ERB;in,e~~~~g".~ermod~lamics, 3rd Ed.', by J. M. Smith and.H. 6. Van Ness, McGraw-IiXlt Book Co., New York(1975).
'
(15) Chsmlcal En inaarin Kinetics, 2ndE&., by J. M, Smith, McGraw-Hill Book .&;, 'NewJ& (197$, ," I : ..;,';:ir;:; i/ -..,, c -'.P.;, : ,., _++;F ~ . , :.L;. I; ty : i ?. ~ z, : ; : .V _ !r * For an extensive discussion of the mathematica.1 modeling ok'am ideal.; binary ;. . : j. ;_ ' ,j. I',$ / ;* .!a "i., :' f. distillation column and of a nonidaal multicomponent column, the reader can ,. : ", ; j: , . : ' consult the books byi1T. ~~~'D~&gla~~~(Ref; 1); 'W,. L.'Luyb& (Ref.'2) a& J, C.
I
Friedly (Ref. 3).
discussion of the difficulties encountered' .% , :~:' .< during the modeling of chemical processes 'can $e found in ). ,i. _ : .I i..P' t: (16) "Critique-of Chemical Processi.iontrol Theory," by A., S. Foss, AIChE J., * ' 2, p. 209 41973),'and 1
An'interesting
(17) "Advanced Control Practice in the-chemical Process Industry: A View from Industry," by W. Lee and V. W. Weekman, Jr., AIChE J., 22, pa 27 (1976). Chapter 5: For additonal study on the,degrees
of freedom and thair
impact on
the design of process control systemsS the reader should ref.er book: (18) Automatic Control of Processez, co., Scranton, PA (1967). PROBLEMS by P,.:W. Murrill, I& I' ; :. I /
to the following
International Textbook
;..
1.
Consider the two systems shownin
Figure P.&-l.
System 2 by the fact that the level of liquid.in the effluent flowrate,from
.,$y&m 1 differs;from ii , t&k 2 does hot affect I~
tank 1 which is the case for System,e2.
(a). Develop the mathematical model for each of the two systems. 'I (b) What are the state vari&les,for balance. equa$ons (c) "Which mathemhtical %ave'you e@i'syst;km,:and what type,of;, ,' .;, used? , i ! "._ pro-
model is elsier to a&ve~;~'0hat for System 1 1:
' or that for System 2 andi,why8 Assume ,that the,fl&rate
of an effluent stream from aGt&la cau8es
portional to the hydrostatic liquid prelesure.jthat liquid. 'is
the flow-of 2 i
The cross sectional area of tank 1 is' A,$&t2 and of.'Itank d A2" ft3 (for both systems). The flowratee :Fl, Pi, F3' are $a
ft3/min. 2. Do the eame work a8 in ProbUm P.II-2. areas.of flowrate (abova).for th&syetb:8h@n
in Figure
All the flowrates are'volumetric, thg three tanks are ;Al, A2, A3. F5 i8..constantand
whi&a th&,cro8s.earctional The
in ft2, rerapectively. 2. does not depend on hg.a l*i:i d
/Y
3.
Cons.ider t.he / tvo ,grtirred tank,,,heat,$rs, shov, ,in Figure .:_ (2 P..II.q. : 1. ( a ) I d e n t i f y t h e s t a t e variabl,es (b) $f,.the, s y s t e m . .b*,,l J , . :D,etermine what balances you, should, perform., , . the state model .th$t $escribes the dgn.amic t c behavior!
: I
(c) ,Deve$op 1 ,
o f the system.
(d) How would you express the hea$s given by the ttio ,steam flbws I_ ,1 in terms of other variables? The flowrates of the effluent etraa+ are assumed to be proportional to, the liquid static pressure that. causes the fl&w of the liquid. T h e I cross i?ipaetipeX areas of the. two tanks .are ,. Al and A2 i;n f.t? ,an&.iirhe . . is 1 f lowW&s&e lvolumetric , iNo vapor ia produced either in I the first or 1 :nd+a*& AtX a n d At2 are the heat: .exchange areas for, the, ., : ,. h: _ <, x ., ( ,^ ,I ,1 c ip ?robQm 3 C+pq$ for C&B s,t+yd tank h,qvs I, For the TankLi, the st,eam ia,.~,z&njocted ; & the Liquid fwater. Mater, r vapor ..is produc*: ,in ,;the .,e,ecc,nd I .d are the cross sectional ar.aas .cf the &NJ tanks?, . . .i , Assume that :the ,effluent flowrates .are.:proportional,;ta,,4h~. l&&d, ! static pressure that causes their flow, afea for the steam coil. 5. At ! is the heat transfer , zr : , ,
* Consider the mixing process taking;: place in., a two-tank system, (Figure i :* *! : .: \ P.II-.5). V(*,. (a) Identify the state variables of the system. (b) Determine what balances you should perform.. (c) / : ,! : j
Develop- the state model that describes the dynamic behavior. of the process, assuming that the heats of solution are strong I . ., functions of tha composition. y. . . ;; , a. i .., +. \
weak functions of the compositibn?
. ,f% ,.i.,, :,,, ai *
Assume that the flowrates are volumetric $nd ,the compositi&s are in moles/volume. The effluent f lowratea are proportional to the liquid bl a n d A2are: the cross
static pressure that causes their flow.
6,
sectional areas of the two tanks and At is the-heat transfer area t .~ ,I :. 1 . . /I _! a for the steam coil. ;(/ t 1 $ i CI! ,.i I. Develop then state model for .the.b&chbemixing of two solutions (Figure, 3~ ; . . )i : . _ . s di * ,; i. I ., P.II-6). Initially the tank is empty., The volume of the Qank is,l,;cY , r _ -* : , a,_. -& i ,. are volumet2i.c apcjthe eohcentrat~ons ategilt ~, (f2). The flowrates ).I: * ,i. i CL :_ j .,, !.: ,t i a* .. moles/volume. I . :. ; ,: d ( -. . , ,i.,;; . : I /; & (H) How long does- it take to fill upthe tank? , (b) Show how would youf And, the :; :v ; mixture in the t~nk*;fu&$ t I ;gi f i l l e d upu ,Assume that the flowrates are volume volume, and that the heat, oft solution depends on the oom@s,~tio~n .. - 3 Develon the state model for a batch reactor whese ehe F&&Y . s &j Z.,I $ I.2 . r:* 1; i . reactions take place. I,
* .
7.
8,
4. :..... . , 1 \ ~; 9 ,, kZ D ,r: * , All reactions are endothermic and *have, f irst-ord.er k&n,et+s,:, :@he :::#i,, , .r;<;r reacting mixture is heated by,steam of., lS&~ps,ig.w?&zh. f&$wsthrough .-. 2 a jacket around the reactor with a rate of : Q (lEr/at$n)-,. ? ~1 <$ , . Consider the continuous stirred tank rea&tor, system shot+Win,,,~FiguVe A
k,
,tB
k,
+C
::
c!*_
P.II-7. and c B1
Stream 1 isaaixture of A ..and,-,,B _I with composition CA (moles/volume) and has a volumetric flowr$te Fl and a
21. : i',
temperature Stream 2 ia pure,.,R. ; .'( ,J :i : T1',* are: ?,$S f I : ~,kl, '. A:+ R - P 1 (Reaction '1) L '9 i" '.
The,reactions : . :~ Li, . :.
taking place <, _.', I
t content with! 'At ' 'h&t.transfer a&&.
,,
';,
-:
..*-
, t
9.
"'f). 2 -I, ', -'t ;,, a (d) ,Iiow can you 8;mplify the state,model ir k2 &lo, ;l" k ,;. i i .. j large range of~tqnpera&,res? ;i ' 1 :;* .': ": ', ',* i: ; .F1 ., : &I : .> ~ (e) Define the assumptions that, s,kould be made in order to s, r., have:&': I v_( > c ,,:.,: .. isothermal reactor. .' j ; .; ,/, . p.I .1 , '\ :.; ;-. ::g; Develop the ,state model for the twoCSTR.ayetem of Figure:P.II-8:. ,A Tr I I,. : ias,_ ".: '/ .,_I' .b'; . . % simple reyction with 1st order kine,tics takes place: A.B. .: L : ,; Assume isothermal conditions. : .,4, ' ' j O'_ Assuming plug flow conditions for a jacketed tubular, react& P.II-4) develop-its state mo$eL A
olmple
L.' i .'1 ".' _ , .. ,'
,-
-*
10.
(Bigure u+ R
exoth.etrmic
reaction,'A
with lst,o$rder kinetic8
takes~,$&&c~ Due ta the very largeheat:&; the ,reactiort '
reaction, malt* salt*, which flows gounterourrantly.to ' mixture around,the temperature malten et
tube of t&e reactor,, ia used to keep-the reaction levels, Aqsume:,con@tant the reactor. temperature for the
acceptable
salt along the lengthsof
The reaction takes place
.,
in the gaseous, phase. in moles/volume.
Tl&~lowrates
are .volumetr&
and thk compos&ions
,.
i t s langth >,;,II ,
Theinternal diameter of the tube is d (in.) ano ., .j,.; .,L _ 6
(a) fs the s&tern a lumped parameter (described by ordinary !.. differential equations) or a distributed p%rameter? . (b) Does the realtor &plain. 11. F i g u r e P.,lI-10
.c
possess dead time between inputs and

j . .
outputs? ,/
-.
shows
., . I
__ .~ . . . . . . -. . -
a s i m p l i f i e d reoresentntion nf a clt-lllll bnftrrr.
Feed water-enters the boiler with a flowrate Fl (mass/hr) perature
,and a,, tern?: : TX and it is heated by ; an :./ amount ofSheat Q (Btu/hr)
,z
which is supplied by burned fuel.
The.:generateci s t e a m flows o u t r . from the top of the boiler, with a flowrate P2 (&ss/hr), and a ; 4, J 1: . < p r e s s u r e p (psig) . , ( :i ,: , ., ?, z 1 ,: tlo keep the level t&-@idre;t&
/ :
A sjmple feedbaclk control system has been..instaUed
of the water in the drum boiler constant bv ,:man&l$tine-
(a)
What are the state variables deacribinn the.+

1
(b) What balances are aonronriate for the drum boiler (c) Develop the state model of the system,; For the Fe trol system use a relationship of the form: .. ,I, h desired)
_ l *
F1 -- f (N -, . : : *
::
12.
Consider a p.ipe of length L -(in.) with an inter& h&k&. d
(ilk).
Let.- P l pressure ., i ,;., -4.
Water flows through the pipe withs be the pressure at the entrance.of at % . 1 (. , _ the exit,. , , * ^ . 1; b ,
~~ol&etri~ fle&ate*
$.
the pipe and 62 the. i!. . . \ I : , * .> , .: .*ir,. ,i 3,, -p, ,,. 6 r.I , x- I ,*TL
(a) Identify the appropriate state variables to describe the system. 5; , -, ./, , : (b) What are the relevant balances, for the system? !, 1 3 (c) Develop the state model for this flow system. 13. 1 ,
Consider again the flow system described in . Problem 12, (above), eat P time t=O a stream containing pure component A is mixed with the entering water, causing a concentration Assuming the t I cA (moles/volume) as the . A does not diffuse along the 1. : , : 1 . . .(
water enters the pipe. length of the pipe: .
(a) Develop the state model that describes how the <, concentration of 1 I A changes with time and along : the length of the, pipe,. (b) Show that the system possess& dead time between input and . output and compute the value of the dead time. I .. / $A A liquid stream is a mixture of two components A and .,B and has a ?, v o l u m e t r i c (volume/hr) flowrate Ff, tempprature Tf and pressure * _ Let! cA and cB be the molefractions %f t. A j and B in the Pf. ,lkquid s t r e a m . It. is eesumed that, the..,pte~.sura pf i s l a r g e r t h a n :/ : , , I the bubble point preasuri of the r&ture A and. D; so that>.there :,. % ,: /LI .is io v a p o r ~pnosent. 1 T i). ,i .( 3 i 1, _. _I / ,/a : The liquid stream passes through an isenthalpic ,expans.ion valve and &:. 1 2 I i:.. /. is Flashed into, a flash drum (Figure 416). The pressure p in I * .I _s the drum is assumed .to be lower than the bubble point pressure 04 the liquid mixture at ,Tf. As a result, two phases at equilibrium !> ! with each other appear in the flash drum; a vapor with a compo,f, phase _,. _ . sition yA and yB (molar fractions) whic$ is drawn with a F v h, . -.:
14.
volumetric flowrate
and a liquid with a composition ,xA and
xB (molar fractions) drawn with a .volumetric flowrate FE,, Let T : be the temperature of the two phases at equilibrium in the flash drum. ; _:. , : .:a i
,. .
(a) What are the fundamental ,dependen,t
quantities whose* values .
describe the,znatural state of the flash drum?, (See Section A !:4&2) ,:*r * \ : ci, . L the system(s) around which::you will . j ._ ., , :+ , .%
(b) ..What :are the boundarias,.of
(c) (d)
perform the -various balances% > - (. What: ari the relevant balances?
Besides the balance equations what additional aelationships :a do you need to, complete. the bta.te model for .&he flash drum?
( e ) Ident&& t h e :state:&riablss ad the-:input v a r i a b l e s (manipu.. (... lations, disturbances) of the system,, - *, 9 ., ( f ), Dev&op :thecompkeee st$te mode,,& o f t h e system>
15.
StaFting with the statg,models for the two ,%&tams of Probl& L : ., ii .., i (..._ :;, \ .L ::, _ :: I I_ ,. . :, : : .i % I 4 (Figure P*II-f), t.;. *i,, : i,::., feve@p .: * ,. the corresp9~~~g~ipput~plutp~t. l. . . ., models. Also, , ( a ) F i n d t+ d e g r e e s.I..^. of freedo ach ,. r : e v!..f,$.t . .&~&em,~:~~d.~,,U, I , , m fo I : (b) Specify,, how i many control objectivee c& you h#vefor;each: t3.j f:;r), ..--I 1 2% , : .i ,,:; , ,
systaQi!l
For each of the fallowing syst&e ( a ) . Th? n u m b e r o f d e g r e e s (b)
.,\ find? : ;
-:>.r ~ ,: .
,:.
,df freedom:. fre$ddm:. *, ,. joikj ectives you can specify,
The number of independent ko&rol I, :i
(c) The input-output model. I. System A: System B:
c !:s :_. , 1. 1.. The three-tank system of Figtire, R&tire, iPC,II-% ~PC.114 (Problem 2) . The: two stirred tani (Problem 4) . . heater s&&em of Figqre ., Figure P.IIi5 P.Zf-4
system c:
The two-tank mixing proce&s:of (Problem 5) . 1, j 1
i)
17.
For the CSTR system of Figure P.II-7 (Problem 8) -..find:. (a) The number od degreea of freedom, and 1 : j.
(b) The ;umber of independent control objectives you can specify. (c) For the number control objectives you have specified, do you you
havean equal number of manipulated variables softhat can achieve your control objectives? :, .,.
::. , (d) Identify Maat would you use of:conlrol objectivea. b (e) Develop. the linearized model.of the CSTR::around the steady ,a: ?
state and then show howyou. input-output model. , 18.
would ,form, the corresponding :
Do the same work as in- Problem 29 for the two .CSTR ,system of Figure P.II-8 ( P r o b l e m 9 ) . ., i
19.
For the f,lash
drum system of Problem 14 (see also Figure 4.6) find: _. (a) The number of degrees of freedom, and _ (b) of independent control obj&tives you can specify. : , , ( _a.: ( c ) Identify,a s e t o f c o n t r o l o b j e c t i v e s bhichare m$&ngfui ; ( ,. .t ; i .I from a practical operation point of view, ,,:, +,: s ~$ (d) Show how wouii you develop an, input-output model &r the flash drum. The ifi&nber.
i,$.
:
l
.$mpT&&
(k
ag$
.^
20.
!i A simple chemical reaction, A + B; with first ord& kinetics,. tak& place in a CSTR. The. &fluent of the reactor enteis an ideal binary
.;
distillation column where the unre&ted A :sis taken as tha overhead \ /. product with a composition yA (molar frection)and is recycled back to the reactor after it has been mixed wbthfresh feed (Figure P.II-11). thermal. Assume that the mSxing I , process and the CSTR are both iso-
(a)
Identify
the.
fundamental
dependent
variables .
which
describe
the natural state of, the piant.
(b) What are the relevant balances and whatare the boundaries of the systems around which you wiil perform the balances? ;., / (c) Formulate all the relevaht balance equations.(d) Identify the state variables of the plant.
(e) Deter&& the number of degreesof freedom for . the plant.. ._ (f) If (d,egrees of freedom)> O,.:how would you specify the ; _, additional equations needed to render an exactly ep&&!ied . . .f & idegrees of fr-ed;mj. I +b: _I _ I ., , * I SyBtem, ,. : , 1 rj 2 .i ;. (g) How many disturbance specifications do you have &d howmany j_ ..:: .i , controlobjectives c a n y o u identify? ,!
21.
Consider the small plant described in Problem 20 (F$gurePi%ll) (a) Determine the number of degrees (b) a of freedom, for the plant. I
If (number of degrees bf freedom) ; C* h&would youspecify i !I$; i _ ,; i-g*, :. 2i t&t ,I- , : t h e add.itlonal e&atioh n&d& t o E&d& k-wta&&$ Eipecifk-ed : P.&&& , , :~ .: system, i.e. (number of degrees of freedom) = O?., i -j. s !.. , i I. <. ,,I. .! (c) Iow many disturbance specffications do you%ave and h&many n !;..rL :. .i Q. control objectives can you iden$!fy? ?* il ; . .:i,-s *J (d) Specify the control objectives which havea,~.pracfical meaning ,. e . . .^b. * I for the plant. . (e) Develop a s$nple~inpu&output model for the plant without _ + *a:;, t:a-. p e r f o r m i n g e x t e n s i v e computations,~
22.
Develop the state model for an ideal binary l&&h distillat& column * , with N ideal plates (Figure P.II-12). At t=O,- the composition of ;. t h e i n i t i a l m i x t u r e i s cA a n d mass is M (moles).
(a) -List the assumpt;lans you will make for modeling the system. , ( b ) I d e n t i f y t h e r e l e v a n t balance,;equations. (c) :,I, addition to the balance eq&tions what other, relationships do you need to complete the. state . . umodel? -. (d) Show -how you can find the time when . the composition, of the ~ ) overhead product has reached a composition ;:, yA. (molar fract.ion) . , : ., A (e) How many degrees of ..freedom dqes the system pos?ess? .I (f) How many control objectives can you specify? / , I Additional questions: ., : I .
(i)
Does the vapor Lheat input Q remains *I flowrate remain constant if the .. constant with time! , :: ~1. you change it?
(W What about Fk, does it remain constant? * :.. I Under what conditions would
23. ,:> : ,, ;: a . j , ; Develop the state 1,. model, for a gas (J?igurq F,.XI-13) ! >,i.: 3 , .a*> : : column , a&sorption i : 21 with N ,:-ideal Tha, ?%a, &blhr) : .: f&x&ate ::r ; # : ppr,,:~ of the ,.L / transfer )I i units. , *. +,. entering gas stream is : ,rg w,lth a oomqbsitioxa.~(m#ar fraction) yA rl r,>, r;ilr? ,. :., ip,?:\. . *, it t ., >: while the ;composition of t!he effluent effluent gas stgeam stgeam should should be i-*x yb, (mofar . , ,)be ftt. 11 : ) :, jf i< :i fraction) : The flowrate of the% liquti absorbing stream =. is l?$ (moles/ ,_(. ,, . { . .) ,: :(.. : L. ., :, > Ia-) and it Is free of .t!lp;cd,myncnt, A. 1..,, '.' ,_ ) .l : ", . f, ! ,;:;i, Develop the i: state !$$a compone$s). nonideal. . ; I t&mponent: *t,i9;,, . model for &nul : ,. ,i :. distillation column with 13 trays. Use the goneral noneqcl.atura I, ..;a . developed in &ample 4.13 for the, ideal bin&y dittillation,, ,! ; ,,I !.
(4 state your assumptions l !il: ,). ..,*;;,, -: / ,( , (/ .,
24.
. i
(b) Include the dynamScs
of*the .? condenser and,, reboilor ,cons%der& ,.
,i
them as perfectly stirred tank cooler I: and heater, respectively. (c) What relationships do you need in addition to thebalance equations? : ..I
.,E . .
.,,
12,
(d) How m&y degrees bf freedom does the system possesa?. (e) How many control objectives can you specify?
. L
. I
_- -
ioo*psi
Q, (lblmin)
Fiqure
P.p-
I FR : cons-kud
Figyw ?.0-8
. :
CSTR
FR : ~,
- I I
AL ..a- 1
d y;
Fe .**-:.- :.I 1. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. :. --, . . ..- * *.
Liquid S.ream *
a.v .
. . . : . --. a..:. *. , . .:.*. . * 1. : * .. *.. *. .*:. . .* ..,..*. ..*. --: . . .- . ...
Fiqure P.X -13
Liquid t A 1
.,, .,;-
PART III ANALYSIk OF THE DYNAkiIC *. BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES

/
t , f3 iniplo
In Part XII we will study the ctynamlc: rind lwl~nvlor of

, ~
SCVCViIl
process%ng
sys terns.
Understanding the dynamics of such simple s)tstoms
a.l.low61
us to analyze the behavior of more complex systems such as the chemical processes. : .I ,) ,The analysis is limited, to linear dynamic sysbems; T@s may se& incompatible with the fact tha<'moost of the dhemical'eng&k&&ing _ /. processes are '.) _, .~ , .' ,.. I" ,$e'very v&luab&e modeled by nonlinear equations,' Rowe$or, linear .technique; . :* ,.' .,/ _,:I ,j : $,.; and of great practical importance the follov~hg reascns:. (a)..:There is no 3 for' ';. general theory for the analytic sokution of nonlinear' dif'ferential e@nations, : .; :". " , I" and consequently no compreh&sive analysis o,f :nonlinear dynamic syst+ms. ,. *, ,I -ip I...' ,. _,. ,. j': s (b) A nonlinear sjfstem can be ad,~~tely,appr~~~~~i(?d by ~linoar system ., I 1%,' near I' :! ' some operating-conditions; (c) Significant 'kdvancei in .,the'~inearl,;eontrol '!. I ' theory permit the synthesis and dsisign of.veri effective co&llers even for .' ., .*, -: !", ,) : nonlinear processes. Fundamental, therefore, is the concept.of linoariMtGn.and. t&e&to; $ cedure for approximating nonlinear s&&s with linear &ea~$hich%ill be studied in Chapter 6. :/ ', :' which we will discuss $n Chapter 7, ,offer a very The Laplace transforms, f. simple and elegant procedure ,Wsolve linear differential. equations and con_'
sequently analyze the behavior of linear systems. In the remaining chapters of Part III we will cover the following items: - the development of the Laplace
simpie
input-output models for chemical,processes,,
using
transforms.
.. a ; :
- the dynamic analysis of various typical pr'ocesses and their stability b characteristics. .
. i
.f
,/CCMPUTBR SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINBAR _ .I Q ; , ;r:

,...__,
SYSTEMS
InJorderto,find the.dynamic behavior of a chemical process, we have to , ; : LG. , . : ;. 1 integratet2the state,equations used to model the, process.;,. But, most of the, .1 , processing systems that we will be interested in are modeled, by nonlinear differential equations, and it is well known thatthere is. no, general,mathematical r I theory for the solution:o,F .~nlinear.eq~iations., Only -for lineat I differential ,J . ,. equations are closed form, analytic: solutions avail,able. ;,, ~. :, , When confronted with dynami.c,analysis,of nonlinear syst,ems, there,are .I ,L $ i several things that,& Gan ,do ,suchi as: 3 t nonlig~~r..sys,t~,,osl,an a-nalog or digital .compu,ter and ^ . .>. compute its soiution num+ically. ~. (b), Transform~the nonlinear;~,&%tem into a linear one by:an npproprinto . 1,; ,, : ., ;. I ..,. transformation of its variables. .r (c) Develop a linear &de1 which approximates the dynawi& behavior of-a .I nonlinear system in thesreighborhobd of:epsc~~isd~~peratfnjg, &nditions.. $ ,. , : The alternative.(b) @an be used in v+xy fW M~~~~i~~.ir~~~~nathee (a) .I .- ) and.(c) are, in principle, .alwaya feasible, In :thih &a&r wal-+$dieeuss the computer simulation of nonlinear processes very briefly~be&&Wse iq is a < .j > subject to be covered primarily in a courseon numerical an&lysia:~~PIar~e: :+ models by line& ones. J. emphasis will be given on the approximation of non&ear )1 4 .; It should be noted that all the-theory,tor the design of control sy.@&n, availablefrom pa,st work, is I L_. .:, based on linear systems, and,th&very small \ advances have .f been,made towards the divelopment linear systems. ,. of a control theory for non+ (a) Simulate.the
t 1
/-
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF PROCESS DYNAMICS - i, Nonlinear differential and/or algebraic equations cannot, in general, be 1 . . 1, (1, :I ., . :I solved analytically, and computer-aided numerical solutions are required. .. Numerical solutions are also preferred for the equations which can be solved analytically, but the analytic'sbl'utions ! insight Wthe b&&v&r of's system; '. i. de have already modeled; the 'continuous ,', 1. _ stirred tank reactorand the ~dear,"~~~ary-diStfr~a~~~on 'column. 1 The model for the CSTR (see Eiiampke'4.'10) 'is given by eqns. (4.8a), (419a) and (4.lOb). 70 :These cdnstitutb a set of nonlinear,equations for 'which 'there,is Let us consider two pro&e&es are very cim@ex 'and provide little
6.1 I
analytic solution available. Therefore; iri order to study t!he dyna& . :' behavior of the CSTR, '& must solve the%mxk&ixig eqilat.~aire'n~~eri~a~l~ using ,a *. ,I' (. ,., :; ,I . . .Y:;.,, . ,. ! fpmputer. ,'. :. ., ( The model for the ideal, binary d&stkll&t$on: coltin'(eeeik$ca&$a~4. 13)As 1; composed of 2N+4 2N + 1
I
+ nonlinear differential, equaftions, :'
::?,:. akdl~~ .:
i
,.<>:' ', : ? /.
nonl&near.algebraic
lequatlons..
It is not 'only the aonlinear$ty
of, the eqwtlons
but alsothe sise of model 10 tray cdlu&").~-that dytiamgt: -/ $6 aaPal?ze the~dynamki behsvTor,of iI. of
(24 differential and 21 algebraic equations fo!r.a-.,modest ,i necess$tates a numerical solution fin order-t& study'the the column. I 1 Today, computer simulation-is uhed~kctensively chemical processes to aid in thedesign
09 controllers and &tu'dy~:thei~~ :. I effectiveness in controlling a given ptb&ess. ' Ankiog'.'and d'i&it$& computers I I have been used for this purpose'with'the emphasis hia;vingsjlif-t;?d'-almost entirely in favor of the digital computers.
,;
historically, analog computers were the first to be used to simulate the .. dynamics of chemical processes with or without control. They iermitted a ~ rapid solution of the modeling equations, thus providing useful insight as to +. :. I ,. how a process would react to eiternal disturbances ir how effective was the ,. .:i / -1, ,, control of the process using various measurements, manipulated variables and : 1: control configurations. The analog computers have several serious drawbacks: . Y / , ( a ) R e q u i r e s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e t o s e t u p t h e pioblemand g e t i t iunning. $ ,,:, , + (b) Theneed of one hardware element per mathematical. oberatioh prohibits the / ,2 5 , i: 3* ,i siinulation of large, complex systems. (c) The nonlinear terms are simulated i _. by rather expensive %ardiare eid;ents (function generators)bi.th limited flexibility - (d) They do not possessmemory likethe digital cohputers. ihe : 3: I * .:,. ) I,! subeequent revolution;brought ibout by the digital eorniutersi made the analog ,s i t Y,q<. ,; ,*, .<:: > ,, y&;. & a 3 ; ;*i iE$? computers obsolete re sti?{I used in anme,Il ..$caFe and.$mari.ly .I _ ,_ ., . I. to train operzitorq on the dynamic opetiation Sf chAic% kiints. , * :,-, . ..I*. . i The computational power introduced with the digital computers,;~a$Song wtth : T j has expanded tremer@ously, the scope . -*<; * c .~ -2 4% : . r&hi: _ i I ( : 5 f i , 9 I ! ; ?_.j ! I,. ,. .1. and the practical significance ,of computer simulation for prcc4s@zdmamics .* 1 __ j 91s,.: ; ? ! ! :! : J I ?, 1 ,.! .,,,; )) and control. The availability of sophisticated equation goAGing foQtines for :., i$.$, .s, : 1; $&, q, , I almost every digital computer sy.stem availabe has simpli.Eled therequired i )j a I . ~ i c. . . 2; ,J, ., groundwork for process simulation and has relieved the engineer from the need i. aI ,.*1 \ j_ ,;, ! . : to be an expert in numerical analysis. I :, . ., I. ., Digital computer simulation of process dynamics involves :the solution of . , (,/, *s: , : \ I . it. . . a set of differential and algebraic equations which describe the process. l i :. , There are several categories of numerical methods which can be used to ;_ 4. I, integrate differential equations and solve algebraic ones. Let us examine / briefly the simplest and most populat hong them. .
A.
Numerical Solution of Algebraic Equations 4,. _: . . I At steady state, the state equations turn to simple algebraic equations, / ,, .. .; since the rate of accumulation becomes zero. Therefore, in order to determine .: 1 , I .$ the steady state behavior of a process under given conditions, we should be 1. 1 :4 .; able to solve sets of algebraic equatkons. All available methods use an .: . .b, 1. ^ , I iterative trial-and-error procedure, which approaches (hopefully) clo.ser and :,;. . \i$.. i L jv ., . &oser to the solution with each iteration. The key question is to se1 : .dPg the t appropriate method, which for the given set of equation: converges ra$idly to i : ,l.:, 1 ,/. l i the correct solution. Unfortunately, this is a very .$. difficult task and. in all ,*>* : i. +. &: ,. but a few instances is impossible to know % priori how.;successful will bes, .j ., -,: *. i : : , : t L ,j a* ji method in finding the solution to a particular set .of equations. Quite. of ten j * +, I r; . > *I: Ii a method will not ,converge to the solution, or.& in ins,tan&es it app?oaches .;; other > 1 , 1 . 3 _ ., * % I Among the most of ten ,uoed..t hniques , a f ..i ,.I;, <r$j!y! *., , : : are : , the*- ,- . ,_, ii following : (4) interval halving) (b) &nxeeslve aubr &tutio?%+ drnd (c) Newto?I_. ;#. ,..I .3 j , . 2,: * _ i: - ; .s ! .X, 3: R a p h s o n . ,. .$ : ) ..: : j: y i ,: \. .,,f Wi;me&ai Integratidn o f Rif#.erential. IZe uations B. ,.,.\ *, :r >.C : :.: ,: .; \ T, z. , t .j ., : , i Here aga$ & have a .very large &mber of availab&e techniques. * Numerical ,: t ;i 1. i , . / . 1 .-A,. c,,* ,< .I ,s-: j h j ;r ,; integration +mplies an approximation of;. the. continuous dlff erential equatio& ,. , , * 7 1 ; 2 ,. ye,,,%! *T. ~: with discretei,f inite-difference equations. The: various integration methods -3 , :,, ;. ;: -j, 4. : differ in the .way they implement this a&o&atlon. Thus, we have explicit , *: .,~, : i I I 1 ! e, ! * i.. :i * : method,s which march on in time yielding the .sofution tn one. pass, or we have i/ S. J;; * 5 _/r T .i:fn,Rlitiit h merho$s e kwith e predictor-cc&rrectQr y q u e capabilities, s t i o n s Eor 3 ,i. . ., -, r,: ; an integration technique, aie the itabiiity of! the procedure and the speed with : ha: .!, ._,. , . ,:i ),-; ;.. ..(: ,. ;* which .it reaches ,.the solution, But again, these are questions which, in I,, ,,.$ , . , (r general, cannot be, answered to our satisfaction ahead of time. Among the most. : pppular integration methods is the explicit. fourth-order Runge-Kutta which pro:. vides satisfactory accuracy and stability of computations as well as low cost. the solution very. /_ slowly. ,.. v:
:
i j ,
I, .t. .~ ,. .;::,j..+ ., s
; .
Digital computer simulation of the chemical process dynamics .is used : / extensively at the present. It allows the engineer to anticipate thebehavior .:., of a process not or&. qualitatively but also quantitatively. It has helped to /. ,:. 1 design more complelt and sophisticated control systems. Themajor drawback of computer simulation, is that it only gives you,.numbers and not a general v analytic solution in terms of arbitrafy, unspecified parameters which in turn ;/j you taylor to your particular prob&m. ,Theref ore, the results of computer ia simulation are of ad hoc nature , and you will have to make several runs with :, : _ . different values for the input va&&es and parameter8 before you can estabii ,j lish a good understanding of the dynamics of the particular procese. .,j .% : . 1 v,., , ,C ,; 6.2 LINEARIZATION OF S,YSTRMS WITj;: ONR ;ARiAF& L i n e a r i z a t i o n ia t h e p r o c e s s bywhichtbe with linear ones. approz&at!e J nor&rear &ten% and
It is widely used fn-the,study
of procea&dyndmics
design of control systems for the following &(ai8sons: .I ,
, , /: . ~ . /. (a) We can have closed-farm, analytic. solutions for linear q&terns. we can have a comRleQ ,aqd general picture of ~a process *, behavior
ThUS,
.j i
&.&the par&ers and< input _ variables. This Is not possible for n&linear systems,: and comp~u.ter (I ,. simulation. provides us only, with.$he ,behalt%or of the .system at specs- * f ied values of inputs and, par&neters. (b) All the significant deV$!&qprR~ntS systems I i: > **. , I
independently of the par titular .values
towards the design of. ef&titive &ontrol ~:j ,:, _ ,i .: .,:;: I have been limited to;line$r epteqe. ., : .:': ':
First, we will study the linwhatioir
of a-+'pot&Ln@p
z
ikqudtion
:wi.th.one
variable and then we will extend it, to,multivariable
systems. 1
Consider the following nonlinear differential equation, modeling a given process :
d x .= 7
dt
f(x) : -'--'
(6.1)
Expand the nenlinear and take:
function f(x) into aTaylor series around the point x. , 1i :.,
. +
II. ,.~ + (&f) ( :: xo)n +;;,*
.:
, ? If we neglect all the terms of order two and higher we take the following r \i I approximation for the value of f(x):: t;, ,_, ,:. ,. ) .: f(x) 7.z f(Xo) + ($jx (x -ox,) / (6.3)
ai ,o 7 : : ,, 1 . / 4
dx .I
o n! ~..
(6.2)
It is well known that the error ,introduced: the same order. ., of magnitude as the
in ths appkoxima$i& ,. __ j + j I : I
1:(6.3) i s o f I~2
term f !
Conscq uen t ly , t h e linear approxZm&tioti ( 6 . 3 ) ~~is~tisf~Ctoiy o n l y tihen i i s very &lose to xo where the vai&ue of the t&m I : is: very small. :::
Tn Pigure 6.1 w e ten sco .tl\o nonlihaar , linear approximation depends on, the ?lbcktian
$unct$on f ( x ) )-and its J&tear
of the point xo around- &ich we
make, the expansion into a Taylor series, .~~@@~e .the.+&r appro&m;l;ion bf /I :: I: f(x) at the points x. and xl (Figure aC.1). %z$ kpproxi@tion is ex& t only at the point of linearization. 0, (6.3) In eqn, (6.1) replace and i take, I 1 .: -L. I. E.
f(x) by its linear approximation given by &qn; i
dx dt
- f(xo) +
(glx
(x - xo)
0
(6.5)
a . . .I
This last equation is the linearized approximation of the initial dynamic system given by eqn. (6.1). In later chapters the design of the process con I
troller will be based on such approximate linearized models.

,
Example
6.1 The total ma@+! ,,, .* , / = Fi - F. i ._., of the'tank,and h'the balance
Consider the tank system shown in Figure 6.&,
yi&&,
dh A dt
where A is the cross-sectional.area liquid level.
(6.6) '. height of the
level, i.e. F.
If the outlet flowrate _,, 2. ; F is a linear funqtion'of the liquikf's :! > . ,* '.> I a - constant (I - a h, _' where , .I I
: .i . . ,a I which is a linear differential equation (modeling a linear dj&&c system) and "' ! . _, no approximation is needed. i , ,' ', : / If on the other hand; I F. = B
then the resulting total mass balance yields a nonlinear dynamic model, _* ,' : _. VfbFi : '..' (6.7)
Let us develop the linearized approximation for the nonlinear model. The only ., nonlinear term in eqn. (6.7) is 13 v%. Take the Taylor series expansion of this term around a point ho:
pig-
A0
(6
qh
as
+-ho>
.,[
+
(B
JI;>
I:
( h - h )2
210 *lo + + l l * *
h=h 0
t: o + .-dt-d(h A-(h - hi) + :, fs -sdi
(h
- ho)2
+ l .;
Neglecting the terms of order two two and and higher, higher, we take h I, =&PO + m-k- ih - h o ) : 2% 2 , I, system (6.7) yields the following : ,jP
which, if introduced in the nonlinear dgn8mi.c dyn8mic Qnearized " approximate model: Adh+.di-hsF dt i 2% .
.
viij 3 i O
>p" >p
:_
,#,.
>.$ 2.s
'. .
(6.8)
!' !
fl
.i
Letus nonlinear
compare
the
I linearized, approximate m&h& given by eqn. (6:g) to 3. P
one, given by eqn. eqn. (6.7).. (6.7).. Assume Assume that that tha tha tank tank is is at at steady steady 1 *,~j state With with a liquid level h Then at time t=O, & stop the-supply of liquid 0 .; to the tank, while we allow the liquid to flow out, Th&, a t r-O t-o th,o l i q u i d
0
the
level is at the steady state value, i.e, h(t=O) -ho:! -ho;;: Curwe (A) .$n Figure ; solution of of eqn. eqn. (6.8) (6.8) and,curve and,"curve (B) (B) in in the:: the$s&e figure ,is ,is the the 6.2(b) is the solution s&e figure ,a> _' : ,:i~ ,* 9,. ~ : ./ solution of eqn. (6.7). We notice that the two curves are very close to each .: .i other for a significant period of time. This indicates that the linear$zed ,. I model approxim8 tes at the. beginning very well the nonlinear model. As the time increases and the liqudd,level continues to fall, fts value .,; -. ,r;:i I / . .. , h 1 deviates m&i and more ;rom the~~&ri&al value ho around .which the linearized model was developed. Figure ,6.2(b) indicates very &early that as appro)cimation appro)cimation becomeo becomeo ;pro_s 1
the differ the difference enca 'ho ho - h +ncrea8es the. the. l%:neolriaed l%:neolriaed groesively less: accurate, 8s ?a0 expected.
6.3 DEVIATIO?j
VARIABLES
Let us now introduce the concept of the deviation variable that we will find very helpful $I% later chapters for the control of processing systems. Suppose dynamic that xs is the steady dtate'value dtate'value of of x x describing describing the the 'initial Then, I, ! f(x$) I : . .i.e. , .; '/ ; (6.9) : '.
, ,
system -, . dx&' (dt)
(6.1).
Consider
xs
the point of linearization for eqn. ,(6.1),
x. E xs. xs. Then, "* , ,i,',
eqn. (6.9) yields the following linearized model, dx q Subtract = f'x#K) df x -'x ,+ \dx'xg: ( . . $) . . ' .* ., * 3 ,, 3. ..* "' *
~< i
:. (6.10)
eqn. '(6.9)?from,,(6.10~.~and't~~~' , _. :.i. : /a d(x - xs)' xs)' .L.L :" . '. m (df, ') ( x - xs) dt dx xs
' *
i,2i
,. (6,. 11).
If we define the deviation variable x' as, j('= xt c x

S
,,,
:<,. , i '.*' i i): .y " "

(6.12)
then eqn. (6.11) takes the following 'form: dx' dt ="(q dxxsd -' S.&A
r ,.( 5Equation (6.12) is the linearized approximation of the nonljnearidynamic . >, ,,'.'P " I :. " ; 'St: (-. j sys.' t,. tern (6.1), expressed in terms of the deviation variable x'. ' ,' I 'kj! * . The notion of the.deviation variable is'vesy '? useful in' procesd,control.
:. .u :
Usually we will be concerned with maintaining the value of a process variable ! :I .i .' .' ; .' a, T I:, (temperature, concentration, pressure, flowrate, volume, etc.) at some desired steady state. Consequently, the steady'state becomes a natural candidate', &del. in such cases of
point around which to develop'the approximate llne&&ed
the deviation variable describes directly the magnitu,de of the &l&cation a system from the desired level of operation. Furthermore, if the
controller
, ,
of.the given process has been designed. well, it will not allow the,process variable to move Consequently, . far away from the desired steady state value. the approximate, .G linealieed model exp,ressed will be satisfaqtory steady atate. to describa in. terms of, daviat$on variables, near tha :r I.
/c
the dynamic behavior of the .process
In the subsequent chapters we will make extensive use of'thelfnearized

fdrlr5i Of
dll:Furl!ntl,ill
cqilcltions,
in terms of deviation variables: ' " r' ,;, 3 al

/: I_
! Exumpta 6.2
::
Consider the linearized model of the; t&k &is tem (given by eqn. ,.(6.8), of _., ._/ Example 6.1. Let hs be the steady st,ate vakua of the.llq@l level,fcw a,, (, ._, ,,. .,, given value, Fi,s of the inlet flowrate, Fi.: Then, ^ , the linearlzed.model :* around ,,hs, i.e. h 0 5 hs, gives "'.$ 2 ~~ - Fi -: 2 zi . 7 At steady state'from eqn. (6.7) we also'yhave. *-J&g d t + s
.a..
,J' G ".-igr _' ,: ,~ 2% , 'e,
,.
,;
V3) ./i
: , .,'F
,. (6.14)'
A-$+Bq* 0 9 -!
Fis ,
51
Subtract eqn. (6.14) from (6.13),* :' '. , .,; i ; :* * 5 ii . 14, d(h w,he) ':. ) ,,. A c + ---@--(h-h,):- Ft. :- a,;, ,df 21m;; ,.; . . 1,: 1 .I Defining the deviation variables " . ,, " )' 6 '; ^' ~ ii ish-hs and .( : @i,.' - Fi t Firs / we take the following linearized form interms of deviation variables
', :
(6.15)
6.4 LINEAJ.UZATION
OF SYSTEMS WITH MANY VARIABLES
In the previous sections we developed the linearized approximation of a nonlinear dynamic system that had only one variable. Let us noG extend that . .
approach to systems with more than-one varf-able. . ( Consider the ,following dynamic system,
Fround
the poind (k, n ,x,h) _ and take
a&f2 +c axlax 1
Neglect the terms of order
~~~~~~~~~
(x 1 -x lo )(x,-x2())
higher and take
+*-**
the'following approximations:
two
and
fl(XiSX*) fl(XiSX2)
and ,.
T -, ,1.I ><
afl afl fl(Xl~X20) fl(Xl~X20) f f (-) (-)
axI (X ~(p2~) ax1 1(p*$
4 4
afl afl (X (X - X X )) + + ((ax2+x 1o, 1 1 10 10 *
X 20)(x2 2#x2 - x20) C
; ..
! af2
.a+,. +(;i;;;J(x +(;i;;;)(x
10;2c~o) (x2 - x2*), ,, CL. . _., .( ,:~ : Sub,stitute t h e a b o v e l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f f,b(x1,x2) a n d f2(x1,x2) in& 1 the eqns. (6.16) and (6.17) af ,the init& nonlinear dynamic system and take: dXl x=f1 (X ~~,X2~)f~~)(xl~~x20)(Xl-Xl~)+~~)(x,~~,x~~)(.i~2~)(6*l8) ;af; dx2 ,+ :) + ;(---) dt = f&&-J ax, .,. (x +,:I., X :af2 ; , , . (x i
f295) tf2(x1(92()) tf2(x+2()) +~~)(xlox~o)~~~-~~~~
,:
,:
(x?-y20)
1,
1,
10, ) 10,
+ ax,l(x, ,:,:-
pyre?.. 2 2
pyre?..
- ~20) **
(6.19)
These last two equations are linear,differential linearized, approxamate model of the initial: ,> ( eqns, (6.16) and (6.17).
equatiod .and constitute the des&ibed by _ i .&a& ?&ly also here, , x) 1 2 ; ,,+
nonlinear sytftrzim
i.e.
The comments made earlier for the one-dimensf,$nal : I. .:; ,i 1
- the approximation deteriorates as the point (x p o i n t (x10,x2$ o f l i n e a r i z a t i o n , a n d I
moves away fromthe
- the linearized approximate mod&depends on the point (x10,x29)
around
which we make the,.Taylor series expans&; L , :\ )kL) 1 ^. k * Let us now express the linearized sF;tem in terms of deviation variables. I . ,. Select the steady state ( x l,s ~2~s) as, the point around which you will make .<i i the linearization, 1. e,, in eq&. (6.18) a&j (6.129) put x .: E x 1O 1 , s and steady statem eqns. (6.16) and (6.17) yields: x20 = x2,s At the -: 0. 0 .; fl(xl,s,x2,s) f2(xl,s,x2,s) 9 i :; t . ;. (6.20) (6.21)
Subtract eqn, (6.20) from (6.18) and (6.21) from (6.19) and take: . ,. af , , ~ rhrx ) -~. , I~$&&& (1) ~,~~~~,l,*,x2,a)(2-,x*,~)~~;22) axi (x l,~,x2,*)(x1-~l,a)
':"j'
and
l,s,x2,s)(x1-xl,s) + (~)~~l,sX2,s)(XZ-.X2.a)(6*23) D e f i n i n g t h e d$v+ytion var,$ablea b y , * 1 Xi 3 ,xl - x~,~ and _/* *; =

.*2
XQg
eqns. (6.22) and (6,23) take the following form,in terms ofdevlation
hi
variables:
-dXi dt ,i %,,dx; dt where

3
!' :,
aiixi akxi :
af~ .: -
a12x;
+
'
22x; ~.
* ,L 3; :
:
i
es;.
_.
c af.
.,
.+
_:
:.p ,,.-I*
,j
a2l ; .;i
=. axl)(xl
s,x2,;)
, a22
(q(x;
s,x2;aj*
oection,s we A final comment is in order. IN the previoue x.andiG&e.p%&ent / ! , ,, 1 1 considered the presence of state variables only in the nonlinear &nctions. ir ii . 8.. ill, Thus, for systems with one variable we had oniy the state .x>&d for systems <+ ^ j 9 ,. ,T :.;, f, with two variables we had only states xl a n d X2. The above formulation .:t;i shouldnot be perceived as restrictive, *but it is~~~ily,,expanded-toinclude , and the like.the tna~~p~l~t~dv~riablsa, the presence of other inpu@iariablis, ? disturbances. j
, 1
Example 6.3 .,
,. , : ,,L; Consider a dynamic system desciibed 1 , z

_
by two state irariables xl
a n d x2
and the following state eqw$itino;, dxl dt
fl(x1sx2~yn2sdl)
'.I . 9
_, '. dx2 i= , fZTL,x2;ml,m2d2) dt
where m 1 distukbances,
and . m2
are two &nipulritedi variables aAd the ,syst&m. .I :
affea$ing
Linearizatidn*
of,. tlqs above .&&ions
(x10sx20sm10s~20sd10s~20~ w i l l y i e l d : dxl dt = f1(x10sx20sm10s~20rd10)
around the nominal valu& .r 8 .

,.!
afl , afl + (T&~ lx,- xl01 + $qo (x,t.
x2$**
. .
and dx,
f (<). (ml L ml01 + ($flo (m 7 m20) + ($,n,v(d, n --.I. L, 1 _1 .i
dl(+ 3, .,
(6.$) ii
-gf(X 2 10X20sm10Sm20~d20)
A
!a_c 2) n (X, + (a~_ p--
La
3.
)r
wh-@l-e
all the derivatives have been
camntr~d
a+
+h-
n~4..+
-e
,.,-r--.t--ll--
(denoted by the- subscript 0). Assuming t h a t t h e p o i n t o f linearization ia

+hp n+a,Ar a,** ara~a L-L-.-J--c
the system, we can define the deviation

xi. *; Xl Xl0
varfahlem
mi ml,
ml
ml0
di
di
= =
d2
dl
-
-
did
d20 --
Xi
3.
X2
Xi0
-
Introducing theie deviation vari&les inl.eqns. (6.24) and (6.25) we take
. (*t * _ sallXi f .~;ZX; + bllmi + bl2m; + Cldi ., and c ,t 7
(6.26) :,.
_ dxi . . xi ,f_: tal$ + a22xi + bzlmi f bZ2mi + ~~$1 5. .C6.27) .*, ,;+ where the cons tante a. i-j bij =i are the appropriate derivatfves in the eqns. - (6.24) .annd (6.25)) i.e.
and
. form that we would like to have for process control purposes, i;e. linearized ,. approximation of the nonlinear state equations, in terms of deviation ,! .: _ \ 1. I var iab 1 es. ,* .
I *
Example
, Linearization of a Nor&o thermal CS~TR ,$!:: ~ r : I I > y> The modeling eqt tations for a CSTR were given in Example 441O'by eqns. 6.4.
'5
(4.ga), (4.9aj a n d (4.10b). mixture remains constant. to the following :
Assume that the volume V of, the reactlpg i I, Then,. the dynamic :model of the ,reactok I is !relktced _ _.
dCA dt is.= and
$ cc
- CA) Ai : I,
k, e-E/RT .O CA
( 6 . 2 8 3
dT L (Ti -T) $ J lo .-E!P;lTv Q - --$(p -,jj .qL 29) dt - f P , I I . ? .? .~ -& a: This model is nonlinear due to the presence of the no&near term .e . -- cAS . Thus, in order to linearize ,-n?qns. while all the o.ther terms are linear. *
,
(6.28) and (6.29) we need only to rinearize the abovenonlinear some point (ci ,To).
0
term around
e-E/RTc
, e
-E/RTo
'A
0
-E/RT +( aT ale
Ql
* )To' CA b 0
.I d[*-ERTc ] ! (CA-CA : A) (T - Toi +,(, 1 ac , To,Q .O A

:* ~
0
.-1
SubetitutXng
-E/RTo -E/RT k e (CA ) (&A To) f (8 O)(cA-CA 1 0 * . i : ; , * 0 : 0, RTo2 i ,. \ I 1 -: : : ~. the above approximation into eqns. (6 .J&y-&d (6,;;;) ;le i&e the
i t.
-e
-E/RTo cA
following linearized mod;1 for a nonisothermal CS:;iR:, ;. ,-*-+ (c Ai,-~A)

dc..
-E/R% -E/RT. E f!!!$+ -toe -.: o.#kS,-koL;iZ,,e 0 : RTo :: ,. ) : j

_,) - (
-E/RT To,.-&;& $y- cA ) 0 / I.

,
$+
(Ti-T)+
Jko
: R >-E/RTo : . +&To CA, .+ (- e CA )(T-To)+(e ) R$ .:, i 0 0
i.
-):,
; i '& .
(6.630) 4 :: j -,
(6.31)
P
I
$e can proceed a stlp further co develop a more convenient form for eqns.
(6.30) and (6.31) using the deviation variables. Assume,that
To and CA
0
are the steady-state cgnditions for the CSTR and for given input conditions .J .' , "_ cAio, Tie, Tco. Then from eqns. (6.28) and (6.29) we take, -E/RTo 0 ,. = $ (;;4"' - cA ),- ki e i0 0" .-c
AO
(6.32) I
0 - + 'Ti -To)+ 8 _ ., Q Subtract eqns-. <take: _' (6,32) ar rd ,,,
.;.. -E/RT_ .t. Jko e 'A - 5 (To-~Tc 'I.,/ ;a- . o :o . 0 . ,.p (6.$3)> :- i \ "(T-T~)-~~ ,) '! ,A : . from (6.30) and:(6.31);
. ) j
I (6.33)
respectively, and
dca -d'[(.c -c dt T ,:: Ai
'-R/RT_ e u(~ACA 0.~. ) !':.(6.34) ii '
;'
1'
.Ljl
dT ' [(Ti- Tie) - (T,- To,It dt:?
,, ,. : -E/RT -. ')(T+To)
-E/RT I + I (e Define the O)(cA-,CA)

0
,., i -3 [(T-To) P :, variables:
.I
-- (Tc-Tc
0
)I.
e(6.35) *
following
deviation
I Then, eqns. (6.34) and (6.35) take the following form,. in terms'of : !variables:
the deviation
dCA f. i ,; i i . %
--7 dt Cc&
.1I;
dT' m 5 (T;- +') + r dt
3 .[,0
Jk
koE -E:/RT -E/RT cl> -, ~~~ !+. T - hoe, 1~:
(6.361,.
..
I
,,* l ci : ---g I P -.
CT'-T;) (6.37)
_ (, '< 1
SUMMARY AND CCNCLDDING:RRMARRS .,. ii r, 1. Most of the chemical engineer&rig syst& ire modeled with nonlinear equations .(dhfferential, algebraic);: .Slnestherk is no general theory for the ; solution of such equations, digital computer simulation is used widely to study the dynamics of:,chemical processing systems,' Computer simulation is nothing : ;, else but the numerical sofution.of the 'eq&ations describing the behavior of a L * process. Linearization is the approtimation of a nonlinear model by a linear one :: Taylor se&8
in the neighborhood of 'an operating point.' It is~'baas,ed~'on'the : expansion of nonlinear functions around a certain point and the retention of
only first order terms, while second and higher order terms areineglected. ,: -i$, :" j: The lineaiized model provides very 'good',~Bprol;tnate'de~.~ripsidn of a ,process only near the point of linearization. ': For process control purposes the steady sta& operation of,, &stem taken as the point of. linearization. .9 This allows is
L ,
the-jatroductionbf the I ' deviation variables ii whose values indicate how much a system is removed from the desired steady state operation. The deviation variables are very useful quantitiss ip control and in subsequent chapters we will model a 2' : t .;, prOc888 alWay 'in tqm8 a$ deviation ~Varfidib?!S~~
I , ?I y . .,, f . . ,.. .A . , ii ; _ ,._ ,) .I i (
.i,
"
I .-_ ;? :;.:: ,I
THINGS' TO" THINK 'ABOUT 1 . What-i&n computer simulation ifnd what is it used for? 2. Discuss the methods of interval halving, successive .Newton-Raphson their 3. relative substitution and
for solving nonlinear algebraic equations. advantages and disadvantages?
What are
Do the bame methods.
with Euler's and the fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration b /' I*/ models useful : i for process control
4. 4. 5. 5.
What
linearization,? i Why are.the linearized, ap&%imate purposes? :
is
6.
When is the linearized model more accurate, near or far from the point. 1 of linearization, and ,.. why? What is the most attractivepdint of linearization for control purposes and whyi?
7.
8.
Which linearieation Which linearieation ir is mote rnoi~~ uskful, useful, the the one one around erouad the the point point A A or arc the, the, . .
one around,'the one around,'the point point B, B, and and why? why? (See (See Figure Figure
6.4-1).
9.
What are the deviation variables? What is the point of linearization 'r in order order to to define define the the deviation deviation variables variables that that will wiil bebe useful for for process control purposes? ,. ., ,* I
10.
Consider the tank system discussed in Example 5.6 (Figure 5.4)'where the flowrate of the outlet stream is proportional to the square root of Show that Show that we we should should rekearize relinearize the the
the height of, the liquid level.
balance equation-every time that level at -..--.I-- $e - change .I the desired l&&d-_--_e-...-
s steady t a t e .
.
.-
11. t
The
following
differential
equations
provide
the
mathematical
models
for several processes.. Which of them $$e"linear Process I: +Apx lot '1. dx, +'5 ' .' ml(t) t,d;(t)
and which nonlinear?
Process II:
1
adxl I bl-z-+ b2
dxl + x Process III: al= 1 w*
//,!.
B-
1 4
< ,
5, I
CH,APT?ER l. ? *it LAPLACE
7'
,;: *I
TRANSFORMS
,,:; I The use of L&place transforms offers a very simple and elegant method to I, & i ' solve the linear ar linearized differential equations.which ,#* result from the ; ,\S , .j, mathematical modeling of .chemical processes. :", :. j ' 6 ::, The T,aplaee : transforms ), i" < .*, also allow; :: 1 ~ . I
various
external.influences. ,ld
i. '...
.,
!&.i
above reasons' that the Laplace trans,forms have been : ,included in a Process Control ;,_bo$', although they\, constitute a,purely rY' k, -i. : i : ! mathematical subject.; : 7.1 DEFINITIQN OF THE LAPLACETRANSFQRM ;, ; ., tr&or?n" ;. 8 " . I, :d' j />i transform is given "7: r T &[f(t)] T(e) li E-dd T-m E' "f(t)e .L '3 and defined for Y$;t 4 .. "' (7.fa) (7.1) ?(s):of the function
It is for all,',the
Consider the function ,f(t)r;G,The',Laplrce, . f(t) is defined as follows; , j, &f(t)] I Ranarks: E ?(S) m' .I.;o f(tl,e-st'& ,: ?,
(1) A more rigorous def,inftion'of the Laplace by eqn. (7.la).
If the function f(t) is piece-wise"ti&tinuous' every value,of
time from t=G to tm', %h& the .rigorous
definition (7.la) reduces to that of (7.1). For almost all
/<
the problems that we w%lL be concerned with in this book, the simpler def initiqn given by (7.1) will suffice. (2) From the definition (7.1) or (7.1a) Laplace transformatiun we notice that the .
is.a transformation of.a filnction
from the time domain .,&here time is the independent variable) . to the s-domain (with 8.. the independent variable). s is. I. ,i a variable def iried in the: tmmpiex plane ) i.e. sh a + jb.
(3) :
From the dafini&n: (i; i) zr &: @. 18j i $8 &i& tfiihfi$he . :, . :
&aplscy
~r~aaf~~m~~f
tde$&& . . 6
f(t); @xi@& ip;&
: 1 t *j
integral iW f(t) e-*t ht / takes a kr$te valuel; il e.., rem&is bounded. C o n s i d e r t h e f u n c t i o n f ( t ) -: eat w h e r e ~0. % . ., : . ^ .,>, 1. . i;.,: men,*. I1 * .: *I. ., _) :r,e(a-s)t dt ! [eat] o eatemst.dt s ~ (7. 2);. IJ=
0 0 .
:.,
.G
Now, if a - s > 0 o r s<a then&e : ., , . becomes unbounded.
i&g& i n ( 7 . 2 ) ,?.
f-%i
Consequently, tire iapia& transform of : e at is defined only for s>a, . which yield finite values ., f-or the integral in, (7.2).,;: AI,& the. fu$ctions that, we will @ *
,;
be concerned with in this Ibook &ll possess Laplaca trans. ! forms so Mat we +ll nobtest their, existeace every ,time . time we need them, _ I (4) The Ladlace trax$fdrmation is a linear operation, i.e. $,l 7 . _. :, [alfl(t) + a2f2(t)J - ,ala,-*Ifl(t)j + a2 [f,(t)] .> are con*tant ; I +
(7.3) :*
w h e r e a% _.a& a2 straightfoeard, & /
param,eters ? <me p r o o f i s ,j *. : -.
i.e,,,.
3.: ::
; .&~jL&
S , ., .,:. 1 _ - ,a:.;.
, & ..:A$
If,(t)
I.
Note:
A bar on top,of a variable<will variable. .This
signify the Laplace fransform.of
that
conventioii.'will,be used II: throughout this text. *
7.2 THE LAPLACE &UWFORMS Let

US
" OF BASIC F&CTIONS " _! .qI f@4E , 6.' now apply the Laplace transformation on some basic-.&ncfions
that we
will use repeatedly in the folloi;i5pg'chapters. .~ I A. Exponential Function : I ..',> %, .1 This function is' def$ned as! ,_ ,. . . . -at ' foi t?Q f(t) =. -. e,. t / ~. -' ,.'? I
I
From (7.4) 'it is clear that &eat] B. &

o--CL
_ (7.5)
,.. ..
Ramp Functions (Figure 7.la) L This functian'is defined S? f(t) = at for as: tzo '
with a - ,-constant.
_., . .
Then
Pro0 f : ; &c[at] . &=-St .

0
dt
;,
.*
Integratffig by. parts, where t and e et 1 are ,Ghe two hnct%ons,
we take :
. : a.,
.:
i . , P ._ 0 TJ
.,
Consider the sinusoidal function i(t),=

_(. Proof:
$&(ut)
.-
Then,
.,y.;
.i7,7)
--*: -. .I-;
:.
r, ^ .: f., ,.
: i + w
Similarly, it can be proved that,, > ~[cos(wt)] Note: s2+42 i * i
.j ) ri ;~ , b n
.1
,. :.:.
<, :
,^ p) L.
In the above proof we have us&d 1 e3a _ g-N sina : a
the Euler ,identity 4 -_
.i
:_
-.:
,,I
For the proof of (7.8) use e3a + Ja cosa D. 2 (Figure7.lb) ,] I -
gtep,Functi,on,
This funct%on is defined by, f(t) A -0 and its Laplace 1 for for 00 tco
transform is
6 i
d[step f u n c t i o n o f s i e e A ] = A s (7.9) L ,. , .y, .9 Proof: * 1 a. We notice, that a.:discontinuitv in the value of- the function exists at t=O, such that f (t=O) is undefined. The definition of Laplace transform 1i .: 4 from eqn. (7 .l) requires the knowledgeef the function at t=O. *The drawback is overcome if we consider the mere precisa ,mathematical definition of the _ Laplace transformation from eqn. (71I.a) (7.la) T &f(t)] * ,,lsl;;, &I I c T-MO &e-St& f(t)e-stdt I. I (.
T h u s f o r t h e s t e p f u n c t i o n , t h e u p p e r lfmit is, T-m limit T*m b u t .the lcwer lrjwer l i m i t i& t=Oi-, t=Ot, i.e. aa very i.e. very small small but but finite finite positive time, instead of. of. t&O, t&O, I li .: .h Hince,
for step function we .have
E.
Translated
Functions
Consider the function, f(t) shown in Figure 7.2a, sf .thisfunct;ion is 4 delayed by to eeconds we take the function shown in Figura.7;2b, and if it is advanced b y to seconds then we have the .,curve of, Figure 7.2~. The
relationship among the three curves is: f(t + to) = f(t) curve in F i g . 7.2a = f(t - to) i n . . . $[f ;t and $.[f(t + t )]
0
1
curve in Fig. .;7.2c t L e t
c u r v e Fi;g. 7,2b
S!Z[f(t)] = f(s) )- be -the Laplace i e-sto
transform of, f (t) ; .Then :. ,;
I (7110) .-_ .
- toI1
I!(s)
esto
T(s)
_.
(7 .ll)
Proof: -a0 -SWto) -f (t - to)emst .dt .f e. . <;f(t.- to).e , , : d(t- to) I r .s? 0 .; . .O rs L ,..I I _ , _ i ::. S i n c e d t = d ( t - to). L e t ty to=ri t h e n I ,., ., . ;;.r:. * ,, c j ,,$[f(t - to) ] = e -st
0
OD I
0
f(t=to)e
: ., ., . ?qt*., Q) . / _ ~: ;,. d(tL t ) * e ._ f(r)e-* dr I i~. 0. I ;to I: -., , : 1 z * -St0 * 4 f(T) $-ST dT,. 6: e ,o ?(s) ! : 1.4 ,( - e . . I , . 1 0 I
-s(t-.to)
Notice that in the last. equality,we rep$aced tha lower., bound -to wPthv ,O.. (* This will not change the value ,of the.Jntagra& 1 9 since f<(t) 4 9 -for t&k d 0.
Equation (7 .lO) will be pakt$cularly useful in the computation of ;;: , tiplace transforms of, systems wiq,*,dead, time. V,
i.! ., / 1 : % ; > I
Example 7;l
1 4,:.
:;. -1
Let .us recall the flow of an 3ncompressibla liquid through& pipe (Example 4.9 and.Flgure 4.7a) .I From eqn. (4.7) we have
T*ut( t, - T& - t,)

w h e r e Tout
(4.7) t, is the temperature of the liquid flowing out of the pipe and Tin
is .the temperature of the fluid flowing .in the pipe. The temperature of the outlet is equal to the temperature of the inlet butdelayed by td .where td
is the dead-time (transportation lag), i.e. the time required for a change in the inlet to reach the outlet of the pipe. I f
J.
,?&Tin( t ) ]
- Tin(s)
then, using (7.10) we have:
Tout(k)
. ,: F. Unit Pulse
= dfl[Tout(t)] - ,$%in(t
- td)] - e
-st
d f,,(S). .
Function
/ I i .
Consider the. function shown in Figure 7,3a., The height is l/A and the i . ,: ? s ,: I is width A. Thus, the area under the curve, 1 :> / if, ., area 1 X rl 1 i. _
This function is called unit pulse function of duration A and. 58 defined by: 0 ii(t) i l/A ,/I o s -f f o r i . for f r t<O 1 &ct<A ; . t>A 0, *
1: 0 + / 1 , .* : It can also be described as the difference of two step functions of equal size The first step fuktion occurs at time j t=O whiie the second is delayed ,t _ .; by A units of time. Thus, if l/A. first step function:
t<o
second step function:
f,(t)
{l;A
then, 6A(t) - unit pulse of duration A = f l( t) -- f,(t)

3 ,
,-f.(t)
f.6A)
T h e Laplace
t r a n s f o r m o f t h e u n i t p u l s e functibn o f &ration A isi ; I $ 1 - GSA a (7.12) i
&s,(t)] Proof: I ;ei$(t) 1
&fl(t)
fl(tiA)]
G;
_ I 3: I ; Consider that the duratidn A of a unit pulse function& allowed t o , *. i. .; ,r) slirink, approaching z e r o , w h i l e t h e heiiht l / A .~ appr&ches i n f i n i t y . T h e 4: area under the:curve remains always , A +I I I l 1 : ,,; 1 : : r j f i
Unit Impulse Function
4 :
.~,
L/
/ . , As A+0 we take the function shown in Figure7.jb. This function is called. i! 1 i I~!L~,-Q!!~)~I~~ or I).Lrnc function and it Is usually represented hy
a(t) l I t i s i-
defined as equal to zero for all times except for t=O. Since the area under ). ;;-, Ij, c .! . _,iI : l.hc unit pulse remains equal to 1, i t in c l e a r tl& tlih ia true for the unit .) : ,- ; !,. .-I r., impulse, i.e. L
m
G(t)dt -cn
I
The Laplace ;erw1
transform 1
Proof: Since a(t) - lim SAft) ,

Ad-l
Using L'Hospital's
iule
tra&&ms of..&&'d&ic'; functiqns i" ': ;7 'tabulated. ' '4 ": ,. Remark: It ii Amp&tant'to nO&z& tba$'Xhe " ,i ;.a '. baeie fundtiona exam3n;ed-P$.3zhis.:se
>; b,.
IIn Table 7.1 the,Lapla&i
have p&en . ., -: _: "
shown in T&e 7 ,.l,ara
ra$$& of twb p6ly&tuiajs~j.n e~~.~,,The only ,. -. ~ . .?.\, *;j. . ,k -2 -, :exceptions ~ ire the Laplaca;tleiansfc32ma,,,<rf fkn&bioiia &$wIa&d in ,_ . , +og . .!Bh+efo$e, -*, time, which include the elrponential ie,, e,. for.. any %( function f(t) (not Including a tink translated -teGrn) we will ;; ._ _. I . . II -j .\ : _v. Cd4 1
have
where qy(s) and q2(s) are two polytaomial$,in 41 (.s) k,s" + k*ls m-l
+ l
8, i.e.,:
'! I
*. ,. %.' )< 5
g,:'
** + kls + ko "
Example 7.2
rf f(t) = cos(wt) then f(s) =

and .q7(s)'L l-s2 + w?. 1
91w 8 = 42(s) 8 2 + to2
13th w-?-y
q&ii) - i4t 0 -
From Table 7.1 if f<t) T_ emat cos(tiit) t h e n : ' :
&". s&Q s+a q.2 ~~~,. (s+a)2 + w2, * . ; : .I . ./ -,,.i :j x 2: 2 ,' with Q,(S) : 8 9.(ig~ ,-r- tlJ2): ~.. i:a,f85 "FZ'"-, 88 1.9~ -7 + - 2a -J.- _ = i-s + a a&I ?(s.): / .'
( 7 . 16) '.i ,. * From eqns. (?.14j. (7.15) and*$7.161 -- . -, k~&tr ~_ ----ce that in orde?.to ffnd the I Laplace transform of any derivative,,w$ n&$d,to have a number of initial con.,.~
ditions, initial
To find the Laplace conditions,
transform of an n-th,order
de?ivative
we need n
f(O) , f'(O) , f"(O) , 7.4 LAPLACE
** ) f("--l)(O)
.
l
TRANSFORMS OF INTEGRALS
t Pi f(t)dt]
=
"
(7.17)
where. %3> Proof: -
_
-. ,
&[f(tIl
.!' ?,I
,.,
Inte&rate by. par&i j Put

. I
and
Now t
J 0 ,J 0
dv
f(t)dt]e-*tdt
i -~-$
7.5
THE
FINAL-VALUE
THEOREM ':,
' I .
.,
lim f(t) = lim[sf(s)J
t--
s+o
:.L
,...5;;
(7.18)
where
Proof: Using the. Laplace
d-fdt .- St dt p &cS) _ f(o) .- , .

,
transform'of .a derivative (eqn;'
(7.14)) I"
Take the limit of both sides as s-9 lim S-+O
5,
.-:
01 " @&$ e-" dt - lim [s?(s) - f(O)] 8. s-a +
Since variable s is independentof time t, we take ' lim"dflf) cost dt 1 - lim [s?(s) -,f(O)I
!,
P;
Example 7.3 s+l s(s-l)(sf2)( the final-value theorem we heve. Let Z(s) =
i : s+j. 4 lim 8 s(s-l)(s+2)(s+&q t s+o
limf(t) t-
= Mm [ST(s)1
S+O
= lim
S-+O
84-1 c s-l)(s+2)(s+3)
:* The final-value theorem allows.us as t* when its Laplace
i !: . to compute the value
'_ & ~ ' , ( ; ' ~ . , ' : , . \ . , 1

:= 6 t that a function theorem applies gnly if the limit
approaches
transform is known.
A note is in order. lim f(t) t-
The final-va$e
. a.. _,_. _
is bounded. Therefore, pi_ ! lim [sF(s>l
the
limit
~ $ .,
s-m .:
must be bounded.
7.6 -TIN lCNITTAL,-VALUE
,THJOR@'l
Z(B) '( .I
=. E(t)e-=dt r- - ( )*? > _, o";
i .- Laplece transform of f(t) . :" .:. / ":> I, "i ', theoreti,.

/^
, '
The proof ~follows the* $nme patteen &i:kdr the final-&alua

; . : ^ ,;r 1: :
.-,, .I
;,
:*s,
;:*i
Example
7.4 ,*;.' :.. .; .,_ 1; ,. &I. ._ ; b
Let Z(s) we have, lim f(t) - lim [s?(s)] - lim t-a e-gao
)'
m lim L + -2s + lo s2 - 8 - 12J Se
~ L
1 =
l.+ --___ llm -2s + lo

S-+-B 2 -s-I2
=i- -_
-:
As was the case with the final-value theorem, similafly value theorem, the limits. lim .t+o f(t) and" l i m Es+[s?(s)] mtlst be bounded , :
for the , initial-
i.e. to have finite values. , I F .__
*,
SUMMARY
;JI- , ;i i. .Y?, 7 +a *I The Laplace transform The transform of of a a function function f(t) f(t) ,-defined, ,-defin&,by eqn;,~.:~(!.l), by eqn;,t, ,(T. 1) , is is a a ,. linear transformation of a function from thetime domain to the s domain * ,:. where 8 is a complex variable.
..
AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
The important feature of the Laplace transform is that it always leads to I> h 1 a function& t h e 13 d o m a i n , w h i c h -is t h e rgtl,pof two,polynomials In s ,I (with the only exception the tranelrted Sn .Qrn~ ,fufz@ionr) t in$apendantly I * ,! of the type of the initial function f(t) which can be: constant, linear b in time (ramp), trigonometric , exponential, or linear combination of the . above, etc. 3,: c , I., li I.., . In addition, the Laplace transform <converts the derivatives and the integrals into ratios of two. pplynomials. This .imRortant feature allows .tFie con-
version of integrodifferential equations into simple algebraic equations, as we will see in the following chapter. . The final and initial-value theorems,:will be employed in,order to compute <, 7 * I 1 the unknown final or initial value of the function f(tj,when Its L&lace transform T(s) is known.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. If T,(s) - ;Il'[fl(t)] [fl(t)f2(t)] 2. 3.

l)OeS
and z,(s)'*
i<[f,(t)]
can we find the and f*(t)? transform? 5 cos(4t) f
fo: general functions fl(t)

fl = ;--i
tllt2 .tUtIC!EiOlI
possess a Laplace
What is the Laplace e+ I- 5t?
transform of the function f(t).=
4. .
What is the Laplace
transform of the vector function
asint '+ belCt gt> = a+b ' ~' 1 -'.ms ,', '. , 1 .'
cos(t) + b sin(t- td) [ % 5. Using Euler's cosa show that [cos(wt)] 6. Show that $?Qf(t where ?(s) + t,)] = esed Z(s) s2 + u2 * = identity e j "+e -ja 2
= iAf(t) 1
transform of a derivative,
7.
Starting from the equation yielding the Laplace 'a i.e. 4 df(t) dt d-" dt - s?(s) - f(O)
r
0
prove the initial value theorem. 8. What functions have Laplace of two polynomials in 6. transforms which cannot be cast as ratios i
% ,. ,i :. !,8 x . ,, <. _ , -.-J, ,.- 7 1 , I La.
/,, 6)
/! WI
3ter>
II
Tnb-le Time Futiktion ftz0)
7.1. Laplace Laplace
'Transforms .of Various Functions Tranwfdrm
Unit Impulse, 6(to)
Unit Step
Ramp, f(t) = 1
n.! xi a
I I
I /
~ TabLe Time Function (tz0) Lapldce
7.1 (continued) Transform ~. '.' : ._A
cosh(wt)
8 2 -U2, s
t
"-I,
I-
.*
:. . . .
Table Time Fynction (tz0) Laplace
7.1
(continued) i 1
Transform
eaatsin(wtI
I CHAPTER 8
,a.,
SOLUTION
,;
OF
LINEAR
J
DIFFERENTIAL
1.
EQUATIONS
k
USING LAPiACE , _ j.
TRANSFORMS 1.
'
,,,As it"was mentioned, earlier, the primsry:use,,,fpr the Laplace transforms 5 '7. I;; to solve linear differential equations or systems of linear (or linearized /I + nonlinear) differentialf equatiorik w!i,th'constant coefficients. The procedure I : _I : '.. was developed by theEnglish engineer Oliver Reaviside and it enables us to .;. solve many problems without go&p .through the ttoub1.e of findiflg;$he comple'
mentary and the particular solutions for l&near ddfferential equations. The "/ L A i .,?'< ; r;'.' h y: L _ : I - &t;,c" :*z ! 4 ; h &; :; I 1 * same procedure'can,,~ie'exte~deb"to 's%ple otiq$!tems of paftial diiferential _ .ir ./ , $ ,I ,g ,$ i . .i equations and to iritegral equation&. ,. I.,
_* .* ,.,j- / .: + aT- $ Ti + ,,iT* > j, (5.1) I . ?, Equation (5.1) can be expressed in terms of deviation vkri+bl&, "" j. :: ',,!" 1 .p .* ,! < ' dT' ;' + ,aT' =' 5 T' i' + '^ KT' (5.3) dt ,I: ,"% ' 1: ',7 *i.. ,". ,' : .,; where <; . _.,j T' - T - T(s) , T; = Ti - Tiis) , T; '= Ts - Ts'(s) * I. $f are the deviation variables from the steady state Tb) a Tib) and Ts(s)' c Assume that the heater is initially defined by the values <. ,*J _ ,' . .
r at steady state: i.e. T'(O) - b., ' At &O, the temperature of the inlet'stream increases by a step of 10F from .I its steady state value and remains at this new level. Thus, T'(t) = 10F for ,~ L ', T I / t>o. The temperature of the h~uibin tile tank will start increasing and we
'
want to know how it changes with time, .: ,* ^.
In other words, we must solve eqn.
Equation (5.3) i3 a linear equation with constant coefficients. We can , i. . . . 2 use Laplace transforms tosolve it. Let us examine the solution procedure.
or. ,
T;(s) - 0. 0.
T;(s)
Then eqn. (8.1) beg,ome$c ) .., * ...: t T(s) P $ . & . $ .; . .; . ,.I.. __ ,.I..
: -1 i
i
,. ii ,,
. . . .. \ (8.2) (8.2) ..:
The function , T(t),,w.bose ,Lapla.ce o f eqn, (8.J) 5,s ourso$u~tion. I. : It
trap@&% transgorm is+: given given by the. right hs,pd<;ride ha,nd<;ride i: ll. 19: ,is
easy to tijr ~hhowthat, ~hhokqxthat, SC : 1 .:, ,, .. T(s) - + : -& ? +y I s [$ - AL] ; : ,b , ( 8 . 3 ) .I *. I ,; _ From T a b l e.:. 7.1.,we find,easily that;: : . /I / .;.a : r . * ,+ d, I ., - ,the function Cith Laplaca transform IIs 1s. a unit. st+ function, and . . .e,* ., : i .,:$ .$ - the function. with Laplace; traneform-l/,(e+a) is e-at . . .I Therefore, from eqn. (8.3) we find, ; . / T ( t ) - g ( 1 - eeat) (8.4) _ i , T(t) given by eqn. (8.4) is the solution to our Initial dlfferentlal eqn. of eqn. .(8.4), it ~l. yields eqn, (8.3j. i$e .- ~ < procedure by. wh%ch we find the time function when its, Laplace transform is I . known is called Inverse Laplace Transformation and is the most critical step ,s*. -I1, . / while solving linear differential equations using Laplace transforms. To h (i.3) . , Indeed, taking the Laplace
sum~~~M.~e the solution procedure described in the above example, we can summ&3.?e 2 .s hdentify, * , ( ,i .: ~ . the following steps: A., 3 -itsi Take 3: 1 fjthe I , Laplace : transform of bot,hsid&. of the different&l equation. , ,U& eqni., (7;14), ( 7 . 1 5 ) and (7.16) to develop; the La@aee , &ran&orms of thy vnr.tbus derivatives. I llle init tat cond-1.tions
giucn ~Fffr .tlW tllf-
.ferential equation are incorporated in this step with the transforms ,:g : IL ^ ; o f t h e deri&t$vtBs*. ., B. So,lve the resul,tYng.algebra;Lc of the unknown function. c equation 2n terms. of the Laplace transform :.
. Find the ,t+me function. #$ch bs ,& $ts *place Lap&ace trstis*orm, tr&Morm, the. right * : : I side. side instep It,? *is This functiqn is the .; ,s, 8of i ,tBe,,~quat~on~Rb,taiqed,, : hand _. . . desired solution, since it satisfies .&he differ&tiat equatlan and the I 6 in&tier1 conditions. *
Step C is the tedious,, .Ghm Q general expression l$.ke, ~ most j_ (. (s2 + als, + bl)-te + cl) Z(s) / ,i;s(s3 t a2s, bss + c2)
it is not obvious at all what is the function jt( t) whi-ch has the above; I i Laplace transform. : In Section 8.4we 8.2we .wcill .wcili study a particular &ethodo$gy for the inversion of Laplace transforms by .P,art&a$.-Fractions &pa&on: *. * 0: / ? I I 8.2 INVEIiiON 8.2 INVEIiiON OF OF LA&ACE LA&ACE TRANSFORMS. TBANSFOEMS. mw1~1m3 EEPAEsIoN : i < i:,, ,. ; : , . As it was pointed out above, the critical point in finding the / y;solution Q, .: $ to a differential equation. using Laplace transforms is the inversion ofthe
w .
Laplace
In this section we: will study a method developed by t I.,. Heaviside for the inversion of Laplace transforms known as J-leaviside. or?, . Partial-Fractions Expansion. __, . I ., / :.I _,
transforms.
:.
Assume that the Laplace transform of an unknown function x(t) is given
where Q(s) and P(s) are polynomials in s 1 , where m<n. The inversion: of Laplacetransf
of o&&r m and n respectively, or&s using the expansion to partial .) , (8.6)
,.
fractions is compoeard of the following three steps:- A. Expand the Q(s)/P($) j;(s) where P 90 P(s) a into a series of-fractions, i.e. c1 c2 + r,(e), rlb) .t + 0.0 + cn rJa)
rlW, r2W,*** ,rn(is) are low order polyno&ls like first, ;: . second order, etc. B. c. Compute the values of the constants Cl, C2,*;*,Cn Find the inverse Laplace unknown r .,,,, = k-l@$j + X~[~~ + ii*-+,, &.?j] function 6 from eqn. (8.6). Then; .the : ,
transformof every pirtial fraction; x(t) . Is giveh by .** 1,
wh.ere
z1
f. symbolizes the inverse L&lace transfcirm of the expression within
the brackets.
The inversionof each fr:action ean be done rather easily b,y . ., inspection using tables of Lap1ao.e transforms for typical funat,ions like. ! ,. * -$.I 1 1 When Z(s) is given as the ratio of two polynomials (eqn. (8.&) its , ..:, ,. . expansion into a series of fractions is governed by the form and the roots of : . h the polynomial in the denominator P(s), In general we will distinguish two i j. .! _ , cases; i / . i : . ?, - polynomial P(s) has n distinct (all different) roots, realorcomplex, or ,: -_ - polynomial P(s) has multiple roots : .I .I We will examine each case separately using characte&tic examples: . r : I_ j -4 -* \ i ..!, I , Tables 7.1 and, 8.1,.
given by (8.7)
P(s) in- s3
Pl ; 1 Therefort%; P(s)
2s2 ,
- ,s -t 2
:.. &.:
a n d h a s t&se r o o t s ,
*P,y* = - 1
*and . . pj
m ..s 3,-2sL,- s+ 2
and eqn. (8,7.) become@
Expand (8.8) into partial fractick aqd te
where $9 cp GJ
are unknown qocstar&s, to be &valuated. 9 From eqn. (8.9) it is clear that . X
,:
d-l&
and using Table 7 .l we find that
I .il ,.I I
+ L
-1 5
9-2
x(t)
Clelt
C2ew1yt
C3e2*t
in (8:7).
L,
(8.10)
which is the inve,rse Laplace
transfo& of t& expiession,
Let us see now how we can compute the constants Cl, C2, C3. .,
- Compute Cl: MultWe both sides of,(8,9) by (s-f),,. ,t. (,' I 'j ~qg>
.
" qs-1) s-2
i (8.11)
=
f
c1+-+ SC1
Equation (8.11) holds for all values of .s:: Set s - 1 - 0, i.e. s=l. .i The hast two terms in. the rip[ht ha& side of (8.10) become zero and. we take,
- Compute C2:
(8
Set 6 +
Multiply both sides of (8.9) by(s+l), '1 i 2 C1(s+l) c&+1) (s-;)~(s-*) - s-l ,:- + c2 ,+ yg--
;'. '*
l ,. i
4 "
9 )i.@!-D
8
0,
i.e.
-1,
.,,
_I
,.
- Compute C3:
Multiply both si+rq of @3..9)
by (.&2);:,";
i , :, s
Set 6 - 2 - 0, i.e. 8-2,
,I.
, f
II.
Dlstlnct Complex Roots of tha'Polynomia1 Consider Z(s) the f following Laplace'transform
P(s)-' '
.. I
- -s-i-1 - - S2 -2s+5 has ,two distinct roots! ., which s ,'
The
polynomial
P(s) is of secondorder,and
not real (as in the previous case) but complex conjug!ates, i,e. ri ! , 'g and P2 - 1 - 23, p1 -l-t 2j : <' Therefore, _I
','
P(s) - 82 - 2s + 5 - [s - (1+ 2j)][a - (1 - 2j) ,,. -. , .!_ , ,' Expansion into partial fractjons yields: a+1 fi(p = 'i &- 2s-f. and using the",transforms, x(t) * ,cl ,s+l 5 = [s-(1+2j)].~.s-(b-2j~] - s-(1+23) +8_(l_zj),@*12) of Table:7.1 '.,? C2e we find '. +I A ' i' I. (8.13)
c .(1+2j)t 1
'(l-2j)t fn Case I. : (s-(1+2j)],

03 Es
The constants Cl and., - Compute Cl:
C2 *are qnputed-as
Multiply both sides of'(8.12)'by
8 - (1 -;,2j) i ,. -. Set [s - (1 + 2j)J = 0, i.e. s - 1 f 2j and take, . 9 cl - Compute C2: -
(s+l)[a - (1 : a. La-h-c+-r-psfl[s'z 2j)]' - c1 '+
-.(I + WI,
.' , P
Multiply both sides of (8.12) by [e T (1 - 2j)J end then set ..:" '/ and C2 &re complex conjugates of each : " I "' . */
s - (1 - 2j) - 0, i.e. s - 1 -'23, to find c2 A$i
Notice that the coefficients C .l other.
P u t t h e v a l u e s o f C l a n d C2 i n ( 8 . 1 3 ) a n d f i n . d: ,i 1 x(t) or = l-+ . ,(1+2j)t + 2 ,a ,&2j.)t.
. ,, *
: j ,
Let us recall Eulerl;1 e.ta; = 1

.
&entity +
<
:ri
,-, (8
&I $1
, !
;.
:.
,. (8.15)
cosa
joina
Then we have: e 2jt

pd
= cos(2t)
.P . J jsin(25)
,. *:: I ! ,<. Lt
.-2jt ig I n e q n . (8.14), take, x(t) ,: or \ -
* g {(l-j) [coi3(;2t) lY .jsin(tLt) ]?+ (l+j) &as(&) ?.: &&(2t) J* 1,) L : -.Is -5 ~5. 1, _rl . :b . 1 :
cos(*2t) + jsin(h2t) A ~z?os(Lt) i jsin(2t) h -AL. ! r e p l a c e eLJr byti leir .squal: f$bmth& above eq&~tions! a&$ 8 t *_ . :, :p : .? ., I . , . .I
x(t)
et[ooi(2t>
sin(2t)
-,
,.
., i
: .>
, ,
(8.16)
Recall the trlgonomatrlc identity alcdsb where II * ;y ., . ! a3 .= 2 2 r al + a 2 1 and. i . .:, :; :. $I -. + a2sinb egcrlo(b+~) , c
(8.17) I
\. ; tan-l(al/a2) s
._ ,,
A p p l y ( 8 . 1 7 ) t o e q n . (8,.16).
x(tj -
and find : + I$) j :. : *<-,, *
Pt. &*sin(JZt
Ahere
4 = tan-(l/l) = 45.
-.. -..
,* .I,
i' Remark: yhenever the polynomial P(s)-has complex roots: ---YI I "(1). they'will be always in'complex pairs, _r .*',, I) (2) the coefficients of the cirresponding terms in the partial "T fractions e&pansion will also be complex conjugates of each :. . : ; ) .: I other, and (3) they will give rise'to III. Multiple,Roots a:p&iodic ter$ (e.g. sinusoidcil wave).
of the Polynomial P(s) 8 / : , ,"I .:~ ' ! The expansion into'p~rtial'fractions and the computation of the .',., %*. i P(s) has multiple roots. Consider coefficients change when the polynomial : ;.." '* , ,: ' the follpwing Laplace t&kirform *;.+g:* 7.: * ) ../ *I " -* ". 1. / .: (,, !: , .:<" i (8.'18) ii(s) - &~,3<~+~) * n ' Ir, j' *. . ;i'I '( r0 $;'; '! ,,_,', )' j, 1 ;:' * The polynomial P(s) has three"&& e&al and the fourth different, i.'e. '$ ., . _ : *,g.;. ,; .+, ,'" ,, ? . : ". 1 pl - p2 - p3 r -1 iand p4 -.: -2 p1 ) j > Rxpand (8?19) into pTrtia1 fractiops: h' ,I
From Tables 7.1 and 8.1 we find that .c

I c;
,t-,;,
= Tte 8. ' , * .&w3 I, . . i. r. :. (s+l,j 2 _ Consequently, the inveroe Laplace tranlfosm 03 ' (8.19) ir easily foutid tq trek'
C2teWt and
.-p
,-1 z4
C3
'C3
2 -t
x(t)
- Clewt
+ C2tP
: cg ,.g I, + 2 -t e
+.*,' p i . .+
(8.20) ,
Let us see then how can we compute the constants Cl, C2,1 C3*. and Ci.' - Compute CA: This constant corresponds to the distinct root'and
can be
both sides computed using the procedure,described earlier. Thus, :raultiply .i - Z.' * of (8.19) by (s+Z) and they set sS2 - 0, i.e. s - -2 and find:
c4 = -1 - Compute C3:
.._
.' multiply both sides of (8.19)
Use the familiar procedure ,i,e. 1
.l -' s+2
- C1(s+l)L
+ C2(sfl)
+* c3 + -*+2 I. ., , 1 1
(8.21)
:n :, '/ i i : . :*$', - Compute C2: The familiar procedure used ibove cbnnot -employed for the L..; ,) be i " : n computation of C2. Thus, if we multiply ,both sides of (8,19) by (~+l)~ '/ ',! we take, * e,(s+l) + ci C3 +;( i Cq(s+l) +; --GE-
i Set (s+I)~ - 0, i.e. B m -1 and f&d ;i .cgi'-l'
iG Then,
(s+&s+3) setting
s - -1, the term invo$vin$ C3 becomes infinite. The same _' i &r i"* ,,i.l,.' .; i a, ^_ problem ;8' encountered if we try to cpmpute Cl, Therefore, dn'alternite * _'. " :, procedure is needed to compute C2 and Cl. ' ' il Differentiate both sides of (8.21) wtd respec@&' s, &d take," r;. I <. >a I -: . 1 A 'F 2C,(s+l) k '2, &> c,4 /hLr\ 2 ' /3an\ Set s, - -1 and find :' '_ -3 .I '_ 1 3'
- Compute Cl:
lita@,
..a
I:,2
To obtain t&e value of, ,C1, diffetentiatd'g8,22) once more and I.: .,_ . '. ; ': * i'." ; '$ , k-.. 1 ? , ) ,!, - " 2c1 + %;'c& find :' : ",,'., 9 ,".. : /> ' ,\ * : : ,; . '.:. ):i
(e+2)3 .' Set 8 - -li"and i Cl .-1,
.( ., ~:'Substitute ihe values of Cl, Cp*,C3t and Ch in (g.20) knd find ,._ i. 'I/
,i
Ii T .: Remai k:
x(t)
-e,-t(l+t + f t*) + e -2t
If the polyiomial
. P(s) has multiple roots, then the denominator
*of X(s) has a -. term (s - ,pi)m where pi is the multiple root 2 which is repeated m times. In such case the partial functions : ,a~ .. expa&on p&duces terms such as . c* :( . * ,cm-1 : .,?, ,r< . Cl cm + (?- P,) + (sy$ *.+ ** + (8 - pi)m-A (8 - Pi)m ! ( : , .; I From Table 7.5.$a know that
l
htne-at1
nln+l ,(gcg), :
.,..
,,
, ,
./
Therefore the terms of the 4bove expansion lead .to..the following inverse Laplace transform:
cm-1 m &l p.t T3 ,2 : -F .yt + 21 t .+ a*. +*ft m - 2 +c (m-l)t: t ei [. I ,:1 I. The constant Ck can be computed:*in bhe usual manner by multiplying both , sides of the expansion .~ith (t 2 pi)m.-Yand setting saXY-, pi. I The ,,,remaining ,. constants Cm-l l **,C2,Cl are computedby su&ssivedifferentiations~of the I, j, equation resulting from the amltip&a&n .of :tRe expacl-;aionl by (8 - pi)m. < . * Cl
8~3 EXAMPLES ON THE SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFj?ER;ENTIAL RQ&IONS USING LAPLACR \ a% ., ?. il . TRANSFOREis 3. .: In this section we will give twa characteristic ex&~+.es ~.oP solving linear differential equations using the Laplace transforms,Y, .The first example is the * I, solution of a second-order differential equatien, whileln the second example I * we find the solution to a system of i two differential equations,, The solution of..any other Unear 1differential:-iequation or of, a system of
linear differential ,,equations ; twill f aU,Qw j the same general p&tern outlilned in the two examples. For the solution of ghe general n-th order linear
differential equ?tion
and of a general system of linear differential equations; :;. the interested reader is encouraged to consult ip&ndic& A anti B at the end . .I j . . I of this clmaptey; , c, P ,i _, ;
, * ,r,
Example 8.1 - The Solution of a Second-Order Differential Equation : <. -..P : Consider the following seeond-order dif f &e&al equation \.
I,
d2*
a2
J
+&
dx al dt
:_
.-,
aox
f(t)
(8.23)
where x(t) .is ,considered initial conditions

x(O) .! -
,; I * :. to be in the form of B deviation &iabale iith : ** :. >

0 * .! ,b , & / I ,!(8.24)
(&o.
Take the Laplace transform of (8;23)

a2[s21(s)
..
if
- >sx(O)
- (2) + a ,.-_[d(e) -0 i(O)] +ap - f ( s ) dt ]F-O 1 _. i:, ,I :2J ; .j,;, ; j I, : .: .-I
or
+ +f=W> ,+ QC$!&~~ .+ alx(0) I(s). I L(s) - . 2 I :, J, , >: a*s2 + y T 80 :; : ., +.p +as..+aO Let us assume that f&t) is d unit .&i-fans&ion, Z(s) L/s gtving * .,
( iii 25) < : : y -: r (,
e q n . ( 8 . 2 5 ) becomag.f,t S(s) i The polynomial -
:.:: ,
;.
-[.., -.\ ,, :: ,._
is :; * r
.,, I. <
:.. ~, ,(&&)
1 2 e(apeJ., +
a&.y.ao)
,:.L< ; s.*
P(s). 5. ais + ale.+ aiD,. is,aalled
the characc&ristie polynon&al
of a second order equatiaai In ;order tie invert <the right hand chide of (8.26) r.:s . we need to knew .&e rooes of the poZyaomia1 P*(s) i Depeading .on. the values
: ,*
of ,.the , .'. constants a2, a 1' and ao we can distinguish three cases: .'. .;' T ...f', :: Case.1: .;a2 - 4a2ao * 0. Then, we have two distinct real roots,
.! I" e.g., 'let a1,:,y,4, a2 - 1, a, - 3 then ai ; 4a2ao *'. 16 -1294>0 ., % _., ,_ ,: L, sl =, -1 and.:: s2:'= '-3. .. 1 s(a2s2 Multiply " *(is2 *
and
; ;
-It
1 48
+
+ als + a,)
i. I 'Z;. 3) &. s(s+3)(8+1)
Cl
..a: ..-
e2
C3
s+l
- -ii- +s+3+
(8.27)
(8.27) by s and set '~0. Find i : , * i/3 , ': c1 _' (8.27) by e+3 bnd'lset
*:
Multi&
a.4 -3.
, ;
Find *
: 1
c2 Multiply
-l/G
I:,
(8.27) by'
s+l and set B - -1.. Find :
Case2:
a:- 4a2ao - 0. S1 =
T2
$hen, we,have -al/2a2
two equal roots. ".l .,.1 : ,,. 1 '" '. ., I
.) Let al - 2, a2 ~'1, a0 - 1. a: - 4a2ao - 4 - 4*1*1 - 0 2,' ',' s1 - s2 - -1 *

: ; i i
1 0' s(a2s2 + al8 + ao) Multiply (8.28) by s and
'-.. 1 s(s2 + 28 f 1) s(s+1)2 set ~0. Find
V;%; C3 4*+$ 8 83-1
(8.?28)
,
c '.
Differentiate
(8.29)'with
respect
to
.s
T'
'
. 'I :
'. I_ .
set s - -1 and find,

c2
- -1
2 Case3: al4a2ao < Let a, - 2, a3 = 1, a, * 2, a? -$ b&a- - 4 roots are:
$2 ,$a, c3 *-+-----+-(8.m) s - k$U s - +J. 3. I, ._ .' t ,.>A. r ,v , -. _p Multiply (8.30) by s, set s-O, and find, :. "2.. L i: 112 c1
b
1'
Multiply (8.30) by (s - q), set s = -Iti
and find,
2(-1+j) (-l-j)(-1+j; Multiply t c.3' Consequently, 1.

x(t) e 4: y-l 1
-l+j
(8.30) by (s - =$J-), set #ii 2 -1+j r
s = y,' and find,
2(-lrj) ,I) (-1+j)(-l-j) .
- c -l-j
-I'
_)
L t_- _
-q 1; ,1 EYI + . (-1+i) z$ . . . + (.w,i-l s-- k _ _ -yl

, : !
. ,;, ? i
s ty< 1 ,I
,
or x(t) 1
d ,..a *. _L
.+ (-,,j)e*yw3G
-'a-.
if - _.
+,~~,,(,l-j)e;l/z(ll'j)~.
(8.31)
Recall &k?i-ls;idemity'
, 4
ta*-l(i/1)
tan-l(l):
ii:50
* The use of Laplace differential
:, i
transforms is not limited to the solution of simple It for
equations, like the seconf-order .equation of. Example, 8-1. e a j -, , extends to the solution of sets of differential. equations. ,. Coti~,i&r !. example the following system of linefirr dxl t dx2 dt
P
.I
differential equations;
allXl a. 21Xf
+ .+
- bllfl(t)
with initial conditions xl(O) - ~~(0) IL: 0. Taking the Laplace transforms of ., , ., the above equations and after appropriate grouping- we find, , (8 - a lp$f) - l+$() bllW + b&(s): i,;, -ia21Gl(s) + T i (8 a )G~(s) - b&p:. : <~b&p);-~ <~~p~p);-~ ii,2? ; / , ?:+ _,I,. ,; a, ,,?
The last two equations,for a set of two linear a,lgebtaie eq&&$ns~~~th ?l(s) . . e J and Z2( 8) as the two unknown variables, and can, be solved easily using, for 4 I .< ,> . example, Cramer 8 rule. 1Thus; we find: j-p) &f1(8) + b12~2(e)~4 (a -.;az2) + al2[b2l~,l(s) ,+ b22f2(s)-1 ;. 1 i (8.35)
I~,,~,(s) + b,&,fs) 3(@ - ai%> + az21[bll?l(s) + b12Z2(s)

~2(8)
-
82.. - (al1 + az2j8 - aa2a21 i j * (cThe above expressions can now be inverted using thepartial-fractions expansion, t
j
(8.36)
as it was deecribed in Section g. 2; to find the u&own sol&ion xl(t) and x,(t). . :f & 4 .
. The solution procedure described above can be extended to larger systems of equations, but it is computationally more cumbersome, A short compact
description is given in Appendix B at the end of this chapter. Let us now discuss the details of the solution'procedure, in terms of an example.
/I*
Example
8.2 - The Solution of a'Set
of Linear Differential Equations
s'
Find the solution ofthe * dxl dt= dx2 dt + rx,
following set of equatiotis: \ + 1 with Xl(O) 0
2xl 2xl
-t
x2
et
with
I I.
Take the Laplace
transforms and after rearrangement find.1
Using Cramer"s
rule to solve the above system of linear alg&afc equations in

. . : -z& :
?$(s), Z,(s), we find: ;..r.i '_
:' -,
_';
.'
: : " & _( . or +) 3 s'fs+l s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l) 9, / :':. .and s2(s). i -..,; s: r.2, s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l) , 1, ' d r ; :.;' )I :'. *. :':+ . ,.1 :. ..L /' :, (
Expand into partial fractiotis, ., i .x * cl c2 s2*s+1 q(s) = s(s-l)(s-4)(&#+1) -y +x
i .~ :
"~2'-i 2 . '. Dl ,D2 Tz2w = 1 ' s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l) -,7,+x +tsi4 <, /
Taking
the
inverses
we
finally
have:,
i"..).
I::
.: :,.;r
;'
41
SUMMARY
CONCLUDING RRMARKS . \ !. " : :, ;.f; a . '\ s,__ ,:t+,< , ,>: In the previous sections it was 'shown that the golution of lineqr dif. * ,t , .I :;,.,:.'. ' ,problem ferential equations (single or syeti?Ofj 'be&omes ~"sii&le'ilg$braic follows:' transforms are used. The propedure .p.b ; @,as i ,'~- ,. .", # - Take the Laplace transforms ofkboth &ides of' the diffj3rentia$~,9 e$uations. /" :,' ,-yi i .; ., I , 3' s ',. ,.s . 7 I: ,_ ,' - Solve for the Laplace transforms'ofjthe, tinknown fun<tions <lon%<:I' left hand 8. ! */ side, while'keeping the Laplace'itransforms of. &e known forcing * functions;on . . .L :-r,' ,.$ ,. : the right hand side of the equahio&, i : " ."' ] q l"yx < -. ") ' 3 e "5' ,, :,.:.:i&I yy the right - Find the'inverse Lap%a"ce tran:forms of the.'kn~~quantities'bn ). ,., %_ * t hand sidk of the equations. Tlie$te am\.& ;olutions to the &;rentinl &:I>" f&i,' '_ equations. ' a .the i. .I: gig&n expre$pt++,use i., a suvtion of simple Heavside (or Partial Fraction) expans$on. This leady,to ,. Y, ' _ L termu.ln the s-domain, whose Inversa paplace transforms are easily found, _ * i using Tables 7.1 and 8.1. :r the constants o$cthe terms in the Heavislde expansion, ,'. .'*, . '. I ' \L it should be remembered that the multiplicity'of the roots of the character', istic polynomial is a very~important3f&tor. li
.; .;. ; ?
AND
'when Laplace
/ I
To find the inverseLa'pl@ce .. L
tr+nsfo?m'of
Whilocomputing
,APPENDIXg.A,,~LDTIQN +,' I '"5. 9.:" , ,. ,..<:. *
yetOF ) {AN " n~th~XR.LINEAR J, r ,., i . ' 8,. DIFFERENTIAL 3 '";"-:: "'7 EJQIJATION /!"I . , . , d:~;~,~'~'..: 'I, equation, . Consider the following,n-th order, .c* / lineardifferential 'b 1 ,, :.i .,r,'. : s,i' , r 'n-l Y " & +, a .d (8A.l) gi ' f&) + ,.aox , L' n-l',dt~~l,~ *' : 'n dt" . 1,:'. : (i :/ ._ _ :. _ with the following initial conditions: '$3 ' 8 . ; .'. ~(0) = ko, (dxj dt tm() t' kl' .' '< transforms of both sides of (&A,l)'using / rearrangements find,. , r ", ,! I"i L_ ,
A
;: _I the initial
(8A.2) conditions
Take the Laplace : (8A.3), I and ;:- after:algebraic 1I _. i ')i,
+* i
where
: ., c \*, -:. *
+a**+ als +-\a0
ansn + an-s' .i i< '& ', : .,ii
,).
:.
.i
I '
ty i LI 'Z b n-l =ak b ' = a,kl + an$ko,***, n 0 ' n-2 I, I _. . : / .; bl*ankn.2+8 -',a n k n-l. -t-an-lkn,+~**+alko . ' . : .::1: :'. _(' ,,> '7 i * .': ').f '* : A , _ ii! : : .; j * , il. s ", , . . Define the ch&&ze&t& polynomial,for eqn. (BA.l)"as follows; ,<L :f 'd
.," ii(s) and >:, x(t)

I
.. ..I? k.: J )I\. : .; I! :a! I) ;I.) / / ,$ . i ,;,c ; ,$
If f(t) - C (no external influence) we i '. .': have,the i
solution to the n-th, iI f.f i 2:' ._ i.'
. . I,
,.: .I
-'
I!
.+
:i
I *i'
: *>
!'*
'*.,.
1,
x(t) .
x2(t)
q*]~:
_ ,'
":.. i' ,. b.
;__
which is the complementary solutioi arid dependsonly on the initial conditions ! i ., I y. (see definition of q(s) arid of bn, bnLIS*** ,bc),. The. other part of the , * solution . ?gF) 1= a-Q&] ; ;. J : ,. .*: * I, .-:,
. 2 is the particular solution and -depends % the f&m of the ,fcrcihg function j -! J_ b: f(t). , _I I .- -, . .i For process control, purposes,~ the:&yn&mics of a ptocess are ,~described in :* terms of ,deviation variables. , ,In such case, if the system is initially~.at<, 1( ~ .,r ; .; steady state, then .F .. , ; k. t= kl - p (*. k-i :i, 0 1,: ,~ i ? ,i.... . C * , . # .A , z.. I :.{~li. *. . I, .and the solution to the n-th order eqtiatioq, is given by the particular solution ;. __t.,. * .;.*.i , ji .A ..,_/.. .: j only* I :Y i 4 .; : I / If any of the roots of P*(a) isOlocated to ther#jht of%& inagi&ry 1 I 1 :. ,,; axis; the system desciibed by (8A.l) is unstable. In order tobe stable all
l l
roots of the characteristic polynomial.. i.P*(s) should -lie i to the left of the /.ii I .- . : . imaginary axis. .I, , .r ,. I.i : I& / .t. \ ., A* . ,,:. i :. : k1.r: i , 4 I , .a. L. ,:q _, ,. : -, .. f, ( . :, .: .; +, , I ... .r .L . . .. J, , A, . / i
APPENDIX8,.B4'HE EG UATIONS ,-, ; .- OF A GENERAL SYSTEM OF,LINEAR . DIFFERENTIAL I . I SOLUTION equations: Consider the following system of n linear differential : .' dX1 - allxl + al2x2 + dt i 'i ~, i...,.! L, :.iv i ' dki --$,= a2lxl -I- a22x2 + 5 '
l
** + alnxn + bllfl(t) + 1. ,
** + blmfm(t) . _ , y; v +:b2nfm(t)
** ,f a2nXn //
f bqlflW + *;~
: v ! :/ : dxn + bnmfm(t) x + a22x2 + ** f a2nxn + b,lfl(t) + : '0. -qTa <,l 8 '. 1. ;, : ! ' !- j 'A :5,, A I" \ t ,;* I 1' with initial conditions xl(G), - ~~(0) - ** I x,(O) - 0. In matrix: form the * .j I/ j. ). , ', " '; I a above. equations yield,,. .'i ' 'fl. ; , *i 1 .,t. .:~, .> 711 :-,., / ,'," . . , .&B:: 1 di I" : (8B.l) ,dt - & + j, Bf .. . 3
l l
. . . . . . .
where:
Taking the Laplrce transforms of .both .: * s <s& - 8) g(s) '= @s,

Or
sides of eqn. (8B.l) we have, .
gs)
= (si - +g-l g(s)
(8B.2) s/,
where: II =
of the vectors x(t) and f(t), respectively. From eqn. (8B.2) by taking the inverse Laplace $t) - ~-lr.(sJ - g-l g(B)] transform we have, (8~~3)
[1
111 . O 0 1
= identity matrix; g(s) and
f(s) the Laplace
transforms
Let us recall that thk ii.ivrCr&
of a matrix # ite &@I ,$y+ ;; : 1. .. <
:* 9 ,
P , where adj($)x i8~.3),~g~es,.,
: 2 : ,..: .,l I, ,: 1 ;, ! : L :1 *a the adjoint of m&+x S~U- (isee Appendix B)r: ,Thctefore, eqn. j .i ir. I ,.+ ,j ,? .! i , ,.. + ;I: 1
:,
,(!!I
$t) * :t PA The inversioq will be done using $a&ia$.
, P*;s) = 1s: - 4ii - sn + C& G-l

k. &
ftactidns expansion.
+.;;Yp+ + ...
< /
l +
The polpnomfal
c,B T cp
is the characteristic polyn6miaJ i Al, Q,***,Xnts i.e.
of the fystem of equations and Its roots .: , : y - AZ), , (s :,+q ,) I**. 6 pi,
j 1 (I.( ?, (, ,I
P*(s) - Is& - kg = (8 - h$(s
.
..:
are called the characteristic values or+ eigenvalues ofi.,tI$ aiatrk ,of : 1. : -,,{&i :, ,; I ! id coefficients &, which characterises the homogeneous iystkaf e&+ohs. ,. The eigdnvalues
.$ ! ,>
S. .,
also determine the forth of fh& solutiq6 :z(t). ,j I:v /
.. .. C
I ;) 1. 4%
.
*. >; : / L i.
,I;Jhat is 'the characteristic polynomial for a Pzi,r%t-order and +I socontlic, :, oz%jer eystem? F i n d i t s roots, root&, ,I
2.. Why in-the roots of the charaeterlstic pol~no&~l of : _/w%interested . are . an.n-th order linear differential squation, or a system of linear d.$f,I : f erential equations? .. * i dI 3. Ho~'doeg the prbcedure to: $&@ute othe &netants of the terms resulting IjIj _,: I' $ 1 from t~epgrt!ili t~epgre!ili fraotldns qpansibn V&y; v&y,i in ,thQpreaence of, multiple ,. _, ro$qsi , :; ;, :,, ,>* : : L :, 1 (I . : I.I.,, -. _, .h a. , ,. 4. What 2s the complement&y eolutioni, and what; i$ the particular eolutlon (. ., ,,. : j11 ; I. I $ &-, ./ / 3%. . 1 * I.I for (a) an n-th order iin+ar differential equation, and (b) a 2x2 sysi!(. . : I ? i. tem of lfnear diffaren~~al,8quatiansi %WhatL do these eolutions mean? $. , . 1.; ;:, , ,., 6. / ( f ., , ,i. ; : $, What fact&e deiermfne .the@ : _ : 5. Consider the foglowing e$st+ of aimdtaneoue ifnear differential . 2 : ,( equations . : I dxl dt: 811X1 : dx2 dt .- C2Pl : +
a12xie
j-
I ,
fg(t) f,(tj
/ with with
,<,.I i I l., 1 * I. ~ _ Xl(O) - ~0
t a22x2
x2(0)
Show that this system ksn be converted to the following equivalent sys tern: dX1 dt and dx2 dx2 + +.b2dt bl 2 w h e r e bl, b2, b3 on f,(t), ,f2(t) b3x3 g(t) allXl h(t) I
depend on ,all, a12, a22; h(t) and g(t) depend
and their derivatives. Notice that the modified
System
can b6 s~lv&
seauentiallv
and thlla
mnre
ma41v'+&&++kd.
1:, r, ! _ ,
Table 8.1. Laplace
Inverse Laplace Transforms of Selec!ted Expressions I(s) xirn+ Function: f(tI-J
Trans,form:
4
,
1.
3
r
(*+a)l(B+b) (s+a) h:b) (f3+c) ! s+a (Mb) (s+c) - . a n (s+b) a (s+bj3 \ -ct ePt e -at (b-a>(c-a) + (c-b)(a-b) (a-c) (b-c) ,-726T [ (a-b)dbt - (a-c)ect] at - - lcbt . 3 $ ,-bt . /_
i A r. -
L.
3. 4.
5.
6.
-_
ekbt
(a+b)+
,.
i,
;,
::
7 8.
1 > s(as + 1) a s(as + l).* 2
,$
.:,
^.,._. ..:. j; : :;I> _: .
_,..
>.
1 _ ply a+t -t/a 7 -y- c. ,. .; 2. ,;
: s.
1 +?e, z;>p
9. *2(s2
+ 11~0~ +, u2jl,
, .' -rwt
10.
? 2 (l+as)(s
+w2
1 (1 + il"wS)
12.
1 2] (a+a) [(sfb)2 + w
e-at
(a&j -ty w2
- ein(cJr- 4) te w[(a-b) +.k2]1e
w h e r e cp - taa - (--a-b.1
_.
4-d
CHAPTER 9 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND THE INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS
The use of Laplace transforms allows us to form a very simple, convenient and meaningful representation of chemical process dynamics. because it uses only algebraic equations It and (not is differential It is simple equations it as we a it
have seen in Part II of this text). quick analysis of process dynamics
convenient is
because
allows because
finally, it
meaningful
provides directly the relationship between the inputs (disturbances, manipulated variables) and the outputs (controlled variables) of a process.
9.1
THE
TRANSFER a
FUNCTION simple
OF
PROCESS system
WITH with of
A a
SINGLE single the
OUTPUT input is and a single by an
Consider
processing The dynamic
output (Figure 9.la). n-th order linear (or
behavior
process
described
linearized n-l
nonlinear)
differential
equation;
&+a
n dtn
n-l
dtn-l
0.0 + al s + a,y = bf(t) .
(9.1)
where y(t) and f(t) are the input and output of the process, respectively. Both that are the expressed process is in terms of by deviation one state variables. [Note: We have assumed its
described
variable which
coincides
with
output
variable].
Assume that the system is initially at steady state. Then,
2
Y(O) = (%I t=O = 84 dt2 After taking the Laplace conditions
t=o = l *. =
cdtn-l
n-l d L>
tz()
(9.2)
transform of both sides of (9.1)
and using the initial
(9.1)
we
find,
m
m
G(s)
e
a,s" + an 1s
b n-l
+ l
(9.3)
** + als + a0
G(s) is called the transfer function of the above system, and in a simple
I
I .I
algebraic form it relates the output of a process to its input (Figure 9.lb). Thediagram of Figure 9.lb is also known as the block diapram for the system. 1
If the process has two inputs, fl(t) and f2(t) as shown in Figure 9.2a, then its dynamic model is
n-l a &+a d y+ n-l dtn-l n dtn
** + al% + a,y = blfl(t)
+ b2f2(t)
(9.4)
1 _ I
with the same initial conditions (9.2). From (9.4) we take, bl ansn + a or equivalently, Y(s) with
G1(s) E
Y(s) = n-lS
n-l
f,(s)
+ 0.0 + als + a0
+- n ans +a
b2 n-l +***+as+a Z,(s) n-lS l o
G1(s)fl(s)
G2(s>7,b)
(9.5)
bl ansn+a s n-l +***+as+a n-l l o
and G2(s)
b2 n-l ansn+a +***+as+a n-lS l o
G1(s) and G2(s) are the two transfer functions which relate the output of the process to each one of its two inputs. first input z,(s), and G2(s) Thus, Gl(s) relates the y(s) to the These
relates j?(s) to the other input z,(s).
relationships are shown by the block diagram of Figure 9.2b. A similar procedure can be applied to any system with one output and several inputs. Figure 9.3 shows the block diagram for such a system. Summarizing all the above, we can define the transfer function between an
input and an output as follows: Transfer functionzG(s)= Laplace Laplace transform of the output, in deviation form transform of the input, in deviation form (9.7)
hnilrk~.
(1)
The
transfer
function model than
allows that the input
the
development in
of
simpler 5.1.
input-output (2) It when describes the
discussed dynamic
Section of for
completely
behavior Thus,
the a
output particular
corresponding
changes.
variation of the input f(t) we can find its transform F(s), is Y(s) = G(s)ii(s) transform of G(s)f(s) time domain. and you have and from (9.7) we see that the response of the system
Take the inverse Laplace the response y(t) in the
(3) To find the transfer function for a nonlinear system, it must first be in linearized terms of around deviation a steady state and be
expressed
variables.
Example The
9.1 - The
Transfer model
Functions of the
of
Stirred tank
Tank
Heater in terms of deviation
mathematical
stirred
heater
variables was developed in Example 5.1 and it is given by the equation dT' dt + aT' are = t Tf + KT; variables, and
UAt
(5.3)
where T', T;, T' S =
deviation
L $+K,==
Fi/V
and
r PP
Take the Laplace (s+a)T'(s) or =
transforms of both sides of (5.3); $

!if(s)
KTAb)
T(s) = g T;(s) + & Q(s)
(9.8)
Define
the
two
transfer =
functions and G2W = T'(s) /F(s)
Gl(4 Then, T'(s)
T'(s)/T;(s)
G,(s)T;(s)
G2(s)T;(s)
(9.8a) Gl(s) relates
and Figure 9.4 shows the block diagram for the tank heater.
the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the inlet stream, while G2(s) relates the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the steam. Compare the the input-output model in given by (9.8) 5.1 and Figure 5.5 and 9.4 to 5.1).
Remark. -___
more
complex
developed
Example
(eqn.
Figure
9.2 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION MATRIX
OF A PROCESS WITH MULTIPLE OUTPUTS
Consider a process (Figure 9.5a) with two inputs, fl(t> and f,(t), and two outputs, yl(t) and y2(t). following deviation two linear differential Let its mathematical with all model the be given by in the
equations,
variables
form; dyl dt (9.9a)
ally1
alp2
bllfl(
t>
+ bl$2(t)
dy2 -= dt The initial
a21yl
+ are =
a22y2
b21fl(t)
b22f2(t)
(9.9b)
conditions =
Yp [Note:
y2(0)
Here again we have assumed that the process is described by two state which coincide with the two outputs yl
variables,
and
~~-1
Take the Laplace
transforms of both sides of the two eqns. (9.9a) and [For the details of this
(9.9b) and solve with respect to s,(s) and y,(s). procedure see Section 8.3 and Example 8.21. Then,
[(s - a22)b12 + a12b22l [(s - a22)bll + a12b21l ?2(s)(9.lOa) f,(s) + 2 J;,(s) = 2 S S - (a 11+a22)s-a12a21 - (all +a22)S -a12a21
Y,(s) =
[(s - a ll)b21 - a21bl11

.s2 - (a 11+a22)s-a12a21
[(s - all)b22 ys) +
+ a21b121 f2(s)(9.10b)
s2 - (a 11+a22)S- a12a21
or
$4 = Gll(s)~l(s)
Y2W = G21(5)+)
+
+
G12(s)f2(s) G22(4~2W
(9.11a) (9.11b)
where the transfer functions
G.,l, G12, G21 and G22 are defined as follows
(from eqns. (9.10a) and (9.10b)); s + (a12b21 - a22b11) s + (a12b22 - a22b12)
- (all +a22)S-a12a21
s + (a21b11
2
S
G12(S) E s2 - (all + a22) s - qp21

- a11b22)
- a12a21
GZ1(4 -
- a11b21)
- a12a21
s + (a21b12 , G22(4 - 2
S
- (all + a22)S
- (all+a22)S
The
block
diagram
of
the
system is shown in Figure 9.5b.
Remarks.
(1) Eqns. (9.11a) and (9.11b) can be written as follows in a matrix notation;
The matrix of the transfer functions is called transfer

function matrix.
(2) For a system with two inputs and two outputs, like the one discussed above, we have 2x2 = 4 transfer functions to relate ail outputs to all inputs. For a general
process with M inputs and N outputs we will have
MxN transfer functions or a transfer function matrix with N rows (number of outputs) and M columns (number of inputs).
Example In tank After
9.2 - The Example in
Transfer we
Function
Matrix the
of
CSTR model by take: (9.13a) of a continuous (6.36) and stirred (6.37).
6.4
developed of deviation in
linearized
reactor
terms the
variables, equations
given we
eqns.
- rl2
dcl; dt
rearranging
terms
these
+ L+ koe -E'RTjcL + E ;E'RTjT'
= + cii
-E/RTo t
UA T' ' =.i! T' +'A r i pcpV c
(9.13b)
Simplify
the
notation
by defining -E/RT
0 kOE
-E/RTo
=L+koe all 'c
a12 = z e
0
-E/RT a21 =Jkoe
a22
1 =-r
JkoE -2 e
0
-E/RTo + uA PCpV
and bl = l/-r , b2
= UA/bcJ)
Then, eqns. (9.13a) and (9.13b) become! dcL dt dT' dt The initial + all CL + al2 T' = blcii (9.14a) (9.14b)
+ a21 conditions
CA
+ a22 are:
T' = blTi
b2TA
c;(o)
Take the Laplace
= T'(C) = C transforms of (9.14a) and (9.14b): + al2 T'(s) = bl Ei (s) i = blTf(s) + b2TA(s)
(s + all)?;(s)
a21 CL(s) + (s + a22)T'(s) Solve for E:(s) and T'(s) and take:
bl(s + a22)
qs> = P(s)
a12bl Ei (s) - ~.';'s' i
a12b2 - p T;(s)
(9.15a)
bl(s + allI a21bl Ws) =- p(s> z; (s) + P(s) i
b2(s + all) P(s) + P(s) T;(s) (9.15b)
2 where P(s) E s + (all + a22)s + (alla22
- a12a21).
In a matrix form, eqns. (9.15a) and (9.15b) are written as follows:
cp f(s) H
Q) G2#d
G12W
G13W
G2+4
G22b)
In
Table
9.1
we
see
the
six
transfer
functions
corresponding The
to
the
CSTR.
These
can be derived easily from eqns. (9.15a) and (9.15b).
transfer
function
matrix is nonsquare since the number of inputs is not equal to the number of outputs.
Transfer function matrix = E(s) =
Figure
9.6
shows
the
input-output
model
for
the
CSTR
in
block-diagram
form.
Table 9.1. output am
The Components of the Transfer Function Matrix for the CSTR Input cd, (s) i 'i's) y(s) G Element -ij G1l. G12 G13 Transfer Function
bl(s+a22)/P(s) -a12bl/P(s) -a12b2/P(s)
T (s)
Eb, (s) i
G21 G22 G23

bl(s+ all)/P(s)
b2(s+all)/P(s)
9.3 THE POLES AND THE ZEROS OF A TRANSFER FUNCTION According to the definition of a transfer function we have 34 Z(s) In general, the transfer function G(s) will be the ratio of two polynomials,
G ( s ) = $$
= G(s)
The only exception are system with time delays which introduce exponential terms (see Section 7.2(E)). For physically realizable systems, the polynomial
Q(s) will always be of lower order than the polynomial P(s). The reasons will become clear in subsequent chapters. For the time being, all the examples we have covered satisfy this restriction. The roots of the polynomial Q(s) are called the zeros of the transfer function, or the zeros of the system whose dynamics are described by the transfer function G(s). When the variable s takes on as values the zeros
of G(s),
the transfer function becomes zero.
The function, the
roots or
of
the
polynomial the
P(s) of
are the
called
the
poles
of
the
transfer
equivalently, function
poles
system.
At the poles of a system
transfer
becomes
infinity.
The poles and the zeros of a system play an important role in the dynamic analysis of processing systems and the design will of effective controllers.
As we proceed along in the text, their
usefulness
become
clearer.
Example 9.3 The
Poles and Zeros of the Stirred Tank Heater model of the tank heater was developed in Example 9.1 and
input-output
it is given by: i'(s) = G1(s) Tf(s) + G2(s)T;(s) (9.8a)
The transfer function Gl(s) is

l/T s+a
Glb)
and has no zeros and one pole at s = -a. G2(s) which is given by G2 = sta
Similarly,
the
transfer
function
has no zeros and one pole at s = -a. have a common pole.
Notice
that
the
two
transfer
functions
Example The Example common
9.4 - Poles and Zeros in a CSTR transfer 9.2 and functions are corresponding in Table to 9.1. the All CSTR six were developed in have
summarized
transfer
functions
denominator, P(S) 5 'S2 + (all + a22)s + (alla22 - a12a21)
23
and therefore common poles.
Since
P(s) is a 2nd order polynomial, the system
has two poles which are given by:

-(all + a221 + (all - a221 2 + 4a12a21
p1,2
With respect to the zeros, the six transfer functions differ. G12(s) and G13(s) have no zeros G22(~) and G23(~) have one common zero at s = -all Gll(s) has one zero at s = -a22.
9.4 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM The dynamic response of an output y is given by Y(s) = G(s) F(s) Z(s), while Therefore,
For given input f(t) we can find easily its Laplace transform the transfer function G(s) is known for the partiuclar system.
the response y(t) in the time domain can be found if we invert the term G(s)%). Furthermore, in general,
G(s) = s
while the Laplace transform of all common inputs can also be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials (see examples in Chapters 7 and 8 as well as Tables 7.1 and 8.1); Pi(S) f(s) = P2(S) Consequently, f(s) = $g P,(S) P2(S) (9.16)
To
invert
the
right
hand
side
of
(9.16)
using
the
method
of
partial
fractions
we need to know the roots of the polynomial tem, and the by roots partial of the polynomial are p,(s).
P(s), The
i.e. the poles of the systerms resulting by the from poles the of the
inversion
fractions Pz(s). can a
uniquely
characterized
system and the roots of system system's Let are located to the we
Therefore, the
if we know where the poles of a qualitative characteristics of the
determine
response us use
particular
input, without example to
additional clarify the
computations. above statement.
following
general
Suppose that the transfer function of a system is given by,

G(s) =s =
Q(s)
(s-Pl)(s-P~)(s-P3)m(s-P4)(s-P~)(s-P5)
(9.17)
where the The
pl, p2, p3, p4, p2 and p5 are the roots of P(s), i.e. the poles of located at various points of of G(s) the will complex yield plane the (see Figure 9.7).
system
partial-fractions
expansion
c2
following + '4
s-p4
terms: + '2 '5

S--P5
G(s)
= s- + sPl
c1
y+-
P2
s-p4
The A.
following
observations
can
be
made
for
the
location
of
the
poles:
Real, Distinct Poles, like pl and p2, are located on the real axis (Figure 9.7). pit During the inversion,
p2t C2e
give
rise
to
exponential
terms
like
C1e
and pit
Since p1 < 0, Cle 9.8a).
decays exponentially to zero as t -f 00 (Figure

P2t
Also, because p2 > 0, C2e
grows
exponentially poles time, towards on while the
to
infinity
with time (Figure 9.8b). axis poles B. produce make terms which
Therefore, decay of the to
distinct zero with grow
negative positive time.
real
the
response
system
infinity
with
Multiple, Real Poles, like p3 which is repeated m times.
Such poles
give rise to terms like

(c31 + J$ t + A$ t2 + . . . + (1:;) , tm-llep3t . . .
The term within the parenthesis gorws towards infinity with time.
The
behavior of the exponential term depends on the value of the pole p3; - if P3 ' 0 then p3t e + ~0 p3t + p3t = 'as t + w
- if
P3 < 0
then
as
-f
00
and
-if
p3=0
then
for all times.
Therefore, a real, multiple pole gives rise to terms which either grow . to infinity, if the pole is positive, or decay to zero if the pole is negative. C. Complex Conjugate Poles, like the p4, pt. We should emphasize that complex poles appear always in conjugate pairs and never alone. P4 = a + jf3 and p$ = a jS Let,
In Section 8.2 we have seen that conjugate pairs of complex roots give rise to terms like eat sin(Bt + $) . The sin(Bt + $) is a periodic, oscillating function, while the behavior of eat depends on the value of the real part a. Thus, t+m,and e at sin(St + $) grows to
- If a>0 then eat + m as
infinity in an oscillating manner (Figure 9.9a). at - If a<0 then e + 0 as t + w, and eat sin(Bt + +I) decays to
zero in an oscillating manner with ever decreasing amplitude (Figure 9.9b). - If a=0 then eat = 1 for all times, and eat sin(bt + 4) = sin(St+$)
which oscillates continuously (Figure 9.9c). Therefore, behavior, a pair of complex may conjugate grow poles gives if rise to oscillatory part of the
whose
amplitude
continuously
the
real
complex poles is positive, decay to zero if it is negative, or remain unchanged, if the real part of the poles is zero. D. Poles at the Origin. Pole p5 is located at the origin of the complex C5/s - p5 = C5/s and after
plane, i.e. p5 = 0 + j-0.
Therefore,
inversion it gives a constant term C5. Remarks. (1) The above observations are general and can be applied to any system. Thus, we can find the qualitative characteristics of
system's response if we know where are the poles of the corresponding for a transfer function f(t), by located. we the It is obvious the f(s), qualitative that
particular roots can of to a
input,
should
consider of
additional before response (2) Poles to we
introduced have the
denominator of the
complete
picture
system. right of the imaginary axis grow exponentially
the
infinity
with
time.
Such systems with unbounded behavior Therefore, if all the the left we a system will be stable (i.e. poles of will the of its transfer (Figure
are called unstable. with bounded are In behavior) located
function 9.7). the
to
imaginary axis
subsequent of a
chapters system.
define
more precisely
stability
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS The use of Laplace venient the to use of transforms allows us to develop a very simple and conmodel of chemical is process. defined This model is based on in the s-domain (complex
input-output the transfer
concept
function, which
plane). The transfer function between specific input and output is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace of the given
transform of the given output, over the Laplace that both have been expressed in
transform form.
input, provided
deviation
For a process with N outputs and
M inputs we have NxM transfer
functions, which compose an NxM transfer functions, which compose an NxM transfer The function block matrix. is a very illustrative representation of the interactions
diagram
between the various inputs and outputs of a process. From the block diagram we how can identify very quickly; (a) what input affects what output, and (b) by
much. The zeros of a system are the values of s which make its transfer
function zero, while the poles of a system are those values of s infinite The response value to the of transfer poles function. of a system will determine the
which
give
location of a
the to is
qualitative
system system are
external unstable. to analyze
inputs.
If the real part of any pole is
positive, the Now, which Chapter leaving are 10 the we
ready with
the
dynamic forms of
behavior transfer of the
of
various
processes, In systems,
modeled we will
certain the
common dynamic for
functions,
study order
response Chapter
first-order
higher
systems
11.
2 .:
THINGS 1. 2.
TO
THINK
ABOUT
Define the transfer function. Why is it useful? For and a process with four inputs (disturbances many transfer and manipulated should function variables) you matrix?
three
measured and 5.1 prefer concept? why? we
outputs, how What is the a the on
functions transfer of
formulate 3. In Section you
corresponding type
developed over
different
input-output based on
model. the transfer
Would
that
input-output your answer. What
model
function 4.
Elaborate
What is the block diagram of a process? it convey?
type
of
information
does
5.
Equations (4.4a) and (4.jb) constitute the complete mathematical model of a stirred tank heater. Develop the input-output model for the
process, by formulating the necessary transfer functions. Draw the corresponding outputs. modeling 6. Draw Can the you What block do diagram. you and observe? expressing of the Analyze (Hint. the the interactions by in among inputs the form.) Figure the 4.10. and
Start variables
linearizing deviation shown in
equations block develop
diagram
distillation transfer how,
column
analytically If yes, of
the
functions but don't
among do it.
various
inputs 7. The and
and
outputs? tank
explain Example
stirred why?
heater
9.1, is it a stable system or not,
For what values of the parameters a, r and K is it stable?
Can it become unstable? k 8. Does the location of the zeros of a system affect its response to external 9. Repeat inputs? 8 Elaborate on your answer.
question
above, but taking the location of the poles of a system
into account. 10. Show that the poles of a 2x2 system are also the eigenvalues of the
matrix of constant coefficients in the dynamic model of the system. 11. Under what conditions can the CSTR of Example 9.2 become unstable?
. r------------,
!L-e-,--,-- ,,,J W
I Fiqure
9.2
I Fi 3 we
9.4
..-
b)
I Figure
9.51
I I I
I
I
I I I I I I I I I I I
I
I I
I
, ? G&l
l
I,- --_____
_____
__ ____- _ _____
!.
,
I
3 (P>
, 3 Real Axis
I I
ii,. * P4
I
- --
CHAPTER 10 THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS The previous chapters of Part III have provided us with all the prerequisite tools we need in order to analyze the dynamic behavior of typical processing systems, when their inputs change in some fashion, e.g. step, ramp, impulse, sinusoid, etc. order systems. In this section we will examine the so-called first-
In particular, we will study:
- what is a first-order system and what physical phenomena give rise to first-order systems,
- what are its characteristic parameters, and - how does it respond to the various changes in the input variables (disturbances and/or manipulated variables).
10.1 WHAT IS A FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM? A first-order system is one whose output, y(t), is modeled by a firstorder, linear differential equation
al Liz?! dt
+ 'soy
= bf(t) If a0 # 0, then eqn. (10.1)
where yields,
f(t) is the input (forcing function).
k!Y
a0 dt Define al -= a
0
$- f(t)
0
TP
'
and
b = K P a0
and take
'p dt + y
4.Y
= K f(t) P is called the
(10.2)
TP
is known as the time constant of the process and K
steady state gain or static gain or simply the gain of the process. physical meaning will become clear in the next three sections. If y(t) and
Their
f(t) are in terms of deviation variables around a steady
state, then the initial conditions are: y(O) = 0 and f(0) = 0
From eqn. (10.2), it is easily found that the transfer function of a firstorder process is given by; G(s) = ti = w4 ; :p+ 1 P (10.3)
A first-order process with a transfer function given by eqn. (10.3) is also known as: first-order lag, linear lag, exponential transfer lag.
If on the other hand, a0 = 0, then from eqn. (10.1) we take
a, dt
I I I I I I I I I I I
2. f(t) al
= K; f(t)
which gives a transfer function

G(s) = F(s)
(10.4)
In such case the process is called purely capacitive or pure integrator. 10.2 PROCESSES MODELLED AS FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS The first-order processes are characterized by: (a) their capacity to store material, energy or momentum, and (b) the resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy or momentum in reaching the capacity. Thus, the dynamic response of tanks which have the capacity to store liquids or gases can be modeled as first-order. The resistance is associated with the
pumps, valves, weirs, pipes which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing liquids or gases. Similarly, the response of solid, liquid, or gaseous systems
which For
can such
store systems or
thermal the
energy
(thermal is
capacity, cp) with the
is
modeled of
as
first-order. heat a through capacity
resistance In
associated words, a
transfer
walls,
liquids
gases.
other
process
which
possesses
to store mass or energy and thus act as a buffer between inflowing and outflowing streams will be modeled as a first-order system. The stirred tank heater of Example 4.4 and the mixing processes of Example 4.11, are typical
examples of first-order processes. It is clear from the above that the first-order lags should be the most common store class of dynamic mass and now components energy. some typical capacity processes modeled as first-order in a chemical plant, with the capacity to
primarily Let us
examine
lags.
Example
10.1 -
First-Order
System
with
Capacity The
for
Mass
Storage (volume/time)
Consider the tank shown in FigurelO.la. flow in is Fi
volumetric is Fo. In
and the outlet volumetric flowrate
the
outlet Assume pressure
stream there is a resistance to flow such as a pipe, valve, wire, etc. that the effluent flowrate of the liquid level F. is related linearly to the hydrostatic
h, through the resistance R, i.e. Driving Force for Flow Resistance to Flow The total (10.5) mass
=$=
At any time point, the tank has the capacity to store mass. balance gives: Adh dt or AR$+h=RF i = F i _ F
0
Fi
h it
(10.6)
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank.
At steady state (10.6a)
hw = R Fi(s)
and from (10.6) and (10.6a) we take the following equation in terms of deviation variables: AR% where h'=h-h = TP K =R P = + h' = RF! 1 Let
l l(S)
(10.7)
(s) m =
and F;=Fi-F.
time constant of the process, and the steady state gain of the process
then, the transfer function is: i; 6s) G(s) = - = p;(s) Certain notes are in order. (1) The cross sectional area of the tank, A, is a measure of its capacitance to store mass. Thus, the larger the value of A the larger the storage K P TpS + 1 (10.8)
capacity of the tank. (2) Since ~~ = AR we can say that for the tank we have (time constant) = (storage capacitance)x(resistance to flow) (10.9)
Example 10.2 - A First-Order System with a Capacity for Energy Storage The liquid of a tank is heated with saturated steam, which flows through a coil immersed in the liquid (Figure 10.2). tern yields: Vpc dT = P dt where
Q
The energy balance for the sys-
= UAt(Ts - T)
(10.10)
V P,Cp U At Ts
= volume of liquid in the tank = = = = its the density overall and heat heat capacity coefficient between steam and liquid
transfer
the total heat transfer area and the temperature of the saturated steam.
The steady state is given by 0 Subtract deviation = UA(T t s(s) - T(s)) from (10.10) and take the following equation in terms (10.11) of
(10.11)
variables,
vpcp $ =
where T'=T-T will yield the G(s) I (s)
UAt(T; - T') and Ti = T, - T transfer The Laplace
(10.12) transforms of (10.12)
(s) *
following
function = P TpS + 1 K (10.13)
~ = Tp
T(s)
UAt
where TP K P = time constant of the process = Vpcp/UAt = steady state gain = UAt (1) Eqn. lag (2) The (10.13) system. system possesses the capacity to store thermal energy demonstrates clearly that this is a first-order
Remarks.
and a resistance to the flow of heat characterized by U. (3) The capacity to store thermal energy is measured by the value Vpc . The resistance to the flow of P heat from the steam to the liquid is expressed by the term l/(UA$. Therefore, we notice that the time constant of of the term
this system is given by the same equation as that of the tank system in Example 10.1, i.e. VPC, uA (time constant) = ~~ =J=(storagecapacitance)x(resistanceto flow). t
Example 10.3 - A Pure Capacitive System Consider the tank discussed in Example 10.1 with the following difference, "The effluent flowrate :Fo is determined by a constant-displaceI
ment pump and not by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid level h (Figure 10,lb)" In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields A dh dt = Fi - F. At steady state 0 = Fi(s) F0 (10.15) (10.14)
Subtract eqn. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms of deviation variables:
which yields the following transfer function G(s) = P(s) r F;(s) l/A S
(10.16)
Remark.
A pure capacitive process possesses the capacitance to store mass, energy, or momentum but there is no resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy or momentum in reaching the.capacitor. lack of such resistance is not encountered often in physical phenomena, and consequently the purely capacitive processes are rather rare. The
10.3 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A PURE CAPACITIVE PROCESS The transfer function for such process is given by eqn. (10.4)
K G(s) = f(s> = + m
Let us examine how change, i.e. f(t) = 1 for t>O y(t) changes with time, when f(t) undergoes a unit step
We know that for a unit step change
P(s)
= f
Therefore, eqn. (10.4) yields
Y(s)
K;/s2
and after inversion we find (see Table 7.1)

y(t)
= K;'
We notice that the output grows l-inearly with time in an unbounded fashion. Thus, y(t) -+ Q) as I I t-00 (Figure 10.3)
Such behavior, characteristic of a pure capacitive process, lead to the name pure integrator, because it behaves as if there were an integrator between its
input and output. I A pure capacitive process has no steady state, i.e. a state of natural equilibrium. I Its presence in a chemical plant will cause serious control
problems, because it cannot balance itself. In the tank of Example 10.3, we can adjust manually the speed of the constant-displacement the level constant. pump, so as to balance the flow coming in and thus keep But, any small change in the flowrate of the inlet stream This attribute is known as
I
I I
will make the tank flood or run dry (empty). non-self-regulation.
Processes The most often
with
integrating are
action tanks
are with or
quite
common
in
chemical gases,
process.
encountered for raw
liquids,
vessels
with
inventory
systems
materials
products,
etc.
10.4 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A FIRST-ORDER LAG SYSTEM

The transfer function for such systems is given by eqn. (10.3). (10.3)
G(s)
Let us examine
y(s) m
KP rps+l
how it
responds we take
to a unit step change in' f(t). Since f(s) =
l/s, from eqn. (10.3)
Y(s)
Inverting eqn.
P s(rps+l)
we
=
take,
KP Kp-s rps+l
(10.17)
(10.17)
Y(t)
Kp(l
-t/T e ')
(10.18) A, then the response would be (10.19) with time. The plot is in terms of the
If the step change in f(t) were of magnitude -t/T
y(t)
Figure 10.4
= AKp(l how
- e y(t)
') changes
shows
dimensionless
coordinates vs. t/T P'
y(t)/AK p
and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first-order system, independently features of of the the particular plot of values Figure thus of 10.4 A, are K P and TP' of the
Several response are: of
characteristic These
first-order
systems
and
worth
remembering.
features
(1) A first-order lag process is self-regulating. process, it reaches a new steady state. the Example 10.1, when the inlet flowrate
Unlike a purely capacitive
In terms of the tank system in increases by unit step, the
liquid
level
goes
up.
As
the
liquid
level
goes
up,
the
hydrostatic F. of the the
pressure effluent
increases, which in turn increases the flowrate stream of (see an eqn. (10.5)). state This action works
towards
restoration
equilibrium
(steady
state).
(2) The slope of the response at t=O is equal to 1.
d[W/AKpl
dt (e It=0 =
-t/r
P)t,o = 1
This implies that if the initial rate of change of y(t) were to be maintained, the response would reach its final value in one time llary conclusions
constant (see dotted line of Figure 10.4). The c are: The smaller the value of the time constant T initial response of the system. Y the
steeper
the
Equivalently, The time constant T ^ of a process is a measure of the time necessary Y
for the process to adjust to a change in its input. (3) The value of the response y(t) reaches the 63.2% of its final value Subsequently,
when the time elapsed is equal to one time constant, T . P we have: Time elapsed y(t) a s percentage Thus, its (4) The after ultimate ultimate four of its ultimate value time constants, the 2TP 86.5 has 3TP 95
4sP 98 reached
response .
essentially
value. value of Kp the response, i.e. its value at the new steady P
state is equal to
for a unit step change in the input, or AK
for a step of size A. This characteristic explains the name steady state or static gain given to the
parameter K
P' =
since for any step change in the input A(output)s
A(input)s
(10.20)
where
A(output)s
= change in the steady state values of the output caused by Equation (10.20)
A(input)s
= change in the steady state values of the input.
also tells us by how much should we change the value of the input in order to achieve a desired change in the output, for a process with given gain, K . P
Thus, in order to effect the same change in the output, we need

l
a small change in the input if K and
is
large
(very
sensitive
systems),
a large change in the input if K
is
small.
Example
10.4 - The the
Effect tank
of
Parameters of Example
on
the
Response It
of
First-Order two
System
Consider
system
10.1.
possesses
parameters;
- the cross sectional area of the tank, A and - the resistance to the flow of the liquid, R, or from another but equivalent point of P view, and
- the time constant of the process T
- the static gain, K . P Consider two tanks with different cross sectional areas Al and A2 where A1 > A2 > T Pl p2' i.e. the tank with the larger capacity has a larger time constant, while the gains changes to remain in eqn. the the the same. When we subject the two tanks to the same unit liquid level in each tank responds and the same resistance, R. From eqn. (10.9) we find that T
static step
inlet
flowrates, the
according notice the
(10. tank
) and its behavior is shown in Figure 10.5a. We with the smaller cross sectional the area same responds steady faster at
that
beginning,
but
ultimately, both
levels
reach
state
values.
This have
is
in
agreement cross
with
our
physical areas that A1
experience. and A2
Suppose
now
that
both
tanks
different R1
sectional
and different flow
resistances A1 AZ
and R2, such
R2 =q
(10.21)
Equation (10.21) yields: = Tpl But, since Al > A2 K then from eqn. (10.21) R2 > Rl which implies that AlRl = A2R2 = rP2
Figure 10.5b shows the responses of the two tanks to a unit step >K p2 Pl' change in the input. Since both tanks have the same time constant, they have the same initial speed of response. But, as the time goes on, the tank with Thus, the
the larger resistance R2
allows less liquid out of the tank.
liquid level grows more in this tank and its ultimate value is larger than the value of the level in the tank with resistance Rl. with our physical experience and also demonstrates the This fact again the agrees larger
that
the static gain of a process the larger the steady state value of its output for the same input change.
10.5 FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS WITH VARIABLE TIME CONSTANT AND GAIN In order the previous sections we assumed eqn. that the were coefficients constant. of the first-
differential that
equation time
(see
(10.1))
This lead to the
conclusion cess a were
the
constant. process. processes us examine
of the proand steady state gain K P TP But, this is not true for a large number of components in constant As a matter of fact, in a chemical plant, we will encounter
chemical often Let
more
with two
variable
time
constants examples:
and
gains
than
not.
characteristic
Example For
10.5 the
- A tank
Tank
System
with
Variable in
Time
Constant 10.1,
and
Gain that the effluent
system
discussed
Example
assume
flowrate, Fo, is not a linear function of the liquid level, but it is given by the following F. Then, the = relationship BJi; , balance [3 (which holds for turbulent flow);
= constant yields the following nonlinear equation:
material
Linearize variables
this (this dt
equation problem
around was
steady in F;
state Examples
and 6.1
put and
it
in
terms
of
deviation
solved
6.2);
Adh+
f3
h=
or dh rp dt where = 2A$7O both the time and constant K =

24733
KF! PI
rP We notice that
rP
and the steady state gain K hw * Since'we
P vary
depend on the steady state value of the liquid level the value of Fi(s) 2 we h (s)
can
by varying the steady state value of the inlet flowrate that the system has variable time constant and static gain.
conclude
Example Let
10.6 us
Heater to
with
Variable
Time
Constant in
and
Gain 10.2.
return
the
heater
system
discussed
Example
. The time
constant and the static gain for the heater were found to be: K = UAt
TP
and
The
overall of or heat
heat
transfer
coefficient, U, does not remain the same for a long dirt, the various heating other solids in deposited a on the decrease
period internal of the
operation. external transfer
Corrosion, surfaces of
coil, result
gradual
coefficient.
This in turn will cause the time constant This example is characteristic of what
and static gain of the system to vary. can happen to even simple first-order
systems.
The variable of such First; order are
question time
then
arises and are
as
to
how
one in
handles order to
first-order find the
systems dynamic
with response
constants There use
static two
gains possible
systems. we can
solutions: which are available Such for first-
the
analytical with very
solutions variable little
differential
equations and of
coefficients. to us for
solutions control
quite
complicated
value
process
purposes. Second; we can assume that such systems possess constant time constants
and static gains for a certain limited period of time only. such period we will change the values of T P and K P and
At the end of consider that we
have a new first-order system with new but constant r will be changed again at the end of the period.
P Such an
and K which P' adaptive procedure
can be used successfully if the time constant and the stagic process change slowly, in values 1 I is rather long. which case the time period of
gain of a relatively constant
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS First-order order, their common linear capacity is a process whose dynamic All behavior such or is governed are by a firstby most
differential to store in a
equation.
processes and
characterized the simple
material, chemical
energy plant.
momentum, the
constitute of
components
Therefore,
majority
input-output represented
configurations by first-order K + P
that
we
will with
encounter a
in
chemical
plant
will
be
dynamics
transfer
function
G(s) The two
constants
which
characterize
first-order
system
are;
the
time
and the static gain K . The first is a measure P P of how long a process takes to adjust itself to the new value of an input, while the second indicates the size of the change in the steady state value of an output resulting from a unit input. associated related A and is the no a to with its the dynamic behavior of a Therefore, the system, while the time constant gain is is
constant of the process r
static
steady capacitive to
state
behavior. arises of mass, leading from a process in which has the only capacity It
purely
process flow process are
resistance
the
energy, to
reaching control causing
capacitor.
non-self-regulating first-order lags
serious
problems, milder
unlike control
which
self-regulating, thus
problems. In Chap ter 11 we will study the dynamic behavior of systems with higher order dynamics. we Particular will examine attention how will be given to the 2nd order with systems. first-
Furthermore, order
several
simple
capacity
processes
I 1 I I I I I I I I I I
1 I I I
dynamics, combined with each other in various ways, give rise to systems.
higher-order
THINGS 1.
TO
THINK
ABOUT and how do you derive the transfer functions a purely capacitive of the process? processes and
What is a first-order s'stem of a first-order is the lag or of
2.
What what
principal the
characteristic of a
first-order
causes
appearance
purely
capacitive
process?
3.
In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 it was found that for a first-order process (time Is this constant) = (storage capacity)x(resistance for an isothermal, constant volume to flow) CSTR, where a
appropriate
simple, irreversible 4. Show also 5. 6. that has a a tank
reaction, A-tB, variable constant stores the
takes place? area along its height
with time which
cross-sectional and static and
variable system you
gain. exhibits process of first-order the tank dynamics. in
Discuss How
momentum
would
regulate
purely
capacitive
Example 10.3 so that it does not flood or run dry? 7. Consider a closed vessel with air flowing in it. capacitive or a first-order lag system? Answer Is this a pure the same question if
the vessel is supplied also with an exit for the air. 8. Study the response of a first-order lag to a unit impulse input. (Recall 9. that for a unit impulse F(s) = 1).
Study the response of a first-order lag to a sinusoidal input. What do you observe in its behavior after a long time, i.e. as t*?
257
0 I
1234 t/q
I ure FJ
m4
CHAPTER 11 THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
Systems in in a a
with
first-order
dynamic
behavior
are
not
the
only
ones
encountered
chemical
process.
An output may change under the influence of an input, way this than that we of a will and first-order analyze, (b) higher system, the following physical
drastically
different In
higher-order origin of
dynamics. with The left
chapter
(a)
systems
second-order analysis for of
dynamics, systems 12.
their than
dynamic second-order
characteristics. dynamics will be
with
Chapter
11.1 WHAT IS A SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM? A second-order system is one whose output, y(t), For is described by the following
solution of a second-order differential equation. equation describes a second-order system:
example, the
&
a2 dt2
+ al
&?L
dt + ao
= bf(t)
(11.1)
If a0 # 0, then eqn. (11.1) yields
2 d2y -cdt2 where
25~
+ y = Kpf(t)
(11.2)
T2 = a2/ao
Equation T ?l K (11.2) = = the the is in the
25~ = al/a0 standard of form of
and a
= b/a0 system where
second-order of the
natural damping
period factor,
oscillation
system
and
= the steady state, or static, or simply gain of the system. P The physical meaning of the parameters r and 5 will become clear in the next two sections, while K systems. P has the same significance as for the first-order
If
eqn.
(11.2)
is
in
terms
of
deviation
variables,
the
initial the
conditions
are zero and the Laplace standard transfer G(s) = function 'j(s> f(s) Systems with second These or can =
transformation of eqn. (11.2) for a K second-order system; /
yields
following
P T2S2 + 25TS + 1 dynamics into can three arise
(11.3) from several physical
higher-order be classified
situations. (i>
categories: consist of two or more
Multicapacity
Processes,
i.e. processes
which
capacities (first-order systems) in series, through which material or energy of must such flow. In Section 11.3 we will discuss the character-
istics (ii>
systems. Systems, which like possess rare the fluid or and mechanical are subjected solid to
Inherently components
Second-Order of a process Such
inertia in 11.4
acceleration. will be
systems in
are
chemical and two
processes. examples
They are given
discussed
briefly
Section
in the Appendix ll.A at the end of this chapter. (iii) A Processing System With Its Controller, may exhibit which second has or higher
order
dynamics. on a
In such cases, the processing unit
controller
been which,
installed
introduces
additional
dynamics
when together with the dynamics of the unit, give rise to second or higher-order this The in a point. large plant majority come of the second or higher order or with the systems effect encountered of process behavior. An example in Section 11.5 will demonstrate
very
chemical
from
multicapacity we will find
processes systems
control second
systems. or higher
Very order
rarely
appreciable,
inherent
dynamics.
11.2 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM Before we proceed to examine the physical origin of second and higherorder systems, let us analyze the dynamic will response us of with a second-order all the system to
a unit step input. dynamic features of
Such a
analysis second-order
provide
fundamental
system.
For a unit step change in the input, f(t), eqn. (11.3) yields: P S(T2S2 + 2<TS + 1) the second-order transfer function are given by the K (11.4)
f(s) The two poles
= of
roots
of
the characteristic polynomial, i.e.

T2S2 + 25TS + 1 = 0
and they are
p1=-$+ and
/-c2-1
(11.5a)
p2=-$-
J52_1 T
(11.5b)
Therefore, eqn. (11.4) becomes
Y(s)
= s(s - KP Pl)(S - P2)
(11.6)
and the form of the response y(t) will depend on the location of the two poles, p1 and p2' in the complex plane (see Section 9.4). Thus, we can distinguish three cases: Case A - when ~-1 we have two distinct and real poles
Case B - when c=l we have two equal poles (multiple pole) Case C - when 5~1 we have two complex conjugate poles.
Let
us
examine
each
case
separately.
CASE A.
Overdamped Response, when <>l. by partial-fractions expansion
In this case, the inversion of eqn. (11.6) yields,
y(t) = Kp l- e-5t'r(cosh&$+l
where cash(0) and = fc2-1 functions defined by e' + e-' 2
(11.7)
sinh(*) are the hyberbolic a -a -2 e and cash(a) e
sinh(a)
The response has been plotted in Figure ll.la for various values of 5, <>l. It is known as overdamped response and resembles a little the response of a first-order response response the we is system notice rather becomes to a unit the step system It input. But when delays compared to to a and first-order then it's
that
initially becomes
respond as we
sluggish. more
more
sluggish Finally,
5 increases, i.e. that as the
system
heavily
overdamped.
notice
time goes on, the response approaches its ultimate value asymptotically. As it was the case with first-order system, the gain is given by, K = A(output steady state) A(input steady state) result in from the
Overdamped are the responses of multicapacity processes, which combination of first-order systems in series, as we will see
Section
11.3.
CASE B.
Critically Damped Respone, when 5~1. inversion of eqn. (11.6) gives the result, (11.8) ll.la. its We notice that a second-order than an
In this case, the y(t) The response with is =
Kp[l - (1 + $)e-t/Tl shown damping in Figure
also
system
critical system.
a-proaches
ultimate
value,
faster
overdamped
CASE C. The
Underdamped Response, when <<l. inversion of eqn. (11.6) in this case yields,
1 e-Tt/.r Il-c2 where
sin(wt
+ $)
(11.9)
/l-c2 oJ"T
(11.10)
and
I4 = tan-l l-C2 5
The response has From been the plotted plots we is in Figure ll.lb the the for various values of the damping
factor, 5. The
can
observe than as is
following: critically damped or overdamped
underdamped
response are
faster
responses, which Although the
characterized response
sluggish. faster and reaches its ultimate value
underdamped
quickly, it does not stay there but it starts ocillating decreasing response The amplitude. distinct behavior
with progressively
This oscillatory behavior makes an underdamped from all previous more ones. with smaller values of the
quite
oscillatory
becomes
pronounced
damping factor, 5. It chemical units must plant be are emphasized caused that by the almost all the of underdamped the responses with in a process
interaction
controllers
the
they
control. it
Therefore, is wise to
it is a type of response that we will encounter become well acquainted with its characteristics.
very often, and
Characteristics of an Underdamped Response Let us use as reference the underdamped response shown in Figure 11.2, in order to define the terms used to describe an underdamped response. 1. Overshoot: Is the ratio A/B, where B is the ultimate value of the
response and A is the maximum amount by which the response exceeds its ultimate value. The overshoot is a function of r, and it can be
shown that is given by the following expression: OVERSHOOT = exp(x) /l-c2 Figure 11.3 shows the plot of overshoot vs. 5 given by eqn. (11.11). 5, while as 5 damped response). (11.11)
We notice that the overshoot increases with decreasing approaches 1 the overshoot approaches zero (criticaly 2. Decay Ratio:
Is the ratio C/A, i.e. the ratio of the amounts above The decay ratio can be 5 through the equation (11.12)
the ultimate value of two successive peaks. shown to be related to the damping factor DECAY RATIO = exp(---2'r; ) Il-c2 =
(OVERSH~~T)~
Equation (11.12) has been also plotted in Figure 11.3. 3. Period of Oscillation: From eqn. (11.10) we see that the radian
frequency (radians/time) of the oscillations of an underdamped response is given by
fl-G2 radian frequency = ___ T
(11.10)
To find the period of the oscillation, T, i.e. the time elapsed between two successive peaks, use the well known relationships w = 21-rf and f = l/T where f = cyclical T 2x-r =I-l-c2 frequency. Thus, (11.13)
4.
Natural Period of Oscillation: system free G(s) = of any K P damping. = Its
A second-order system with <=O, is a transfer K function is
T2S2 + 1 i.e. it according with a wn The has to two the purely
P (s-j +)(s+j poles
(11.14) +) (on 9.4 the it imaginary will axis) and
imaginary of
analysis
Section a
oscillate (see eqn.
continuously (11.14)) (11.15)
constant = l/T
amplitdue, and
natural
frequency
corresponding Tn = 271-c
cyclical
period,
Tn,
is
given
by (11.16)
It is this property of the parameter T 5. Response Time: The response of an
that gave its name. system For will reach its purposes,
underdamped
ultimate value in an asymptotic manner, as t-toJ. it has been agreed to consider that the response
practical its
reached
final The time the response
value, when it came +5X needed for the response
of its final value and stayed there. to reach this situation is known as
time, and it is also shown in Figure 11.2. 6, Rise Time: This term is used in order to characterize the speed with It is defined as the time
which an underdamped system responds. I / / I I I
required for the response to reach its final value for the first time. From Figure 11.1 we notice that the smaller the value of 5, the shorter the rise time, i.e. the faster the response of the system, but at the same time the larger the value of the overshoot. Remark: In subsequent chapters (Part IV), our objective during the design of
a controller will be the proper selection of the corresponding 5 and T values, so that the overshoot is small, the rise time short,
the
decay
ratio
small, and
the
response
time
short.
We
will
realize
that it will not be possible to achieve all these objectives for the same values of 5 and r, and be defined. second-order controllers. 11.3 MULTICAPACITY PROCESSES AS SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS When material or energy flows through a single capacity, we get firstorder system. two of If on the other hand, mass or energy flows through a series of Good system understanding will help that of an the acceptable underdamped in the compromise behavior design of should of a
tremendously
efficient
capacities, as it moves from the input to the output variable, the behavior the system is described by second-order dynamics. Two multicapacity systems
are shown in Figure 11.4 with two mass capacities (the two tanks) each. Examine the two systems of Figure 11.4 more closely to identify a significant qualitative difference between them. In System 1 (Figure 11.4a),
Tank 1 feeds Tank 2 and thus it affects its dynamic behavior, while the opposite is not true. Such system is characteristic of a large class of the
so-called, in series.
non-interacting
capacities, or
non-interacting 1 affects
first-order the dynamic
systems behavior
On the contrary, in System 2, Tank
of Tank 2, and vice-versa, because the flowrate between the liquid levels hl and h2. interacting capacities, or processes It is unit. interacting do quite For not have
Fl depends on the difference
This system represents the so-called first-order to that involve all systems more in than are series. one physical with
Multicapacity processing the same unit.
possible
capacities
associated
processing process with
example, the stirred tank heater is a multito a store mass and energy. A distillation
capacity column
capacity of
is
another
example
multicapacity in
process. allows
Every tray has a mass for thermal energy
storage capacity (liquid holdup), which L----- - -----,L--
turn
Let We A. will
us
now
see
how the
multicapacity non-interacting
processes
result
in
second-order
systems.
start
with
capacities.
NON-INTERACTING When a by system a set + is
CAPACITIES composed two y1 = of two non-interacting equations of capacities, the following then it is form:
described
of
differential K p1
general
dyl rP1 dt
f,(t)
first
capacity
(11.17a)
dy2 -+y2 rp2 dt
K p2 y1(t)
second
capacity
(11.17b)
In other words, the first system affects the second by its output, but it is not affected by it (Figure 11.5a). then we can solve eqn. (11.17b). Equation (11.17a) can be solved first and This sequential solution is characteristic The corresponding transfer functions
of non-interacting capacities in series. are: Y,(s) KPl Gl(s) = ~ = fl( s) rplS+l
The overall transfer function between tba external
input, f,(t)and Y2(t) is:
Y,(s)
Go(s) = q(s)
y,(s)
y,(s)
= - * - = G1(s)G2(s) Y,(s) f,(s)
K Kpl Pl = s+l * r P*s+l rp1
(11.18)
or K' P + 25'T'S + 1
GO(s)
I
= (Tt)2s2
(11.19)
where (Ty Equation = T PlTP2 (11.19) indicates very 25'T' = T T Pl p2 clearly that and the K' =K K P Pl p2 overall response of the system
is
second-order.
From eqn. (11.18) we also notice that the two poles of the are real and p2 distinct, = l/T p2 i.e.
overall
transfer function Pl = 1/T Pl
and
and are equal, then we have two equal poles. Pl Tp2 Therefore, non-interacting capacities always result in an overdamped or critically damped second-order system and never in an underdamped. The response
If the time constants r
of two non-interacting capacities to a unit step change in the input will be given by eqn. Instead (11.7) f or the overdamped case, or eqn. (11.8) of eqn. (11.7) we can use the following for the critically for
damped.
equivalent
form
the response
-t/T (-r Pl e p1 T e p2
-t/.r p2 > I easily by simple inversion (11.20)
where Ki = K K . Equation (11.20) Pl p2 of eqn. (11.18) where fl(s) = l/s.
can
be
derived
For the case of N non-interacting capacities (Figure 11.5b) it is easy to show that the overall transfer function is given by K *..K '1 '2 'N = Gs+~)(~ s+l)...(T ss-1) p2 PN Pl K
Go(s)
= G1(S)G2(S)GN(S)
(11.21)
Example
11.1
T WO
Non-Interacting
Material
Capacities The
in
Series functions for
System 1 in Figure 11.4a the two tanks are:
is such a system.
transfer
and
where, according K Pl
to
Example , K p2
10.1 =R2
we ,
have, = AIR1 rp1 are in deviation and rp2 form. Since, = A2R2 .
=R1
and also variables hi, hi, F;, Fi
we
can
easily
find
that q(s) F;(s)
the
overall K
transfer
function
is
,
Go(s)
(T p1
p2 s+l)(T p2
s+l)
(11.22)
Equation
Fi(
(11.22)
indicates
that
the
relationship
between
the
extewrnal
input,
t), and the final output, h2(t)' is that of an overdamped second-order Using r # p1 T p2 eqn. (11.20) for the response of two non-interacting capacities
system. with
, we find:
h;(t)
K 1 ' (.c e p2 rp2-rpl p1
Figure same A as
11.6
shows of with we
the an the
qualitative overdamped
t / T t / T c
p1 T e p2 features of the system (see for would example be first-order response overdamped multicapacity slowly and system then which or to it has changes a first-order This response sluggishness of delay characteristic multicapacity See also Figure
p2
response,
which
are
the with 511) *
those
Figure
ll.la
comparison 11.6
instructive.
Thus, from
Figure The is
notice of the
that: step picks the is input up change
response S-shaped, is change in at la&
i.e. initially contrast the and to
speed. rate as
This of
largest also
beginning. is
known
transfer -
systems.
As the number of capacities in series increases, the delay in the initial response becomes more pronounced. 11.6.
B.
INTERACTING
CAPACITIES
In order to analyze the characteristics of such system, we will use the two capacity System 2 of Figure 11.4b. dhl Alx=F The mass balances yield: (11.23a)
F1
Tank 1
dh2 A2dt Assume linear F1
F1
to
F2 flow, i.e. and
Tank 2
(11.23b)
resistances =
(hl - h2)/R1
F2
h2/R2
Then, eqns. (11.23a) and (11.23b) dhl A 1R l dt
become: (11.24a)
+ hl -
h2
= RIFi R2 "1"' = O
dh2 A2R2 dt
R2 (l+R)h 1 2
(11.24b)
We notice that eqns. (11.24a) is the central effect of characteristic the two
and (11.24b) of
must be solved simultaneously. This capacities and indicates the
interacting
mutual
capacities.
The steady state equivalents of eqns. (11.24a) and (11.24b) are:
hw
(l
h2(s)
= R2 - q
RIFi(s)
(11.25a)
R2 +ir;)h2&)
Qs)
= 0
(11.25b)
Subtract (11.25a) ducing the
from (11.24a) variables + hi -
and (11.25b) from (11.24b) take, hi = RlFf
and after intro-
deviation AlRl dhi dt
(11.26a)
dh; A2R2 dt where
R2 (l+~)h' l2
(11.26b)
h = 1 hl - hi(s) , hi = h2 - h2(s) and F! 1= Fi - Fi(s) Take the Laplace (AIRIS R2 -, - R1 hl(s) + transforms of eqns. (11.26a) + l)Ci(S) - F;;(S) and (11.26b)
and find
= RlFf(s)
-
R2 + (1 + 5) I;;(s) 1
Solve these algebraic equations with respect to El(s) and g2(s) and find:
CT p R1b + CR1 + r;;(s) =

T T Pl p2 s 1 2 +('I
R2)
(11.27a) +T + A1R2)s+1 Pl p2 R2
i;;(s)
=
2+(T rP1TP2S
(11.27b)
+T + A1R2)s+1 Pl p2
where
and r = A2R2 are the time constants of the two tanks. = AIRl rp1 p2 Equations (11.27a) and (11.27b) indicate that the responses of both tanks follow second-order dynamics. Compare eqn. (11.27b) for the interacting tanks
with eqn. (11.22) which corresponds to the non-interacting tanks. We notice that they differ only in the coefficient of s term, A1R2. cates
J.
in
the
denominator
by
the
This term may be thought of as the interaction factor and indidegree the of interaction the between the two the tanks. two The larger the value
the
L
of AIR,,
Remarks:
larger
interaction
between
tanks.
(1) From eqn. (11.27b) it is easily found that the two poles of the transfer function are given by: I -(TV, +T~ +A1R2) I! 4~ +T +A1R2)% T 7 Pl p2 Pl p2 p1,2 = 2r T Pl p2 But (T 2 - 4 T T +T + A1R2) Pl p2 Pl p2 >o
(11.28)
Therefore, p1 and p2 the response of
are
distinct
and is
real
poles.
Consequently,
interacting
capacities
always
overdamped. and p2 given
(2) Since the response is overdamped with poles p1 by eqn. (11.28), qcs, F;(s) where 'I1 = -l/P1 Equation (11.29) and implies that r2 = -l/p2 two interacting =
eqn. (11.27b) can be written as follows: R2

(S--Pi) b-P,>
R2 (rls+l)(T2s+l)
(11.29)
capacities
can
be
viewed as non-interacting capacities - - but with modified effective time constants. Thus, while initially the two interacting tanks
had effective time constants and rp1 when they are veiwed
=P2 *
as
non-interacting,
they
have
different
time
constants r1 and
(3) Assume that the two tanks have the same time constants, i.e. T. Then, from eqn. (11.28) we take, TP1 = rp2 =
-(2-c + A1R2> + 7 A1R2 + 4-cA1R VT2 = P2/P1 =

-(2T +
# A1R2) - JA:R; +
~TA$X
Thus, we see that the effect of interaction is to change the ratio of the effective time constants for the two tanks, i.e. one tank
becomes faster in its response and the other slower. Since the overall response of h2(t) is affected by both tanks, the slower
tank
becomes due
the to
controlling the
and
the
overall
response
becomes
more
sluggish are more
interaction. the
Therefore,
interacting
capacities
sluggish
than
non-interacting.
Example
11.2
- The
Dynamics
of
Two
Interacting
Tanks Let Al = A2
Consider two interacting tanks like those of Figure 11.4b. and Rl = R2/2. Then, 'c = T /2=~. Pl p2 ~;(s> ~ F;(s) =
T2S2
From eqn. (11.27b) we take:
R2 + 5-rs + 1 = (0.21~s
R2 + 1)(4.8~s
+ 1)
(11.30)
For a unit step change in F;(t), i.e. for Pi(s) = l/s, eqn. (11.30) after inversion yields
h;(t)
or
= R2[1 + 0.014e -t/0.21T
_ 5 . 2 e-t/4.8.r 1
F;(t)
If the two
-t/0.21T = 1 + 0.014 e were
_ 5.2 e-t/4.8T the transfer function of the
tanks
non-interacting, then i.e.
system would be given by eqn. (11.22), F;(s) which by
q<s>
= (T p1
R2 s+1)(rp2s+1)
R2 (U?+1)(2Ts+l)
inversion
yields + e -t/-c - 4e-t/2T]
h;(t)
or
= R2[1
F;(t)
=l+
-t/T
4e-t/2T
Let us compare the responses of the two systems: (1) They are both overdamped. As such they have the characteristics discussed
in Section 11.2, i.e. they are S-shaped and with no oscillations. (2) For the system of the two non-interacting tanks the time constants are: T and
2T
For the case of the interacting tanks the effective time constants have become 0.21r and
4.8T
i.e. one was decreased and the other was increased. from l/2 changed to 0.21/4.8 = 0.044.
Their ratio
(3) As a result of the change in the effective time constants, the response of the interacting tanks is more sluggish, or more damped than the response of the non-interacting tanks. result. Figure 11.6 dramatizes this
Example 11.3 - The CSTR as a System With Two Interacting Capacities The linearized mass and energy balances for a constant volume holdup CSTR are given by eqns. (9.14a) and (9.14b) in Example 9.2. dci dt + allci + a12T' = blcii (9.14a)
dT' - + dt
a21ci
a22T'
blT;
b2Ti
(9.14b)
Both equations, being first-order differential equations, denote systems with capacity. In particular, eqn. (9.14a) characterizes the capacity of the CSTR
for storing component A, while eqn. (9.14b) denotes the capacity of the CSTR for storing thermal energy. they are interacting. From the form of the equations we realize that denotes the effect of the thermal
Thus, the term a12T'
capacity on the amount of component A.
Similarly, the term a21ci denotes
the effect of the amount of component the reacting mixture.
A in the CSTR on the thermal content of
Consider now that the CSTR is at steady state when one of the following variables changes by a unit step;
- feed concentration
cd, , or i - feed temperature T!, or 1 - coolant temperature T'.

C
According respond [Note:
to to
the the
analysis input
made
above like
we conclude that CL(t) and T'(t) will overdamped systems.
change
second-order,
In the above example it has been assumed that the linearization of the
CSTR was made around a stable steady state (see Example 1.2) and that unit step changes do not move the system far from this steady state.]
11.4 INHERENTLY SECOND-ORDER PROCESSES Such be process into can two exhibit underdamped systems behavior in and consequently or they noncannot
decomposed
first-order
series
(interacting
interacting) with physical significance, like the systems chemical or (b) the we examined in the they previous are of (c) sections. with They occur rather rarely in a the motion of (a) liquid inertia masses to motion, Since
process, and mechanical to
associated solid
translation motion and are
parts
possessing; to and store of
resistance and
capacitance
mechanical the
energy.
resistance we conclude
capacitance the
characteristic second-order examples
first-order characterized ll.A clearly
systems, by
that to
inherently The
systems in
are
their
inertia
motion.
three
Appendix
demonstrate this feature. Newton's Law applied on a = given system yields (11.31)
Balance of forces on the system
(mass of system)x(acceleration)
Since, acceleration and velocity we conclude that, d2 = (mass of system) x---- (spatial dt2 the right-hand (11.31) of or side its ll.A. THE PRESENCE OF CONTROLLERS gives rise to = & (spatial displacement) = d(velcoity) dt
Balance of forces on the system The second term of
displacement)
(11.32)
the
second-order is the
behavior
of the system. point 11.5 for the
Equation examples
equivalent
(11.32)
starting
Appendix CAUSED BY
SECOND-ORDER
SYSTEMS
The presence of a control system in a chemical process can change the order exhibit we will let of the without have us process the the and produce of to a the dynamic behavior which the process cannot
presence opportunity a
controller. many
In the chapters of Part IV situations. For the time
examine example.
such
being
consider
simple
Example 11.4 - A First-Order Process Presence of a Control System Consider simple the tank system shown with in a
With
Second-Order
Dynamics
Due
to
the
Figure
10.1
(Example
10.1). by
This is a eqn. (10.8). We
first-order
transfer
function
given
would like to control the liquid level at a desired value when the inlet flowrate control measures If the Fi system the level undergoes step changes. (see liquid is Section level 2.2) and than shown In order to do that we use a feedback in it Figure 11.7a. with value, the it This control system steady the state effluent value.
compares the
desired increases
higher
desired
flowrate
Fo by opening the control valve
V, while it closes the valve when Let us now see how the presence dynamic behavior of the tank from
the level is lower than the desired value. of this to The controller second dynamic A dt dh while at the 0 Subtract
=
changes
the
order
of
the
first
order. mass = Fi balance F. state we have (11.34) take (11.35) are defined by, around the tank gives, (11.33)
desired
Fi(S)
steady
-
Fe(S)
(11.34) dt
from F;
(11.33) F;
and
Adh =
where the deviation
variables
h' = h(s) - h 9 F; = F~(S) - Fi and I?: = Fe(s) - F. . When the liquid level is not at the desired value, h' # 0, The measuring device measures h and this value is compared to the desired value h(s). The deviation (error) h' is used by the controller to increase or decrease
the effluent flowrate
according to the relationship (11.36)
where KC to (11.36j:
and
'I
are
constant
parameters
with
positive
values.
According
- When h' = 0 then F = Fe(s)
and the valve V stays where it is.
- When h' > 0, i.e. the level goes down, then from eqn. (11.36) gives
F. < Foes), . 1-e.
the
effluent
rate
goes
down
and
the
level
starts
increasing.
I I
- When h' < 0, i.e. level goes up, then from eqn. (11.36) we find F. > F o(s) ' i.e. the effluent rate increases and the level decreases.
The
control
action the which
described value is
by of
eqn. (11.36) the manipulated to the
is
called
Proportional is and determined the other
by
Integral two
Control,
because of
variable error h',
terms, one
proportional
proportional
to the time integral of the error. In eqn. (11.35) replace FA with its equal given by (11.36) and take:
A dh' dt
Kch'
h'dt
= F;
(11.37)
The Laplace
transform of (11.37) gives A s K'(s) + K$'(s) + K c 1 F;ys> =I s = F;(s)
or
=I 2 s2 + TIS + 1 E'(s) = K P;(s) K C I [ C From eqn. (11.38) we find that the transfer function between the external
input F;(s) and the output by;
6'(s) is that of a second-order system and given
m=
F;(s) where
P T2S2 + 25r.s + 1
T2
From the
=A~I/K~ , 25-r above equations
= TI and Kp = TI/K= we find that
Depending on the values of the control parameters Kc and -cI we may have the following cases:
-qp2. is that of
The, <cl and the response g'(s) to a step input in P;(s) an underdamped system.
- JK&A = 2.
Then, -c=l and the response is critically damped. Then, <>l and we have an overdamped response.
- Finally, w > 2. In Figure 11.7b change in the
we can see the dynamic response of the liquid level to a step inlet flowrate, with and without control.
The
above
example
demonstrates
very
clearly
how
the
simple
first-order
dynamic behavior of a tank can change to that of a second-order, when a Proportional-Integral Controller is added to the process. Also, it indicates that the control parameters Kc the dynamic behavior response. of the and rI which can have a very profound effect on can range from an underdamped to an
system
overdamped
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Chemical processes may exhibit second-order dynamics, which are: (i) inherent, result of The factor 5 or (ii) come from first-order systems in series, or (iii) come as a
the
control
action. systems are characterized by two parameters; on the the damping value of
second-order
and the natural period of the system, '5.
Depending
zj we can have; overdamped response (Al), critically damped (c=l) or underdamed response (<cl). The underdamped is a 'Ihe following but observations can be and made: it is usually
quick
oscillatory
response
exhibited by controlled processes. The overdamped by or critically damped in responses series. are The sluggish, and are usually
exhibited with
i
first-order value of
systems the
sluggishness
increases
increasing between
damping
factor, and with the degree of inter-
action
first-order
systems.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1 .' What is a second-order system? Write the differential equation describing
its behavior in the time domain and give its transfer function. 2. Explain the physical significance of the two parameters T and 3 of a second-order 11. 3. Identify the three classes of second-order systems and give one representative example for each class. What is the origin of the most secondsystem. Consult Reference 10 (Section 10.11) and Reference
order systems in chemical processes? 4. Discuss the overdamped, critically damped and underdamped responses of a second-order 5. 6. system. Identify their distinguishing characteristics.
Describe the characteristics of an underdamped response. Develop the expressions for the overshoot and the decay ratio (eqns. (11.11) and (11.12)).
7.
How do you understand the interaction or non-interaction of multicapacity processes? Give ghe general set of two differential equations describing;
(a) two non-interacting capacities and (b) two interacting capacities. 8. Explain why two interacting capacities have more sluggish response than two equivalent but non-interacting capacities. 9. Show that as the number of non-interacting first-order systems in series increases the response of the system becomes more sluggish. 10. Develop the equations giving the response of a second-order system to a unit impulse input for ~1, 5=1 and <cl. 11. 12. Prove eqn. (11.20) for two non-interacting capacities. A drum boiler (Figure P-11-10) has a capacity to store material and thermal energy. Are these capacities interacting or not?
13.
What is the origin of the most common systems with inherent second-order dynamics? Describe an example. You can use References 10 and 11.
14.
In Example 11.4 if you use Proportional Control only would you change the order of the tank's dynamic behavior?
Il ,. 6
30 Kp IL
---A--- - -
--
;z 4
>
i.0
0.4
APPENDIX ORDER
ll.A.
EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS WITH INHERENT SECOND-
DYNAMICS. Systems with inherent second-order dynamics can exhibit oscilla-
tory
(underdamped)
behavior
but
are
rather
rare
in
chemical
processes.
In this appendix we will present three simple units which can be encountered in chemical plants and which possess second-order dynamics.
1.
Simple Manometers and Externally Mounted Level Indicators. Consider the simple U-tube manometer shown in Figure ll.A-la.
When the pressures at the top of the two legs are equal, the two liquid levels are at rest at the same horizontal plane. Let us assume that suddenly a pressure difference Ap = pl - p2 is imposed on the two legs of the manometer. We like to know what is the dynamic response of
the levels in the two legs. Let us apply Newton's law given by equation (11.31), meter. We take, on the mano-
forcepduEnt;ePgr;ssure) 1
_ (forcepduEnt;e;rqssure) 2
force due to liquid force due to - ( level difference ) - (fluid friction) in the two legs = mass of liquid ( in the tube > x (acceleration)
or ii A (2h) _ ( force due to ) = p$ (ll.A-1) PIAl - p2A2 - p gc 2 fluid friction

C
where, = pressures at the top of legs 1 and 2 respectively.
pl'p2
Al,A2 = cross sectional areas of legs 1 and 2 respectively. Typically Al = A2 = A.
density
of
liquid
in
manometer.
acceleration
gravity.
gC
conversion
constant.
= mass of liquid in the manometer = PAL = average velocity of the liquid in the tube. assumed flat that the flow). velocity profile in the tube
We is
have
(plug
deviation rest.
of
liquid
level
from
the
initial
plane
of
length
of
liquid
in
the
manometer
tubes.
Poiseuille's the force
equation due to
for fluid
laminar friction
flow with
in the
pipe flow
can
be
used Thus,
to we
relate have
velocity.
(Poiseuille's
equation)
rR4 AP dh (volumetric flowrate) = A dt = -811 L where; R = radius of the pipe through which liquid
(ll.A-2)
flows.
u
L
viscosity
of
the
flowing
liquid.
= length of the pipe.
AP
= pressure drop due to fluid friction along the tube of length L.
Therefore,
applying
Poiseuille's
equation
to
the
flow
of
liquid
in
the
manometer, we take:
(ll.A-3)
Recall
also
that
the
fluid
velocity
and
acceleration
are
given
by,
v = dhldt
and
dv/dt = d2h/dt2
(ll.A-4)
Put equation (ll.A-3) and (ll.A-4) in equation (ll.A-1) and take:
pAL d2h 8pL.A dh Ap*A -yh ---=-C R2gc dt gc dt2
Finally, after dividing both sides by 2pgA/gc
we take,
+ 41.1L dh gC Tx+h=2pgAp P@ Define, T2 = Ll2g , 26~ = 4uL/psR2 and Kp = gc/20g
(ll.A-5)
and
take,
T2 d2h dh - + 2r;T dt + h = KP'Ap dt2
(ll.A-6)
Therefore,
the transfer function between h and Ap is
k(s)KP *i(s) T2S2 + 25TS + 1
(11 .A-71
Both equations (ll.A-6) and (11-A-7) indicate the inherent second-order dynamics For of the the manometer. of liquid levels quite often we use the
measurement
externally mounted displacement-type transmitter, which is shown in Figure ll.A-lb. chamber, has We many notice that the with system the of the tank-displacer The cross sectional
similarities
manometer.
areas of the two legs are unequal and the Ap (external) pressure difference is caused by a change in the liquid level of the main tank. Therefore, we expect that the response of the level in the displacer
chamber (h,) will follow second-order dynamics with respect to a change in the liquid level of the tank (h), i.e.
h,(s)
K
(ll.A-8)
'rn -= ,;s2 + 26,T,S + 1 a)
2.
Variable
Capacitance
Differential
Pressure
Transducer.
The variable capacitance differential pressure transducer is a very popular device which is used to sense and transmit pressure dif-
ferences.
Figure ll.A-2 shows a schematic of such a device. Pressure
differences cause small displacements of the sensing diaphragm. The position both of the of sensing the diaphragm is detected by capacitor plates on
sides
diaphragm.
A change in pressure pl
in the process
(such as a change in the pressure of a vessel, or a change in liquid level in a tank, etc.) will make the pressure p2 at the end of the capillary A tube force to change. around the capillary will yield;
balance
Force due to the Force due to the pressure pl of the process) _ (pressure p2 exercised) ( exercised at the end 1 at the end 2 of the of the capillary. capillary
(mass)
(acceleration)
or ALP
C
plA
- p2A
= (7)
d2x dt2
(ll.A-9)
where, A = cross-sectional area of the capillary.
length
of
the
capillary
tube.
P x
= density of the liquid in the capillary tube. = fluid displacement in the capillary tube
= displacement of diaphragm.
The force p2A at the end of the capillary is balanced by two forces, i.e.
P# = (
resistance exerted by viscous friction force the diaphragm )+( exercised by the fluid > which acts like a spring (ll.A-10)
dx =Kx+cz
where, K C = Hooke's constant for the diaphragm, and = damping coefficient of the viscous liquid in front of the diaphragm. Substitute p2A in equation (ll.A-9) by its equal given by equation (ll.A-10) and take:
(ll.A-11)
Equation (ll.A-11) clearly indicates that the response of the device (i.e. the diaphragm displacement, x) when the process pressure, p 1 , changes, follows second-order dynamics. If we define,
T2 = A-u/g c
'
26T = C/K and K = A/K
we take the following transfer function,
24 _ L Fl (s) T2S2 + 2FTS + 1
3.
Pneumatic The
Valve. valve system typical is that the most commonly inherent like used final control ele-
pneumatic is a a
ment.
It
exhibits valve
second-order of Figure
dynamics. ll.A-3.
Consider
pneumatic
that
The position of the stem (or equivalently of the plug at the end of the stem) will determine the size of the opening for flow and consequently the size of the flow (flowrate). The position of the stem is
determined by the balance of all forces acting on it. These forces are: PA
= force exerted by the compressed air at the top of the diaphragm. Pressure p is the signal that opens or closes the This force acts
valve and A is the area of the diaphragm. downwards. - K x
= force exerted by the spring attached to the stem and the diaphragm. is the K is the Hooke's constant for the spring and x displacement. force the It acts upward valve and upward. and resulting from the close
dx - Cx= frictional contact of
exerted stem with stem
packing.
C is the friction
coefficient
between
packing.
Apply
Newton's
law
and
take:
M d2x pA-Kx-Cz=r~ c dt
or,
Let,
T2
and take,
= M/Kg
'
XT = C/K , K = A/K
=2 -+ d2x dx x = Kp*p 2<r dt+ dt2 The last equation indicates that the stem position x follows inherent second-order dynamics, when p changes. The transfer function is
ad P(s)
_ (g-)s2
C
A/K + ; s + 1
(ll.A-12)
Usually, M << Kgc and as a result the dynamics of a pneumatic valve can be approximated by first-order.
k - --c _-L -_ -. t L..-. L _ . _ . . -. c_ :r+ -cc _ -.-_ - _-_. -- -.L ._ __ - _ ,
CHAPTER 12 THE Systems processes. systems: N first-order processes in series (multicapacity processes) with Three DYNAMIC than BEHAVIOR OF HIGHER-ORDER dynamics are SYSTEMS not of uncommon in chemical
higher are
second-order often
the
most
encountered
classes
higher-order
- Processes with dead-time In Processes this with inverse we will response. analyze their typical dynamic characteristics.
chapter
12.1 N CAPACITIES IN SERIES In Section 11.3 give we rise found to that a two capacities in series, interacting or
non-interacting,
second-order
system.
If we extend the same
procedure to N capacities (first-order systems) in series, we find that the overall fer response is is an + of n-th order, i.e. the denominator of the overall trans-
function
n-th anls
order n-l
+ l
polynomial, ** + als + a0
ans n
If the N capacities are non-interacting, then the overall transfer function is given by eqn. (11.21) K Go(s)=G1(s)G2(s)"'GN(~) = (T p1 where Gl(s), For interacting In Section G2(s),***, p1 s+l)(T p2 K **OK '2 'N s+l)***(-r PN
s+l)
(11.21)
GN (s) are the transfer function of the N capacities. the overall the transfer basic function is more complex. of two analysis is
capacities 11.3 we
studied
dynamic
characteristics Similar
capacities in series when the input is changed by a step. possible for be easily N capacities in series. from the discussion in
The following general conclusions can Section 11.3.
drawn
A. -
NON-INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES The response has the very number characteristics sluggish. of capacities in series increases the sluggishness of of an overdamped system, i.e. it is not
oscillatory Increasing the B. -
and the
response. INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES
Interaction It is a
increases clear
the
sluggishness that will a
of
the with keep
overall
response.
therefore, which
process not only
N capacities in series will the final output at a desired
necessitate
controller
value but will also try to improve the speed of the system's response. Let us now examine some typical examples of processes with N capacities in series.
Example
12.1
- Jacketed
Reactors
as
Multicapacity
Processes
Consider the batch reactor shown in Figure 12.la. The reaction is exothermic and the content of the reactor is cooled by constant flow of cold water circulating in through the jacket. We can identify the following three
capacities -
series:
Heat capacity of the mixture in the reactor. Heat capacity of the reactor's wall.
- Heat capacity of the coolant in the jeacket. It is easy to show that the three capacities interact. For i.e. total material capacity.of the tank, the jacketed CSTR of Figure 12.lb we have more interacting capacities,
- tank's capacity for component A,
29
heat
capacity
of
the
reactor's
content,
heat capacity of the reactor's wall, and
- heat capacity of tht cold water in the jacket. Again, all five to capacities what we are have will interacting. said be above, we expect that the response of the slow.
According reactors to
input
changes
rather
Example
12.2 - Staged Processes as Multicapacity Systems and for gas the absorption separation Each columns of a are very often its and encountered components. heat in Both
Distillation chemical processes
mixture has
into
systems have a number of trays. Therefore, capacities easy to
tray
material
capacities.
each column with N trays can be considered as a system with 2N in series. that the From 2N the physics of distillation and absorption it is
see
capacities
interact. of the solvent at the sluggish response for the
Therefore, top of the of the
a step change in the liquid flowrate column the has produces valuable to a very
absorption solvent input in in
delayed,
content because
component through
A (see Figure P.II-13). This is a large number of interacting
change
travel
capacities
series. step change in the reflux ratio of a distillation column
Similarly, a
(see Figure 4.10) will have quickly an effect on the composition of the overhead product while the and composition slow). of the reboiler will have the bottoms stream since very of the bottoms stream will respond very
sluggishly
(delayed
Finally, a step change in the steam flowrate almost an immediate effect on the composition of
few trays intervene between the returned to the column stream V and the
bottoms product. On the contrary, the head product will be delayed and very
effect slow.
on
the
composition
of
the
over-
12.2 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS WITH DEAD TIME For all the systems we examined in Chapters 10, 11 and Section 12.1, we have assumed that there is no dead-time between an input and the output, i.e. whenever taneously and will a change observed to some took in our time place the in the of input the variable, output its effect was instan-
behavior
variable. all the
This is not true processes
contrary involve
physical delay
experience. between the
Virtually input and
physical output.
Consider a first-order system with a dead time td between the output y(t) and the input (forcing function) f(t). We can represent such system by
a series of two systems as shown in Figure 12.2a, series with a dead time. transfer function, For the first-order
i.e. a first-order system in we have the following
system
while
for
the
dead
time we
have -t&i
(see
Section
7.2,
eqn.
(7.10))
[Yet - td)l [y(t) 1 Therefore, the = e
transfer function
between
the
input
f(t)
and
the
delayed
output
y(t - td> is given by (Figure 12.2b)
I
-tds
[Ytt - t,)l
[f(t) 1
Similarly, by, the
KP'e rPs + l for a second-order system with delay is given
transfer function
-tds [y(t
- t$l [f(t)1
Figure
KP e =
T2S2 + 25TS + 1 shows the response of first and second-order
(12.2)
Remarks:
(1)
12.3
sys-
tems with dead time to a step change in the input. (2) Quite often the exponential term is approximated by the first
or second order Padi: td
approximations
1 ewtds ::
- 2 & '
first-order
approximation
(12.3a)
-tds
(td)2s2 - 6tds + 12
second-order ^ ^ (td)'sL + 6tds + 12 with not dead time are difficult to
.approximation _
(12.3b) because events. the
(3)
Processes output
control current
does
contain
information
about
12.3 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS WITH INVERSE RESPONSE The dynamic behavior of certain processes deviates drastically from what
we have seen so far.
Figures 12.4b and 12.5b show the response of such sysWe it notice eventually that ends and initially up. it the response is by a is
terns to a step change in the input. in the opposite Inverse number direction or to where
Such is
behavior exhibited
called small
Response of
Nonminimum units.
Phase
Response
processing
Example
12.3 - The the
Inverse simple
Response boiler
of
the shown
Liquid in
Level
in
Boiler
System
Consider
drum
Figure
P.II-10. volume for a
If the flowrate of the boiling period
of the cold feedwater -. is increased by a step, the water and consequently the liquid level will be
total
decreased
short
and
then
it
will
start
increasing, as shown by the response in Figure 12.4b.
Such behavior is the net result of two opposing effects and can be explained as follows: The the of cold feedwater vapor causes a temperature drop which decreases the volume of
entrained the boiling
bubbles.
This leads to a decrease of the liquid level first-order behavior (curve 1 in Figure
water,
following
12,4b), With
i.e. -K /(r s+l). p1 p1 constant heat supply, the the liquid form level of
steam the
production water to a
remains will pure
constant start
and
conin
sequently an i.e.
boiling leading
increasing
integral K
(pure
capacity)
capacitive
response,
/s (curve 2 in Figure 12.2a). p2 - The result of the two opposing effects is given by K - p2
S
K p1 s+l rpl =
(K
-K )s+K 'c p2 p1 p1 p2 S(T s+l) p1
(12.4)
and
for K-r p2 Pl <K p1
the
second
response. response. [Note: function
-K /(T s+l) dominates initially and we take the inverse p1 p1 If the above condition is not satisfied we do not have inverse
term
When has
K 'c <K then p2 p1 p1 a positive zero.]
from
eqn.
(12.4) we
notice
that
the
transfer
The
above
example effects.
demonstrates Table 12.1 In
that shows all
the
inverse
response
is
the
result
of
two first
opposing
several we
such notice
opposing that when
effects the
between system
or second-order systems. an inverse response, its
cases
possesses
transfer
function
has
positive
zero.
In general,
the
transfer
function
of
system
with +
l
inverse
response
is
given
by
bmsm + b,-lsm-' G(s) = ansn + anels
** + bls + b.
n-l + 0.0 + als + a0
where one of the roots of the numerator, i.e. one of the zeros of the transfer function has positive with real part. response are particularly difficult to control and
Systems require
inverse attention.
special
Example
12.4 - Inverse Response from Two Opposing First-Order Systems 12.5a from to K p1 p2 ( s+l - T s+lms) Tpl p2 K shows two another different possibility first-order of inverse processes, response. yielding Two an opposing overall
Figure effects response
result equal
Y(s)
or (K r -K T )s+(K -K > p1 p2 p2 p1 p1 p2 (T s+l)(,r SSl) p1 p2 response 1 1 when slower a than PROCESS steady 2, state i.e. T > T but p1 p2' value than PROCESS 2,
Y(s)
We -
have
inverse
initially ultimately i.e. K p1 12.5b
PROCESS _. _ PROCESS > K p2' shows
reacts reaches
higher
Figure [Note: system's
the
inverse
response
of
the
overall
system. we find that the
When
'I >'c ,K >K and K 'I < K 'c p1 p2 p1 p2 p1 p2 p2 p1 transfer function has a positive zero, i.e.
- K p1 p2 K T -K T p1 p2 p2 p1
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Chemical processing systems may exhibit higher order response. The most
common are; (a) N capacities in series, (b) systems with de-d time and (c) systems sluggish and time. in a if with inverse response. The N capacities in series yield delayed and increases with the number of capacities
response. the
sluggishness are dead The
capacities with
interacting. time inverse of covers
Virtually all processes possess dead the large is the majority result of of (a) dynamic two elements
First-order chemical
process. the
response the
opposing
effects, usually
difference
responses first and dead
between
first-order systems, inverse with response or
systems, (b) second-order systems, (c) without are time delay. to Systems with
second-order time and
significant
difficult
control.
I I I I I I 3 I I I I I I
THINGS.TO THINK ABOUT 1. 2. How would you define a higher-order system?
Using the above definition why is a system with dead time a higher-order system? (Hint: See item 4 below). or interacting capacities in
3.
Show that as the number of non-interacting
series increases, the response of the system becomes more sluggish. 4. Consider K N identical non-interacting capacities in series, with gain
and time constant ~~ for each capacity. Show that as N + 00) P the response of the system approaches the response of a system with and overall gain K . P P In an ideal binary distillation column the dynamics of each tray can be Are these capacities interacting or
dead time T 5.
described by first-order systems. not.
What general type of responses would you expect for the overhead to a step change in the feed composition?
and bottoms compositions 6.
How many capacities can you identify in the mixing process of Example 4.11? Are th-ey interacting or not?
7.
What is the most common transfer function encountered in chemical processes? why?
8. 9.
What is an inverse response aud what causes it? Shw qualitatively distillation ,tbat the response of the bottoms composition of a
column to a step change in the vapor boilup, V, can exhibit (rOnsuIt References I , 1.
inverse behavior. I 10
Why do you think-a system with inverse response is difficult to control?
REFERENCES Chapter 6: Two very good references on computer simulation (digital or analog)
are the books by Luyben and Franks. (1) Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York Modeling and Simulation in Chemical Engineering J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1972) books and provide a series how to of examples drawn from Chemical (1973). by R. Engineers by
(2)
G.
E.
Franks,
Both
the
area of
of
chemical
engi-
neering can
demonstrate our ability
digital understand Computer details
computer the
simulation and FORTRAN
chemical better typical for
processes consystems the to
enhance for
dynamics in
develop for
trollers are also
such
systems. For or two more
programs on the
included. of algebraic
numerical the
techniques is
solution consult
differential classic
equations
reader
encouraged
the
following
books:
(3) Digital Computation for Chemical Engineers, by L. Lapidus, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1962). (4) Applied Numerical Methods, by B. Carnahan, H. Wilkes, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1969). notion linear and the characteristics of of the Taylor can R. Luther and J. D.
The the
series be
expansion in all
as
well
as
approximation on
nonlinear
systems
found
the
standard
texts
calculus.
In Section 6.1 of his book Douglas [Ref. 51 discusses a procedure that allows for us to the ascertain the range is of values around the point of linearization
which
linearized
model
acceptable. Prentice-Hall, Section 2.3 of the
(5) Process Dynamics and Control, Vol. 1, by J. M.,Douglas, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1972). Example book (6) by 6.1 was motivated and Denn by the physical the reader system can analyzed find more in
Russell
where
information. W. F. Russell and
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Analysis, by T. M. M. Denn, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1972).
Chapters 7 and 8:
The Laplace
transformation has been the object of a large For more details useful R. on the V. the theoretical book: McGraw-Hill aspects
body of mathematical research. of (7) Laplace transforms the reader
will
find
following Churchill,
Operational Mathematics, 2nd Book Co., New York (1958). the use of Laplace transforms
edition, by
For
to
the
solution
of
differential
equations
(ordinary, partial or sets of) the book by Jenson and Jeffreys can be very valuable. (8) Mathematical Methods in Chemical Engineering, Jeffreys, Academic Press London (1963). by V. G. Jenson and G. V.
In the following two references the reader can find tables with the Laplace transformation of a large number of functions:
(9) Feedback and Control Systems, by J. J. DiStefano, III, A. R. Stubberud and J. J. Williams, Schaums Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1967). (10) Handbook Stegun, 10: of Mathematical Functions, by . . Abramowity and . .
Chapter
The book by Weber [Ref. 111 is an excellent reference for the The of large of interested reader will based on find (Chapters energy
dynamics of first-order systems. 8 and and 9) an extensive balances, coverage with a
first-order number of
systems
mass,
momentum
examples. of capacity
It provides also a for various pro-
valuable
physical
interpretation
the
notion
cessing systems. (11) An Introduction to Process Dynamics and Sons, New York (1973). and Control, by T. W. Weber, J. Wiley
In the books by Douglas [Ref. 51 and Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121 the reader
I
can
find
the
response
of
first-order
systems
to
impulse
or
sinusoidal
inputs.
The response of a capacity process to a sinusoidal input is also
given in Chapter 12 of this text. (12) Process Systems Analysis and Control, by D. R. Coughanowr and L. B. Koppell, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1965).
Chapter
11:
The book by Weber [Ref. 111 is also an excellent reference for the
development and physical interpretation of second-order systems (Chapter 10). It find contains quite examples useful. of inherently second-order systems which the reader and to will
In the books by Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121 reader can find For or the more the can response information manometers, consult the of second-orcer on and the their
Douglas [Ref. 51 impulse mounted order and level
the
systems
sinusoidal measuring
inputs. systems,
externally dynamic 18 second-
characteristics, the
reader
References
(Chapter 18),
11 (Chapter 10) or the book by Shiskey [Ref. 13, Chapter 31. (13) Process Control Systems, 2nd Book Co., New York (1979). following two references can edition, by F. G. Shinskey, McGraw-Hill
The
be
consulted
for
further and
details the
on
the
variable control
capacitance valve.
differential
pressure
transducer
pneumatic
(14) Process Dynamics. Chem. Engng., Aug. (15)
Part 2: Proces Control Loops, by J. C. Guy, 24, p. 111 (1981). Engineers, by
Measurements and Control Applications for Practicing J. 0. Hougen, Cahners Books, Boston (1972). 12: Luyber [Ref. l] of a has a good discussion column to on a the
Chapter the
inverse in
response vapor
of
bottoms
composition
distillation
change
the
boilup (Section 11-5). following paper:
More details on this system can be f;ound in the
(16) "by W. L. Luyben, Inst. Chem. Eng. (London), Symp. Ser. No. 32, p. 6 (1969)." Iinoya exhibit and Altpeter [Ref. 171 and discuss a the characteristics of the to most of the systems which
inverse
response
give
table give
common
physical response. R. J. Altpeter,
situations (17)
(transfer
functions)
which
rise
inverse and
"Inverse Response in Process Control," by K. Iinoya Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 54, No. 7, p. 39 (1962).
In the book by Shinskey inverse response of a
[Ref. 131 the reader can find further discussion on the drum boiler.
A-B , J I-
I Figwe
12 . 31
,!%.
S Input +) k . t,st4
(. a ) C-+.
PsoCEsS 1
*< -- ----
Cb)
cc )
S
>
PROCESS
output
2
?j (9
Table 1.
12.1.
Systems With Inverse Response
Pure capacitive minus first-order response (Figure 11.11) K K

P2
S
(K T p1 s+l
= P2
G(s)
for K
P2 2.
Tpl
-K )s+K p1 p1 P2 S(T s+l) p1 -K)>O p1
< p1
K p1
zero = -K
p2
/(K
p2
T p1
Difference between two first-order responses (Figure 11.12) K -K T )s+(K (K T -K > p1 p2 p1 p2 p2 p1 p1 p2 G(s) = s+l - T s+l = CT s+l)(T s+l) Tpl P2 p1 p2 for K T < p1 p2
K 'I P2 p1
zero = (K p1 first-order
-K T ) - K )/(K -r p2 p1 p2 p2 Pl responses
-T S d2
3.
Difference
between
two
with
dead
time
K G(s) =
P2
l e
s+l minus first-order K response K p2
for
K p1
>K and T >'I L 0 p2 dl d2
4.
Second-order
G(s)
p1 T2S2 + 25TS + 1
s+l
for
K Pl
>K
p2
5.
Difference
between
two K
second-order
responses K
2 T2
G(s) =
p1
P2
for
K p1 > -7j K p2
r;s2 + 2C2T2S + 1 I I
-T s -T S d2 6.
Tl
Difference between two second-order responses with dead time
K
G(s) =
l e
dl
K
P2
l e
p1 T;s2 + 2yp + 1
for
+ 1
T;s2 + 2c2T2S
K >K and p1 p2 dl Id2 2 0 .
PART ANALYSIS In systems Part under III the we AND DESIGN the of OF
IV FEEDBACK behavior the CONTROL of SYSTEMS typical processing or
studied
dynamic in
various variables
influence
changes
input
(disturbances
manipulated system in to
variables). respond the in a
In doing so, we were not concerned about having the specific of manner: the in other words, we were not interested
controlling
behavior
process.
Starting with Part IV, our main concern will be; how can we control a process in order to We exhibit will we a certain with upon desired most briefly response common in in the presence of known
input changes. as VI FFEDBACK, we will
start
the very
control Chapter such 2.
configuration
which
touched additional
In Parts V and feedforward,
discuss
control
configurations
as;
cascade, ratio, override, split range, multivariable, etc. Thus, in the subsequent eight chapters of Part IV, we will do the following: Discuss Identify control Analyze learn how the the and the to notion types examine of of the feedback loop and present are of a its hardware for elements. process
feedback effect
controllers on the of
which
available chemical
their
response a
process. and given
stability design
characteristics the appropriate
feedback system
control to
system a
feedback
control
process. Solve some special problems which are encountered during the design of
feedback
controllers.
CHAPTER 13 INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK CONTROL In Chapter 1 we introduced the notion of a feedback control system. In this chapter we will expand the discussion by introducing the hardware elements of a feedback system and the types of the available controllers. 13.1 THE CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK CONTROL Consider the generalized process shown in Figure 13.la. It has an output
y, a potential disturbance d and an available manipulated variable m. The disturbance d (also known as load or process load) changes in an unpredictable
manner and our control objective is to keep the value of the output y at desired levels. A feedback control action takes the following steps:
- Measures the value of the output (flow, pressure, liquid level, temperature, composition) using the appropriate measuring device. indicated by the measuring sensor. - Compares the indicated value y, to the desired value ySP (set point) of the output. Let the deviation (error) be E = yd - y,. Let yrn be the value
- The value of the deviation E is supplied to the main controller. The i controller in turn changes the value of the manipulated variable m in such a way as to reduce the magnitude of the deviation 8. Usually, the
controller does not affect the manipulated variable directly but through another device (usually a control valve) which is known as the final control element. 1 / I Figure 13.lb summarizes pictorially the above three steps. The system in Figure 13.la is known as open loop in contrast to the feedback controlled system of Figure 13.lb which is called closed loop. Also, when the value of d changes. the response of the first is called open-loop response I
while
that
of is
the
second from
is
the
closed-loop 13.lb.
response.
The origin of the term
closed-loop
evident
the
Figure
Example The
13.1
Feedback
Control some
Systems typical feedback control systems which are
following
represent
often encountered in chemical processes.
(4
Flow control.
Two feedback systems are shown in Figures 13.2a and 13.2b, F at the desired value Fd. system in Figure 13.2~ controls the
controlling the flowrate
(b)
Pressure
Control.
The
feedback
pressure of the gases in the tank, at the desired pressure pd.
(cl
Liquid Level Control.
Figures 13.2d and 13.2e show two feedback systems
used for the control of the liquid levels at the bottom of a distillation column and its condenser accumulation tank.
Cd)
Temperature
Control.
The system in Figure 13.2f controls the temperature
of the exiting hot stream at the desired value Td.
Cd
Composition
Control.
Composition
is
the
controlled
variable
in
the
blending system of Figure 13.2g. The desired value is Cd. Remark: To simplify the presentation of a feedback control system, we will
usually replace the diagrammatic details, e.g. measuring device, comparator, the controller, with a simple circle carrying the one of
following
characterizations:
FC for flow control, PC for pressure control, LC for liquid level control, TC for temperature and CC, indicate level, for composition control.
Also, little squares with the characterizations LT, TT, PT, FT, CT are used to temperature, pressure, flow, and concentration measurements and
transmitters.
Figures 13.3a and 13.3b are equivalent to Figures 13.2b and
13.2d, respectively.
All feedback 1.
the
above
examples are
indicate the
that
the
basic
hardware
components
of
control
loop
following: where the physical or chemical etc.). temperature), plates operations
Process, the take place
material (tanks,
equipment heat or (for
exchangers,
reactors,
separators, (for
2.
Measuring bellows or
instruments diaphragms
sensors, like pressure or
thermocouples liquid level),
orifice
(for flow), gas chromatographs
or various types of spectroscopic
analyzers (for composition), etc. 3. Transmission to the lines, used and the to carry the measurement from be the either signal from the to sensor
controller
control
signal can
controller pneumatic
the
final control element. air 4. or liquid) it or also
These
lines
(compressed
electrical. includes the function of the comparator. This is
Controller,
the unit with logic that decides by how much to change the value of the manipulated value 5. / (set variable. point). a control that it by valve or a the variable-speed control adjusting signal the value It requires the specification of the desired
Final control element, usually metering from the the pump. This is and the
device
receives
controller manipulated
implements
physically
of
variable.
Each of the above elements should be viewed as a physical system with an input and an output. or Consequently, equivalently by their a behavior transfer can be described In the by a
different
equation
function.
following
sections of this chapter we will take a closer look at the dynamics of these hardware elements.
13.2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS Between the measuring device Its and the is final to control receive elements the comes the
controller (Figure 13.lb).
function
measured to
output the
signal y,(t) and after comparing it with the set point yd actuating value YSP' signal
produce
c(t) in such a way as to return the output to the desired the input to the controller is the error The various types of E(t) =
Therefore,
ysp - y,(t) while its output is c(t).
continuous
feedback controllers differ on the way they relate E(t) to c(t). The and an may output be a signal pneumatic one for of a feedback controller air) depends for on its construction or
signal
(compressed
pneumatic
controllers
electrical There are
electronic basic types and (c)
controllers. of feedback controllers; (a) proportional, The but their
three
(b)
proportional-integral of construction are essentially may
proportional-integral-derivative. among Let the us various study each manufacturers one
details functions A.
differ same. (or P
the
separately.
Proporational Its actuating c(t) =
Controller. output Kcc(t) is +
Controller) to the error, i.e. (13.1)
proportional cs
where K = controller proportional gain and cs = controller bias signal, c i.e. its actuating signal when E=O. A gain Kc proportional or PB The controller by is its described by the band, value PB of its proportional
equivalently = loo/Kc band
proportional
proportional
characterizes
the
range
over
which
the
error
must
change
in order to drive the actuating signal of the controller over its full range. Usually,
PB
<
500
It is clear that, "the larger the &ain Kc smaller the controller's c(t) of cs or the smaller signal the will by proportional be." band the
actuating the
Define the deviation c(t) and take, c(t) The last = =
actuating
signal
c(t)
K$t) yields the following transfer function for a
(13.2) proportional
equation
controller Gc(s> B. = Kc Controller (or PI Controller) Its (13.3)
Proportional-Integral
Most commonly it is known as proportional-plus-reset controller. actuating signal is related to the

KC -y-
error
by
the
equation, (13.4)
c(t)
KCW
c(t)dt
f
cs in to minutes. as
I where an r1
is the integral time or reset time parameter in and the is range sometimes
The reset time is per repeat.
adjustable it
referred
minutes
Usually
varies
0.1 I TI 5 50 minutes Some manufacturers do not calibrate their controllers in terms of TI but in terms of its reciprocal l/rI (repeats per minute), which is known as reset rate. At this point it is instructive to examine the origin of the term "reset". Consider that the error changes by a step of magnitude E. Figure 13.4 shows the response of the output of a controller as it is computed from eqn. (13.4).
3f3,
We observe that initially the controller output is Kc~ (the contribution of the integral term is zero). of the integral term Is K = 2 EATS = Kc~ r1 After a period of rI minutes the contribution
c(t)dt
i.e. the integral control action has "repeated" the response of the proportional action. This repetition takes place every TI minutes and has lent the name Therefore,
to the reset time.
"reset time is the time needed by the controller to repeat the initial proportional action change in its output." The integral action causes the controller output c(t) to change as long as an error exists in the process output. eliminate even small errors. From eqn. (13.4) it is easy to show that the transfer function of a proportional-integral (or proportional-plus-reset) controller is given by (13.5) Therefore, such a controller can
Gc(s>
C.
= Kc(l +-+-) I (or PID Controller)
ProportionalrIntegral-Derivative
In the industrial practice it is commonly known as proportional-glusreset-plus-rate controller.
The output of the controller is given by,
c(t)
where TD
Kc = K$t) + y
I
dc E(t)dt + Kc 'D dt
(13.6)
is the derivative time in minutes.
With the presence of the derivative term, Kc d&/dt, the PID controller anticipates what the error will be in the immediate future and applies a control action which is proportional to the rate of change in the error. Due to this
property,
control". The For a
the
derivative
control
action
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
"anticipatory 3
major
drawbacks with
of
the
derivative non-zero
control it
action gives no
are
the
following: action
response
constant
error
control
since dc/dt For and a thus noisy
= 0. response large with control almost zero error it it can is compute not large derivatives
yield
action,
although
needed.
From eqn. (13.6) we can easily derive the transfer function of a PID controller,
Gc(s>
= Kc(l+
-& + TDs) I
(13.7)
13.3
m~ME;AsuRING
The
DEVICES
(SENSORS) of any feedback of control the to system depends outupt The while in and a the very
successful manner upon
operation the of need good
critical
measurement measurement an
controlled the
uncorrupted requirement
transmission implies the
the for
controller. device
first the second
accurate
measuring
necessitates good and effective transmission lines. There is a large number of commercial sensors. They differ either in the
basic measuring principle they employ or their constructional characteristics. For more details the reader can consult the various references at the end of Part IV Let the A. most Flow The those The, or us the look technical more process booklets at circulated the various by the various sensors manufacturers. used to measure
closely
typical
common Sensors flow
outputs.
sensors measure
most the known
commonly
employed
in
the
industrial across a of
practice
are
which using
pressure (from
gradient fluid
developed
constriction. Bernoulli, we can
the
well
mechanics)
equation
compute
the
flow-rate.
Such sensors can be used for both gases and liquids. Venturi tube (Figure 13.5b) and Dal1 flow based on the above principle. The first
The orifice plate (Figure 13.5a), tube are typical examples of
sensors
is more popular due to its simplicity and low cost. expensive but also more accurate.
The last two are more
A different sensor is the turbine flow meter which uses the number of turbine revolutions sensors to have compute very the flowrate dynamics and of liquids are quite usually accurately. modeled by
Flow
fast
they
simple algebraic equations, i.e. Flow = where c1 the flow is a a&constant and point determined by the construction characteristics (13.8) of
sensor, and a
Ap is the pressure difference between the flow conwith fully developed flow.
striction B.
Pressure or Pressure Actuated Sensors Such sensors are used to measure the pressure of a process or the
pressure difference which is employed to compute a liquid level or a flowrate (orifice transducer device. plate, has Venturi become tube). very The variable Figure small capacitance shows differential a of schematic the pressure of such
popular. cause
ll.A-2
Pressure
differences
displacements
sensing
diaphragm, Thepositionof the sensing diaphragm is detected by capacitor plates the A on both sides of and the the the diaphragm. capacitor The plates differential is leads converted to the capacitance into a between voltage.
sensing force
diaphragm around
d-c
balance
sensing
diaphragm
following second-
order model 2 d2z 'cdt2 where dz dt
25~
Kp*Ap
(13.9)
is the P
the
displacement
of
the
sensing
diaphragm, and
AP T,C,K
actuating
pressure
difference,
are the +.hree case by the
parameters of a 2nd order system defined in this constructional of characteristics of the device.
For
details 11.
on
the
development other
eqn. (13.9) see Appendix ll.A at the end of of sensors, all of them measuring the dis-
Chapter
Various
types
placement of a mechanical part under the influence of Ap, are also in use. C. Temperature The most Sensors common All are thermocouples, resistance the measurement in terms bulb of thermometers electrical and
thermistors.
provide
signals.
Independently of their constructional differences their basic dynamic behavior can be examined in terms of the temperature profiles in Figure 13.6a and 13.6b. The temperature sensing element is always inside a thermowell, Figure 13.7.
In the first case (Figure 13.6a) transfer is located outside the
we assume that the major resistance to heat thermowell casing. In such case we have a
single capacity with resistance and as we know from Chapter 10, it is modeled by a first-order system, i.e.
dTm -+ =P dt In the second and case
Tm
T we have major This the heat is transfer film to two will
(13.10) resistances capacities exhibit
(Figure 13.6b) the we thermowell from
inside in
outside and as
casing. 11
equivalent
series
know
Chapter i.e.
thermocouple
reading
second-order
(overdamped)
behavior, dT -$
25~
+ Tm
= T
(13.11)
The parameters r and istics of eqn. of the
5 depend on the constructional and material charactersensing device (i.e. thermocouple, casing, materials
temperature
construction).
It is clear that the response of a thermocouple modeled by 13.8).
(13.11) is slower than that of a thermocouple modeled by (13.10)(Figure
D.
Composition
Analyzers and various the composition
Typical examples of such sensors are: gas chromatographs types of spectroscopiL analyzers. They are used to measure
of liquids or gases in terms of one or two key components or in terms of all components The (dead present dominant in in a process feature stream. of composition can be by time analyzers large. to is the time a the the delay
dynamic
time)
their column, to the
response, the time
which
quite the
Thus,
for
chromatographic process stream
required the
sample to
travel
from
column, plus
required
travel
through
column, plus the time needed by the detector at the end of the column to respond, control. Other operational features reliability characteristic (easy of composition and (b) analyzers their are; (a) their low can be quite large. Such long time delays result in ineffective
breakdown)
relatively
high
cost.
13.4 TRANSMISSION LINES These control mission are used to to carry final the measurement element. signal to the controller and the
signal
the
control
There are two types of transand the electrical. are very
lines; the the
pneumatic changes of
(compressed very a fast
air, liquids) or the
Unless long, from found the
process
transmission line
lines be
dynamic
behavior
pneumatic
transmission
can
neglected
consideration. that the
When the above assumptions do not hold, it has been transfer function correlates successfully the pressure
following
at the outlet (PO> to the pressure at the inlet (Pi) of the pneumatic line,
-Td s p,(s) e -=rps+l pi
with [Note:
r /T s 0.25. d P IN the subsequent chapters, as a rule, we will neglect the dynamics of
pneumatic transmissioLl
lines.]
13.5 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS These the and control adjust The are the hardware They the final components the of of the of control a loops which implement signal)
action. accordingly common
receive value control
output the
controller variable. valve
(actuating
manipulated is a
most
element
pneumatic
(Figure ll.A-3).
This is an air operated valve which controls the flow through an orifice by positioning appropriately a plug. The plug is attached at the end of a stem As the moves orifice. air down Such pressure and valve is (con-
which at the other end is supported on a diaphragm. troller output) the above plug the diaphragm the increases, flow the
stem the
consequently
restricts
through
known as an "air-to-close" valve (Figure 13.9a). diaphragm is lost, the valve will "fail are
If the air supply above the the spring with would push the
open" since
stem and the plug upward.
There
pneumatic
valves
opposite
actions,
i.e. "air-to-open" which 'Ifail closed" (Figure 13.9b).
The most commercial
valves move from fully open to fully closed as the air pressure at the top of the diaphragm changes from 13 to 15 psig. In dynamic order. fast term Appendix behavior 11-A of a we developed the mathematical valve. model which describes the
pneumatic
control
This was shown to be of second-
But, the response to changes of most small or medium size valves is so the dynamics which can be neglected. the output the flow In such case only a constant gain from the controller (air pressure
that will to
remain the
relates
signal) For
fluid
flow
through the
valve. through the valve is given by,
non-flushing F =
liquids
where AP K P f(x) The shape of = the pressure drop across the valve,
= a constant = = valve the specific valve flow plug's
which depends on the valve size, gravity of the flowing curve. depends the on the common flow geometrical types of liquid and
flow
characteristic
characteristic surface. Figure
curve, f(x), 13.10 Figure shows 13.11
most the
plugs and the corresponding f(x).
shows
capacity
characteristics for the various valves. Other final control elements motors include for fans relays or to start or stop various
equipment, variable-drive actuators, etc.
pumps, heavy
load
electrohydraulic
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Feedback processes. deviation adjust The is the most common configuration for the control of chemical
Its basic idea is to measure the controlled variable and use its from a desired of action the is value to activate the controller, through the which final is in turn will element. the
the
value
manipulated such that
variable the
control to
controller's set
output
variable
returned
desired
point. feedback (b) loop is composed sensor, Each and of the following (d) hardware final be components; element as a
Every (a)
process,
measuring
(c) of
controller, elements
control
and (e) transmission lines. physical system with input
these
should
considered can be
output.
Their
dynamic
behavior
modeled
using the same principles as in Part II, and as we will see in Chapter 14, it is very The Integral crucial three (PI for types or the of closed-loop feedback response of the controlled process.
control
are; Proportional (P), Proportionaland Proportional-Integral-Derivative
Proportional-plus-Reset)
(PID
or
Proportional-plus-Reset-plus-Rate). varies and will be extensively their of
Their in
effect Chapter and
on
the
closed-loop In the same
response chapter
analyzed
14.
we
will is The a
also study great
relative measuring
advantages devices element find in
disadvantages. and final but it and handcontrol
There elements. requires
variety of the the
(sensors) is
selection which
appropriate can
important
information
reader
technical
manuals
books and are beyond the scope of this text.
THINGS 'TO THINK ABOUT 1. From all that you know so far, what a 2. feedback one control example system? of; (a) flow control, (b) pressure control, (c) are the strengths and weaknesses of
Describe
liquid level control, (d)
temperature control, (e) composition control,
and which are not the same as the examples covered in this chapter. Draw the appropriate diagrams. 3. Define open, 4. What an open-loop loop? basic hardware control of and Also closed-loop define an system. Why do or we use the term; response. loop? the
closed, are the the
open-loop of in a a
closed-loop control loop for
hardware elements a
components present tank
feedback feedback
Identify
temperature 5. Write
stirred for two
heater. of a Venturi tube and show
Bernoulli's
equation
points
how you can compute the flowrate pressure difference between the
through the tube by measuring the two points, i.e. prove the essence of
eqn. (13.8). 6. The model for a variable capacitance pressure transducer It shows was that developed the system What
in Appendix ll.A and is given by eqn. (13.9). is does 7. Is inherently this it mean second-order for to the have and can exhibit of such behavior
underdamped device? by the
response.
applicability an
possible
oscillatory
indicated (T)
tem-
perature (T,) of a thermocouple, if changes by a step? 8. Discuss if you some would of the an factors you
the
measured
temperature
should or
take
into
account, pneumatic
before control
deciding valve.
use
air-to-close
air-to-open
9.
Compute ramp the On
the
response in the of this
of error the
a
E,
PD
(Proportional-Derivative)
controller
to Sketch
change
i.e. E = at and the
with 01 = constant. derivative anticipatory actions nature of
contributions the basis of
proportional discuss
separately. the
example
derivative 10. Consult factors
control 6
term. (Chapter the 15) and of 7 (Chapter valve 10) type, and discuss the
References which
affect
selection
the
i.e.
linear,
square root, equal percentage and hyperbolic. 11. When an error E(t) persists for a long time the value of the integral significantly and may value. lead We the say output that of the a PI con-
Idt)dt troller
increases to its
maximum
allowable
controller
has saturated and in physical terms it means that the valve is fully open before or closed error before has the been control driven action to zero. has been completed, is i.e. also known
the
This
situation
as reset windup. How would you handle such a situation? You can consult References 7 and 15.
COtiTROLLER --------- MECHAtil - - _ _Sti _ _ r CWJTROUER tt)
FINAL CONTfZOL ELEMENT
a. , . ,.J ;>:a.
Y
- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _:
Y?lL
U&VICE
t&&WiSW - Conlroll~~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I
?I
PP cell LiL Orif iCf2
~Ficpre
13.31
cs
..
.. . ..
. .w . > time
g%-,
;--Alp---,
_-.. ._-
Prcc ess
Trmpautun -I-
ExtfAcd film.
wsi sbw2, 6. c a.)
_7t?
Square
700 +
I Figure
/3.10(
0.B 0.3
0.6
CHAPTER 14 THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLED PROCESSES
In system analyze control yd
the and the
previous we
chapter its
we
defined
the
basic
notion
of
feedback
control
discussed
hardware of a of be
components. which is
In this chapter we will controlled d or by of a feedback set of point
dynamic when This
behavior the
process the
system
values will
disturbance by
(load)
the
change.
analysis
done
considering
various
types
feed-
back controllers, i.e. P or PI or PID.
14.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND THE CLOSED-LOOP RESPONSE

Consider each and of final its its the four generalized components; element, we to
tmds
closed-loop process, can write In
system measuring the
shown
in
Figure
13.lb.
For
device,
controller transfer neglect the
mechanism function dynamics
control output
corresponding we
relating of the
its
inputs.
particular, if
transmission l-es,
we have:
Process
y<s>
Measuring Device Y,(s) Controller
= Gp(s) iii(s) + Gd(S) a(s)
(14.1)
= G,(s)
y(s)
(14.2)
Mechanism E(S) C(s) = Y,,b> E(S) Ym<s> comparator control action (14.3a) (14.3b)
= Gc(s)
Final Control Element G(s) where G inputs = Gf(s) Z(s) are the transfer functions between the
(14.4)
corresponding
P' Gd, Gm, Gc, Gf outputs.
and
Figure
14.1
shows
the
block
diagram
for
the
generalized
closed-loop
system
and it is nothing else but a pictorial representation of eqns. (14.1), (14.2), (14.3a) and (14.3b) the block The G
C
hnd (14.4). of Figure block
Notice
the
direct
correspondence
between
diagram series of
14.1 and the schematic of Figure 13.lb. comparator and the controlled output, i.e.
between the
and G constitutes the forward path, while the block Gm is on the P feedback path between the controlled output and the comparator, If G= Gf then Figure 14.2a shows a simplified but equivalent version of the
GcGfGp block
diagram. Algebraic m(s) manipulation of the above equations yields: (14.3b) (14.3a)
= Gf (s)C(s) = Gf(s)Gc(s>
= Gf WGc(s>3s> [j;,,(s) - T,(s) 1
= Gf(s)Gc(S)[~Sp(s)
Put the last expression in eqn.
- G,(4Tb)l
(14.2)
(14.1) [y,,(s) - G,(s)y(s) 1) + Gd(s);i(s)
3s) = Gp(s)(Gf and after readjustment
(s)G=(s) take;
GpbNf (s)G,(s) () =
4+Gp(s)Gf(s)Gc(s)Gm(s) S+)
Gd(S)
+4+Gp(s)Gf(s)G,(s)Gm(s) ()
(14.5) Equation (14.5) gives the closed-loop response of the process. We notice that it is composed of two terms. The first term shows the effect on the
output of a change in the set point while the second constitutes the effect on the output of a change in the load (disturbance). functions are known as closed-loop G l+GG m transfer functions. The In corresponding particular transfer
GpGfGc l+GGGG p f c m
'
GSP
(14.6)
is the closed-loop transfer function for a change in the set point and
Gd l+GGGG p f c m is the a For closed-loop block every
Gd ' 1 + GGm = function to for
GLOAD a change of can in the load. but two
(14.7) Figure 14.2b further types of simplified. control
transfer
shows
diagram feedback servo or
equivalent control the
that we
Figure 14.2a distinguish
system
problems; the Servo set
regulator
problem.
Problem; the disturbance does not change, i.e. j(s) = 0 while the undergoes a change. The feedback controller acts in such a way
point
as to keep y T(s) A
close to the changing yd. GspWs;sp(s)
In such case, (14.8) &+> = 0 while
- Regulator Problem; the set point remains the same, i.e. the load changes. Then ii(s) tries to eliminate the impact
Y(s) and the
= GLOAD(S) controller
(14.9) of the load
feedback
changes and keep y at the desired set point. Remark: The closed-loop overall transfer functions GSP and GLOAD on the dynamics elements. load of the measuring sensors, the the controllers and depend final for set
control point whose or
Consequently, depends on
closed-loop dynamics of
response these
changes
elements
selection
becomes
therefore
critical.
Example
14.1 -
The Closed-Loop Response of the Liquid Level in a Tank liquid level control system for the tank of Figure 14.3a.
Consider
the
The level h is the controlled output while Fi is the load (disturbance) and F. the manipulated variable. The transfer functions for each component
of the feedback loop are:
Process.
The
material
balance -F
around
the
tank
gives
Adh=F dt i and easily we find that
K(s) = -& Fi(S) - & Fob>

Measuring transducer h. Device. (section This 13.3) can be a variable the capacitance of a differential liquid column
(14.10) pressure of height
measuring
pressure
The dynamic response of the sensor is given by eqn. (13.9). Let Ap = a*h is a constant. Then take,
where a
T2 -+2&$+2= d2z dt2 where the z - hm, i.e. function the for value the Kpoa Eim(s> = T2S2 + 2qLs + 1 Controller. Let hSP
Kp*Ap by
Kp*a*h
indicated sensor is:
the
measuring
device.
Therefore,
transfer
i;(s)
(14.11)
be the set point.
Then,
Z(s)
= $pw
- Grnw
and for a PI controller (eqn. (13.5))
F(s)
Control Valve. response is that
= Kc(l
(14.12)
Let us assume that for the control valve of this system, the of a first-order system, i.e. (14.13)
Fo()
Figure transfer 14.3b
% = qTi c(s)
the for block each diagram for of the the closed-loop loop. The system, with
shows
the response functions
functions
component
closed-loop the transfer
of the liquid level will be given by eqn. (14.5)
where
P' Gd, Gm, Gc and Gf when the inlet flowrate point.
are shown in Figure 14.3b. Fi
The servo problem arises
remains constant and we change the desired set
In this case the controller acts in such a way as to keep the liquid
level h, close to the changing desired value hSF. On the other hand, for the regulator problem the set point hSF remains the same and the feedback
controller acts in such a way as to eliminate the impact of the changing load and keep h at the desired value hSP.
Example 14.2 - The Closed-Loop Temperature Response of a Tank Heater Consider the temperature control system for the heater of Figure 14.4a. The temperature T is the controlled output while the inlet temperature Ti is the load and the steam temperature is the manipulated variable. The transfer functions for each component of the feedback loop are: Process. If T, Ti and Ts are deviation variables, then from eqn. (9.8)
the response of the process is given by T(s) = g T,(s) + & Tp The parameters r, a Temperature Sensor (14.14)
and K have been defined in Examples 5.1 and 9.1. (thermocouple). Assume that the response of the thermoThus, (14.15)
couple is very fast and its dynamics can be neglected. T,(s) = K,T(s)
Controller. Let Td be the set point. Then, -(s) = T,,(s) Tm(s) (14.16a)
and for a proportional controller the actuating output is given by,
E(s)
= Kc?(s)
(14.16b)
Control Valve. f(s)
Assume first-order dynamics, i.e. = & C(s)

V
(14.17)
Figure 14.4b shows the block diagram for the closed-loop system with the transfer functions for each component of the loop. is easily found to be, The closed loop response
T(s)
= Gsp(s>Tsp(s)
+ GLOAD(s)
Q(s)
and GLOAD' are defined as
where the closed-loop transfer functions, GSP follows:
Gsp(4
&I [Kc 1 [-&I

1+ [-s;al [Km1 [Kc1 [-q&l
V
and
rg1 GLoAD(4 =
1+[.;a1 [Km1 [Kc1 &I
V
Remark:
To expedite the construction of the overall closed-loop transfer functions for any feedback control loop use the following rules: (1) The denominator of the overall transfer functions for both the load and the set point changes is the same. given by 1 + Product of the transfer functions in the loop i.e. l+GGGG pmcf' (2) The numerator of an overall closed-loop transfer function is the product of the transfer functions on the forward path between the set point or the load and the controlled It is
output.
Thus;
- The transfer functions on the forward path between the set point ysp and output y are: Gc, Gf and Gp. Therefore
the numerator is
G;Gf lGp
- The transfer functions on the forward path between the load d and the output is only Gd. Thus, the corresponding numerator is:
Verify these two rules with the overall closed-loop transfer functions GSP and
GLoAD ( =w l
(14.6) and (14.7)).
Also, these rules can be used to
formulate the closed-loop transfer function between an input anywhere in the loop and the output.
14.2 THE EFFECT OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ON THE RESPONSE OF A CONTROLLED PROCESS Let us now examine how the response of a normal, uncontrolled process is changed when a simple proportional, integral or derivative feedback controller is incorporated. In this section we will consider only the proportional con-
troller and its effect on the most commonly encountered first- and second-order systems. The effects of integral and derivative control actions will be
studied in the following two sections. The closed-loop response of a process is given by eqn. (14.5). To simplify the analysis assume that G,(s) = 1 and Gf(s) = 1
Also, for a proportional controller GJs) = KC
and eqn. (14.5) yields: Gp(s) *Kc y(S) A. First-Order = 1 + Gp(s)*Kc Y,,(s) Systems + G&d 1 + Gp(s)*Kc &s> (14.18)
For first-order systems =p dt + y which gives 3s) K = *ii(s) P + + &s)
L-!Y
= Kpm + kdd
with y(O)=m(O)=d(O)=O ,
Thus, for the uncontrolled system we have: - Time constant, 'c - Static gains; Kp Put Gp(s) = K A Tps+l and Gdb) Kd = 1: P P' for the manipulation and Kd for the load.
in eqn. (14.18) and take the closed-loop response, j;(s) =
KpKC
~~s+l + K K PC
Kd Y,pb> + =P"+l + K PC K
a(s)
Rearrange the last equation and take, j;(s) where = K' -q-- 7 (s) rps+l SP + & a(s) (14.19)
% -i&tK K K' P and =
(14.20a)
PC (14.2Ob)
1 +PKCK PC
K;
Kd l+KK PC
(14.20~)
The parameters K' and "ii are known as closed-loop static gains. P From eqn. (14.19) we conclude that the closed-loop response of a firstorder system has the following characteristics: (i> (ii) It remains first-order with respect to load and set point. which means that The time constant has been reduced, i.e. r' < -c P P the closed loop response has become faster with respect to changes in the set point and the load (see Section 10.4 for the effect of the time constant). (iii) The static gains have been decreased. To gain a better insight on the effect of the proportional controller, consider unit-step changes in the set point (servo problem) and the load (regulator problem) and examine the resulting closed-loop responses. For the servo problem, S;,,(s) = l/s and a(s) = 0. K'
sits1 = r;+l l i
Then, eqn. (14.19) yields
P and after inversion we find

-t/T
y(t)
= Ki(l - e
')
(14.21)
Figure 14.5a shows the response of the closed-loop system to a unit-step change in the set point. We notice that: t*, never reaches the desired new
"The ultimate response, after set point. equal to
There is always a discrepancy called offset which is
offset = (new set point)-(ultimate value of the response) = 1 K' P 3 1 _ 1 KK +PKCK PC = 1 l+KK *'I PC
The offset is characteristic of the proportaional control. Kc becomes larger and theoretically offset _f 0 when KC-+'.
It decreases as
For the regulator problem, y,,(s) = 0. load, i.e. a(s) = l/s.
Consider a unit-step change in the
Then, eqn. (13.19) yields
and after inversion y(t) = Ki(l - e -t/T ' ')

We notice
Figure 14.5b shows this response to a unit-step change in the load.
agains that the proportional controller cannot keep the response at the desired set point but instead it exhibits an offset; offset = (old set point) - (ultimate value of response) = 0 Kd - l+KK PC
The benefit of the proportional control in the presence of load changes can be seen from Figure 14.5b. Although it cannot keep the process response at the
desired set point and introduces an offset, the response is much closer to the desired set point than would have been with no control at all. Furthermore, as we increase the gain Kc offset -4 0 Remarks: the offset decreases and theoretically, when Kc-=.
(1) Although the offset tends to zero as Kc + ~0, we will never use extremely large values of Kc trol. for proportional con-
The reason will become very clear in the next chapter
where we will study the stability of closed-loop systems.
337
(2) If Gm = Km and Gf = Kf the For offsets set become: unit-step
then it is easy to show that
point
changes
offset = 1 -
K K K Pcf l+KKKK p c f m
For load unit-step changes Kd l+KKKK p c f m still holds. we will examine that a only the the reader analysis has
offset = -
Remark (3) In the
(1)
above
subsequent for already the the
sections servo
response gained for
problem to
assuming repeat
facility problem.
similar
the
regulator
(4) Processes having the term l/s when they are controlled with
in
their
transfer
function, do
proportional
controller,
not exhibit offset for set point changes but they do for sustained strate load changes, e.g. feature step for changes. the liquid Let us demoncontrol
this
important
level
system shown in Figure 14.6a. and the level Fi. of is controlled by
The output F. is constant manipulating the inlet Fd. the
flowrate In terms
The load (disturbance) is the flowrate deviation variables the mass balance around
tank yields,
*dh =
dt
F;
F;
and in the Laplace
domain,
K(s)
= & F;(s) + & F;(s)
Therefore, Gp(s) Consider Gf = 1. = l/As control and for simplicity, is shown Gm in = Figure
proportional The
closed-loop
block
diagram
14.7b and gives:
P(s)
=
C
IL
l/Kc i;;,(s> + A
y- s+l
C
$ s+l
For a unit step change in the set point, i&(s) = l/s and F:(s) = 0. Then,
Ii(s)
=
C
l
+ s+l
From
the
final
value
theorem = 1
h'(t*) = lim [s L'(s)]

S-4
Therefore, offset = h& - h'(t*) = 1 - 1 = 0 For,a load

g(S)
unit
3
step
l/K A c
change,
K s+l
C
h'(t*)
lim
[sii(s)
1 = l/Kc
s-+0
Therefore, offset = 0 - l/K
C
-l/Kc
For liquid level control systems like the one of Figure 14.7a, usually we are not interested in maintaining the liquid level exactly at the desired value
but with a certain range.

acceptable
In such case the value of the offset l/Kc may be

Therefore,
for reasonably large Kc.
"liquid Similar
level
can can be
be
controlled reached for
effectively gas pressure
with
proportional whose
control." transfer
conclusion
systems
function also includes the term l/s. B.

Second-Order The transfer Systems function (servo for a Problem) second-order process is
Gp(s)
Y(s) m(s) in
P - 2 2 T s t 2STS + 1
and recalling that for the servo problem
Put
this
expression
eqn. (14.18)
d(s) = 0 we take, K' P (q2s2 + 23'~'~

where + 1
Y(s)
- L,,(s)
(14.22)
T J~+KK
(14.23a) PC
5 v'ltKK PC
(14.23b)
K
From the
KpKc
= l+KK PC we notice that the closed-loop response of a
(14.23~)
above
second-order
system with proportional control has the following characteristics: -
It
The
remains
static
second
gain
order.
decreases.
Both
an
the
natural
period
may
and
damping
factor
decrease.
This
implies with
that
overdamped
process
become
underdamped
(oscillatory)
proportional
control and appropriate value of K .
Consider a unit-step change in the set point, i.e. yd(s) = l/s. Then,
K' Ji(s> =
(,,)2s2
+
p Z<TS + 1
Depending on the value of 5' given by,
the inverse of the above expression may be
- eqn. (11.7) for the overdamped case, <' > 1, or - eqn. (11.8) for the critically damped case, 5' = 1, or - eqn. (11.9) for the underdamped case, <' I 1. Independently though of the particular value of r,', the ultimate value of y(t) is given by the final value theorem (Section 7.5). Thus, KK Y(t-> = lim [s y(s)] = K; =
s-to
1 +PKCK P C
Consequently, we notice again the presence of offset

offset =
(new set point) lK K PC l+KK PC K

C
(ultimate 1 l+KK PC
value
of
response)
Again,
offset -+ 0
for
--+
0~.
Remarks:
(1) Depending on the value of the damping factor 5 for the
uncontrolled second-order system, eqn. (14.23b) shows that 5' 5 1. If 5'>1 the overdamped response of the Therefore, we prefer Then, the
closed-loop system is very sluggish. to increase the value of Kc
and make r' < 1.
closed-loop response reacts faster but it becomes oscillatory.

Also, by increasing Kc the offset decreases. (2) The increase in the speed of system's response and the decrease at the in the offset,both of higher vary desirable (maximum features, errors) come and
expense
overshoots
longer
oscillating
responses.
Thus, as Kc
increases
causing 5' from while eqn. eqn.
to decrease (11.11) we see that the overshoot increases
(11.12)
shows
that shows
the
decay the
ratio
also of
increases. oscillation
Finally,
eqn. (11.13)
that
period
for the closed-loop response decreases as r;' All the above features are demonstrated in Figure 14.7.
decreases.
14.3 THE EFFECT OF INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION In this section we will repeat a similar analysis to that of the previous section whelm our but the using integral with the instead repetition systems of of and proportional algebraic for the = controller. manipulations servo problem Not to overwe will limit
reader to
attention
first-order
only.
Recall that for the servo problem, d(s) G G G S(s) for = i-+ :pif:cGm 'd(')
0, and eqn. (14.18) yields: (14.24)
Let
simplicity Gm = Gf = 1 we have
For
first-order G P
process
K z-f-..-. Tps+l integral = Kc& I P' Gc, Gf in eqn. (14.24) by their equals and take: control action,
while
simple
Gc
Substitute Gm, G
B(s)
(--IF_ TKS+PK c 1) TIS P 1+ (--TK:+l)(K A)
Y,,(s)
or
Y(s)
where
1
l j,,(s)
(14.25)
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
T =
PC 5 Equation "it Thus,
becomes = 1 ? -z J TKK PPC
(14.26a)
(14.26b) in important of effect for of the the integral control response" the closed-loop action,
(14.25)
increases a
indicates the
order
dynamics
closed-loop response of
for
first-order
order and
uncontrolled
consequently
process, the
it may have
second
drastically
different
dynamic 12.1 that
characteristics. by increasing
Furthermore, the order of
as a
we
have
seen
in
Section becomes
11.3 more
and
system
its
response
sluggish.
Thus , control action

system
"integral
the
alone
more
is ecpected
sluggish."
to
make
the
response
of
closed-loop
Let
us
examine
the
dynamic
behavior From 1 . s
of eqn.
the
closed-loop we
system
when
the
set point changes by a unit step.
(14.25)
take:
T(s)
1
T2S2 + 2STS + 1
The shape of the response y(t) depends on the value of 5 (overdamped, critically be found damped, or from the underdamped) but the ultimate 7.5), value i.e. of the response can
final-value
theorem
(Section
y(t->
s-to
lim [s y(s)] = lim

s-to [ r2s2+
25TS + 11
1 = 1
Therefore, offset This indicates = the 1 most 1 = 0 effect of integral action, i.e.
characteristic
"integral control action eliminates any offset." The reader can verify easily that for the regulator problem the integral con-
trol action produces a second-order closed-loop response zero offset. (1) Equation (14.26b) indicates that
and leads again to
Remarks:
the form of the closed-
loop response (i.e. overdamped, critically damped, underdamped) depends on the values of the controller gain Kc and restt time rI. Therefore, tunign the integral control action for a n d -cI is an important question
the appropriate values of K C
and will be discussed in Chapters 15 and 18. (2) From eqn. (14.26b) we observe that as Kc increases the The consequences of decreasing
damping factor < decreases. 5 are: The

to
response
faster but
moves
in
general
from
sluggish
overdamped
oscillatory
underdamped
behavior.
- The overshoot and the decay ratio of the closed-loop response both increase (see eqns. (11.11) and (11.12)
and
Figure 11.3). Therefore, we conclude that we can improve the speed of the
closed-loop response at the expense of higher deviations and longer oscillations.

characteristics for set
Figure
14.8
summarized
the
above
point
changes.
(3) From eqn. (14.26b) 5 decreases too.
we also observe that as -CT decreases, The consequences of decreasing I on
the closed-loop response will be as above in Remark 2, i.e. increased spped comes at the expense of higher overshoots and long oscillations. effects very clearly. Figure 14.9 demonstrates these
(4) The conclusions drawn by Remarks 1 and 2 above can be restated as follows: "increasing the integral control action, i.e. increasing Q and decreasing rI, the response of the closed-
loop system becomes more sensitive." In the next chapter we will see that such trends lead to instability of the closed-loop response. 14.4 THE EFFECT OF DERIVATIVE CONTROL ACTION For derivative GC = control action alone we have
K/TDS
Assuming again for simplicity, Gm = Gf = 1, the closed-loop response of a first-order system with K
I? ___ T l Kc(y) U(s) =
derivative
control
action
is
given
by
K 1+-J--* y+l
s+1
Ysp(s) KckDs)
or Y(s) Equation derivative (14.27) control = (= KpKcDS +KK-c)s+l P pcD to the has following on the (14.27) on the of effects a that the
Y,,(s) observations
leads
action
closed-loop
response
system:
(5)
The derivative control does not change the order of the response. In the above example it has remained first order.
TaQ .4 ..j L _*
(ii)
For
unit-step
change
in
the
set
point
eqn. (14.27) yields,
j;(s) with an
KK-rs pcD (TV + KpKc D)s + 1 * : value,
ultimate
r
Y ( t-m>
= lim [s SO
Y(s)1
= lim s-to
+ K K ~ >S pcD i
l$lKcTDS
and offset = This is an l0 =l. result and demonstrates that,
important
Ifderivative state the
control action does not affect the final steady system approaches, i.e. it does not reduce to
offset". (iii) From eqn. (14.27) it is clear that the effective time constant of the closed-loop response is (rp + K K T ),
PCD
i.e. larger than r .

P
This than
means that
that of
the the the
response original effective
of
the
controlled process.
process
is
slower
first-order time slower. to
Furthermore, as Kc and the response
increases becomes Remarks: (1)
constant
increases
progressively It is very action
instructive on the
examine of
the a
effect
of
the
derivative
control
response Gf
second-order
system.
Assuming again that Gm = for the servo problem is, K
= 1, the closed-loop response
y(s)
P 2 2 + 25TS + 1 T s K
P
Kc~D~ ~ - K&9 Kc~D~
l+ or
22 T s + 25TS + 1
f(s)
2
T s
KpKcTDS
l Y,,(s)
+ (25~ + K K -c )s + 1 pcD we of observe the that, response remains
From -
the
last
equation period
the the
natural same
closed-loop
while,
- the new damping factor 5' is given by Z<'T i.e. T' > 5 Therefore, the closed-loop response is more damped This and the = 25-c + K K r pcD
damping increases as KC or -CD istic produces more robust
increase. by the
character-
behavior
controlled
process. (2) The decrease in the speed of the response and the increase in the damping demonstrate that the derivative control
action, "produces more stable and robust behavior by the
controlled
process."
14.5 THE EFFECT OF COMPOSITE CONTROL ACTIONS Although case for proportional or control can be used alone, this is almost never the
integral
derivative
control
actions.
Instead, proportional-
integral (PI) and proportional-integral-derivative (PID) are the usual controllers A. The employing Effect of of on integral PI and derivative modes of control.
Control and of integral a control modes system: lead to the
Combination following effects
proportional the
response
closed-loop
The The
order offset R
C
of is
the
response
increases (effect of
(effect integral
of
integral
mode).
eliminated
mode). proportional
- A s
increases the response becomes faster (effect of
mode, see eqn. (4.20a) and more oscillatory to set point changes,, i.e. the overshoot and decay a ratio very increase sensitive (effect response of and integral may mode). to Large instability
values of Kc (see -As Chapter -rI
create 15).
lead
decreases, for constant Kc, the with higher overshoots and
response
becomes
faster of
but
more
oscillatory mode).
decay
ratios
(effect
integral
B.
The
Effect
of of
PID the
Control three the control modes leads dynamic now to a closed-loop as response those
Combination which has in from
general PI
same alone.
qualitative Let us
characteristics the main
resulting
control
describe
benefit
introduced by the derivative control action. We have seen that the presence of integral control slows down the closedloop response of a process. To increase the speed of the closed-loop we But increasing enough Kc in
increase the value of the controller gain Kc.
order to have acceptable speeds, the response becomes more oscillatory and may lead to instability. stabilizing speed by effect selecting to an The the introduction system. of the we for derivative can the achieve gain mode brings a response
Thus, value
acceptable
appropriate
K C while
maintaining
moderate oversh-ots and decay ratios. Figure 14.10 summarizes the effect of a PID controller on the response
of a controlled process.
Notice that although increasing Kc
leads to faster
responses,
shorter.
the overshoot remains almost the same and the settling time is
Both are results of the derivative control action.
SUMMARY The
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS of a feedback controlled process is affected by the
dynamic
response
dynamic
behavior
of
all
and
the
final for
elements
control set
in
the
loop,
The
i.e.
form
process,
of the
measuring
closed-loop, (eqn. (14.6))
sensor, controller
overall transfer
element. or load
function
point
changes,
i.e.
GSP
and
GLO~D
With
(eqn.
respect
(14.7)),
to the
indicate
effect
this
that
very
clearly.
types of feedback controllers
the
various
have
on
the
dynamic
response
of
closed-loop
system,
we
can
observe
the
following:
The proportional control action, (a) does not change the order of the closed-
loop
time
dynamic
response
The
while
most
(b)
serious
it
makes
drawback
it
of
faster
by
decreasing
control
the
alone
dominant
is
constant.
proportional
its
inability
to
reject
completely
the
This
effect
is
of
disturbance
by the
or
track
very
of response.
closely
an The offset
changes in the set point. between the desired set
demonstrated the order
presence
point changes always
and the the
closed-loop of the The
ultimate closed-loop first
integral
control and
action, (a) (b)
dynamic
response
eliminates
offset.
character-
istic
is
of
particular
simple
importance
first-order The even is
since
it
slows
down
the
response
while
behavior
processes
with
dynamics may
acquire
oscillatory
and
even
is
become
needed
unstable.
wherever
second
small the
feature
indicates
(errors) that respect
that
are
integral
control
action The and
deviations only one With
undesirable. future effect on errors the
derivative takes
control
action
anticipates to its
appropriate
corrective
action.
closed-loop
closed-loop stabilizing
response
dynamics effect.
we
and
notice
(b)
that, (a) it does not change the order of

for higher proportional gain due to its
allows
THINGS TO THINK BOUT 1. Develop one the block diagram of a generalized feedback control system with
disturbance, incorporating in each block the appropriate -ransfer and the on each stream the appropriate for set variable. and load changes. Can the
function 2. 3. Develop
closed-loop
responses
point
Repeat items 1 and 2 above for a process with two disturbances. feedback controller in physical handle terms simultaneous the servo and changes in both control loads?
4. 5.
Define
regulator
problems.
The following block diagram (Figure Q.14-1) corresponds to a control system with two loops. I c* , -- r" _ -.. ._ -.. .s cw .I ; -..
_I--.--I-____
Figure Reduce Q.14-2) the above block diagram to a 4.14-l simpler one like the following (Figure
by identifying the appropriate transier functions G1, G2 and G3.
Figure
0.14-2
6.
What
are
the
relative
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
the
proportional,
integral and derivative control actions? effects 7. The loop on the closed-loop control response to a of a
What are their characteristic process? static gain for the closed(see
proportional response
leads to the
lower of
compared
gain
the
uncontrolled
process
eqns. (14.20b and (14.20~)). for from 8. What the controlled 10.4. order PI of the process?
Is a lower gain more favorable or less Recall the definition of the static gain
Section is the with
closed-loop Can the TI

PI
dynamic control on the
response
for
second-order a process? of a
process 9.
control?
destabilize closed-loop
such
Discuss the effects of Kc process controlled with PI.
and
response
10.
Discuss the effects of Kc, a process controlled with PID.
TV
and
TV
on
the
closed-loop
response
of
11.
Consider a first-order process. loop responses with their adjustable item

one PI and
Could
you
have
almost
the
same
closed-
PID controllers and appropriate values of
parameters? above but for a second-order process.
12.
13.
Repeat
Which
11
of
the
three
controllers, P,
PI, PID, would give more robust
closed-loop response to an underdamped second-order system?

14.
Integral
control
or
action
less,
makes
process,
(a)
faster
or
slower,
(b)
more
oscillatory
(c) with larger deviations from the set point or
smaller? Explain your answers. 15. Repeat item 14 above but for derivative control action.
r PROCESS ---- ---
do) ----_, 2-L I

-
CONTROLLER
CoN-rRO~ ELEMENT
L-------- _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
ym CSI
Gm,
MEASURlr\lG
DEVICE
Fi
L-s-)
i,- _ _ ---a------_ yd(+) L-3 4
+Kc '
I F i g we
14.51
I Fi g ure
14-r
L---------
----
CHAPTER STABILITY ANALYSIS OF
15 FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
In
Chapter
14 we
examined
the
dynamic
characteristics
of
the
response
of
closed-loop systems and developed the closed-loop transfer functions which determine the dynamics of such systems. It is important to emphasize again
that the presence of measuring devices,-________controllers and -----._--___. final control elements change -the dynamic characteristics of an process. _ - uncontrolled ----_.--.---__
Thk~s , non-
oscillatory first-order processes may acquire oscillatory behavior with PI control. Oscillatory second-order processes may become unstable with a Pl
C
controller and unfortunate selection of K Xhile and tuning designing its a feedback are control
and
TI'
system,
i.e.
selecting about its
its
components
controller, we Therefore, control
seriously we proceed
concerned with
stability details of
characteristics. designing a
before
the
particular
feedback
loop, we will study the notion of stabilitv and
analyze the stability characteristics of closed-loop systems. 15.1 THE NOTION 0.F STABILITY In tem its was Section 1.2 we introduced a simple-minded notion of stability. A sys-
considered
unstable
if, after it had been disturbed by an input change, Figure 1.6 shows
output took off and did not return to a state of rest.
typical outputs for unstable processes. unstable operation of a

How CSTR.
Example 1.2 also described the
do we define a stable or unstable system? on the mathematical rigorousness of the
There
are
different and its
ways,
depending
definition
practical
utility for realistic applications. definition which is often known as
In this text we will employ the following the bounded input, .-bounded output stabilitv. ---.-.L
"A dynamic system i.s considered to be stable if for every bounded input it produces a 1~o11nc~~d wt.put , regardless of its initial state." E7ery
f:n'l..led systcm wllicki is not stnhlr T0 input complete wl~ich the always according tr? t11t ti~finition, remains alcove drl'inition that. upper and a lower Iknit wi1.1. be
unstable. is an
consider an
bounded
between
( 12 I g . si.nitsoidal , step but not the ramp), and that

~.&2)o~ln+.if~il 01.1 tptitc; exist. c-n1 y
in tl;t:c~r-y
and nr?t
in pr:3~tice
b~~.a~lse
all.
/,*5ys i :x1
rlilantit i<":
31'e
!.imited.
Thwefort:,
the t crm unl~oiindecl
means y:er!
? xr F e Accord-in::
F'jgure
t:!) tllc above def j.nition, a

ic:
A
system
with
response
like
those
of
1ij.l~
stabtt
while
Figure 15.lb
shows the rpspnnses of unstable
'T-f '3 ! "Ills *
1.-t 11.5 consjder j tr c!priamiI*
a tiv2ami7
system with input m
and output
y-
7.'h en )
bci~nvior can be described by a transfer function )I(sj = c(sj fiiis)
C(sj,
Tn Section 9.4 we concluded tbnt if then it gives rise to a term c1 e Pt an unstable process system. or it %P
G(s) has a pole with positive real part which grows continuously with time, thus
producing an
The transfer function G(s) can correspond to can Or be the closed-loop Therefore. transfer the function of a of
uncontrolled
controlled
system, e.g.
GLOAD'
stability
analysis
a system can be treated in a unified way independently if it is controlled or llncont

rolled.
The location of the poles of a transfer function gjves

criterion
us the first
for checking the stability of a system: the transfer function of a dynamic system has even one pole with real part, the system is unstable."
"If
positive Therefore,
al.1 poJes
of a transfer function must be in the left-hand part of a
complex plane.
Example 15.1 - Stabilization of an Unstable Process With P Control Consider a process with the following response,
Y(s) = ; iii(s) + & m

Clearly, this pole at process is Figure unstable 15.2a because shows its the transfer response of function the possesses a s = 1> 0. uncontrolled
system to a unit-step change in the load character. Let us Assume introduce that for a feedback the
d which verifies its unstable control system and with the proportional final control
control only. element G Figure 15.3 The our m
measuring
sensor
= shows
Gf the
=l block diagram of the of the closed-loop is given by system. eqn. (15.5) which for
closed-loop becomes:
response
system
system
3(s) From the last G
lO*Kc = s _ (1 - 10K ) %P(') + C equation we 10-K conclude that the
5*Kc s - (1 - 10Kc) closed-loop 5-K d(s) functions
transfer
C
SP
s - (1 -
;O*Kc)
'
GLOAD
s - (1 - lo-Kc) original system can be
have negative pole if Kc > l/10. Therefore, the stabilized with simple proportional control. response Compare effect of it of the to the controlled the behavior system of to the a
Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic change system in and the load for Kc=l. the stabilizing
unit-step
uncontrolled
realize
controller.
Example
15.2 - Destabilization a second-order =

S2
of
Stable with
Process the
with
PI
Control function
Consider
process
following
transfer
Gp(d The system has Pl = Therefore, a unit-step
1 +2s+2 poles and our the a have criterion with negative P2 = the real parts
two
complex
-1 + j to in
-1 - j is stable. Indeed, if we make
according change
system
input, the response of the system is as shown in PI the controller. following Let the measuring functions: element and the
Figure 15.4a. final control G,(s) The closed-loop
Introduce element
transfer
= Gf (s) = 1 . response to set point changes is given by,
GG
P(s) = 1 +PGCG l j,,(s) = Gsp-Ysp(s>
PC To examine the stability of the closed-loop response we have to find where
the poles of GSP are located.

, .L
s2+2s+2 GpGc GSP = l+GG= pcl+ ' ,2+2s+2 Let KC = 100 and and the
T s+l . Kc m-i!?s
KC(71s+1)/71 K -I- 2 =I
rIS+l = .Ks3 + 2s2 + (2+Kc)s c -rIs
"I roots
= 0.1 of the polynomial
Then, the poles of GSP + 2s2
S3
+ (2 + 100)s + g .
which are found to be P 1 = -7.185 p2 = 2.59 + j(ll.5) and p3 = 2.59 - j(11.5)
Example 15.1 - Stabilization of an Unstable Process With P Control Consider a process with the following response,
Y(s)
Clearly, this pole at
= $+ ii(s) +
process is Figure unstable 15.2a because shows its the transfer response of function the possesses a
s = 1> 0.
uncontrolled
system to a unit-step change in the load character. Let us Assume introduce that for a feedback the
d which verifies its unstable control system and with the proportional final control
control only. element Gm Figure 15.3 The our
measuring
sensor
= shows
Gf
1 block diagram of the of the closed-loop is given by system. eqn. (15.5) which for
the
closed-loop becomes:
response
system
system
lO.Ke Y(s) From the last = s - (1 - 10Kc) %P(') + we conclude that the
5KC s - (1 - 10Kc) '(') closed-loop transfer functions
equation
lO*K G SP =
s - (1 - ;O*Kc) ' GLOAD = the
5*K
s - (1 -clO*Kc) original system can be
have negative pole if Kc > l/10. stabilized
Therefore, control.
with
simple
proportional
Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic
response of the controlled system to a unit-step change in the load for Kc=l. Compare effect it of to the the behavior of the uncontrolled system and realize the stabilizing
controller.
Example
15.2
Destabilization second-order
of
Stable with
Process the
with
PI
Control function
Consider
process
following
transfer
GpW
The system has Pl = Therefore, a unit-step
=
two
1 s2 +2s+2 complex poles and our the a have criterion with negative real parts
-1 + j to in
p2 = -1 - j the system is stable. Indeed, if we make
according change
input, the response of the system is as shown in PI the = 1 . set point changes is given by, controller. following Let the measuring functions: element and the
Figure 15.4a. final control
Introduce element
transfer
G,(s)
The closed-loop
= Gf(s) response to
P(s)
To examine
GG +PGCG - s;,,(s> PC
Gsp*YspW
the stability of the closed-loop response we have to find where are located. rIS+l l Kc v T s+l 'Kc&I =
the poles of GSP
1 GpGc G SP = l+GG= PC ,2+2s+2 1+
K$y+l) hI s3 + 2s' + (2+Kc)s K +c -?
l s2+2s+2
I I I I I I I I I I I I
Let Kc = 100 GSP

+
and and the
r1 roots
= 0.1 of the polynomial
Then, the poles of
S3
2s2
(2 + 100)s + g .
which are found to be pl = -7.185 p2 = 2.59 + j(11.5) and p3 = 2.59 - j(11.5)
We notice that p2 and p3 have positive real parts. to our criterion the closed-loop response is unstable,
Therefore, when the
according of
values
Kc = 100 and rI = 0.1 have been used.
Figure 15.4b shows the response of Compare it to the destabilizing effect of the
the system to a unit-step change of the set point. response of the uncontrolled system and notice the
PI controller. stable.
For different values of Kc and TI
the response becomes
Indeed, lowering the gain to Kc = 10 and increasing TI = 0.5 we GSP have negative real parts, i.e. the closed-loop
find that all the poles of system is stable.
15.2 THE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION Examples have on the and 15.1 and 15.2 dramatized the of a effect a feedback control loop may
stability systematize terms. the
characteristics our
process.
In this section we will
organize
analysis, introducing and defining some
appropriate Consider The
generalized for
feedback such system
control is
system by
shown eqn.
in (14.5)
Figure
14.1.
closed-loop
response
given
7(s) or equivalently
G G G Pfc 1 + GDGfGcGm
'SF(')
+ 1 + GIEfGcGrn
'(')
(14.5)
Y(s)
The stability
= GSP
Ysp(s) +
of
GLOAD
;i(s> .
characteristics
the
closed-loop
response
will These
be
determined are and
by the poles of the transfer functions GSP and GLOAD. common are for both by the transfer solution functions of 0 the because following they have
poles
common
denominator
given
equation (15.1)
l+GGGG = p f c m
Equation (15.1) is called the characteristi feedback system of Figure 14.1
equation for the generalized
Let pl,p2,"*,p, i.e. 1 + then we can
be the n
roots of the characteristic eqn. (15.1),
Gp G Gm G = (s - pl)(s f c the following
- p2)***(s for the
- p,) stability of a closed-loop
state
criterion
system: "A feedback control system is stable if all the roots of its characteristic left of the equation imaginary have negative real parts, i.e. are to the
axis."
If any root of the characteristic equation is on or to the right of the imaginary axis, i.e. it has real part zero or positive, the feedback system
is unstable. Remarks; (1) The of a stability feedback criterion sytem stated above if secures the input stable response are
independently
changes
in the set-point or the -oad.
The reason is that the roots
of the characteristic equation are the common poles of the two transfer functions, GSP stability of the closed-loop and with GLOAD respect which to determine in the the
changes
set point and the load, respectively. (2) The product Go, will the be = GpGfGcGm open-loop transfer y m function because it relates if the i.e.
called
measurement loop is
indication broken just
to the set point yd the comparator,
feedback
before
Y,(s)
= GOLW *Y,,(s)
Therefore, follows, 1 and we +
the
characteristic
equation
can
be
written
as
GOL
= that
0 it depends only on the transfer functions -
notice
of the elements in the loop. (3) The of They roots the are of the characteristic transfer equation are GSF also and the GLOAD' poles
closed-loop often
functions,
called
closed-loop
poles.
Example
15.3
Stability
Analysis
of
Two
Feedback
Loops
In Example 15.1 we have:

G
10 =s-l
'
Gf=l
Gm=l
and
Gc
=K is,
Therefore, 1 which has
the +
corresponding GG p fG cGm following
characteristic
equation = 0
=l+S* root,
l*Kc*l
the
p = 1 - 10Kc and the system is stable if p<O, i.e. Kc > l/10.
For the system of Example 15.2 we have:

Gp=
Gf=l
Gm=l
and
s2+2s+2 The corresponding transfer function is: l+GGGG p f c m =l+ ' s2+2s+2
l
Gc = Kc(l+&) I
l*Kc(l
+ -+)*l I
For KC = 100 and -cI = 0.1 the above equation yields
s3
2s2
+ 102s + 1000 = 0
%.3&t I
with roots, -7.185, 2.59 + j(11.5) and 2.59 - j(ll.5).
tem is unstable real because two roots of the characteristic The closed-loop have sys-
I I I I
equation
positive
parts.
15.3 THE ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION FOR STABILITY
The
calculation It The
criterion
of the
of
stability
values
for
of
closed-loop
the roots
systems
of the
does
not
require
the
actual
characteristic
polynomial.
only requires to know if any root is to the right of the imaginary axis.
Ruth-Hurwitz procedure allows us to test if any root is to the right of
imaginary closed-loop
axis
and
thus without
reach
quickly
conclusion actual
into
as
to of
the the
stability roots.
of
the
system
the
computing
the
values
the
Expand
characteristic
equation
following
polynomial
form,
1tGGGG p f c m
Let a0 be positive.
z
If
aosn t als n-l + ** t anmls t an = 0 .

l
it
is
negative
then
multiply
both
sides
of
the
above
equation
First
by
-1.
If any of the coefficients al,a2,***,an,l,an
test.
is which
negative, has
then
there real
is part
at and
least the
one
root
of
the
characteristic is
equation No
positive is
corresponding
system
unstable.
further
analysis
needed. Second test. If all coefficients ao,al,a2,***,an-l,a n are positive, the
first test cannot conclude anything about the location of the roots. Form the
following Row 1 array a
0
(known a2 a3
as
Routh a4 a5
array): a6 a7
l
*** . .
2 3
4 5
al Al B1 cl
*
0
A2 B2
c2
A3 B3
c3
***
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
-*-
where Al = ala2 - aoa3 , al A2 ,_ ala4 A3 - =aoa5laba; al aoa7 , . . .
B1 =
Ala3
A1
alA
>
3
B2 =
A1A5
A1
alA
~..
c1 = B1A2 El etc.
- A1B2
B1A3 c2 = B1
A1B3
...
Examine the elements of the first column of the above array, i.e. a()> al' Al, B1, C1,-*J1
- If any of these elements is negative then we have at least one root to the right of the imaginary axis and the system is unstable.
- The number of sign changes in the elements of the first column is equal to the number of roots to the right.of Therefore, Routh array the imaginary axis.
a system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the are positive.
Example
15.4
- Stability Analysis With the Routh-Hurwitz Criterion the feedback control system of Example 15.2. The characteristic
Consider equation is
3
2s2
(2 +
Kc)s can
+ now
-r I be
KC
The
corresponding
Routh
array
formed:
Row 1
2+K Kc ?
K 2(2+Kc) -$ I
2
The
elements
of
the
first
column
are
Kc 2(2+Kc) -y-I
'
1 T11 which can be positive or negative
All
are
always
positive
except
the
third
dpending on the values of Kc and -cl.

-If Kc =
100 and -cI = 0.1 the third element becomes -398 < 0, which the the
(see
means
that of
system first
Example
is
unstable.
We have two sign changes in the we have two roots with positive
elements
real
column.
15.2).
Therefore,
parts
t2
- If Kc = 10 and rI = 0.5 the third element is equal to $1 > 0, and the system is stable since all the elements of the first column are
positive. In general, the system is stable if KC and TI satisfy the condition
2(2 + Kc) > 5 , r1
Example
15.5 - Critical
Stability
Conditions
for
Feedback the
Loop element of the
Return to Example 15.4 and let rI = 0.1.
Then,
third
first
column
in
the
Routh
array
becomes,
2(2+Kc) 2 The value of Kc K

C
- 10Kc . that makes the third element zero is
= 0.5 the critical to the conditions Routh-Hurwitz for a feedback we have: control system.
and
constitutes
Therefore,
-If
according
test
first
K/0.5 and are
all the elements of the the system to is the stable, left of
column in the Routh array are the roots axis. of the characteristic
positive equation
i.e. all the
located
imaginary
- If Kc > 0.5 the third element of the first column of the Routh array becomes negative. We have two sign changes in the elements of the first we have two roots of the characteristic equation located
column, therefore
to the right of the imaginary axis. It is clear therefore that as Kc equation roots on move the towards imaginary the imaginary (pure increases axis and two when which roots of the characteristic
Kc = 0.5 then we have two give rise to sustained
axis
imaginary)
sinusoidal Remark:
term. two 2s2 purely + K .-A r1 imaginary = 0 roots can be found from the equation
The
i.e. 2s2 + g . = 0
and they are: + j(2.5) are the elements of the row in element of the first column which
The coefficients 2 and Kc/r1 the Routh array just before
the
is zero, i.e. the
elements
of
the
second
row.
15.4 THE ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS The preoceding characteristics Thus, in of a 15.1 Also, examples have demonstrated very vividly that closed-loop we in notice system that depend the on the the stability
value of the gain Kc. system becomes stable
Example
closed-loop system is
when Kc > l/10.
Example
15.4, the
stable
when
2(2+Kc)
>
F I
Kc
which for 0
=I <
= 0.1 yields KC < 0.5 .
The root loci are merely the plots in the complex plane of the roots of the characteristic equation as the gain Kc As such they are very useful in
C
is the Let
varied
from
zero
to
infinity. of a
determining changes. example.
stability us
characteristics the
closed-loop system as the gain K of the root locus using a
examine
construction
specific
Example The and
15.6 two a
- The Root Locus of Two Capacities in Series with P Control capacities transfer in series may be two stirred tanks, two heaters, etc.
have
function P (T1s+1)(T2s+1) K
GpW Let, Gm Then, the =
Gf
=l equation
l
and is:
Gc
= Kc .
characteristic
1+
KP (Tls+1)(?2s+1)
K = 0 c
or (~~s+l)(y+l) Consider following (0 + K = 0 where K=KK . PC
K as the changing parameter instead of the gain Kc, and make the observations:
= 0) the characteristic equation has as its roots
When K=O (i.e. Kc
the poles of the process, i.e.
Pl
(ii)
= -l/r1
and
p2
-l/T2
As K increases from the zero value, the equation are given by,
roots
of
the
characteristic
-(T1+T2) t &+T2)2
P1,2 = 2TlT2
- 4y2(1+K) .
They are distinct real and negative as long as
2
K <
(T1+T2) 4=lT2
i.e. as long as Kc
satisfies
the
inequality
c1 %
(15.2)
(iii) When
(15.3)
then, we have two equal roots

T +-r
Pl
P2
2 -
2=1r2
(iv) For
K+ P we have again two distinct roots which are complex conjugates of each other, i.e.
(15.4)
-(T~+T~) P1,2 =
2 j
J4'rclr2(l+K)
2T 1T 2
- (TV+ 2)
Notice that the real part is equal to =1+=2 -~ 2T12 and independent of K, while the imaginary part tends to infinity as K -f a.
Using the above information we can construct the root locus of the system as follows: (a) The beginning of the root locus corresponds to by the points A(-l/rl, 0) and B(-1/~~,0), satisfies roots. emanate inequality (15.2) Kc = 0 and is given
see Figure 15.5. we have two distinct real
(b) As long as Kc and negative which
Therefore, from points
the root locus is given by two distinct A and B and remain on the real
curves axis.
Furthermore,
the two curves move towards each other and meet
at the point C (Figure 15.5). At this point, Kc i\as the value given by eqn. (15.3) and we have a double root. (c) For larger values of Kc two distinct curves of the satisfying inequality (15.4), we have again root locus because we have distinct, com-
plex conjugate roots.
Since the real part of the complex roots is
constant,
the
two
branches
of
the
root
locus
are
perpendicular
to
the
real axis and extend to infinity as Kc + 00. The complete root locus is given in Figure 15.5 and since all its branches are LQGated tQ the Left af the inagtnaary a?sis-, More CQRC~NdC tkat tke ClQsedb2~
system is stable for any value of K . satisfying inequality (15.2) the response
Furthermore. of the system
we conclude that for KC to a step input is not
oscillatory.
It becomes oscillatory for Kc
satisfying
inequality
(15.4).
Example provide
15.6
demonstrated about the
that
the
root of
locus a
of
system system
does but
not
only
information
stability
closed-loop
informs
us about its general dynamic response characteristics as K C Therefore, loop the design roots of gain
changes.
the root locus analysis can be the basis of a feedback control methodology, the can whereby the movement due of to the the closed-loop change of poles the (i.e.
characteristic be clearly
equation) displayed.
proportional
controller
The construction of the root locus for the system of Example 15.6 was rather simple. For higher order systems to find the exact location of the
root locus branches we need a computer program that can find the roots of a high order polynomial. system and the interested Such programs can are find available one in in any large 7. computer
reader
Reference
Quite often though we are not interested in the exact location of the root to locus draw the branches general and simple but about qualitatively the dynamic correct behavior graphs of a will suffice
conclusions
closed-loop
system. the
Appendix 15.A gives a set of general rules which can be used to draw root locus of any given system.
approximate
Let us close this chapter with one more example on the construction of the root locus for a reactor system and its use for the analysis of the system's dynamic response.
Example
The Root 15.7 - -
Locus
for
Reactor
With
Proportional
Control
Douglas Figure 15.6.
[Ref. 121 has developed the model for the reactor shown in The control objective is to keep the concentration of the
desired product C as close as possible to a given steady state value despite the upsets in the inputs of the reactor. He attempts to achieve the
control objective with a proportional controller which measures the concentration of C and manipulates the flowrate The transfer Gp(s) Assuming = function 3s) G(s) instantaneous responses for = the process of the reactant A. is,
2.98(s+2.25) (s+l.45)(~+2.85)~(~+4.35) with gain 1 for the measuring device and
the valve that controls the flowrate Gm we have the 1+ = Gf = 1 characteristic
of A, i.e.
following
equation -K
C
for =
the 0
closed-loop
system: (15.5)
2.98(s+2.25) 2 (s+4.35) (s+1.45)(s+2.85)
When Kc = 0, it is easy to find that the roots of eqn. (15.5) are: p1 = -1.45 , p2 = p3 = -2.85 As to Kc find increases, the the roots use of and p4 = -4.35
we need an iterative, trial-and-error, numerical procedure of a the characteristic computer. equation. Table 15.1 Such shows solution how the have is feasible
through
digital
locations been
of the four roots change with the value of Kc.
These
results
Table 15.1.
The Roots of the Characteristic Equation for the System of Example 15.7.
5 0 1 5 20 50 100
p1 -1.45 -1.71 -1.98 -2.15 -2.20 -2.24 -2.85
p2 -2.85
p3
p4 -4.35 -4.74 -5.87 -7.20 -8.61 -9.75
-2.30 + j(O.9) -1.71 + j(1.83) -1.09 + j(3.12) -0.48 + j(4.35) -0.35 + j(5.40)
-2.30 - j(O.9) -1.71 - j(l.83) -1.09 - j(3.12) -0.48 - j(4.35) -0.35 - j(5.40)
transferred for the
in
Figure
15.7 reactor
which
displays
the
four
branches
of
the
root
locus
closed-loop
system..
Let us examine the root locus branches of Figure 15.7 and draw some conclusions on the dynamic
C
response changes
of
the zero
closed-loop to
reactor
system
as
the
proportional gain K (i>
from
infinity.
The system is stable for gain values up to 50 because all the roots are located to the left of the imaginary axis. between
50 For a gain value
and
100
the
root
locus
crosses
the
imaginary
axis
and
moves to the right of the imaginary axis. critical of (ii) the value reactor between becomes 50 and 100 for
Therefore, the
there is a response
which
closed-loop
unstable.
For any value of Kc > 0 until the critical value there are two complex conjugate roots with negative real parts. They imply that
the response of the reactor to an input step change will be a decaying (iii) For Kc unstable) jugates response oscillation. larger the with of than roots positive the with the that real critical cause the value (where the are the step system complex becomes con-
instability Consequently,
parts. system
unstable change will be
closed-loop growing
to
an
input
oscillatory Remark: A very
amplitude. sketch of the the root locus for the of
satisfactory system can
approximate be
reactor
constructed
using
graphical
rules
Appendix 15-A.
SUMMARY stable. the
AND CONCLUDING REMARKS all processing feed back units control, of a employed though, in a chemical can system and plant are inherently Therefore, importance Under they become are final unstable. of
Almost
stability its
characteristics
closed-loop
uppermost
during control
design. i.e.
They depend on the dynamics of all the components in the process, sensors, controller control element.
loop,
The notion of stability that suffices for our purposes is that of the bounded input, boudned output. According to this, a system is stable if it produces a bounded response to any bounded input. The criterion that we will
use to examine the stability of a system is related to the location of the poles For of its transfer function. the Thus, poles of the process' transfer function must
uncontrolled
systems
be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the system to be stable. For closed-loop systems the closed-loop poles (the roots of the character-
istic equation) must be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the closed-loop response to be stable.
The Routh-Hurwitz tests allow us to examine if any pole is located to the right of the imaginary axis, without computing the actual values of the
poles.
This procedure should be used whenever we need to know only if the
system is stable or not. The stability characteristics of a closed-loop depend on the dynamic of
the controller used which are affected by the values of the parameters Kc, TI and ~~~ The root locus analysis changes permits from us to to examine infinity. the location of
the closed-loop poles as Kc
zero
From the location
of these poles we can draw conclusions on: the stability of the feedback loop and the of K general
C
characteristics
of
the
system's
response
for
various
values
The back
root
locus It
has has
been
historically drawbacks
popular like its
method
for
the to
design handle
of
feed-
loops.
several with dead like will
instability
efficiently powerful system. use for
systems
time, and today it has been replaced by more those spend based no more on the space frequency and time response expanding of on a its
design
techniques we
Consequently, control
design.
3,
THINGS 1. 2.
TO
THINK what
ABOUT is known as bounded input, bounded output stability.
Define
Based on the above definition examine if a system with a pole at s=O is stable or not.
3.
Define the closed-loop
terms:
open-loop
transfer
function,
characteristic
equation,
poles.
4.
If
a closed-loop response is stable with respect to changes in the set If yes, why? of an uncontrolled
point, is it stable to changes in the load? 5. How or 6.

Does
does
the
pole
location
determine
the
stability
controlled
location
process?
of the zeros of a transfer function affect the response
of 7. What the 8.
an is
uncontrolled the major of a
process? advantage system? of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for examining
stability
What conclusions can be drawn if one element in the first column of the Routh array is zero? Consult cannot References easily 13, 14. with dead time.
9.
The why?
root
locus
analysis
handle
systems
Show how systems with dead time could be handled with root locus
analysis. 10. Examples 15.6 and 15.7 indicate that the root locus has as many branches Thus, in as the number 15.6 of the poles of the open-loop transfer has function. two poles and
Example
open-loop
transfer
function
the root locus two branches., while for Example 15.7 we have four poles and four branches. Is this true for any closed-loop system? Explain.
t 3
376
Y
- - - t t
A+R - ?I %+a-, c C4Rr-D

D-l--R-E
I Figure
c?
4
i5.4
I 6 I k .;I00
-6
\\
APPENDIX
15.A.
RULES
FOR
THE
CONSTRUCTION
OF
ROOT-LOCUS
DIAGRAMS.
Consider the characteristic equation for a general closed-loop system,
l+GGGG
pmcf=
Let the open-loop transfer function G G G G^. be written as the ratio pmct of two polynomials of order m and n with m < n. tic equation becomes: Then, the characteris-
l+K
2 1 c (s-p,)(s-p,)
-*
(s-z
a* (s-pr) = O
(15.A-1)
Z1
Z2 -*-,
pl, p2'
zm
are
the Pn
m __zeros
of
the
open-loop
transfer
function,
while
a*-,
are
the we
poles find
of
the
open-loop roots of all for the
transfer the
function.
As Kc changes from 0 to 03 tic equation (15.A-1).

tutes the Root-Locus
different locus
characterisconstisystem,
The
Diagram
geometric
for the
roots
corresponding
closed-loop
The
Root-Locus
for
the
general
closed-loop
system
with
the
char-
acteristic equation (15.A-l), the following rules:
can be approximately constructed, using
1.
Number
of
Curves. is equal
The to Each
number the
of
branches of
(loci)
composing n. a
the
Root-Locus 2. Origin whenK

Thus,
C
number
open-loop
poles, from
of
Curves.
branch
(locus)
originates
pole,
=O.
p
From multiple poles originate multiple branches,

=
if
-1 is a double pole, we point (-l,O).
will
have
two
loci
originat-
ing
from
the
3.
Termination of Curves. As Kc + 00 Root-Locus the m terminate zeros (n-m) of at the either open-loop at
the n branches (loci) of the
transfer along
function,
or asymptotes.
- approach 4.
zeros
infinity
specified
Loci on the Real Axis.
The real axis is part of a branch (locus)
if the sum of the number of poles and zeros to the right of any point on the real axis is odd. should 5. be counted of of twice, three The A double or triple pole or zero times, (n-m) etc. approached of by gravity (n-m) of
Location branches the
Asymptotes. the Root-Locus zeros of
asymptotes from the
emanate the
center
poles
and
open-loop
transfer
function.
The center
of gravity is given by
n c1 = i"l 'i n - m The asymptotes make
m
j~l
'i (15.A-2)
angles
of
n[(2k+l)/n-m)]
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (n-m-l)
with
the
real
axis.
This
means
that
they
are
equally
spaced
at
angles of
2T/(n-m) with 6. each other. Point. Whenever two branches emerging from two adjacent
Breakaway
real poles intersect, they leave the real axis at a point which is determined by the equation,
m 1 c s - z. j=l J The 7. two branches Point.
n 1 c i=l ' - Pi
(15.h-3)
leave
the
real two
axis
at
right
angles. from two different the real
Entering poles
Whenever two
branches real
coming
move
towards
adjacent
zeros,
they
enter
axis at right angles and at a point satisfying equation (15.A-3).

8.
Angle
of
Departure.
The angle of departure of a branch from a For multiple real poles of
simple pole on the real axis is 0 or TT.
k-th order, the k branches of the Root-Locus leave the pole, at angles given by
Eli =+
(2i+l)v
+ T&, j=l
(pq-zj>
+ T& (pq-pj) j=l ! 7% (15.A-4)
for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . . k-l
where 9. Angle
q of
is the k-th order pole. Approach. The

IT.
angle For
of
approach of a branch to a simple real zeros of k-th order, the the multiple pole at angles
zero is either 0 or k branches of the
multiple approach
Root-Locus
given by
n oi = i L (2i+l)n + Y& (zq-zj) j=l 7%

+ ' ~ ('q-pj)
j=l
for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . . k-l
(15.A-5)
where z 10.
is the k-th order zero. of the Root-Locus. Since the complex roots of the char-
Symmetry
acteristic equation (15.A-1) Root-Locus is symmetric with
always appear as conjugate pairs, the respect to the real axis.
Example.
Consider again the Example 15.7. The open-loop transfer = -2.85, composed One of the zero, three while the of
function has four poles and one zero; pI = -1.45, p2 = p3 P4 = -4.35 and z1 = -2.25. Therefore, the branches (loci) which emerge from the Root-Locus four poles. at along the the is
four
branches other
(branch (4-l)
1, see
Figure
15.7) at
terminates infinity
three
approach
zeros
asymptotes.
The center of gravity of the poles and zeros is given by equation (15.A-2)
c1 = (-1.45) + 2(-2.85)
+ (-4.35) - (-2.25) (4-l)
-3.08
The
asymptotes
make
angles
of
-1~[(=+1)/(4-1) 1
k = 0, 1, 2
with the real axis; i.e. 60", 180" and 300". and The the location of the of three the asymptotes real axis are are
The shown part
center in of
of
gravity 15.7.
Figure the
following Between
segments and
Root-Locus:
-1.45
-2.25.
One pole to the right of every point of
this segment. - Between every point of and --m. this Four poles and one zero to the right of segment.
The segment from -1.45 to +m has no poles or zeros to its right, while the segment from -2.85 to -4.35 has three poles (pI,p2,p3) zero to its right. and one
Both these segments cannot be part of the RootThe same is true for the segment from
Locus, according to the Rule 4. -2.25 to -2.85.
From the double pole of -2.85 emanate two loci with angles of departure given by equation (15.A-4). Figure Example 15.7 shows the approximate Root-Locus for the reactor of
15.7.
CHAPTER 16 DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS In the type this of chapter the we will confront the critical questions: how do we select
feedback
controller,
i.e.
P, PI or PID, and how do we
adjust the parameters of the selected controller (i.e. Kc, TI, rD) in order to both of achieve an "optimum" response for the controlled process? lead to the synthesis in of the control three system , The and of answers the Part to
questions closed-loop
analysis IV.
behavior
studied
the
previous
chapters
16.1 OUTLINE OF THE DESIGN PROBLEMS Consider Figure 14.1. When the load or the set point change, the deviates desired and set the controller Figure tries 16.1 to shows bring the the response output of types have the of the close process to the process have on arises: the block diagram of a general closed-loop system shown in
again the of
point.
response
controlled controllers effects
to a unit step change in the load, when been the used. response Question We of 1: notice the What that different
different
controllers Thus,
different design be used
controlled type a of
process. feedback
first should
question to
controller
control
given
process?
Given that we have decided somehow to use PI control, we still need to select the value of the gain Kc demonstrate on the very clearly of the and the these reset two time r1* Figures 16.2a and 16.2b have the an second important design effect question:
that
parameters Thus,
response
controlled
process.
Question 2;
How do we select the best values for the adjustable parameters of a feedback controller?
This
is
known
as
the
controller
tuning
problem.
"keep or
the
maximum
deviation
as
small
as
possible,"
"return to the desired level of operation and stay close to it in then, we the would shortest have time," selected Similar the other controller be yielding the quite closed-loop often during
response of type B. the design For steady of every state, a
dilemmas
will
encountered
controller. process and control application we can distinguish,
- dynamic response performance criteria. The state. cannot know usual We have steady seen zero state already performance that in criterion most while steady is is zero error at steady controller
situations, the a PI
proportional can.
achieve that for
steady-state
error, the
controller error the
Also, we tends to
proportional No
control
state on
(offset) steady
zero as Kc -+ 00. performance The based on
further
discussion
needed
state
criteria. of of the dynamic performance criteria: They are simpler of a closed loop system is
evaluation two types
commonly
used
Criteria which use only a few points of the response. but only approximate.
- Criteria which use the entire closed-loop response from time t=O until t = very large. These are more precise but also more cumbersome to use.
In the remaining of this section we will deal with the first category of simple for the The of the performance next criteria and we will leave the more complicated criteria
section. performance response criteria of a are based The on most some often characteristic quoted are features
simple
closed-loop
system.
(see
Figure 11.2):
- overshoot, - rise time, i.e. time for the first time, time, i.e. time needed for the response to settle within 25% of needed for the response to reach the desired value
settling the
desired ratio, of
value,
decay
frequency
oscillation
of
the
transient.
Every one of the above characteristics could be used by the designer as the basic criterion for selecting we could settling does require minimize the design time, not that controller the and the in be -values order of to its have: adjusted minimum that
parameters. overshoot one or
Thus,
controller It to must
minimum
etc. suffice more
emphasized the
though
simple
characteristic Usually, we and
describe be
desired
dynamic i.e. controller
response. minimize designs istics. overshoot while
objectives time, to etc.
satisfied,
overshoot based on
settling lead
Unfortunately, response
multiple
criteria
conflicting
character-
For example, Figure 16.4 we increase simple the settling criteria balance
shows that by decreasing the value of the time. as the Scuh conflicts will always arise above, The control designer must
using
design
intervene From most
and all
subjectively the by above the
the
conflicting the
characteristics. ratio has been has the shown
performance
criteria,
decay
popular
practicing
engineers.
Specifically,
experience
that a decay ratio (see Figure 11.2) c/A is a =
l/4
trade-off is between usually a fast as rise the time and a reasonable decay ratio settling
reasonable This
time.
criterion
known
one-quarter
criterion.
Example
16.1
the The
Controller servo
Tuning
With problem
the of
One-Quarter a first-order in
Decay
Ratio
Criterion PI is
Consider controller.
control
process
with
closed-loop
response
was
developed
Section
15.3
and
given by eqn. (15.23) when Gm = Gf = 1 rIs+l '*(s) = T2S2 + 25rs + 1 where Ysp (s) (15.23)
Yp K K PC
(15.24a)
and
r,
1 r1 T K K (' + KpK~) ? J PPC the closed loop response is second-order.
(15.24b)
We
notice
that
For the selection of the "best" values for Kc and 'II we will use simple tem. know criteria Select that Decay Ratio = -2lT3 exp( ---> fl-r2 Therefore, for our problem we have, the stemming from the decay underdamped ratio response of From a eqn. second-order (11.12) we sys-
one-quarter
criterion.
exp
After algebraic simplifications we take:
-2r
J4rpKp;c _ l (1 + KpKc)
T-
= an(14)
(16.1)
we will ratio have several
Equation (16.1) has two unknowns; Kc, rI. controller settingg and =l = 0.49 which -cp=lO. Kc = satisfy Then, 10 the we Kc
Therefore,
one-quarter find = 30 the Kc
decay following = 50
criterion.
Let K =l P K
C
solutions Kc = 100
r1 etc.
7I = 0.16 ,rI = 0.06
~~ = 0.04 ~~ = 0.02 Usually, has we the select first the
The question is which one to select. so that the
proportional gain Kc
controller
necessary
"strength"
to push the response back to the desired set point and then we choose the corresponding TI value so that the one-quarter decay ratio is satisfied.
16.3 TIME-INTEGRAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

The shape of the complete closed-loop response from time t=O until
steady state has been reached could be used for the formulation of a dynamic performance criterion. (e.g. Unlike decay are the simple criteria time) entire which of the use only isolated response, process. the
characteristics criteria of this
ratio, settling based on the
dynamic of the
category
response
The most often used are: 1. Integral of

co
the
Square
Error
(ISE),
where
ISE =
0
e(t)dt
(16.2a)
2.
Integral
of
the
Absolute
Value
of
the
Error
(IAE),
where (16.2b)
IAE = .P
0
Idt> Idt
34
3.
Integral
of
the
cm
Time-Weighted
Absolute
Error
(ITAE),
where
ITAE =
I
tlE(t) Idt
0
(16.k)
where the
E(t) = yd(t) - y(t), i.e. the set point. of designing
deviation
(error)
of
the
response
from
desired The
problem
the "best"
controller
can
now
be
formulated
as
follows: "Select the type of the controller and the values of its adjusted
parameters in such a way as to minimize the ISE, IAE or ITAE of the system's response."
Which one of the above three criteria we will use depends on the characteristics impose general of on the the system we want to control of the and some additional The requirements are we
controlled
response
process.
following
some
guidelines:
If we want strongly to suppress large errors, ISE is better than IAE because the the errors are squarred and thus contribute more to the value of
integral. the square supporession small of small errors, IAE than for one) long the is better than ISE because smaller. criterion will when
For we
numbers which
(smaller persist
they times,
become the of
even ITAE
To tune
suppress the
errors
controllers
better
because
presence
large
t amplifies
the effect of even small errors in the value of the integral. Figure 16.5 demonstrates When the in a qualitative parameters points different are manner have very the been shape tuned of using to the ISE, closed-loop IAE and
responses. ITAE -
controller
performance
criteria, two lead to
important designs. input
emphasize:
Different For the
criteria same time
controller
integral
criterion, different
changes
lead
to
different
designs.
Let
us
analyze
these
two
statements
on
the
basis
of
the
following
example.
Example
16.2
- Controller the feedback
Tuning system
Using shown
Time-Integral in Figure
Criteria The closed-loop
Consider response is:
16.6.
L(s) =
-rIs+l r1 2 --Q s+l 20Kc ' +5(l+20Kc
Y,,(s) +
5s
;i(s)
or I d(s) +4 = r2s2 + 2cTs + 1 %P(s) +,282 + 2T.s + 1 where

TIs+l T s
T =
and
(16.4a)
=I 20K (1 + 2OICJ 2 J
C
(16.4b)
In order to select the best values for Kc and TI we can use one of the three criteria: ISE, IAE or ITAE. Furthermore, Finally, we can consider changes
either in the load or the set point.
even if we select set point
changes we still need to decide what kind of changes we will consider, i.e.
step,
sinusoidal, and
impulse,
etc. in
Let us say that we select ISE as the the

. -
criterion
unit-step
changes .rIs+l
set
point.
From
eqn.
(16.3)
we
have:
Y(s)
2
T s
+ 25TS + 1 s
Invert the last equation and find (if 5~1):
y(t)=l+e
-rtlT 1 TI I
Il-C2
sin(
fl-5 2 5) - sin( /l-5 2t
7 + tan
- 1 ___ Il-c2
r
)1
(16.5)
Then solve the following optimization problem
03
"Minimize ISE = [ysp - y(t)12dt
by selecting the values of
and 5, where y(t) is given by eqn. (16.5)." < are given by the solution of the following
The optimal values of r and equations (conditions

a(ISE) a7 =
for
a(Iw ar
optimality):
= (-J
Let -r* we can

C
and find
<* be the optimal values. the corresponding optimal
Then, from eqns. (16.4a) and (16.4b) for the controller parameters TI
values
and K If the criterion was the ITAE then we would have to solve the following problem:
co
"Minimize T
ITAE
=
f 0
dYsp - y(t)
Idt by selecting
the
values
of
and 5 where y(t) is given by eqn. (16.5." is given by = 0 we can find the optimal Kc and the equations
The solution r* and c* a(ITAE)/ar
= a(ITAE)/ar,
and in turn, from eqns. ((16.3a) and (16.3b))
It criteria Let yields;
is will us
clear be
that in
the general now
solutions
of
the
two
problems
with
different
different. changes in the load. Equation (16.3)
consider
unit-step
Y(s)
1 .s T2S2 + 2<TS + 1 I
and
inversion,
-?t/T
y(t) = *I e T /-l-c2
sin(fl-5 --)
2 t
(16.6)
We can find the optimal values of Kc and TI as previously. Since the response
following a similar procedure
y(t) is now different than it was for a
unit step change in the set point (compare eqns. (16.6) with (16.5), we expect that the optimal settings of Kc and 2 will be different, even if we use
the same criterion, i.e. ISE or ITAE. 16.4 SELECT THE TYPE OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLER Which control manner a as one given of the three The popular question feedback can be controllers answered should in a be very used to
process?
systematic
follows: an appropriate performance criterion, e.g. ISE, IAE or ITAE.
Define
- Compute the value of the performance criterion using P or PI or PID controller with the best settings for the adjusted parameters Kc, -cI,
Select
that
controller
which
gives
the "best"
value
for
the
performance
criterion. This procedure although mathematically rigorous has several serious drawbacks like:
- it is very tedius, it relies on modes1 which certain input (transfer may not functions) be known as to to for the process, sensor and final
control it
element,
exactly, which is the most appropriate
incorporates and
ambiguities changes
criterion
what
consider.
Fortunately, troller using
we can select the most appropriate type of a feedback congeneral qualitative considerations stemming from the analysis
only
in Chapter 14. and derivative were
There control as
we
had on
examined the
the
effect of a
of
the
proportional, In summary:
integral the con-
modes
response
system.
clusions
follows:
Proportional - Accelerates Produces except an
Control the response of a controlled steady process. state in error their for all processes function, like
offset, with
i.e. non-zero terms l/s
those
(integrators)
transfer
the liquid level in a tank or the gas pressure in a vessel (see Remark in Section Integral 14.2). Control any offset.
of the offset comes usually at the expense of high maximum
Eliminates
The
elimination
devications. - Produces sluggish, long oscillating responses. - If we increase the gain Kc more oscillatory Control future a errors and introduces on simple the way appropriate action. of a process. which and may lead to to produce faster response the system becomes
instability.
Derivative -
Anticipates Introduces 16.1
stabilizing in a
effect very
closed-loop all the
response above
Figure
reflects
characteristics
should be used in a general manner. It is clear from the above that a three-mode PID controller should be the best. to achieve
This is true in the sense that it offers the highest flexibility
the At have
desired
the
controlled
time it
response
introduces
by
a To
having
more
three
complex the
adjustable
tuning quality problem of the
parameters. because desired we
same
to
adjust the
three
parameters. difficulty
balance
response
against
tuning
we
can
adopt
the
following
rules 1.
to If
select possible
the use
controller. simple proportional can be values a term controller. used of if: (a) we can achieve
Simple
proportional offset
controller with
acceptable has an
moderate i.e.
Kc or (b) the process
integrating
action,
l/s in its transfer function Therefore, for gas
for which the P control does not exhibit offset.
pressure or liquid level control we can use only P controller. 2. If simple P controller is unacceptable use a PI. ?I controller should be small used when proportional state errors control alone cannot
provide
sufficiently
steady
(offsets).
Therefore,
PI will be used seldomly in liquid level or gas pressure control systems but very often (almost always) for flow control. The response of
. a flow system is rather fast. loop mode, 3. Use The system, remains PID PI despite the slow
Consequently, down caused by
the speed of the closedthe integral control
satisfactory. to the increase offset the speed of the the speed closed-loop of the is response. closed-loop sluggish, In such
controller eliminates For a
but
reduces
response.
multicapacity
process
whose
response
very
the addition of a PI controller makes it even more sluggish.
casestheadditionof thederivativecontrolactionwith its stabilizing effect without allows the use of higher gains which produce faster responses
excessive for
oscillations. and
Therefore, derivative action is composition control where we have
recommended
temperature
sluggish, multicapacity
processes.
Example Let control
16.3 us
Selecting
the
Type
of
Controller which are the
for to
Various be
Processes by feedback the
discuss We
various will
processes address
controlled of
systems.
primarily
question
selecting
appropriate type of feedback controller. (a) Liquid level control. the drum bottom (Figure of a 16.7). Consider the column two and liquid its is level control systems for
distillation Our
condenser's to keep each
accumulation liquid level
control
objective
within a certain range around the desired set point and not to meet it exactly. This allowance for non-zero offsets dictates that proportional
control alone is satisfactory. (b) Gas pressure control. Our objective is to regulate the pressure p in or the pressure
the tank of Figure 16.7c, when the inlet pressure p1 p2 in a a downstream certain process around change. a
Usually, we want to maintain p value, thus making a proportional
within
range
desired
controller satisfactory for our purpose. Cc> Vapor pressure control. or are in relatively Figure slow. 16.8. the Here we can have loops which react quite fast Consider for example the two configurations
shown and the a
The loop in Figure 16.8a measures the pressure of vapor, thus process. For affecting such directly with and fast quickly response,
manipulates vapor PI
flow in
pressure is
the
systems
controller maintaining by the
satisfactory. speed of
It eliminates any undesirable offset of the response For the vapor (despite system in some Figure is controlled of pressure slowdown
while caused
acceptable mode
integral
control).
16.8b the situation is different. Here, the indirectly vapor in a by the flow Such of cooling may slow water be which used
pressure the
affects
amount the
condensed. distillation
systems The
for of
controlling the heat
column.
dynamics
transfer
process
are
introduced
in
the
control
loop.
We
expect
that
the
response
of the system will be rather slow.
A PI controller will make it even
slower and if we attempted to use high gains to speed up the response, we may get an
which
unstable
will
system.
Therefore,
speed
a
and
PID
controller
should
be
selected
provide
enough
robustness.
(d) Flow control. 16.9. Both
Consider
the
two fast.
flow
control a
systems PI
shown
in is
Figure
respond
quite
Therefore,
controller
satisfactory because it eliminates offsets and retains acceptable speed of response. (e) Temperature control. Figure mixture is the we 16.10. at a Our Consider is the to temperature keep
the
control temperature
is
system of
shown the
in
objective value.
the
reacting
this
desired by
Since the
reaction
endothermic,
accomplished reactor. have two
manipulating the slow the from
flow
of
steam and
in
the
jacket
around effect
Between rather and
measured
temperature heat
the
control
processes: (i) temperature steam to
transfer (see
between 13.3) We
the and
reacting (ii)
mixture
sensor
Section mixture.
heat
transfer
the
reacting
expect,
therefore, controller a PID
that the overall response will be rather sluggish and a PI will make it even be more so. Consequently, for such systems because the it can allow of
controller gains for
would faster
the
most
appropriate
high the
response
without
undermining
stability
system. Here we have a similar situation to that of i.e. very a PID slow response should caused be the by slow composition
(f) Composition control. temperature sensors. control, Therefore,
controller
most
appropriate.
397
16.5
CONTROLLER
TUNING
TECHNIQUES-
After the is problem known
the of
type
of
feedback values tuning
controller to use
has for There
been its are
selected,
we
still
have This
deciding
what
adjusted three
parameters. general
as
the
controller
problem.
approaches
we can use for tuning a controller: Use simple criteria like the one-quarter largest on an decay error, actual ratio etc. (see Such Example 16.1), an approach is
minimum simple
settling and easily
time,
minimum
implementable
process.
Usually,
it provides on the and
multiple solutions (see Example 16.1). closed-loop select Use a time performance single set will of then be for
Additional to
specifications the
needed the
break
multiplicity
values
adjusted ISE, and the
parameters. IAE relies or ITAE (see on Example the
integral
performance is
criteria
like
16.2).
This
approach model
rather
cumbersome of
heavily
mathematical
(transfer
function)
process.Applied
experimentally
on an actual process, it is
time consuming. which have the been most Curve proven popular Method in of practice. the empirical was tuning by
In
Use this
semi-empirical section known and as we the
rules will
discuss
methods Cohen
Process
Reaction
which
developed
Coon. the the control system of Figure the 16.11 which has been "opened"
a
Consider disconnecting
by
controller from
final
control
element.
Introduce
step change of magnitude A in the variable C which actuates the final control element. In the case of a valve, C is the stem position. The curve
y,(t) is
Record
called
the value of the output with respect to time. Process Reaction Curve. function (see Figure Between ym
and C we have the following transfer
16.10)
YmW
GpRC(s) = ~ = C(s) Gf(s)*Gp(d-Gm(s>
(16.7) curve is affected not only
The
last
equation
shows
that
the
process
reaction
by the dynamics of the main process but also by the dynamics of the measuring sensor and Cohen final and control element. that the response of most processing units to
Coon
observed
an input change as the above had a sigmoidal shape (see Figure 16.12a) which can be adequately approximated by the response of a first-order system with
dead time (Figure 16.12b, i.e. YmW ___ C(s) -tds Ke ,rs+l
GpRC(s)
(16.8)
which T. of
has
three
parameters:
static gain K, dead time td and time constant it is easy to approximate the values
From the response of Figure 16.12a the three

K =
parameters.
Thus,
Output (at steady state) B Input (at steady state) = x '
= B/S where S is the slope of the sigmoidal response at the point of inflexion the system model
T as
td Cohen
= and
time Coon
elapsed used the
until
responded of eqn. (16.8) and estimated

Then, they
approximate
and
the values of the parameters K, td
indicated
above.
derived theoretical expressions for the "best" changes The and various decay performance ratio, criteria like:
controller settings using load
one-quarter minimum minimum results
offset, integral of square error (ISE), are etc. below.
their
analysis
summarized
whose
response
has
the
general
overdamped
shape
of
Figure
16,12a(seealsoFipures oscillatory underdamped
10.4, ll.la behavior is
and 11.6). The produced mainly by the
presence of feedback controllers.
Therefore, when we 'iopen"
the loop (Figure16.ll)and thus disconnect the controller, the response takes the sigmoidal shape of an overdamped
system. (3) From eqns. (16.9), (16.1Oa) and (16.11a) for the which give the value three controllers we
of the proportional gain Kc notice that:
- The gain of the PI controller is lower than that of the P controller. control mode This is due to the fact that the integral makes the system more sensitive (may even lead
to instability) and thus the gain value needs to be more conservative. The stabilizing effect of the derivative control mode
allows the use of higher gains in the PID controller (higher than the gain for P or PI controllers).
Example In processes (0
16.4 this
Tuning we
Feedback - - - -Controllers will tuning very examine results time how
Through the
Reaction of Cohen time).
Curves typical Coon. td is very
example
dynamics by
various and When
influence
the
recommended delay
Processes
with
shosrt
(dead
small (almost zero) the process reaction curve (Figure 16.12a) reminds the response of a an simple first-order large system. value for The the Cohen and Coon gain
settings Kc
dictate
extremely
proportional
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i
(see eqns. (16.8),
(16.9a) and (16.10a)).
In real practice we
will use the largest possible gain to reduce the offset if a proportional controller is employed. the (ii) value of gain will be If a PI controller is used, then by stability the in large requirements. majority with of real
determined
Multicapacity processes. G =
processes. Consider K two
These
constitute
first.-order
systems
series
CT Pl
P s+l) (T p2 device
s+l)
Let
the
measuring
and
the
control
valve
(final
control
element)
have first-order dynamics, i.e. G
Knl =-cms+l
transfer
and
Gf between
Kf rfs+l the control actuating variable
Then,
the
function
C and the recorded measurement of the output y, is given by (see eqn. (16.7)): KKK f pm s+l)(-r Pl Equation same of (16.8) indicates that as in the the P2 process response i.e. reaction of it a is for curve system has the
=GGG = PRC (y+l) (T f pm
s+l)(Tms+l>
(16.8)
dynamic four
characteristics systems the
composed curve.
first-order 16.13 shows
series, reaction
slgmoidal the
Figure values: K P
process
curve
following
1.0 5 7
Km rP2 the
1.0 2
, ,
Kf Tf
= =
1.0 0.00
and ) Tm = 10.0
TPl Draw the
tangent
at
inflexion
point
and
find;
- S = slope at the inflexion point = 0.05 - B = ultimate response = 1.0 - -c = effective time constant = B/s = l.O/O.OS = 20.
- t -K
d = dead time = 2.5 = gain = B/A = l.O/l.O the the process reaction = 1.0. curve can with be approximated time by the
Therefore, response of
following
first-order
dead
system:
GPRC The that approximate the
1.0 e-2*5s 2Os+l response is is also shown in Figure the 16.13. response We notice
approximation
satisfactory
until
has
reached the 40% of its final value.
Using
the
Cohen-Coon
suggested
settings
we
find:
For proportional
KC
controller:
= 8.0 controller: and closed-loop TI = 5.85 with and the above rD = 0.89 for
For proportional-integral
KC
= 7.2 shows the
Figure
16.14
responses
settings
set point (Figure 16.14a) the Cohen and Coon
and load changes (Figure 16.14b). produce underdamped behavior
We notice that rather good
settings
with
decay ratio.
Example The
16.5
- Controller of if
Tuning
for
Poorly
Known
Processes reaction or curves is
methodology appealing poorly of of the all
controller the
tuning of
using the
process
particularly sensor the the trol are
dynamics
main
process
the
measuring
known,
i.e. we do not know exactly the order of dynamics or In such case the i.e. process process, reaction sensor for curve reveals con-
values effects element
parameters. the dynamic an
components,
and the
final
and
provides
experimental, approximate
model
overall
process.
Take 16.10.
as
example
the
temperture
control
system
for
the
reactor
of
Figure
It is quite a complex system and we may not know with satisfactory
precision all or a few of the following: the reaction kinetics,
- the heat of reaction, the the the the the the mixing heat characteristics capacity heat of the in the tank, mixture, between steam and reacting mixture,
reacting
overall effective gain and
transfer of
coefficient
order time
the
thermocouple's of the
dynamics,
constant of the
thermocouple, etc. system use provides to tune the us the with an experimental without jacket,
characteristics process the
steam for
valve, this we can
The model of
reaction
curve
overall
process
which of the
controller heating
requiring
detailed and
knowledge control
dynamics
for
reactor,
thermocouple
valve.
SLIMHARY AND CONCLUDING REWBKS To controller for the design (P, a PI, feedback PID) and controller (b) to it means: (a) to select the type of the the values of the of adjusted dynamic parameters performance
choose are
selected we can
controller. use to
There
two
main
classes
criteria
evaluate
alternative
controller
designs,
The first
includes simple isolated dynamic characteristics of a system's response (overshoot, criteria errors product decay are ratio, based rise on time, the time settling integrals time), while of various the second of includes the
which
functions
(e.g. of the square of the errors, or of the absolute errors, or of the of time with the absolute errors). The first class of criteria,
- are simpler to use, can be used even with poorly known processes, but lead single The time are to multiple solutions and need additional specifications to produce a
1
I
solution. integral on criteria, mathematical model (transfer function) of a process,
based
the
- necessitate the solution of an optimization lead of a to unique solutions, since system. they depend
problem, and on the entire dynamic response
closed-loop
In order to select the type of a feedback controller we can use the following general heuristic rules: Use level, Use PI proportional gas control only if small offsets can be tolerated, e.g. liquid
pressure
control. to eliminate satisfactory to speed up undesirable speed, the offsets flow of if the response of the
controllers system has
open-loop Use PID
e.g. response
control. sluggish multicapacity
controllers
open-loop For -
systems, while tuning the
maintaining most common rule, or
satisfactory methods
robustness.
controller the
employ,
one-quarter
decay
ratio
- time integral criteria (ISE, IAE, ITAE)., or the Cohen and Coon settings based on the process reaction curves.
The first and last can be used with poorly known processes, while the second necessitates mathematical models for all components of a closed-loop.
In the next two chapters we will discuss a methodology for the design of feedback far. the controllers, which is quite different from everything we have seen so
It is known as the Frequency Response Analysis and permits us to look at same design problems from a new perspective.
THINGS
TO
THINK are
ABOUT main questions arising during the design of a feedback con-
1.
What
the
troller?
Discuss them on the basis of a physical example. meant the and by controller classes of how tuning? dynamic different performance criteria criteria. lead to Give physical con-
2. 3.
What
is
Discuss examples troller
two
demonstrate
different
designs. design a controller Explain. which minimizes the rise and settling times,
4.
Can
you
simultaneously?
5.
Can you design a controller which minimizes the overshoot and settling
time, simultaneously? Explain. advantages and disadvantages of the three time-
6.
What
are
the
relative
integral criteria, i.e. ISE, IAE and ITAE? How would you select the most appropriate for a particular application?
7.
Why
do
simple decay
criteria ratio,
like
minimum
overshoot,
minimum
settling
time,
one-quarter
etc. lead to multiple solutions? How do you
break the multiplicity and come up with a single solution? a. 9. Why do the time-integral criteria lead to unique solutions? Discuss a set of simple heuristic rules you could use to select the
most appropriate type of feedback controller for a particular system.
10.
Discuss the philosophy of the methodology that leads to the Cohen and
Coon settings for feedback controllers.
11.
How do you understand the "opening" of the control loop shown in Figure 16.11?
controller for
Explain in practical terms how one tunes a feedback

an existing process in a chemical plant.
12.
Why
do
most Can
of you
the
process a
reaction physically
curves
have
an
overdamped which has
sigmoidal a
shape?
develop
meaningful
system
reaction curve with an underdamped, oscillatory shape? 13. 14. Are the Cohen and Coon settings reliable for all processes? Explain.
What is the value of the proportional gain Kc for a pure dead-time system according to the Cohen and Coon settings? Is it reasonable?
Explain. 15. If the dynamics of the process or measuring sensor are not well known, what tuning techniques would you use? Discuss your answer.
4 a.7
uNc~~TROLCED
RESPONSE
desired
level of operaLion
1 i 6. lyue -.--__
1G.d -_ I
I /
.r-- u pc --: I I
IF ig u-e
46.8 1
Cls)=A/S
2jnJs) -
G,
/ slope =s 44
id !b)
?/ 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.25

0 -7 t
CHAPTER THE FEQUENCY RESPONSE
17 OF LINEAR PROCESSES
ANALYSIS
In Chapters 17 and 18 we will study a new technique which is often used in designing feedback controllers. have seen When response so a far linear a and it is is called It is quite different from everything we
Frequency to a in a
Response sinusoidal
Analysis. input, its ultimate This the basis of
system long
subjected is also
(after
time) will be
sustained Section
sinusoidal 17.2,
wave.
characteristic, the Frequency With how with with usage the the basic for the
which Response
proved
constitutes
Analysis. response output input analysis sinusoidal sinusoid. we are wave primarily (amplitude, interested phase to find change
frequency of of of the
features frequency
shift)
the the
In this chapter we will deal only analysis, while leaving its
premises controller
frequency in the
response
design
next
chapter.
17.1 THE RESPOME OF A FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM TO A SINUSOIDAL INPUT Consider G(s) a = simple Y(s) ~ Us) first-order = KP TPS+l
input with amplitude A and frequency w, i.e.
system
with
the
transfer
function
(17.1)
Let
f(t)
be
f(t)
sinusoidal
= A sinwt
Then
T(s) = Aw s* + u*
Substitute F(s) from eqn. (17.2) into eqn. (17.1) and take: K
Y(s) = * l Aw
(17.2)
s2 + cd2
Expand
into
partial
fractions 5 + l,T P
and
find + c3 s - jw
Y(s)
c2 s + jw
(17.3)
Compute the constants Cl, C2 and C3 forms of the three terms in eqn. (17.3): K Aw-r -tl p pe = 2p2 rPw
-t/-c
and find the inverse Laplace
trans-
KpAo-r
y(t)
KA sinwt
+I and the
T202 -I- 1 cos t + r2U2p + 1 P P term disappears.
As
ta
the
'+O
first
Thus, after a long
time the response of a first-order system to a sinusoidal input is given by: KPAwr P - ,2w2 + 1 coswt P KPA ,2,2 + 1 sinwt P
Y,,W
(17.4)
Use the following trigonometric identify; a cosb 1 where + a2sinb = a3sin(b+$)
a3
and
I$
tan-'(al/a2)
Then, eqn. (17.4) yields: P OF +1

P
Y,,(t)
sin(wt
+ $I)
(17.5)
where
4
From eqns.
tan
-1
(-o.rp) (17.6) (also we observe that; as steady state) of a
(17.6)
(17.5)
and
The
ultimate
response
referred
first-order
system
to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency W.
9/3
The
ratio
of
the
output
amplitude
to
the
input
amplitude
is
called
amplitude
ratio and is a function of the frequency, i.e. AR = amplitude ratio = P - The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle ]$I, which is also a function of the frequency 17.1 input The shows wave. three to observations order the of do not hold only Before us for we first-order proceed with systems the but are the ultimate response of the w (see eqn. (17.6)). Figure and its relationship to the P (17.7)
system
above
expandable
any of
linear
system. let
generalization to the
above
results numbers. complex
make the following remarks related
algebra (1)
complex a
Remarks:
Consider w = where
number
W defined by
a + jb
a = real part of W = Re(W) and b = imaginary part Define the following terms:
of W = Im(W).
- Modulus or absolute value or magnitude of W is represented by IW] and defined by
IWI = J[Re(W)12
+ [Im(W)12
(17.8)
- Phase angle or argument of W is represented by $W or arg(W) and defined by
+W
Im(W) tan-1 ~ Re(W) I L-
(17.9)
From Figure 17.2 it is clear that a = and w = (WI ~0.~0 + j[Wlsine lwlcose and b = /WlsinO
Recall
also
that
cosa
Then
ejfJ + e-je
2 and sin8 =
Jo _ e-je
2j
w = /WI
ejO + .-jO
2 +
ej 8 _ .--jO
j/WI
2j
= lWleje
(17.10)
(2) Put s = jw in eqn. (17.1) and take -jw-iP+l G(j > = jutp+l P or K WT P P T21112 + 1 - j T2U2 + 1 P P P Therefore according to Remark K = juFp+l P -jOrp+l
G(jw)
G(jw) is a complex number. (1) above,
Modulus of G(jw) = L=amplitude P and Argument of Gm =tan --I(- wrp) The and last phase are two lag relationships for the to
ratio (see eqn. (17.7))
= phase lag (see eqn. (17.6)) that the of a amplitude ratio
indicate
frequency modulus when
response and
first-order respectively
system of its
equal
the
argument
transfer
function
s = jw.
This is an important result which we will generalize in the next section for any linear system.
17.2 THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GENERAL LINEAR SYSTEM Consider a general linear system with the transfer function (17.11)
G(s) =
where
Q(s) and P(s) are polynomials of orders m and n respectively, We will prove that:
with m<n. -
The ultimate response of this system to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal wave.
- The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of the frequency w s = ju, i.e. AR = modulus of G(jw) - The output wave is shifted with respect to the input wave by an angle 4 which is $ PROOF For a sinusoidal input f(t) = Asinwt we have eqn. (17.11) yields:
= G(s) l 2Aw
and it is given by the modulus of
G(s) if we put
a =
function
of
the
frequency
w given by
argument of G(jw)
f(s) = Am/s2 + w2) and
Y(s)
Expand the last
cd2
equation
into
partial
fractions: 5 + 52 + . s-p1 s-p2 . . + 5-l s - 'n
y(s)
a b + = G(s) Aw + s2 + w2=s + jw s - j w
The
terms c1 s-p c2 s-p ... , % s-p n
'
'
give
rise
to eplt
exponential p2t
terms pnt , ... , e
, e
If the poles pl, p2,*=*,pn
have negative real parts, all the above terms Therefore, the ultimate response is
decay to zero as t-tco (see Section 9.4). given by Yss(s> = G(s) Aw = s2 + cd2
a s ++ ju s
-b
jw
(17.12)
Compute constants a a =
and b as discussed in Section 8.2 and find and b=h!t$+!d
AG(-jw) -2j
Therefore, eqn. (17.12) gives
Y&4
or y,,(t)
AG(-jw)
zj
1 s + jw
AG(-jw) .-jut
zj
AG(jw) 2j
ejwt
(17.13)
Use eqn. (17.10) to express the complex numbers G(-jw) and G(jw) in polar form, i.e. G(-jw) and G(jd = IG(jw) Iej' Substitute the values of G(-jw) and G(jw) in = IG(-jw) Ie-j' = IG(jw) [e-j'
where 4 = argument of G(jw). eqn. (17.13) y
ss
ct) = - &k%ikAd e-j(at+4) 2j

= *IG(jw) 1
I AIG(jw) 2j
e-j (cot+@)
1 ej(wt+$)
ej Cut+@) _
2j
or Y,,(t) = AIG(jw)l sin(wt+$)
The last equation proves what we set out to prove, i.e.;
- the ultimate response as t+= the amplitude ratio is AR = AIG(jo)l/A =
is sinusoidal with frequency w,
IG<jw)/
(17.14a)
the output sinusoidal wave has been shifted by the angle + = argument of G(jw) (17.14b)
Example 17.1 The
The
Frequency function
!k
S
Response
of
Pure
Capacitive
Process
transfer
G(s) =
is
Put s = jw and take G(jw) Consequently, for = K ' jw the = ultimate response;
the amplitude ratio is AR = IG(jw)l = Kp/" (17.15)
- the phase shift is 4 i.e. the by 90". = tan-l(-02) sinuosidal = -90 response of the system lags behind the (17.16) input wave
ultimate
Example 17.2 - The Frequency Response of N Non-Interacting Capacities in Series The transfer function is (see eqn. (11.21), Section 11.3) K . . . ,*-,GN(s) = p1 . p2 s+l ' ' T s+l rp2 p1 K KpN s+l PN
G(s) = G1(s)G2(s)
Put s = jw and take G(jw) But, according

Gl(jw)
= Gl(jw)G2(ju) to eqn.
le
,-'-,GN(j~)
(17.17)
(17.10)
j+, j+, , G2(ja) j+,
= IGl(ju)
= IG2(ja) le
,***,GN(ju)
= bN(j") te Then,
where
+1,42,***,4N
are the arguments of Gl(jw),
G2(jW),***,GN(jW).
eqn. (17.17) becomes
j(41+$2+,***,+4N) G(jw) = 1 IGl(jW) llG2(ju)l - ,-*- ,- IGN(ju) II l e

Consequently, amplitude AR or K -K *,**-,-K p1 p2 PN /L--q? the ratio, = IG( jd I response has the following characteristics;
IGl(ju) I*IG2(jw) 19--*9 IGN(jd
(17.18a)
AR = ~--qyK~~,"~, 1 p2 phase shift,
(17.19) or 4 = tan-'(-wrpl) Since + tan-'(-UT P2 +<O the response lags behind the input. )+,**a,+ tan-'(-wr PN ) (17.19a)
Example For
17.3 a
The
Frequency system K
Response the
of
Second-Order function is
System
second-order
transfer
G(s) = r2s2+L+l
A/!
Put s = jo and take K K 22 . (-T w +l)-j25rw (-.c2u2+1) -j 2y-rw
G(jw) =
P (-T2u2+1)+j2<Tu
P (-T2u2+1)+j2cTu
or Kp(l--rLuL) G(jw) = (1-*2fA2)2+(257w) Therefore, amplitude AR the ultimate given IG(jw) 1 response by = P + (25TW) - phase shift is
+ =
Kp*2T-rlri 2 -9 (1-r202)2+(2r7U) has the following 2 characteristics;
ratio =
(17.20) 2
argument of G(jo) = tan -I(-
25?W 1 - 92w2)
(17.21)
which is phase lag since 4~0.
Example 17.4 The
The Frequency Response of a Pure Dead Time Process function is
transfer
--T s G(s) = e d Put s = jw and take -j Tdw G(jw) Clearly; - amplitude ratio = IG(jo)l = 1 - phase shift = argument of G(jo) = -dew i.e. a phase lag, since 4~0. (17.22) (17.23) = e
Example Let
17.5 us
now
The
Frequency our
Response to
of the
Feedback various
Controllers types of feedback controllers.
shift
attention
(i>
Proportional The transfer Gc(s) Therefore, AR = Kc =
Controller function KC is
and $=O. Controller is
(ii)
Proportional-Integral The transfer function
GcW
Therefore
= Kc(l
+$-) I
AR
IGc(jw)l
Kc
m (UT >
I < 0 Controller
(17.24)
$I (iii)
argGc(jw)
tan-l(-l/wrI)
(17.25)
Proportional-Derivative The transfer GcW Therefore, function is
= K,(l + -rDs)
AR =
IGc(jw)/
= Kc x + rkw2 -1
(17.26)
argGc(jw)
tan
(~Dw)
>
(17.27)
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and is the consequency of the derivative control mode and another manifestation of its
anticipatory
control
nature.
(iv>
Proportional-Integral-Derivative The transfer function is
Controller
GcW
= Kc(1
+-& + -rDS) I
and it is easy to show that
AR
lGc(jw)
J (T D w - A)2 + 1 I
(17.28)
4 = tan-l(rDw
- +-) I
(17.29)
Notice that; - AR is always larger or equal to 1 and - depending on the values of 'rD and TI and the frequency w we may have $>O (phase lead) or 4~0 (phase lag). 17.3 BODE DIAGRAMS The Bode diagrams (in honor of H. W. represent the frequency response of a Bode) constitute a convenient way to
system.
As we can see from eqns. (17.14a)
and (17.14b),
the amplitude ratio and the phase shift of the response of a The Bode diagrams consist of a pair
system are functions of the frequency w. of plots how how the the showing; logarithm phase of the varies amplitude with ratio
varies
with
frequency
and
shift
frequency.
In order to cover large range of frequencies we use a logarithmic scale for the frequencies. Let we have us now examine in the the Bode diagrams of some simple dynamic systems that
encountered
previous
chapters.
A.
First-Order For a
System system = we m have = seen K P that (17.7)
first-order
amplitude
ratio
I1 + r202 P phase lag

= 0 = tan-'(-rw)
(17.6)
For simplification, let Kp = 1. Then, from eqn. (17.7) we find that, 1ogAR = - + log(1 + T;w2) (17.30)
For convenience, since 'I variable instead of w. 17.3a
as the independent is constant, regard -rpw P The plot of log(AR) vs. - log(rpw) is shown in Figure for various needed its values to
(solid line) and can be constructed from eqn. (17.30) Instead can as give w-t0 Thus, of an the very elaborate sketch numerical by
of the frequency w. plot this graph, we behavior
work
approximate
considering as
asymptotic frequency
(low-frequency we have:
asymptote)
and
o- (high-
asymptote).
- As w-t0 then -rp~+-O
and from eqn. (17.30) logARM or AR-tl.
This is the low-frequency asymptote shown by a dotted line in Figure 17.3a. It is a horizontal line passing through the point AR=l. -As This w-, then -rpwis the and from eqn. (17.30) 1ogAR = -log(-rpw) asymptote shown also by a dotted line in
high-frequency
Figure 17.3a. AR=1 for
It is a line with a slope of -1 passing through the point -rpw=l.

The frequency w = l/-r
is known as the corner
frequency. At the corner frequency, as it can be seen from Figure 17.3a, the deviation of the true value of AR from the asymptotes is maximum. It can be character-
The plot of phase shift=. ( rpu) is shown in Figure 17.3b. constructed istics of from this eqn. plot: (17.6). We can easily verify the following
- As w-+0 then ++O -As wthen @tan-1(-m) = -90" frequency), $ = tan -l(q) = -450
- At w = l/rp(corner Remark:
If Kp # 1 then as it can be seen from eqn. (17.7) the low frequency asymptote shifts vertically by the value logKp. (17.6) shows that Kp has no effect on the phase shift. Equation
B.
Pure For
Capacitive such AR
Process we know that (see Example 17.1)
processes = Kp/w are
and 4 = -90" constructed and shown in Figure 17.4.
The C.
Bode
plots
easily System
Second-Order
In Example 17.3 we found that AR=...-.-K P and I$ = tan -5 -2??w 1 - T202 < when Kp = 1.
>
J(l-T2U2)2+(25Tw)2
The two plots are shown in Figure 17.5 for various values of
The two asymptotes for the plot AR vs. TW are determined as follows: - As w-fo, then -As logAR+O or AI+1 (low-frequency asymptote)
w-, then logAR+-2log(rw).
This is the high-frequency asymptote. It passing through the point
is a straight line with a slope of -2 AR From Figure =l,rw 17.5 we can =l that for
notice exceed
underdamped the value by
systems, of the K
P
i.e. .
5~1, the
amplitude the D. low
ratio
significantly shifts
When Kp # 1 1ogK . P
frequency Dead Time
asymptote System we have
vertically
value
Pure From
Example AR = 1
17.4
that, $J are = -TdW constructed and shown in Figure 17.6.
and this system
The
Bode
plots
for
easily
E.
Systems Consider
in
Series N systems in series with individual tranfer functions
Gl(s),G2(s),...,GN(s) The overall transfer = function is,
G(s)
Gl(s)G2(s),-,GN(s)
put s = jw and take G(jw) or = Gl(jw>G2(jw>,**o,GN(jw)
G(ju) = IGl(ju)
or finally
jw> le
j@,
($1++2+,**
,++,I
jG(jw) 1 ej' = IG,(jw>/ IG2(jw)l*l'**,*/GN(jo)le The last equation yields (17.31)
IG(jw) 1 = IGl(ju) I* IG2(ju) 1 l ,***,-IGN(j~) I

and
@
From (17.29)
=
we
$1 + $2 +,,+
have
$N
(17.32)
AR = or log(AR) where
(AR)l*(AR)2*,~*~,*(AR)N
= ~o~(AR)~
+ l~g(AR)~+,---,+log(~~)~
(17.33)
(AR>,,(AR>2,***,(~>N are the amplitude and (17.32) of ratios are the for very Bode the individual and systems indicate in the series. Equations rules for
(17.31) the
important diagrams:
following
construction
If the transfer function of a system can be factored into the product of N transfer functions of simpler systems, then (1) The logarithm of the overall amplitude ratio is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the amplitude ratios of the individual systems,
(2) The overall phase shift is equal to the sum of the phase shifts of the individual (3) The presence AR systems, of curve a constant in by the a overall constant transfer amount. function will move the
entire phase
vertically
It has no effect on the
shift.
Example
17.6 -
Bode the =
Diagrams
for two
Two
Systems in
G2W
in
Series
Consider
following &
systems
series; = &
GIW The overall
and is
transfer
=
function
l -
G(s) Then,
&
6 5s+l
or 1ogAR = log6 + are log(AR)l the + log(AR)2 ratios of the individual (17.34) systems,
where (AR)l and (AR)2 when their gains are 1.
amplitude 17.7a
Figure The
shows the amplitude ratios of the two of the these overall two curves plus the the factor frequency we
systems as functions of w. log6 w. will yield the amplitude
addition of
ratio
system From
versus this
The overall curve is also shown in Figure 17.7a.
curve
notice three distinct frequency regions.
JCJe
slope of the asymptote in each
region is the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the two systems in (2) the corresponding Region 1. region. Thus, we have:
From w =O to w = l/5
Slope of the overall asymptote = 0 + 0, i.e. horizontal, going through the point AR = 6. (ii) Region Slope 2. of From w = l/5 to w = l/2 the overall asymptote = 0 +(-1) = -1 going through the
point AR = 6 o = l/5 (iii) Region 3. For w > l/2
Slope of the overall asymptote = (-1) + (-1) = 02 Figure 17.7b shows the phase shift for the overall system versus the frequency,
as the algebraic sum of the phase shifts of the two individual systems, i.e. 9 = $1 + $2 = tan-l(-2w) + tan-'(-5w)
It is clear that; - when w-to, @l-to, 42%) and $+O and (p-t-180'
- when w-, y-90,
($J2+-900
F.
Feedback The Bode easily
Controllers diagrams using for the various results types of of feedback 17.5. controllers can be con-
structed (i>
Example
Proportional The Bode plots

C
Controller are 0" trivial. for all The AR and 0 frequencies. stay constant at the
values K (ii)
and
Proportiaonal-Integral From eqns. (17.24) and
Controller (17.25) we take;
and 0 = tan-l(-l/wrI)
Therefore: Low frequency 1 asymptote: ,>jl , then log@)

RC
As ~0
= -log(w~I)
(WTI) L
and the low frequency asymptote is a straight 1 ine with s lope -1. High A s frequency asymptote: and log& = 0 ,
C
w+-= 1 - - +O 2 (UT I > high frequency
AR 1 . i.e. K =
C
The
asumptote
is
horizontal
line
at
the
value
AR/Kc = 1. The (AR/Kc) vs. - (UT,) is shown in Figure 17.8a. shift we have the following: and For the phase
as w-to as w+-= The (iii) 0 ys-.
p-90" 4-f 0"
(wrI) is shown in Figure 17.8b. Controller
Proportional-Derivative The AR and $I
are given by eqns. (17.26) and (17.27). The Bode and
plots can be easily constructed and are shown in Figures 17.9a 17.9b. (iv) Proportional-Integral-Derivative The AR and 9 The Bode plots Controller
are given by eqns. (17.28) and (17.29), are easily constructed and they are shown
respectively. in Figures
17.10a
and 17.10b.
Example
17.7 -
Bode the
Plots
for
an
Open-Loop system
System in Figure 15.2) 17.11. The open-
Consider loop transfer G or G OL OL
feedback is
control (see
shown
function =
Remark
2 in
Section
Gc*Gf*Gp*Gm
= 100Kc*(l
+ -+)* I
l O.ls+l
(2s+&+1)
-0.2s 1 0.5s-U' e can be factored into a
with product
= 0.25 and Kc= 4. We notice that the GOL of six transfer 1 0.5s+l corner functions, i.e. l O.ls+1 the same
1 2s+l ' with the
1 s+l '
'
cl+&), I (in
-0.2s ' e order)
following
frequencies
9 = l/2 = 0.5, w2 = l/l = 1, w3=1/0.5=2, w4=l/0.25=4, w5=1/0.1=10. The Bode plots of the individual transfer
and 17.12b.
I I I
functions
The
are
easily
plots for
constructed
the
and
they are shown in Figures 17.12a system present First; can be constructed following
Bode
overall
the
rules
discussed
in
paragraph E
of
the
section. we identify the following six regions on the frequency scale:
0 2 w < ol, w2 ,( w c w2, w2 5 w < w3, w3 d o < w4, w4 I w < w5 and
w5 5 w < a. - Second; for the AR vs. w diagram, the slope of the overall asymptote
is equal to the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes of the individual transfer functions (Table 17.1). in Figure 17.12a. - Third; the overall phase shift is equal to the algebraic sum of the phase shifts for each individual transfer function and is shown in Figure 17.12b. The overall asymptote is shown
I I I I
+Q Y
17.4 NYQUIST PLOTS A Nyquist plot of a is an alternate system. way to represent the frequency response
characteristics Re[G(jw)]
dynamic
It uses the
Im[G(j,)]
as ordinate and
as abscissa.
Figure 17.13 shows the form of a Nyquist plot. defines a point on this plot. and we Thus,
A specific value of the frequency w
at the point 1 (Figure 17.13) the frequency has a value ml the following:
observe
- The distance of the point 1 from the origin (0,O) is the amplitude ratio at the frequency wl, i.e.
distance = hRe[G(ju1)]12 - The angle $ i.e.
+ [Im[G(ju1)
II2 = IGkiw)( = AR
with the real axis is the phase shift at the frequency wl,
$I = tan-l[Im[G(jwl)]/Re[G(jwl)]]
= argument G(jw) = phase shift
Thus, as the frequency varies from 0 to ~0 we trace the whole length of the Nyquist and istic The for the plot and we The find the and corresponding location of values a for the plot amplitude are ratio
phase for
shift. the
shape
Nyquist
character-
particular plot
system. the same information as is the rather pair of Bode given plots the
Nyquist same
contains
system.
Therefore,
its
construction
easily
corresponding Bode plots. typical A. systems using their
Let us now construct the Nyquist plots of some Bode plots developed in the previous section.
First-Order The
System Bode plots are given in Figure 17.3. the We observe of that: the
corresponding
(0
When w=O, then AR = 1 and $=O.
Therefore,
beginning
Nyquist plot is on the real axis where $=O and at a distance from the origin (0,O) equal to 1 (see point A in Figure 17.14a).
93 0
I
(ii) When u-)co then AR+0 and ++--90". Therefore, the end of the Nyquist
plot is at the origin where the distance from it is zero (point C in Figure 17.14a). (iii) Since for every intermediate frequency 0 < AR ~1 and ' -90" < c$ < 0
the Nyquist plot will be inside a unit circle and will never leave the first quadrant. Its complete shape and location are shown in
Figure 17.14a. B. Second-Order The (i> System Bode plots are shown in Figure 17.5. Notice that: of the Nyquist
corresponding
When w=O
then AR = 1 and Cp=O.
Thus, the
beginning
plot is on the real axis at a distance equal to 1 from the origin. (ii) When wxo then AR-+0 and (p-+-180', i.e. the Nyquist plot will end
at the origin and will approach it from the second quadrant. (iii) When ~1 then AR51 When 5~1 and the Nyquist plot stays within a unit
circle.
then AR becomes larger than 1 for a range of
frequencies.
Thus, the Nyquist plot goes outside the unit circle Figure 17.14b shows the Nyquist
for a certain range of frequencies . plot for a second-order system. C. Third-Order System
The transfer function is G(s) = 1 $s+l) (3s+2) $s+U

+9,3
real and positive
It is easy to show that: - When w=O, then AR = 1 and $=O. - When w-tco, Therefore, then AR = 0 and +-+-270'. the Nyquist plot starts from the real axis at a distance 1 from the
origin and endsatthe origin, going throughthethird quadrant (Figure 17.14~).
D.
Pure From
Dead the
Time corresponding Bode plots (Figure 17.6) we notice that:
AR = 1 and $= Therefore, -T d w
for every frequency
the Nyquist plot for this system is a circle of radius 1 and an infinite number of times (Figure 17.14d). Process Bode plots (Figure 17.4) we notice that:
encircles the origina E. Pure From Capacitive the
corresponding
.- When w-to, AR*, while - When w*, ARM). The phase lag remains coincides constant with the at -90" for part every of frequency. the Therefore, axis the
Nyquist 17.14e). F.
plot
negative
imaginary
(Figure
Feedback
Controllers
In a similar manner as above we can construct the Nyquist plots for P, PI, PD and PID controllers. They are shown in Figures 17.15a, 17.15b, 17.15~
and 17.15d, respectively.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS The system to ultimate a response (also called the sometimes following steady state) of a linear
sinusoidal
input
has
characteristics:
- Is a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency as the input. - The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of the input frequency w and equal to the modulus IG(jw) I.
- The phase of the sinusoidal response is shifted by an angle 4~ with respect to the input. phase shift 9 We have a phase lag when @O and phase lead when (p>O. is equal to the argument of G(jw) . The
Frequency linear varies are system with to
response subjected
analysis to of a
is
the
study
of
the
ultimate
response
of
sustained the input
sinusoidal wave, Bode
input. diagrams
Since this response and of Nyquist a plots The
the
frequency
used
represent
the
frequency
response
characteristics
system.
Bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing how the amplitude ratio and phase shift vary with the frequency. The Nyquist plot is a polar plot with Both contain the same information
Re[G(jw)] and can
and Im[g(jw)] be constructed response to of
as coordinates. from each other. the
Frequency be used
analysis design unknown
and
Bode
diagrams and
or
Nyquist identify
plots the
will
extensively function)
effective systems.
controllers
dynamics
(transfer
8 , 4.3
THINGS 1.
TO
THINK are
ABOUT characteristics of the ultimate response of a linear system
What
the
with a transfer function G(s) to a sustained sinusoidal input? 2. 3. Define the frequency response analysis. What means could you for use a to represent the results of the frequency
response 4. Define
analysis the Bode
dynamic and
system? plots. Do you have any personal
diagrams
Nyquist
preference on one of them over the other? 5. The system with l-s a + transfer 1 lead function
If yes, why?
G(s) = is usually
known
as - first-order
element.
Construct its Bode [Hint:
diagram and try to rationalize the word lead in its name. Contrast 6. Construct it the to the familiar diagram a and first-order Nyquist function lag plot element]. of a
Bode
first-order
system
with
dead time, having
transfer
Kp*e G(s) =
-T s d
ups+1 plot have a meaning for the frequencies -0 5 w I O?
7.
Does the
Nyquist
Show that the Nyquist plot for this range of frequencies is the mirror image 8. of the familiar Nyquist the plot for plot the of a frequencies sixth-order o_<ws+,=. system with a
Construct transfer
qualitatively function
Nyquist
G(s) =
P (Tls+l) (r2s+l) (T3S+l.) (TqS+l) (TgS+l) T39 r49 T59 =6 are all real and
(T6S+l)
where
'1?29
positive.
9.
For a system like the one in item 8 above, we claim that the slope of the overall asymptotes in the 1ogAR vs. logw plot of its Bode diagram can -
be given from the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the individual 1 T 1 s+l Explain why. the slopes plot of subsystems, 1 1 ___ . . . ___ T 2s+l ' ' rgs+l + Alos, construct qualitatively the Bode diagram indicating the asymptotes above for system. the AR-. This the overall system. Draw a qualitative
'
Nyquist 10.
for
the
The Bode plots for a PI controller show that as w-t0 is not

GC
physically = Kc(l
realizable.
Therefore,
the transfer function
+$-) I of an ideal so PI controller. it How should the we behavior PI
represents modify of an the
the
behavior
above PI be
transfer
function The as
that
represents of the
actual must Ref.
controller? such 1. that
transfer W-+0
function
actual
controller Consult 11.
then AR-+finite
value.
[Note:
and
The Bode plots for a PD controller show that as w- the AR-. is, again, physically unrealizable. How should we modify the
This transfer
function of a PD controller so that as w- the AR+finite [Note: Consult Ref. and to develop the transfer
value? of an
function
actual PD controller. 12. Based on the responses in Items 10 and 11 above, develop the transfer function of an actual PID controller, which has the following
characteristics: as and as w-4 w, , AR -+ c1 = finite AR -f 8 = finite.
q35 - - - _
- - -_
AR
1 /Yjwe 178)
I~ -3 , c , I I
1 . ,
-41
.--
1 I I - , -,
I I -I, I 1
@)
-1 Iti
--_
c __- - ^ C> I
-^ - _ *_-_
-3 49
6 0
CHAPTER 18 DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS USING FREQUENCY RESPONSE TECHNIQUES
In its
the
previous to
chapter various
we
studied
the
frequency The
response that
analysis may have
and been
application
dynamic
systems.
question
raised in the mind of the reader, i.e. what do we do with it, will find its answer in The this chapter. response helps the the analysis designer, characteristics the open-loop of a closed-loop function, the using and parameters the is a useful tool for designing feedback
frequency It study Nyquist select
controllers. first, to Bode or
stability of most
diagrams the
transfer for
second, to of a
appropriate
values
adjusted
controller.
18.1 THE BODE STABILITY CRITERION Consider transfer the closed-loop is given by system (see shown Section in Figure 18.1. 2) The open-loop
function
15.2,
Remark
y,(s) GOL = Y,,(s)
K ,e-o.ls
= oc5s + 1 (18.1)
The Bode diagram for GOL(s) can be constructed easily (see Example 17.7) and is shown in Figure 18.2. when w = We notice that,
17.0
rad/min $ = -180" is called crossover frethe amplitude ratio is
The frequency where the phase lag is equal to 180' quency and it is denoted by wco. found from the Bode diagram to be At this frequency
AR =
= 0.12
(18.2)
Consequently, Now, let
if us
Kc = l/O.12 = 8.56 the amplitude ratio becomes equal to 1. consider measurement controller. the "opened" loop shown in Figure 18.3a with Kc = has been disconnected from the comparator
8.56. Here, the of the feedback
signal
If the set point changes in a sinusoidal manner and an amplitude equal to 1, i.e.
with frequency w = 17.0 rad/min, Y$) then the ultimate y,(t) = sin(l7.0t) open-loop = sin(l-/.Ot
response,
y,(t),
is
given
by
- 180") = -sin(l7.0t)
At some instant of time the set point yd is set to zero, while at the same time we "close" the loop (Figure 18.3b). Under these conditions the now plays the same role played
comparator inverts the sign of the y,, which
by the set point in the "open" loop. Notice that the error E remains the same. with Theoretically, constant the response since of the system will continue to oscillate
amplitude,
AR = 1, despite the fact that both the load
and the set point do not change. Let a. us examine the following cases: = -180". Therefore, the sustained
If Kc > 8.56 then AR>1
when
oscillation of the "closed" loop of Figure 18.3b will exhibit an ever increasing b. On the amplitude if leading to an unstable system.
contrary, the
Kc < 8.56 then AR<1 when 4 = -180". Conresponse of the "closed'! loop of Figure to an
sequently, 18.3b eventual The conclusion will
oscillating a of
exhibit out from
continuously the the
decreasing
amplitude
leading
dying drawn
oscillation. above observations is the following:
"A feedback control system is unstable if the AR of.the corresponding open-loop transfer function is larger than 1 at the crossover frequency."
This
is
known
as
the
Bode
Stability
Criterion.
Example
Using (a) First-Order following Process: the Bode Criterion Consider a control system with the
Open-Loop dynamic G P =
Response.
components K -$& P
Measuring sensor: Gm = Km Controller: G

C
= Kc, i.e. proportional
Valve (final control element): Gf = Kf The open-loop G transfer function is: = K rPs+l phase according stable lag to since for the a first-order Bode is system
OL
cGGGG f p m Section
K K K K cfpm rps+l that the
We
know
(see
17.1)
is between 0' and 90". criterion over the above
Therefore, is always
stability no cross-
system
there
frequency.
(b) First-Order with Dead-Time Open-Loop Response. Consider again the dynamic change.
G = K
components
of
the
loop
in
the
case
(a)
above
with
the
following
.-Os5
Then, the open-loop transfer function becomes, K .-0.5s G OL = 'rps+l
The phase lag for this system is
$I
tan -1 GTpW)
(-0.5w) Consequently, according to there is a crossthe Bode leads important
The last equation shows that 0 I $ < m. over frequency wco' where $ = -180" and
criterion the system may become unstable for a large Kc to AR>1 at this frequency. for the This of example demonstrates processes: a
which very
characteristic
stability
chemical
"Dead-time is a principal source of destabilizing in chemical process control systems." Since which is most can of be that the chemical by processes a exhibit an
effects
open-loop with
response it
approximated the
first-order for
system
dead-time, will be,
clear
possibility
closed-loop the tuning
instability of the
almost always, present. troller becomes a crucial
Therefore, task.
feedback
con-
(c) Higher Order Open-Loop for case (a) above
Responses: with the
Consider
again
the
control
system
following
changes:
Gm
Km ~ -rms+l
The open-loop transfer function becomes, G K (rps+l)(rms+l) W=m . Therefore, according to the
OL
and the phase lag becomes -180' when
Bode criterion such system is always stable since as w the AR-4. If Gm we = consider Km ___ r-,s+l open-loop and Kf rfs+l becomes
Gf function
then
the
transfer
GOL
K (rpS+l)(rms+l)(rfS+1) Therefore, the system there may is a crossover unstable for
and the phase lag is 0" 2 C$ 5 -270". frequency wCo where 4 = -180" This leads to and the
become
large enough Kc. the stability of
second
important
observation
about
chemical
process
control
systems:
"In the absence of dead-time a closed-loop system may become unstable if its open-loop transfer function is of thirdorder or higher."
Remarks:
(1)
All
systems
in
Example
18.1
have
an
important
common
feature;
the AR and $J
of the corresponding open-loop transfer This processing criterion a very sys-
functions decrease continuously as w increases. is also true For for such the large majority the Bode Thus analysis of chemical
systems.
systems
stability it of
leads to rigorous conclusions. useful tems tool of for the to stability a chemical
constitutes most
control
interest
engineer.
(2) It is possible though that the AR or 4 of an open-loop transfer w. function may not be decreasing continuously with
In Figure 18.4 we see the Bode plots of an open-loop
transfer function where AR and 4 increase in a certain range of frequencies. may lead to erroneous which For such systems and we the need in Bode the Section criterion more 18. general .
conclusions will be
Nyquist
criterion
discussed
Fortunately, 18.4 are
systems with AR or 4 like those of Figure few and consequently the Bode criterion will
very
be applicable in most of the cases.
(3) In order to use the Bode criterion, we need the Bode plots for These the the can open-loop be transfer in of function two the of the (a) controlled numerically, system. if
constructed functions final
ways; process, are
transfer and
measuring known and
device, (b)
controller
control
element
experimentally, unknown. sinusoidal and phase
if all or some of the transfer functions are
In the second case the system is disturbed with a input lag of at various the frequencies, response and are the amplitude From
open-loop
recorded.
these data we can construct the Bode plots. 18.2 GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS The method behavior for by Bode stability the criterion feedback indicates how in we order can to establish avoid a rational
tuning the the
controllers of a
unstable
closed-loop Bode plots
response for The %o ' the two
process. transfer features function of these of a feedare;
Consider back system
open-loop important
(Figure
18.5).
plots
the
crossover
frequency
where Q! = -180" and
- the point where AR = 1. Let M be the amplitude ratio at the corssover frequency (see Figure 18.5). According to the Bode criterion
- if 14~1 the closed-loop system is stable and - if M>l it is unstable. Define, Gain Margin = l/M Then, for a stable system M<l and Gain Margin > 1 We can make the following observations on the practical significance of the (18.3)
gain
margin:
- It constitutes a measure of how far the system is from the brink of instability. - The higher the gain margin is above the value of 1, the more robust the closed-loop controlled the safety behavior process. factor we will be and thus the safer the operation of the
In other words the higher the gain margin the higher use for controller synthesizes tuning. a feedback system with gain
- Typically, a margin above Let us larger the now
control than
designer
1.7. value
This means that the AR can increase 1.7 times before the system becomes an unstable.
design study
the
above
observations
using
example.
Example
18.2
- Gain the
Margin
and
the system
Tuning of
of
Controller 18.1. The crossover is frequency (see eqn.
Consider is %o
closed-loop the
Figure ratio
= 17 rad/min, and
amplitude
at
this
frequency
(18.2))
C
AR =
= 0.12 K
2 . &T&z Therefore the gain margin is equal to
Gain Margin = o l12K . C If we require a gain margin of 1.7 we find 1 0.12 K = 1.7
Let us assume now that the dead-time for the process has not been estimated accurately and that its "true" value is 0.15 instead of 0.1. loop transfer function is given by Then, the open-
K e-0.15s G
C
OL
0.5s+l For the open-loop is transfer function
(18.4) of At
and not by the assumed eqn. (18.1). eqn. this (18.4) we find the that the
crossover ratio is
frequency
%o = 11.6 rad/min.
frequency
amplitude
P and the system is still stable despite the error by 50% we made in estimating the dead-time of the process. Notice though system the that has the noved amplitude closer ratio to of has
AR = d& = J,,.~.- = o.83

example demonstrates practical points static
moved closer to the value 1, i.e. the The present
instability. the gain
significant are gains, worth time
margin in tuning feedback controllers. Since almost safety If are the process never factor parameters known for like
Two
emphasizing: constant are
dead-times,
exactly, a gain margin larger than one, e.g. 1.7, is a stable operation. are known very well, only small safety factors
various
parameters
needed,
i.e. gain margins in the range 1.4-1.7. For systems with poorly known the safety factor must increase and the recommended
parameters
values for gain margins are in the range 1.7-3.0.
Besides the design
the of a
gain
margin
there
is
another the
safety phase
factor margin.
which
is
used again
for
feedback
control
system;
Consider
Figure 18.5. The phase
Let $(,) be the phase lag at the frequency for which AR = 1. is defined as follows: lag 91) needed to destablize the system. It is
margin
Phase Margin = 180' i.e. it is the additional phase
clear used are
therefore for larger
that a
the
higher
the
phase
margin phase
the
larger used
the by
safety the
factor
designing than
controller.
Typical
margins
designers
30".
Example
18.3 -
Phase Margin and the Tuning of a Controller again the

C
Consider
closed-loop
system
of
Figure
18.1.
We
know
that
AR =
and 4 = tan-'(-0.5o)
+ (-0.1~)
6-k . w 2 Let us tune the controller using a phase margin equal to 30". Then, we have
Kc
and
30"=180"
-tan-'(-0.5~)
(-0.1~) first equations
From the second euation we find w = 12.5 rad/min. gives Kc = 6.33. (i> Assume "true" now value that is the 0.15. dead-time has been
Then, the
estimated
wrong
and
that
its
Then, the phase lag at the frequency h) =
12.5, where AR = 1, is given by,
$ = tan-'(-0.5w) We notice that the
+ (-0.1501) = tan-1(-0.5*12.5)+(-0.15~12.5)=188" system has become unstable, i.e. a phase margin
of 30'
was not enough to provide a safety factor for a 50% error in
dead-time. (ii) The reader can easily show that a phase margin of 45" is enough to tune safety of the the controller for in case a Kc (i) 50% above error and in provide the the necessary The value
factor
absorbing gain
dead-time.
proportional
for a 45" phase margin is found to be
Kc = 5.05.
Assume that there is an error in the time constant which
has a "true" value of 0.25 instead of the assumed 0.5. Then, the
crossover
180"
frequency =
is
found +
from
the
equation
tan-l(-0.25w) %o
(-0.1~) At this frequency
and it is equal to AR =
5.05
= 17.9.
= 1.1
J/(o.25*17.9)2+1 and we notice again that the system is unstable. although a phase margin of 45" was satisfactory Therefore, for tuning the
controller in the presence of a 50% error in dead-time, it is not enough for absorbing an error of up to 50% in the time constant. Larger phase margin is needed.
18.3 THE ZIEGLER-NICHOLS TUNING TECHNIQUE In curve. Section The 16.4 is we discuss a tuning method and will based based uses on real an the process data reaction from
method
primarily In this
experimental section which we is
process
the system's response. developed by Ziegler and
discuss on the
alternate
method
Nichols
frequency
response
analysis, discussed in earlier sections. Unlike loop loop (i> (ii) the of process a It reaction the through to the curve method which uses data from is the opena closed-
response
system, goes
Ziegler-Nichols the following
tuning steps:
technique
procedure. Bring Using the
system
desired only point and
operational with the
level
(design loop
condition). closed, and varying
proportional sinusoidal
control set
feedback low
introduce
changes
with
amplitude The wCo.
frequencies until the system oscillates continuously. of continuous oscillation is the crossover frequency,
frequency Let M
be the AR for the system's response at the crossover frequency.
(iii) Compute the following two quantities: Ultimate Gain = Ku = l/M Ultimate Period of Sustained Cycling = U P = 27i/wCO (min/cycle).
(iv>
Using the values of Ku and Pu, the following settings for
Ziegler and Nichols recommended controllers:

KC -
feedback
rI(min.)
~D(min.)
Proportional (P) Proportional-Integral (PI) (PID) of the
KU/2
Ku/2.2 Ku/l.7 Z-N
Pull.2
PJ2
Pu/
Proportional-Integral-Derivative The above settings reveal the rationale
methodology.
-For proportional control alone, use a gain margin equal to 2. -For PI control control use a lower proportional gain because lag the the in presence all of the
integral (see
mode
introduces
additional
phase on gain curve
frequencies The refore,
Figure
17.8b) maintains
with
destabilizing the
effects same reaction
system.
lower Kc arguments
approximately in the
margin. tuning
Similar technique (see
were
used
process
Section 16.4). The strong presence of the derivative in for of control the a mode introduces response. can be phase lead with
stabilizing
effects
closed-loop PID controller
Consequently, increased without
the proportional gain Kc threatening the stability
the
system.
Example
18.4
Controller
Tuning
by
the
Ziegler-Nichols
and
Cohen-Coon
Methods
Consider the multicapacity process in case (ii) of Example 16.4. We have; I I G = (5s+&2s+l) P ' 1 Gm = 10s + 1 and Gf = 1.0
The
controller
settings
according
to
the
process
reaction
curve
method
were
found to be: For proportional controller; Kc = 8.0
- For PI controller; Kc = 7.2 and TI = 8.15 - For PID controller; Kc = 10.7, rI = 5.85 and -cD = 0.89 Let above. Using proportional control only, the from the equation, -180" = tan-'(-5wC0) which yields is %o = found 0.415 from = log 2 &l + log & + log & and it is equal to 0.055. K
U
us
now
find
the
Ziegler-Nichols
settings
and
compare
them
to
the
crossover
frequency
can
be
found
+ tan-'(-2wC0) The
+ tan-l(-10wCC) ratio at the crossover
rad/min. the
amplitude equation,
frequency
following
log(AR)
Therefore = 18.22
the
ultimate
gain
is
l/O.055
Also, the ultimate period is found to be Pu = -z..?L= Yzo 15.14 minutes/cycle
Then, the Ziegler-Nichols recommended settings are: - For a proportional controller; Kc = 18.22/2 - For a PI controller; Kc = 18.22i2.2 - For a PID controller; KC = 18.2211.7 rD = 15.14/8 = 9.11 = 12.62
= 8.28 and -cI = 15.1411.2
= 10.72, rI = 15.1412 = 7.57 and = 1.89
Comparing the Z-N to the C-C settings we observe that; the proportional gains are a little larger for the Z-N settings,
- the reset and rate time constants are also higher for the Z-N. Figures 18.6a and 18.6b indicate the responses of the closed-loop system to step with better changes Z-N and in C-C those the set point We and load respectively, the using a PID Z-N controller tuning are
settings. with that of the no one
notice
that
responses
with
than
more general method
conservative conclusions over the
C-C can
settings. be drawn The
It must be as to the we
emphasized relative
though, superiority
other.
only
conclusion
draw is that both methods provide very good first guesses for the values of the controllers' adjusted parameters.
18.4 THE NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION As we pointed out in Section 18.1, the Bode stability for systems with AR and $I systems Nyquist with open-loop is Bode criterion For more is valid
monotonically decreasing with w. like those of Figure 18.4 the
feedback general
plots
criterion
employed.
In this section we will present a simple outFor can more details on the 18.A theoretical at the end
line of this criterion and its usage. background of this The of the methodology the reader
consult
Appendix
chapter. Nyquist stability criterion states that:
"If the open-loop Nyquist plot of a feedback system encircles the point (-1,0) as the frequency w takes value from -00 to +", then the closed-loop response unstable." To the understand Nyquist the concept let of us encirclement study the and therefore the
any is
correct
usage
of
criterion,
following
examples.
Example 18.5 -
The Stability Characteristics of a -~Nyquist Stability Criterion
Third-Order
System
Using
the
Consider the following open-loop transfer function:
G OL
Kc
= (s+1)(2s+1)(4s+l)
Figure 18.7 shows the Nyquist plots for GOL when Kc = 1 (curve A) and Kc = 50 (curve B). range For each Nyquist plot the solid line covers the frequency
0 I w < -+ while the dotted part the frequencies from -a to 0. The
dotted segment of the Nyquist plot is the mirror image of the solid line segment with respect to the real axis.
Figure 18.7 shows that curve A does not encircle the point (-l,O), while curve B does. with open-loop Thus, Nyquist according plot the to the A Nyquist is criterion while the feedback B system
curve
stable,
curve
indicates
an unstable closed-loop system. system is stable while for K

C
This in turn implies that for Kc = 1 the = 50 is unstable.
Example
18.6
Conditional
Stability
and
the
Nyquist
Criterion
Consider the Nyquist plots shown in Figures 18.8a, 18.8b and 18.8~. All correspond to the same open-loop transfer function with different values for
the proportional gain Kc. encircle the point the (-1,0)
The plots in Figures 18.8a and 18.8~ do not while the Nyquist plot to of the that Figure 18.8b first of the and does. third is Nyquist unstable.
Therefore,
feedback
systems
corresponding
plots have stable closed-loop responses, while From the above plots it is clear
C
second
that
the
closed-loop
response
becomes
unstable for a range of values K and
such that the point (-1,0) is between A When point (-1,0) is to the left of A it is not encircled by
B of the resulting Nyquist plot.
(Figure 18.8~) or to the right of B (Figure 18.8a),
byquist Remark:
plot For
and fast by
the
corresponding on the
closed-loop encirclement plot,
response or not
is of
stable. the use point the
conclusions the
(-1,0)
open-loop
Nyquist
the
reader
can
following
practical
method:
"Place a pencil at the point (-1,O). Attach one end of a thread at the pencil and with the other end trace the whole length of the Nyquist plot. If the thread has wrapped around the pencil
then we can say that the point (-k,O) is encircled by the Nyquist plot."
The gain margin and phase margin of an open-loop response can be also computed plots of from a a Nyquist plot. This must the be same expected since Bode and Nyquist
system
contain
exactly
information.
Consider the Nyquist plot of Figure 18.9. At the frequency of the point A the Nyquist plot intersects the unit circle around the origin. AR at this
Therefore,
since the distance of point A from the origin is the represents the phase
frequency, we conclude the angle $,M Furthermore,
margin.
at the frequency of point B the phase lag is equal to 180".
The amplitude ratio at this point is the distance between B and the origin, i.e. AR = M. Consequently, the gain margin is easily found as l/M.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS In is d a The this useful chapter tool for we have demonstrated feedback plots or of that the frequency In response analysis
designing Nyquist be
ocntrollers. feedback
particular: reveal if the
open-loop
Bode
and will
systems
closed-loop
response
stable
not.
r ,1 .-:. , -
The gain and phase margins can be computed easily and constitute the safety account factors for incorporated in in the tuning of of feedback controllers dead to times and
uncertainties Tuning
the gain
values margins It
time
constants, than be 1.7
static gains.
with
larger should by
and
phase
margins that
larger than 30 is
the
most
typical.
emphasized of
though the
the size of the margins used, is tainty in the values of the
dictated
the
magnitude
uncer-
process
parameters.
- The Ziegler-Nichols settings stem from frequency response considerations and provide a closed-loop tuning methodology, unlike the Cohen-Coon
settings. Wtih this chapter we close Part IV which dealt with the analysis and design of simple feedback systems.
In the following five chapters of Part V we will extend our attention to more complex plants. control Thus, configurations we will study; processes with large dead time or inverse which are encountered quite often in
chemical special
compensatory
control
far
response, systems with selective and ratio control control loops, configurations and
feedforward adaptive we
control. will discuss and the need some for the experimental used for identification this purpose. of
Finally, process
dynamics
present
techniques
THINGS 1.
TO
THINK in
ABOUT your in in a own words that by "opening" a feedback loop we place the while by "closing" it we place the
Explain
controller controller 2.
"manual"
operation, mode.
the
"automatic"
What is the basis of the Bode criterion? Why it is not general-lY rigorous?
3.
Do
you
think
that
the
following Explain.
modified
statement
of
the
Bode
criterion
is generally rigorous?
"A feedback control system is unstable, if the AR of the corresponding at 4. any open-loop transfer function is larger than 1
crossover
frequency."
Construct an open-loop transfer function whose AR or 4, or both, are not continuously decreasing functions of the frequency w. its Bode and the on Nyquist two these plots. sources factors. criterion show that are feedback always systems with of instability in closed-loop responses. Draw
5.
Identify Elaborate
major two
6.
Using first
the and
Nyquist
stability
second-order
open-loop
responses
stable.
7.
Define the phase and gain margins and show how you can compute them from Bode or Nyquist plots.
8.
Explain in your own words what we mean when we say that phase and gain margins constitute safety margins (safety factors) in tuning a feedback
controller. controller? 9. ( 1 t Describe the
Why do we need a safety margin in tuning a feedback
Ziegler-Nichols
tuning
methodology.
This Why?
procedure
is
often called "continuous cycling" tuning method.
10.
The while
Ziegler-Nichols the of Cohen-Coon the
settings settings
result are
from
closed-loop from choose the one
considerations, open-loop over the other
determined Would you
response
control
system.
because it uses open or closed-loop data? Explain. 11. The experimental determination of the Ziegler-Nichols settings brings the chemical process Can Nyquist you at the threshold this in between an and stable and unstable
operation. 12. State and the
tolerate
industrial give some than
environment? examples those in of stable this
stability control
criterion systems,
unstable
feedback
different
chapter. the 13.
Explain the concept of encirclement of the point (-1,O) by plot, which following gain margin is so central and for the your larger Nyquist criterion.
Nyquist the
Answer -
questions implies
justify or
answers: allowable controller
Larger gain?
smaller
Larger
gain
margin
makes
closed-loop
response
of
process
faster
or slower? Larger Larger gain? 14. The discussion in Section 18.2 and Examples 18.2 and 18.3 have indiphase phase margin margin implies implies faster smaller or or slower larger closed-loop allowable response? controller
I I I I I I I I I I I 1
cated that we could use very large phase and gain margins to guarantee closed-loop to 15. use stability margins in under than the model those inaccuracies. needed? of of phase a model the (static gain, time Why would you try not
larger
Larger
uncertainty
parameters tuning or
constant, dead based on larger
time) or
require smaller
controller's
parameters
gain
margin?
.!iF: c.:: 4 ,o
I 9 \
, , I , I , .c -0
-2
REFERENCES Chapter more 13: There is a variety of references that the reader can consult for on the constructional and operational details of; measuring
information
devices, feedback controllers, transmission lines, transducers, and final control elements. The following are some typical sources:
(1) Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, by D. M. Considine, McGrawHill Book Co., New York (1957). (2) Handbook of Applied Instrumentation, by D. M. Considine and S. D. ROSS, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1964). (3) Instrument Engineers Handbook: Vol. 1. Process Liptak, Chilton Book Co., Philadelphia (1970). Measurement, by B.
For measuring devices Chapter 7 of Ref. 4 can be found very useful. (4) For (5) While book (6) Measurements and Hougen, Cahners the dynamics of Control Applications for Books, Boston (1972). some typical sensors the Practicing reader can Engineers by ..consult by J. the L. J. 0.
article, Guy, Chem.
"Process Dynamics. Part 2: Process Engng., Aug. 24, p. 111 (1981). for by the Guthrie dynamics of thermocouples,
Control
Loops,"
valves,
pumps,
piping,
et
al.
the
[Ref. 61 contains useful information of Process (1964). Control, by P. S. Buckley, J. Wiley and Sons,
Techniques New York selection
The
of
the
appropriate
control
valve
is
discussed
in
Reference
and
in the book by Luyben [Ref. 71. (7) Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York distributed character of the pneumatic Chemical (1973). Engineers, by
The
transmission
lines
dynamics
is
discussed in Ref. 6 and in the book by Weber, [Ref. 81. (8) An Introduction to Process Dynamics Wiley and Sons, New York (1973). and Control, by T. W. Weber, J.
Chapter the
15:
The book,
mathematical
proof
the
Routh-Hurwitz
tests
can
be
found
in
classic
(9) Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies, 3rd edition, by E. J. Routh, McMillan, London (1877) wuile (10) for an extensive Theory of discussion Dynamical the reader by can J. consult, L. Willelms, Nelson,
Stability (1970) .
Systems,
(11)
Mathematical Methods in Chemical Engineering, Jeffreys, Academic Press, London (1963).
by
V.
G.
Jenson,
and
G.
V.
The books by Willelms studying the (12) alternative
[Ref. lo] and Douglas [Ref. 121 can also be used for definitions of stability and more advanced treatment on
subject. Process Dynamics and Control, Englewood Cliffs (1972). construction rules for the root Vol. 2., by J. M. Douglas, Prentice-Hall,
The
locus
of
closed-loop
system
can
be
found in the books by Douglas [Ref. 121, Luyben [Ref. 71 and in the following two classic texts: Systems Analysis and Control, by D. R. Doughanowr and L. B. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1965). Engineering, by K. Ogata, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
(13) Proces Koppel, (14)
Modern Control Cliffs (1970).
There is a variety of references on the use of root locus for the design of closed-loop systems. The texts by Luyben [Ref. 71, Douglas [Ref. 121,
Coughanowr and Koppel [Ref. 131 and Ogata [Ref. 141 offer an excellent treatment Chapter of 16: the Two subject with a large number on the of examples. problems [Ref. 151 Shinskey, McGraw-Hill of controller
excellent
references
practical
design are the books by Buckley [Ref. 61 and Shinskey (15) Process Control Systems, 2nd Book Co., New York (1979). edition, by F. G.
In
these
two the
texts most
the
reader
will type can
find of find
useful feedback
practical controller tuning
guidelines for a
in particular employed
selecting
appropriate
application. by the For
In addition, one practice. discussion
alternate
techniques
industrial an
extensive
on
the
various
types
of
performance
criteria,
their advantages and shortcomings in designing feedback controllers, the reader can consult the following reference,
(16) "Optimization of Closed-Loop Responses" by G. Stephanopoulos, Module No. 12, in Process Dynamics and Control, an AIChE publication. In Ref. 16, the reader will also use find time the various techniques for solving the conFor
troller design problems, which additional reading on this
integral following
performance sources are
criteria. also
subject
recommended:
(17) Linear Control System Analysis and Design, by J. J. D'Azzo Houpis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1975). (18) Digital Computer Process New York (1972). Control, by C. L. Smith,
and C. H.
Intex Educ.
Publish.,
(19)
Analytical Design of Linear Feedback Controls, by G. C. Newton, Jr., L. A. Gould and J. F. Kaiser, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1957). additional reading on the process reaction curve method and the Cohen The and
For
Coon settings, the reader can consult References 8, 12, 13 and 15.
details on the development of the Cohen and Coon settings can be found in the original (20) work by Cohen and Coon by G. H. Cohen and
"Theoretical Considerations of Retarded Control," G. A. Coon, Trans. ASME, 75, p. 827 (1953). The books by Buckley [Ref. 61
Chapters 17 and 18:
and Caldwell, Coon and Zoss
[Ref. 211 are two very good sources for an in depth study of the frequency response (21) analysis and its ramifications in controller design. G. A. Coon
Frequency Response for Process Control, by W. I. Caldwell, and L. M. Zoss, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1959).
For very
systems hard to
with
transfer the
functions frequency
very
difficult
to
factor Luyben also to
and [Ref.
consequently 71 a discomputer Bode
complete
response
analysis, He has
cusses various numerical solution techniques. program and of (22) in FORTRAN plots which for a uses the
included develop on the
"stepping" technique column. be More found
the
Nyquist the
distillation method
details in the J. G.
philosophy work, and N. B.
Ziegler-Nichols
tuning
can
original Ziegler
"Optimum Settings for Automatic Controllers," Nichols, Trans. ASME, 64, p. 759 (1942).
by
In References 6, 7, 13 and 15 the reader can find a large number of examples demonstrating feedback the application In of frequency response 6 arguments and 15 in the design the of
controllers.
particular, References
analyze
frequency
response characteristics of flow, pressure, temperature, concentration, et al. control systems, and draw some useful general inferences according to the
control system.
APPENDIX
18.A.
COMPLEX
MAPPING
AND
THE
NYQUIST
CRITERION
FOR
STABILITY.
Consider the function G(s) = l/(s+l) of the complex variables. Let A, B, C and D be four points in the complex plane with coordinates as shown in Figure 18.A-la. found easily as follows: The value of G(s) at the point A can be
G(s) = (~)
A
= (-2+jlo) + 1 =
-l+ j-0
If
we
consider
the
G-plane,
i.e. a
space
with
coordinates
Re[G(s)]
and
Im[G(s)],
then, the value of G(s) at the point A is given by the point We say that point A maps onto the point A' G(s). In the same way we find the maps of points (points B', C', and D').
A' (Figure 18.A-lb). through the function
B, C, and D which are shown in Figure 18.A-lb Let us proceed a step further.
Consider the line S in the com-
plex plane (s-plane) given by (Figure 18.A-2a) with OLCt
s: s=a+ j (?a)
Curve S' is the map of line S in the space of Re[G(s)] and Im[G(s)] (G-plane) and is shown in Figure 18.A-2b. Curve S' is given by:
-= G(s) = A = [a+j (2:) ] + 1
for 0 Ia. After state of the having introduced of for the the concept of complex which mapping let the us now
Cauchy's Nyquist
Principle criterion
Argument,
constitutes
basis
stability.
"Let G(s) be a function of the complex variable s.
Let also
C be a closed contour in the s-plane, on and within which the G(s) is analytic. Let the
0
contour
encircle
points
at which G(s) takes a value G in the G-plane encircles
Then, the complex map of C n times."
point Go
To sider
appreciate
the
importance
of
the
above
principle
let
us
con-
the
closed-loop
characteristic
equation.
1 + GPGmGcGf
= O is the open-loop transfer
Recall that G(s) 3 Gp(s)~Gm(s)*Gc(s)~Gf(s) function.
Then the characteristic equation becomes: (18.A-1)
G(s) = -1
Define a contour C (Figure 18.A-3a) of the complex plane (s-plane).
which encloses all the right half
If there are k roots of equation
(18.A-1) in the right half of the s-plane, then according to Cauchy's principle stated above, the map of C in the G-plane encircles the
point G = -1, k times. Let us see what is the map of C in the G-plane. Contour C is composed R -f 00. of For the the imaginary imaginary with axis axis and we a semicircle of radius R, where
have
s = j-w
--m < w < +c=J
and its map in the G-plane will give us the Nyquist plot (see Section 17.4). For the large semicircle we have:
Rejw
(18.A-2)
Q,(s) G(s) = p n
where, Q,(s) with n > m. take:
is an m-th order polynomial and P,(s)
is an n-th order one,
Substittue s in G(s) by its equal from equation (18.A-2) and
G[RejW]
= Qm[RejW]/Pn[RejW]
Since the order of Pn is higher than that of Q,, then it is clear that
IGIRejW] 1 + 0 Also, that;
and the large semicircle maps in the origin of the G-plane. dG[ReJW] takes all values from -90' to +90. Thus we
conclude
"the map of the contour C (Figure 18.A-3) where plot G(s) for 5 open-loop transfer function,
in the G-plane, is the Nyquist
G(s)."
Consequently,
we
can
state
the
following
criterion
for
the
stability
of
a closed-loop response.
"If
the
Nyquist
diagram
of
the
open-loop
transfer
function
G(s) encircles the point (-l,O), k times, then according to Cauchy's Principle of the Arguement, equation in ther the are k roots half of of the the
closed-loop
characteristic
right
46
s-plane.
If k = 0 then the closed-loop response is stable, 0 the closed-loop response is unstable."
and if k >
The
above
criterion
is
known
as
the
Nyquist
Criterion
of
closed-loop
stability.
I,
b
-. . 4
47f
PART V ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS Although feedback control is the most commonly encountered in chemical processes, it is not the only one. There exist situations where feedback con-
trol action is insufficient to produce the desired response of a given process. In such cases other control configurations are used like feedforward, ratio, multivariable, cascade, override, split range, adaptive control, etc. In the following four chapters of Part V we will study the static and dynamic characteristics as well as methods for the design of the following . advanced control systems: - Compensatory control for processes with large dead time or inverse response. - Multiple loop control (cascade; selective; split range). - Feedforward and ratio control. - Adaptive and inferential control. Finally, in Chapter 23 we will study the need for experimental modeling of processing systems and will examine several techniques which are commonly used in the chemical plants for this purpose.
CHAPTER 19 FEEDBACK CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH LARGE DEAD TIME OR INVERSE RESPONSE All the previous chapters of Part IV have been devoted to the analysis and design of feedback control systems for rather simple processes. In this
chpater we will be concerned with the feedback control of two special types of systems; with large dead times and inverse responses. We will see in the
subsequent paragraphs of this chapter that for such systems conventional P, PI OR PID controllers may not be sufficient to yield the desired response. 19.1 PROCESSES WITH LARGE DEAD TIME Consider the general feedback control system of Figure 14.1. All the dynamic components of the loop may exhibit significant time delays in their response. Thus,
- the main process may involve transportation of fluids over long distances or include phenomena with long incumbation periods;
- the measuring device may require long periods of time for completing the sampling and the analysis of the measured output (a gas chromatograph such a device); - the final control element may need some time to develop the actuating signal; - a human controller (decision maker) may need significant time to think and take the proper control action. In all of the above situations a conventional feedback controller would provide quite unsatisfactory closed-loop response for the following reasons: - A disturbance entering the process will not be detected until after a significant period of time. is
- The control action which will be taken on the basis of the last measurement will be inadequate because it attempts to regulate a situation (eliminate an error) which was originated while back in time. - The control action also will take some time to make its effect felt by the process. - As a result of all the above significant dead time is the main source of instability for closed-loop responses.
Example 19.1 - Dead Time as a Main Source of Closed-Loop Instability Consider the following open-loop transfer function, .. -ds Kc-e G OL = 0.5s+l
(i>
If
td = 0.01 minutes, i.e. very small, then crossover frequency =
160 rad/min, and ultimate gain = 80.01. (ii) Suppose that the dead time increased to td = 0.1. crossover frequency = 17 rad/min Then, the
and ultimate gain = 8.56. We
notice that the increase of the dead time has introduced significant additional phase lag which reduces the crossover frequency and the maximum allowable gain. In other words, the increase of dead time
has made the closed-loop response more sensitive to periodic disturbances and has brought the system closer to the brink of instability. (iii) Further increase in dead time, i.e. td = 1.0 yields crossover frequency = 2.3 rad/min and ultimate gain = 1.52. And we see the
same trends as above.
The results of Example 19.1 lead to the following general statements:
"As the dead time of an open-loop transfer function increases, the following two undesirable effects take place: - The crossover frequency decreases. This implies that the closed-loop
response will be sensitive even to lower frequency periodic disturbances entering the system. - The ultimate gain decreases. Therefore, in order to avoid the insta-
bilities of the closed-loop response, we must reduce the value of the proportional gain Kc which leads to sluggish response."
Figure 19.1 depicts graphically the above results. The discussion above indicates that a control'system different than the typical feedback loop is needed to compensate for dead time effects. 19.2 DEAD-TIME COMPENSATION In the previous section we identified the critical need for more effective control of processes with significant dead time. In this section we will
discuss a modification of the classical feedback control system, which was proposed by 0. J. M. Smith for the compensation of dead-time effects. known as Smith Predictor or Dead-Time Compensator. To understand the nature of the dead-time compensation proposed by Smith, consider the simple feedback loop with set point changes only shown in Figure 19.2a. process, i.e. We have assumed that all the dead time is caused by the It is
Gp(4
= G(s)e
-tds
and that for simplicity, G,(s) = Gf(s) = 1. used by the control mechanism is equal to,
The
feedback
measurement
signal
P(s)
-tas
Gc(s> l [G(s) -e
1 Y,,(s)
(19.1)
i.e. it is delayed by td minutes. In order to eliminate the undesired effects of a delayed information as
the
y(s), we would like to have a measurement signal which carries current
and not delayed information, like the Y,(s) = Gc(s)*~(d*~,,(s) (19.2)
This is possible if we add to the signal y(s) the following quantity

-tds
p'(s) = (1 - e It is easy to verify that Y(s) + Y'(s) =
Kc(s) -G(s) l Y,,W

Y,(s) ;
(19.3)
The implication of adding y(s) to the signal f(s) is shown in Figure 19.2b. There we notice that the signal y'(s) can be taken by a simple local loop around the controller, which is called, dead-time compensator or Smith predictor. The simplified loop of Figure 19.2c is completely equivalent to'
that of Figure 19.2b and indicates the real effect of the dead-time compensator, i.e. "moving the effect of dead time outside the loop." Remarks: (1) In the block diagram of Figure 19.2c it is not correct to think that we take a measurement signal after the block G(s) because such signal is not measurable in a real process with dead time. The only measurable signals are the process Therefore, the
output, Y(s) , and the manipulated variable.
block diagram of Figure 19.2c is meant to give only a schematic representation of what is the effect of the deadtime compensator and not to depict physical reality. (2) The dead-time compensator predicts the delayed effect that the manipulated variable will have on the process output.
This prediction lent the name to the term Smith Predictor and it is possible only if we have a model for the dynamics of the process (transfer function, dead time). (3) In most of the process control problems the model of the process is not perfectly known, i.e. G(s) and td are
only
approximately
known.
Therefore, if G(s) and td
represent the "true" characteristics of the process while Gmodel(s) and td(model) represent their approximations
which we use for dead-time compensation then the control system with the Smith predictor is shobm in Figure 19.3. In this case we have: 7mw = y(s) + F'(s) -tds = &G e or
-tds
-td(model)'s +(l-e jGc Gmodell*?'Sp(s)
Y,(S) = [GcGmodel+(G e
-Gmodel e
-td(model)'s
) 1 -Y,,W
(19.4)
The above equation indicates some important features of the dead-time compensators: we will have perfect and td = td(model)'
- Only for perfectly known ,processes compensation, i.e. for G 2 Gmodel
- The larger the modeling error, i.e. the larger the differences (G - Gmodel) and (td - td(model)), the less effective is the compensation.
- The error is estimating the dead time is more detrimental for effective dead-time compensation, i.e. (td - t is more crucial than (G - Gmodel), because of the exponential function. d(mode1))
(4) The dead time in a chemical process is usually caused by material flows. Since the flowrate is not normally constant
but shows variations during the operation of a plant, the value of the dead-time changes. Therefore, if the dead-time
478
compensator is designed for a certain value of when it takes a new value be as effective. 5
td'
the compensation will not
Example 19.2 - Dead-Time Compensation and the Effect of Modeling Error Consider the feedback loop shown in Figure 19.3a. Let the controller
be simple proportional and the "true" transfer function of the process be

Gp(s) =
OJs+l' e .? td = 1 For this system it was
-1s
It is easy to recognize that :
G(s) = & .
and
(a) Suppose that we use simple feedback control.
found in Example 19.1 that the open-loop transfer function has crossover frequency: %o = 2.3 radlmin and ultimate gain: Kc = 1.52.
The fact that the ultimate gain is 1.52 forced us to use Kc = 1.5 < 1.52. Nevertheless, the system is very close to the brink of
instability and has a rather unacceptable offset (see Section 14.2) 1 1 = 1 + 1.1.5 = 0.4 l+KK PC Curve A (Figure 19.4) shows the response of the system to a unit offset = step-change in the set point. :5> Let us introduce "perfect" dead-time compensation. This is possible Then, the The
if the "true" transfer function of the process is known.
control system is given by the block diagram of Figure 19.3b. open-loop transfer function is (see eqn. (19.2)) 7,w i&(s) = GcG = Kc 0.5s+l
which has no crossover frequency.
Consequently,
we can use arbitrarily
large proportional gain to reduce the offset without endangering the stability of the system. Curve B (Figure 19.4) shows the response The offset has been greatly
of the closed-loop system with Kc = 50. reduced, i.e. offset = 1 l+KK PC
1 = 1 + 1a5o = 0.0196
(c) Suppose that the process gain and time constant are perfectly known but not the dead time. In such case, Gmoael = G = l/(O.Ss+l). The
dead time of the process can only be approximated. Let ta(moael) = 0.8. Let us examine a common error in the design of a process control system which we must avoid. Were we to consider the value 0.8 as the "true" value
of the process dead time, we coda design a dead-time compensator as in case (b) above. Since there would be no crossover frequency we could use an
arbitrarily large Kc
in order to reduce the offset. Let Kc = 100. . Since the "true" value of the process dead time is not 0.8 but 1.0, the There is a dead time equal to 1.0 - 0.8 = 0.2 Thus uncompensated
compensation is not perfect.
which has not been compensated by the dead-time compensator.
dead time gives rise to additional phase lag and leads eventually to a crossover frequency. If the ultimate gain is smaller than 100 then the system with Indeed, for the present example the crossover frequency
3c.'C = 100 is unstable. is
%o = 9 radlmin and the ultimate gain is 4.6. Therefore, if we are not
certain on the value of dead time we must be conservative in selecting the value of even with partial dead-time compensation. ------A,
19.3 CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH INVERSE RESPONSE In Section 12.3 we analyzed the behavior of a special class of systems with inverse response. There we saw that the net result of two opposing
effects may produce an initial response which is in the opposite direction to where it will eventually end up (see Figures 12.4b and 12.5b). The most common case of a process with inverse response is that resulting from the conflict of two first-order systems with opposing effects (Figure 12.5). In this section we will limit our attention to the regulation of such Extensions to more complex systems like those of Table 12.1 are !*'
processes.
easy and straightforward.
Two are the most popular ways to control systems with inverse response; the first uses PID feedback controller with Ziegler-Nichols tuning and the second an inverse response compensator. A. Simple PID Control From all types of feedback controllers only PID can be used effectively for the following simple reason. The derivative control mode by its nature
will anticipate the "wrong" direction of the system's response and will provide the proper corrective action to limit (never eliminate) the inverse shoot. Wailer and Nyg?irdas [Ref. 261 have demonstrated numerically that the
Ziegler-Nichols classical tuning of a PID controller yields very good control ;uf 23 . systems with inverse response. Inverse Response Compensator
In Section 19.2 we discussed how we can develop a Smith predictor (deadtime compensator) which cancels the effect of dead time. The same general
concept of the predictor (compensator) can be used to cope with the inverse response of a process and was developed by Iinoya and Altpeter [Ref. 251. *
7*
Consider the feedback system of Figure 19.5a. exhibits inverse response when (see Example 12.4) K rp1 -> J&l K =p2 p2 The open-loop response of the system is:
The controlled process
-K 'I )s+(K (K T -K > 21 p2 p2 Pl Pl p2 Y(s) = Gc(s>*f,,(s) (T s+l)(r s+l) p2 Pl and has a positive zero at the point (see also Example 19.4) K
Z
(19.5)
Pl
KPlTP2
-Ki p2 -K T : p2 p1
f > '0
To eliminate the inverse response it is enough to eliminate the positive zero of the above open-loop transfer function. This is possible if in the open-
loop response y(s) we add the quantity y'(s) given by,
T(s)
= Gc(s>*k(
ls+l rp2
i+$ YspW
Tpl
(19.6)
Then, from eqns. (19.5) and (19.6) we can easily find that [(K Pl T P2-KP2TPl)+k(~Pl-TP2)1S+(KPl-KP2) .y SP ,(s)
Tm(s) = Y(s) +Y(s
>
Gc(s>
(T Pl
s+l)(-r p2
s+l)
.and for K 'c -K ^c p2 Pl Pl p2 TP1 - =P2 we find that the zero of the resulting open-loop transfer function is nonpositive, i.e.
(19.7)
(K z
-K
>
-T
p2 - K T )+k(T (K T Pl p2 p2 Pl Pl
Pl
) p2
'
Adding the signal Y'(S) to the main feedback signal y(s) it means the creation of the local loop around the controller as it is shown in Figure 19.5b. The system in this local loop is the modified Smith predictor and Its transfer function as it
the actual compensator of the inverse response. can be,seen from eqn. (19.6) is
(19.8)
where k must satisfy condition (19.7). Remarks: (1) The inverse response compensator predicts the inverse behavior of the process and provides a corrective signal to eliminate it. The prediction is based on a model for the process.
The ideal prediction comes if the transfer function of the process is completely known. is given by K p2 GCOMPENSATOR (s) = T s+1 P? L Therefore, K p2 s+1 TP,I In such case the compensator
the compensator given by eqn. (19.8) is only an
approximation to the process' transfer function. (2) Modeling inaccuracies in terms of
and 1 *p2 increased inverse shoots and slower responses.

~~
will cause
(3) For the controller, PI is the most common choice.
SUMMARY
Chemical processes with significant dead times or inverse response present a special challenge to the control designer. For the case of processes with
dead time there is the danger of instability even with low controller gains, while for processes with inverse response the elimination or at least significant reduction of the inverse shoot is of paramount importance. both problems can be solved with the introduction of the so-called Smith predictor or feedback compensation. Thus, in the case of dead time we intro-
duce a local feedback loop around the controller which anticipates the time delay of the measurement signal and makes the proper compensation. If the
dead time is perfectly known the compensation is perfect and the control feedback signal carries current not delayed process information. If the dead
time is .~ not perfectly known (which is usually the case) or changing with time (very common feature of chemical processes), the dead-time compensation is only partial. In the case of inverse response the added compensator modifies the location of the zero of the open-loop transfer function, i.e. shifts it from positive to nonpositive (negative or zero). behavior. gives This eliminates the inverse
It should be noted that simple PID control of inverse responses satisfactory results.
rather
With this chapter we close the analysis and design of feedback control -systems. In Part V we will focus our attention to the analysis and design
of various other control configurations like feedforward, ratio, cascade, split-range, processes. override, multivariable, etc. which appear very often in chemical
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. What is the effect of dead time in the response of simple feedback control loops? 2. Explain in physical terms.
Why is the controller design of processes with dead time a particularly sensitive and difficult problem? Demonstrate using a practical example.
3.
Describe in physical terms the concept of dead-time compensation. Why such a system is also called predictor?
4.
Show that the dead time and inverse response compensators are based on the same logic. What are their implementational difficulties? Construct Is it
5.
Consider the following feedback loop with load changes only. a dead-time compensator assuming G(s) and
td perfectly known.
: -- --_
the same as the dead-time compensator constructed for set point changes? 6. What is the effect of model inaccuracies on the effectiveness of deadtime 7. compensators? If it
Is the dead time of a process constant or it varies with time?
varies, give three relevant physical examples. What is the effect of changing dead time on the design of a dead-time compensator? 8. What is our goal when designing a controller for a system with inverse response? 10. Describe what an inverse response compensator does.
Consider the system with inverse response described in Section 19.3. Identify the transfer function of the compensator. a function of the parameter Notice that it is
k which must satisfy condition (19.7).
Do you have any ideas on how trolled response?
k would affect the quality of the con-
[see also numerical example in Ref. 251.
I 1
j,p I- - - --T---cc>
1.0
II---------_---------_-
----
_-
0.5 0.4
-_---__
CONTROLLER MEOtANSti -----------------,
CHAPTER 20 CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS
The feedback control configuration involves one measurement (output) and one manipulated variable in a single loop. control configurations which may use, - more than one measurement and one manipulation, or - one measurement and more than one manipulated variables. In such cases control systems with multiple loops may arise. Typical examples There are though other simple
of such configurations which we will study in the present chapter are the following: (a) Cascade control.
(b) Various types of selective control. (c) Split range control. Before proceeding we should emphasize that these control systems involve loops which are not separate but share either the single manipulated, variable or the only measurement. In this respect the multiple loop control systems of
this chapter are generically different from those we will study in Chapter 22. 20.1 CASCADE CONTROL In a cascade control configuration we have one manipulated variable and snore than one measurement. -mtrol only one output. It is clear that with a single manipulation we can Let us now examine the motivation behind the cascade
control and its typical characteristics using an example from the experience in the chemical processes.
Example 20.1 - Cascade Control for a Jacketed CSTR Consider the CSTR shown in Figure 1.7. The reaction is exothermic and
the generated heat is removed by the coolant which flows in the jacket around the tank. The control objective is to keep the temperature of the reacting The possible disturbances to the T C The
mixture, T, constant at a desired value. reactor are; the feed temperature Ti
and the coolant temperature F

C
only manipulated variable is the coolant flowrate Simple Feedback Control
If we use simple feedback, we will take the control configuration shown -. in Figure 20.la, i.e. measure temperature T and manipulate coolant flowrate
Fc
It is clear that T
C
T will respond much faster to changes in Ti than to the simple feedback control of Figure 20.la will
changes in
Therefore,
be very effective in compensating for changes in Ti and less effective in compensating for changes in Cascade Control T C
We can improve the response of the simple feedback control to changes in 'the coolant temperature by measuring Tc and taking control action before Thus, if Tc goes up,
its effect has been felt by the reacting mixture. increase the flowrate heat. We
of the coolant in order to remove the same amount of
Decrease the coolant flowrate when Tc decreases. notice, therefore, that we can have two control loops using two difbut sharing a common manipulated variable, There we notice
f-erent measurements, T and Tc, Fc' that,
How these loops are related is shown in Figure 20.lb.
- the loop that measures T (controlled variable) is the dominant, or primary, or master control loop and uses a set point supplied by the operator, while
- the loop that measures T C
uses the output of the primary controller as
its set point and it is called secondary or slave loop. The control configuration with the above two loops is known as cascade control and is very common in chemical processes.
Let us generalize the above discussion.
Consider a process consisting of Process I Process II
two parts as shown in Figure 20.2a; Process I and Process II. (primary) has as its output the variable we want to control.
(secondary) has an output which we are not interested to control but which affects the output we want to control. For the CSTR system of Example 20.1, is the tem-
Process I is the reaction in the tank and the controlled"output perature T. (reactor) and
Process II is the jacket and its output Tc affects Process I consequently T.
Figure 20.2b shows the typical simple feedback control system, while Figure 20.2~ indicates the general form of the cascade control. The last
figure demonstrates very clearly the major benefit to be gained by cascade control, i.e. "disturbances arising within the secondary loop are corrected by the secondary controller before they can affect the value of the primary controlled output." This important benefit has lead to an extensive usage of cascade control in
.&emical
processes.
Example 20.2 - Cascade Control for Various Processes Let us describe the use of cascade control in various typical processing systems.
(a)
Heat
exchangers.
The typical configuration is shown in Figure 20.3a.
The control objective is to keep the exit temperature of stream 2 at a desired value. in the flowrate The secondary loop is used to compensate for changes of stream 1. Cascade control is usually employed to regulate
(b) Distillation columns.
the temperature (and consequently the concentration) at the top or . bottom of a distillation column. Figures 20.3b and 20.3~.show two such typical cascade control systems. used to compensate flowrate (c) Furnaces. In both cases the secondary loop is
changes.
Cascade control can be used to regulate the temperature of a
process stream (e.g. feed to a reactor) exiting from a furnace. Figure 20.3d shows the resulting cascade configuration. Again, the
secondary loop is used to compensate for flowrate
changes (fuel flowrate).
The reader should notice that in ali
the cascade configurations of changes.
Example 20.2, the secondary loop is used to compensate for flowrate
This observation is quite common in chemical processes and someone could state that; "in chemical processes, flowrate control loops are almost always cascaded with other control loops." Let us now turn our attention to the closed-loop behavior of cascade control systems. Consider the block diagram of a general cascade system To simplify the presentation we have assumed that the
shown in Figure 20.4a.
transfer functions of the measuring devices are both equal to 1. The closed-loop response of the primary loop is influenced by the dynamics of the secondary loop, whose open-loop transfer function is equal to GSECONDARY = Gc,II Gp,II (20.1)
The stability of the secondary loop is determined by the roots of the characteristic equation, (20.2)
l + Gc II G p,II = 0 ,
Figure 20.4b shows a simplified form of the general block diagram (Figure 20.4a), where the secondary loop has been considered as a dynamic element. For the primary loop the overall open-loop transfer function is G c,II Gp,II ( Gc,I l+ Gc II G ) Gp,I , P,II
GPRIMARY
(20.3)
and consequently the characteristic equation whose roots determine the -_ stability of the primary loop is the following,
1 + Gc I 1 ( G +;I G I1 ) G
c,II Gp,II
P,I
(20.4) .
Remarks:
(1) The two controllers of a cascade control system are standard feedback controller, i.e. P, PI, PID.. Generally, proportional
controller is used for the'secondary loop although PI controller with small integral action is not unusual. Any offset caused
by P control in the secondary loop is not important since we are not interested to control the output of the secondary process. (2) The dynamics of the secondary loop is much faster than that of the primary loop. Consequently, the phase lag of the
closed secondary loop will be less than that of the primary loop. This feature leads to the following important
result which constitutes the rationale behind the use of cascade control: "The crossover frequency for the
secondary loop is higher than that for the primary loop. This allows us to use higher gains in the secondary
controller in order to regulate faster the effect of a disturbance occurring in the secondary loop without endangering the stability of the system." (3) The tuning of the two controllers of a cascade control system proceeds in two steps: - First, we determine the settings for the secondary controller using one of the methods we studied in Chapters 16 and 18, i.e. Cohen and Coon or Ziegler-Nichols or others using time-integral criteria or phase and gain margin considerations; The open-loop transfer function
we can use for tuning is given by eqn. (20.1). - Second, from the Bode plots of the overall system we determine the crossover frequency using the settings for the secondary loop we found above. Then, using
the frequency response techniques we described in Chapter 18, we choose the settings for the primary controller. The open-loop transfer function needed
for the construction of the Bode plots is given by eqn. (20.3).
,JXxample
20.3 - Dynamic Characteristics of a Cascade Control System
Consider a process with the following transfer functions for its primary .and secondary elements, G and G 1 0.5s+l
P,T
(5s+1~010s+1)
P,TT
The secondary process is faster than the primary as can be seen from the corresponding time constants.
Were we to use simple feedback control, the with PI control would be,
G
open-loop
transfer
function
c,I'Gp,II'Gp,I
, (1 +$* KcI
100
(O.sls+l) l
(5s+l)(los+l)
The crossover frequency can be found from the equation that sets the total phase lag equal to -180", i.e. tan-'(-l/wCO) + tan-l(-0.5wCO) and it is equal to + tan-l(-5wCO)+tan-l(-10wCO) ~-180"
%o
= 4.9 -rad/min
Also, the overall amplitude ratio is given by,
The ultimate value of the gain Kc I can be found from the condition , AR Thus, =l at w = %Ci
and we find K merefore, c,I = 32.25
when the disturbance dII (of the secondary process) changes, the
simple feedback controller can use a gain up to 32.25 before the system becomes unstable. Also, given the fact that the overall provess is 3rd order, we dII will be
expect that the closed-loop response of y(t) to changes in rather slow.
Consider now a cascade control system similar to that of Figure 20.4a. The open-loop transfer function for the secondary loop is given by eqn. (20.1) and assuming simple proportional controller we find G c,II Gp,II 1 = Kc,11 0.5s+1 Therefore we
There is no crossover frequency for the secondary control loop. can use large values for the gain K c,II'
which produce a very fast closed-.
loop response to compensate for any changes in the disturbance dII, arisingwithin the secondary process. Once we have selected the value of -Kc II for the secondary loop, we , .I i can find the crossover frequency for t!he overall open-loop transfer function given by eqn. (20.3). controller, using the Thenj we can select the value of Kc I for the primary , Ziegler-Nichols methodology. Quite often we will not but in coordination with the resulting
select arbitrarily a very large Kc II , values of K c,I'
20.2
SELECTIVE
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
These are control systems which involve one manipulated variable and several controlled outputs. Since with one manipulated variable we can con-
trol only one output, the selective control systems transfer control action from one controlled output to another according to the need. There are .exral types of selective control systems and in this section we will discuss
only the following two: (a) Override control for the protection of process equipment. (b) Auctioneering control.
A.
Override
Control
During the normal operation of a plant or during its start-up or shut-down it is possible that dangerous situations may arise, which may lead to destruction of equipment and operating personnel. In such cases it is necessary to change
from the normal control action and attempt to prevent a process variable from exceeding an allowable upper or lower limit. the use of special types of switches. This can be achieved through
The high selector switch (HSS) is used
whenever a variable should not exceed an upper limit, while the low selector switch (LSS) is employed to prevent a process variable to exceed a lower limit.
Example 20.4 - Examples of Override Control (a) Protection of a boiler system. Usually, the steam pressure in a boiler is controlled through the use of a pressure control loop on the discharge line. At the same time the water level in the boiler should
not fall below a lower limit wkich is necessary to keep the heating coil immersed in water and thus prevent its burning out. Figure 20.5
shows the override control system using a low switch selector (LSS). According to this system, whenever the liquid level falls below the allowable limit, the LSS switches control action from pressure control
to level control and closes the valve on the discharge line. Protection of a compressor system. The discharge of a compressor is To prevent the discharge
controlled with a flow control system.
pressure from exceeding an upper limit, an override control with a high switch selector (HSS) is introduced. It transfers control
action from the flow control to the pressure control loop whenever the discharge pressure exceeds the upper limit (Figure 20.6). Notice that flow control or pressure control is actually cascaded
to the speed control of the compressor's motor. (c) Protection of a steam distribution system. In any chemical process there
is a network distributing steam at various pressure levels to the processing units. High pressure steam is "let-down" to lower pressure The amount of steam "let-down" at
levels at the let-down stations.
such stations is controlled by the demand on the low pressure steam line (Loop 1 in Figure 20.7): excessive To protect the high pressure line from
pressures, we can install an override control system with a
HSS, which transfers control action from Loop 1 to Loop 2 when the pressure in the high pressure line exceeds an upper limit.
B.
Auctioneering
Control
Systems
Such control configurations select among several similar measurements the one with the highest value and feed it to the controller. Thus, it is a
selective controller with several measured outputs and one manipulated input.
Example 20.5 - Examples of Auctioneering Control (a) Catalytic tubular reactors with highly exothermic reactions. Several
highly exothermic reactions take place in tubular reactors filled with a catalyst bed. Typical examples are the hydrocarbon oxidation
reactions like the oxidation of o-xylene or naphthalene to produce phthalic anhydride. Figure 20.8 shows the temperature profile along The highest temperature is called
the length of the tubular reactor. hot spot.
The location of the hot spot moves along the length of the
reactor depending on the feed conditions (temperature, concentration, flowrate) and the catalyst activity (Figure 20.8). The value of the
hot spot temperature depends also on the above factors and the temperature and flowrate of the coolant. The control of such systems
is a real challenge for a chemical engineer. The primary control objective is to keep the hot spot temperature below an upper limit. Therefore, we need a control system that can identify the location of the hot spot and provide the proper control action. This can be achieved through; -
- the placement of several thermocouples along the length of the reactor and - the use of an auctioneering system to select the highest temperature, which will be used to control the lflowrate (b) Regeneration of catalytic reactors. of the coolant (Figure 20.9).
The catalyst in catalytic reactors
undergoes deactivation as the reaction proceeds, due to carbonaceous deposits on it. It can be regenerated by burning off these deposits To avoid destruction of the catalyst, due to
with air or oxygen.
excessive temperatures during the combustion of the deposits, we can use an auctioneering system which; - takes the temperature measurements from various thermocouples along the length of the reactor, - selects the highest which corresponds to the combustion front as it moves through the bed, and - controls appropriately the amount of air.
23-3 SPLIT-RANGE CONTROL Unlike the cascade and selective control schemes examined in Sections 20.1 and 20.2, the split range control configuration has one measurement only
(controlled output) and more than one manipulated variables. Since there is only one controlled output, we need only one control signal which is thus split into several parts, each affecting one of the available manipulations. In other words, we can control a single.process
output by coordinating the actions of several manipulated variables, all of which have the same effect on the controlled output. Such systems are not
very common in chemical processes but provide added safety and optimality operational whenever necessary as the following examples demonstrate.
Example 20.6 - Split-Range Control of a Chemical Reactor Consider the reactor shown in Figure 20.10a where a gas phase reaction takes place. reaction Two control valves manipulate the flow fo the feed and the It is clear that in order to control the pressure in the
product.
reactor the two valves cannot act independently but should be coordinated. Thus, when valve Vl opens, valve V2 closes and vice versa. Figure 20.10b
indicates the coordination of the two valves' actions as a function of the controller's output signal (see also Table 20.1). Let the controller's output signal, corresponding to the desired operation of the reactor by 6 psig. From Figure 20.10b we see that valve V2 When for.various reasons
is partly open while valve Vl is completely open.
tie pressure in the reactor increases the controller's.output too.
signal increases
Then, it is split into two parts and affects the two valves simulThus:
taneously.
-As the controller output increases from 6 psig to 9 psig, valve V2 opens continuously while Vl remains completely open. Both actions lead to a
reduction in the pressure. - For large increases in the reactor's pressure, the control output may exceed 9 psig. In such case, as we can see from Figure 20.10b, the valve
V2 is completely open while Vl starts closing.
Both actions again lead
to a reduction in pressure until the reactor has returned to the desired operation.
Example 20.7 - Split-Range Control of the Pressure in a Steam Header Let us consider another example of split-range control, which is encountered very often in chemical plants. Several paraller boilers discharge
steam in a common steam header and from there to the process needs (Figure 20.11). The control objective is to maintain constant pressure in the steam .f header when the steam demand at the various processing units changes. There are several manipulated variables (steam flow from every boiler) which can be used simultaneously. Figure 20.11 shows also the structure of the resulting
control system.
It should be noted that instead of controlling the steam flow
from each boiler, we could control the firing rate and thus the steam production rate at each boiler. Similar structures can be developed for the pressure control of a common discharge or suction header for N paraller compressors.
Table 20.1 Valve V2 Stem Position Closed Open Open
Controller's output Signal 3 psig 9 psig
Valve Vl Stem Position Open Open Closed
15 psig
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Control systems with multiple loops arise when we have one manipulated variable and several available measurements. Among them cascade and
selective control systems are the most often encountered in chemical processes. Cascade control is used to compensate for the effects of disturbances which arise within the secondary part of a process. The response, when comIt should be
pared to simple feedback, is much faster and quite robust.
emphasized that cascade control is possible only if we can measure the output of the secondary process. Cascade control is very popular in chemical pro-
cesses and almost always flow control systems will be cascaded with other control loops. Selective control systems are used whenever we want to be able to select the measured output that we will connect to the single manipulated variable. Override and auctioneering control are two typical examples of selective control. The first is used to protect the operating personnel and process
equipment from excessive excursions of process variables beyond the acceptable operating limits. The second is used whenever we need to identify the highest Other types
value among similar measurements and use it for control purposes.
of selective control systems are the variable structuring control and the use ,~E;redundant measurements, but will not be discussed in this text.
Split-range is a control configuration that uses a single measurement, .produces a single control action which in turn is "Split" to activate more
than one manipulated variables, whose actions should be coordinated.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

1.
Consider a process with one manipulated input and two measured outputs. Can you keep both outputs at the desired values, using only the single manipulated variable? If not, explain why.
2.
Starting from the premise that tht answer to item 1 (above) is negative, explain how is it possible to have, - a cascade control system or - a selective control system both of which have a single manipulation and two measured outputs.
3.
Discuss the rationale of a' cascade control system and demonstrate why it provides better response than simple feedback.
4.
In Section 20.1 we assumed that the secondary process (PROCESS II, Figure 20.2) in a cascade control system is faster than the primary process (PROCESS I, Figure 20.2). Is this necessary to justify the In other words; would you
use of a cascade control configuration?
still recommend cascade control for a process (like that of Figure 20.2a) with a secondary process much slower than the primary? 5. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of cascade control? For what kind of processes can you employ cascade control? 6. In chemical processes, flowrate caded with other control loops. control loops are almost always casWhy does this happen? (a) The flowrate [Note: Take itself is
into account the following two facts:
subject to changes and is regulated by the flow control loop, and (b) flowrates are the most common manipulated variables in chemical processes]. 7. What types of controllers would you use for the two controllers of a cascade system? How would you tune them? Discuss a methodology to
select the adjusted parameters of the two controllers. 8. Are the stability characteristics of the closed-loop response of a cascade system better than those of a simple feedback? your answer. 9. What is meant by selective control systems? How many different types of selective control systems are available? 10. Discuss their characteristics. Elaborate on
Discuss the sationale\,behind an override control system. Why is it very useful, and what situations is called upon to control?
11.
Describe 2-3 situations (different than those discussed in Example 20.4) where you should use override control systems. *:
12.
What is an auctioneering control system, and where would you use it? Describe a situation (different than those of Example 20.5) where you could use auctioneering control.
13.
Consid%er variables.
a process with one controlled output and two active manipulated Under what conditions could you use both manipulated
variables to control the single output? 14. What is split-range control? split-range control. In Example 20.6 we have a situation with
To control the pressure in the reactor we could
use valve Vl or valve V2 with simple control configurations or both valves in a split-range control configuration. better? Why? Which of the three is
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CHAPTER 21 FEEDFORWARD AND RATIO CONTROL
Feedback control loops can never achieve perfect control of a chemical process, i.e. keep the output of the process continuously at the desired set point value in the presence of load or set point changes. The reason is
simple, a feedback controller reacts only after it has detected a deviation in the value of the output from the desired set point. Unlike the feedback systems, a feedforward control configuration
measures the disturbance (load) directly and takes control action to

I 6
eliminate its impact on the process output.
Therefore,
feedforward
controllers
have the theoretical potential for perfect control. In this section we will study the characteristics of feedforward control systems and describe the techniques which are used for their design. In the
last section we will examine a' special case of feedforward control, the ratio control. 21.1 THE LOGIC OF FEEDFORWARD CONTROL Consider the stirred tank heater shown in Figure 21.la. The control
objective is to keep the temperature of the liquid in the tank at a desired value (set point) despite any changes in the temperature of the inlet stream. Figure 21.lb shows the conventional feedback loop which measures the in the tank and after comparing it with the desired value
llrsperature
increases or decreases the steam pressure, thus providing more or less heat -5nto the liquid. msures A feedforward control system uses a different approach. It
the temperature of the inlet stream (disturbance) and adjusts the steam pressure (manipulated variable). Thus, it increases
appropriately
the steam pressure if the inlet temperature decreases and decreases the steam
pressure when the inlet temperature goes up. forward control configuration.
Figure 21.1~ shows the feed-
In Figure 21.2a we can see the general form of a feedforward control system. It measures the disturbances directly and then it anticipates the Subsequently, it changes the
effect that it will have on the process output.
manipulated variables by such amount as to eliminate completely the impact of the disturbances on the process output (controlled variable). Control action j starts immediately after a change in the disturbance(s) has been detected. In Figure 21.2b we have repeated the schematic of a typical feedback loop so that the reader can contrast directly:the two control systems. It is clear
that feedback acts after the fact in a compensatory manner while feedforward acts beforehand in an anticipatory manner. Let us now look at some common feedforward control systems used in chemical processes.
Example 21.1 - Feedforward Control of Various Processing Units (a) Feedforward control of a heat exchanger, shown in Figure 21.3a. The objective is to keep the exit temperature of the liquid constant by manipulating the steam pressure. Two are the main disturbances and liquid
(loads) measured for feedforward control, liquid flowrate inlet temperature.
,cb) Feedforward control of a drum boiler, shown in Figure 21.3b. Here, the objective is to keep the liquid level in the drum constant. The
two disturbances are the steam flow from the boiler which is dictated by varying demand elsewhere in the plant and the flow of the feedwater. The last is also the main manipulation.
(c) Feedforward control of a distillation column, shown in Figure 21.3~. The two disturbances here are the feed flowrate (F) and composition (C).
The available manipulated variables are the steam pressure in the reboiler, and the reflux ratio. The composition of overhead or bottom product Feedforward control is particularly useful
is the control objective.
for a distillation column, because its response time can be measured in hours leading to large amounts of off-spec products. --
(d) Feedforward control of a CSTR, shown in Figure 20.3d. Inlet concentration and temperature are the two disturbances while the product withdrawal flow-rate and,'the coolant flowrate are the two manipulations. The control objectives are two, maintain within the CSTR. constant temperature and composition
Remarks:
(1) As the examples above have indicated, feedforward control systems can be developed for more than one disturbance. The controller acts according to which disturbance changed value. Therefore, the schematic of Figure 21.2a with
several disturbances represents the general case of feedforward control with a single controlled variable. (2) The feedforward control of a CSTR, in Example 21.1, indicates that the extension to systems with multiple controlled variables should be rather straightforward.
(3) With the exception of the controller, all the other hardware elements in a feedforward loop are the same as for a feedback loop (sensors, transducers, transmitters, final control elements).
21.2
THE
PROBLEM
OF
DESIGNING
FEEDFORWARD
CONTROLLERS
The question that arises is:
How do we design feedforward controllers?
The reader may have suspected already that conventional P, PI or PID controllers will not be appropriate. Let us start with an example; the design
of feedforward controllers for a stirred tank heater.
Example 21.2 - Designing Feedforward Controllers for a Stirred Tank Heater In Example 4.4 we developed the dynamic mass and energy balances for the stirred tank heater of Figure 21.la. '/ i (4.5b).' A dh dt = F i _ - F Q/PC, They are given by eqns. (4.4a) and
Ah = dt Assume that Fi
= Fi(Ti
- T)
(4.5b)
does not change and that Fi = F. Then dh/dt = 0 and we
have only the heat balance, eqn. (4.5b). The inlet temperature Ti is the disturbance and the amount of heat supplied by steam, Q, is the manipulated variable. The control objective is to keep the liquid temperature, T, at the
desired set point value, TSP. (a) Steady-state feedforward controller. The simplest form of feedforward
controller can be developed if we consider the steady state heat balance, i.e. 0 or T = Ti++ i Ocp (21.1) = Fi(Ti T) + Q/PC,
From eqn. (21.1) we find that in order to keep T = TSp, the manipulated variable Q should change according to the equation
Q
Equation
= Fi pc (T - Ti> P SP (21.2)
(21.2)
is the design equation for the steady state feedforward should change in the presence of disFigure 21.4a depicts the resulting
controller.
It shows how Q
turbance or set point changes. control system.
The steady state feedforward desired steady state performance steady state. sient. (b) Dynamic feedforward controller.
controller
will always achieve the at
of the heater, i.e. T = T SP
This will not be true, in general, during the tran., :To improve the response during the
transient we will design a feedforward heat balance (4.5b) and not its equivalent as follows:
controller using the dynamic
steady state, as above. Equation
can be written
where
Fi Fi FT=TT~+&d V = ah = liquid volume in the tank.
(21.3) Put eqn. (21.3) into a
form with deviation dT' dt Fi VT'
variables Fi ?T;
and take: + Q' vpc P of eqn. (21.3a): (21.4) (21.3a)
Take the Laplace transforms

T;(s) T(s) = x + Fi 1
PC
P The feedforward
where
T = V/Fi = retention
time of liquid in the tank.
controller changes eqn.
should make sure that T'(s) = T;,(s) = set point, despite any T! I' or set point THPS Therefore, from
in the disturbance
(21.4) we find that Q
should be given by, - T;(s)] (21.5)
S(s)
Fi p~~[(rs+l)T;~(s)
Equation (21.5) is the design equation for the dynamic feedforward controller and Figure 21.4b depicts the resulting control mechanism. As it can be seen from Figures 21.4a and 21.4b, the only difference between the steady state and dynamic feedforward controllers for the tank heater is the transfer function (rs+l) multiplying the set point. Therefore, we expect that for load (disturbance) changes the On the contrary, dynamic feed-
two controllers will be equivalent.
forward control will be better for set point changes. Figures 21.5a and 21.5b verify this point.
Example 21.2 has pointed out a very essential characteristic in feedforward control: "The design of a feedforward controller comes out directly from the model of a process." Thus, the steady state design came out from the steady state heat balance, and the dynamic controller from the dynamic heat balance. that, "the better a model represents the behavior of a process, the better the resulting feedforward controller will be." Let us now generalize the design procedure outlined in Example 21.2. Consider the block diagram of an uncontrolled process (Figure 21.6a). Zbc process output is given by, Y(s) = Gp(s)iii(s) + Gd(s)&s) (21.6) It is obvious
Let y,,(s) be the desired set point for the process output. Then, eqn. (21.6) fm y(s) = B,,(s) yields:
7+)
= Gp(s)iii(s)
Gd(S);i(S)
(21.7)
We can solve eqn. (21.7) with respect to
G(s) and find the value that the
manipulated variable should have in order to keep y(s) = y,,(s), presence of disturbance or set point changes. Then, we take;
in the
E(s)
(21.8)
Equation (21.8) determines the form that the feedforward control system should have and which is shown in Figure 21.6b. It also determines the two transfer
functions, G, and GSP, which complete the design of the control mechanism, i.e. Gc(s)=Gd(s)/Go(s)
r
-transfer
function
ofthemain
feedforward
controller (21.9)
GSp(4
l/Gd(s) f transfer function of the set point element
(21.10)
Remarks:
(1) From Figure 21.6a we notice that the feedforward loop retains all the external characteristics of a feedback loop. Thus,
it has a main measurement which is compared to a set point signal and the result of the comparison is the actuating signal for the main controller. In substance though, the
two control systems differ significantly as it was pointed out in Section 21.1.
(2) From the design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) it is clear that
a feedforward controller cannot be a conventional feedback controller (P, PI, PID). Instead, it should be viewed as This is the reason
a special purpose computation machine.
that sometimes it is referred to as feedforward computer. (3) The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) demonstrate again that feedforward control depends heavily on the good knowledge of the process model (G p, Gd>* perfect knowledge of G P and Perfect Gd, control necessitates
which is not practically
possible. trol.
This is the main drawback of feedforward con-
(4) In the control system of Figure 21.6b we left out the sensor which measures the disturbance and the final control element. The inclusion of these two elements alters the
design of the transfer functions, Gc(s) and GSP(s). Consider the more general feedforward control system of Figure 21.6c, including the measuring sensor and the final control
TX
element.
We can easily show that,

$ [Gd
GpGVGcGs;~~SP
- GpGvGcGm]i
(21.11)
The design transfer functions Gc and GSP can now be identified by the following two requirements: (c) Disturbance rejection. The controller should be capable to eliminate
completely the impact of a disturbance change on the process output. This implies that the coefficient of 8 in eqn. (21.11) should be zero, i.e. Gd or
GC = Gd/GpGvGm
- G pG v G cG m
=O
(21.12)
(d) Set-point tracking. The control mechanism should be capable to make the process output track exactly any changes in the set point, i.e. keep 7 = ysP. This implies that the coefficient of y,P in eqn.
(21.11) should be equal to 1, i.e. GGGG = pvcSP 1
GpGv(Gd/GpGvGm)Gsp
5-17
and finally, GSP = Gm/Gd (21.13)
Equations (21.12) and (21.13) are more general than (21.9) and (21.10), with the latter resulting from the former for Gm = Gv = 1.
21.3 PRACTICAL ASPECTS ON THE DESIGN OF FEEDFORWARD CONTROLLERS The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) or their more general counterparts (21.12) and (21.13) indicate that the feedforward controller will be a special purpose computational machine. Its practical implementation is rather easy if
we use a digital computer as the controller (see Part VII), but for analog i controllers it is rather difficult and expensive to build these special purpose machines. In this section we will examine some simplifications which lead to
practical implementations of the feedforward control concept. To simplify the presentation, let us first assume that Gm = Gv = 1. Then, eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) will be the basis of the controller design. Each of the two process transfer functions, Gp(s) and Gd(s), ahs two elements; (i) the static element whit corresponds to the static gain and (ii) the purely dynamic element which is a function of s. GpW = Kp*G;(s) and G&d Thus, = Kd*G;(s)
For instance, in Example 21.2, for the stirred tank heater we can easily .identify the static and dynamic parts of the process transfer functions (see
"sp. (21. 4) ) ; GpW = F i ,c P 1 Gi 1 indicates that K = Fi PC P P that Kd = 1 and and G;(s) = -&Ts+l
Gd(d = &
indicates
G;(s) = & .
A.
Design of Steady State Feedforward Controllers The simplest feedforward controller and the easiest to implement is the
steady state.
As it was demonstrated in Example 21.2, we use simple steady How does this modify the design eqns, (21.9) and
state balances for design. (21.10)?
At steady state, we retain only the static elements of the process transfer functions, since Gl;(s=O.)
G
= Gi(s=O) = 0 (see Section = Kd
1.
Thus,
= K
and
Gd
Then, the design transfer functions, Gc -and GSp, are given by,
GC = Kd/KP
(21.14a)
and GSP = l/Kd Therefore, the elements Gc and GSP (21.14b) can be
i.e. they are simple constant.
constructed easily in the same way as a proportional controller, which has only the proportional gain. This the reason that the design elements given
by eqns. ((21.14a) and (21.14b)) are called gain-only elements. B, Design of Simple Dynamic Feedforward Controllers Instead of using the exact transfer functions, Gp(s) and Gd(s), it is possible to use approximations to them and still obtain very good results. athough they are approximations, they are expected to give improved results :uv.er the steady state feedforward controller. Consider that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are approximated by first-order lags. Then, 1 as+1 1 Bs+l
GcW
Gd(d GpW
Bs+l as+1
(21.15a)
and GSp(s) = 1 Go = as + 1
(21.15b)
The controller given by eqn. (21.15a) is called lag-lead element because (Bs+l) intorduces phase lead and the l/as+1 adds phase lag. a adjustable parameters for the controller. and B are
For the set point element GSP(s)
eqn. (21.15b) indicates that we should use a lead element. The lag-lead element is the most commonly used in dynamic feedforward control. It is quite versatile because the two adjustable parameters a,B is very small, or lag element
allow it to be used as lead element, whena when B is very small.
Finally, lag-lead elements can be bought easily and
they are not expensive like special purpose analog computational devices.
Example 21.3 - Designing Feedforward Controller for a CSTR Consider the CSTR system described in Example 4.10. In Example 9.2 we
developed the transfer functions for the linearized model of the system;
Z$s) =
bl(s+a22)
P(s) i
cd, (s) - p(s> q(s) - p(s> T;(s)
a12bl
a12b2
(9.15a)
-, b2(s+all) bl(s+all) T (s) = a21bl p(s> 'Ai + q(s) + Tp) P(s) P(s) ..where P(s) z s2 + (a 11 + a22)S + (alla22 - a12a21)
(9.15b)
For the definition of the constant parameters; all, a12, a21, a22 and bl, b2, see Example 9.2. Let
US
All variables are in deviation form.
examine two different control problems and develop the necessary control systems:
feedforward
Problem 1. inlet
Control the concentration and temperature.
CA
in the presence of changes in the
concentration
The temperature of the coolant, Tc, is
the manipulated variable. feedforward controllers.
Since we have two disturbances, we need two distinct To develop the design equations for the two con-
trollers put in eqn. (9.15a) Ei(s) = 0. Then, we take:
bl P(s) = a12b2
(s + a22)Eii(s)
- 5 Tf(s)
bl
(21.16)
Equation (21.16) indicates that the first controller is a lead element while the second is a gain-only element. in Figure 21.7a. Problem 2. The resulting feedforward system is shown 4 8
CA
Control the temperature T considering the manipulated variable.
and T i
as the two
disturbances, and Tc (9.15b) yields
SettiZg
T'(s) = 0, eqn.
a21bl 1 ' bl F(s) = . (s) *- F T;(s) C' s+all Ai b2 2
(21.17)
Equation (21.17) shows that the first controller is a lag element while the second is a gain-only element. Figure 21.7b. The resulting feedforward system is shown in
21.4
FEEDFORWARD-FEEDBACK
CONTROL
Feedforward control has the potential for perfect control but it also suffers from several inherent weaknesses. In particular;
--it requires the identification of all possible disturbances and their direct -%easurement, something which may not be possible for many processes;
- any changes in the parameters of a process (e.g. deactivation of a catalyst with time, reduction of a heat transfer coefficient due to fouling, etc.) cannot be compensated by a feedforward controller because their impact cannot be detected;
- feedforward control requires a very good model for the process which for many systems in chemical industry is not possible. On the other hand, feedback control is rather insensitive to all three of the above drawbacks but it has poor performance for a number of systems (multicapacity, dead time, tee.), and raises questions of closed-loop stability. Table 21.1 summarizes the relative advantages and disadvantages of the two control systems.
We would expect that a combined feedforward-feedback control system will retain the superior performance of the first and the insensitivity of the second to uncertainties and inaccuraci'es measurement parameter in disturbance identification and Indeed,
changes, and exactness in the process model.
any deviations caused by the various weaknesses of the feedforward control will be corrected by the feedback controller. This is possible because a
feedback control loop monitors directly the behavior of the controlled process (measures process output). combined feedforward-feedback Figure 21.8 shows the configuration of a system.
control
Let us now develop an equation for the closed-loop response of feedforward-feedback system of Figure 21.8. dropped the argument s First of all recall that (we have
to simplify the presentation) (21.6)
7 =
iii + Gda
,Zhe value of the manipulated variable is given by

iii = cvc = Cv(E1 + E2) = Cv Gc + CvGc 2 =2
- G j?> Cv Gc (7 1 sp ml
+ Cv Gc 2 (G SP
- G ii> 'SP m2
(21.18)
Replace iii in eqn. (21.6) by its equal given from eqn. (21.18) and after algebraic rearrangements take:
5.22
GpGV(G
ji = +G G ) c2 SP c1 l+GGG G %P P v cl ml G G Gd - G PG v c2 m2 + l+GGG G P v cl ml
ii
(21.19)
A close examination of eqn. (21.19), which yields the closed-loop process output under feedforward-feedback control, reveals the following characteristics:
(1) The stability of the closed-loop response is determined by the roots of the characteristic equation 0
l+GGGG = P v cl ml
which depends on the transfer functions of the feedback loop only. Therefore, "the stability characteristics of a feedback system will not change with the addition of a feedforward loop." (2) The transfer functions of the feedforward loop, G and G sp, will c2 be given by the design eqns. (21.12) and (21.13), i.e.
G =
c2 If G P' Gd'
G/GGG d pvm2
and
GSP
G /Gd m2
'
Go'
Gm2
are known exactly, then the feedforward loop
compensates completely for disturbance or set point changes and the feedback action remains idel since El = 0. (3) If any of the Gp, Gd, Gv, G, Gd G G G G v c2 m2 #O is known only approximately, then and/or GpGvGc2GSP # 1
In such case the feedforward loop does not provide perfect control, i.e. offers 'i + Ysp. the Then, El # 0 and the feedback loop is activated and
necessary
compensation.
Example 21.4 - Feedforward-Feedback Control of the Tank Heater Consider again the tank heater of Example 21.2. Under feedforward The design con-
trol only we have the configuration shown in Figure 21.4b.
transfer functions are:
Gc
Fipc
and
G sp
-rs+l
Assume that the density p or the heat capacity c
are not known exactly. P Then, the feedforward loop does not provide for perfect control. Figure 21.9a shows the temperature in the tank after a step change in the inlet temperature. Notice the remaining deviation. Introduce now in the system a feedback loop with PI controller (Figure
21.9b).
In Figure 21.9a we have plotted again the temperature of the liquid Notice the
in the tank, for the same step change in the inlet temperature. deviation has disappeared.
21.5 RATIO CONTROL Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control where two disturbances (loads) are measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It is mostly used to control the ratio of flowrates of two streams. rates are measured but only one can be controlled. Both flow-
The stream whose flowrate
is not under control is usually referred to as "wild" stream. Figures 21.10a and 21.10b for two streams, show two different ratio control configurations
Stream A is the wild" stream.
- ;En configuration 1 (Figure 21.10a) we measure both flowrates and take their ratio. This ratio is compared to the desired ratio (set point) and
the deviation (error) between the measured and desired ratios constitutes the actuating signal for the ratio controller. - In configuration 2 (Figure 21.10b) we measure the flowrate stream A and multiply it by the desired ratio. of the "wild"
The result is the flow-
rate that the stream B should have and constitutes the set point value
which is compared to the measured flowrate
of stream B.
The
deviation
constitutes the actuating signal for the controller, which adjusts appropriately the flow of B. Ratio control is used extensively in chemical processes with the following as the most commonly encountered examples: (1) Keeping a constant ratio between the feed flowrate reboiler of a distillation column (Figure 21.11a). (2) Holding constant the reflux ratio in a distillation column (Figure 21.11b). (3) Controlling the ratio of two reactants, entering a reactor, at a desired level (Figure 21.11~). : 6 and the steam in the
(4) Holding the ratio of two blended streams constant, in order to maintain the composition of theblend at the desired value. (5) Holding the ratio of a purge stream to the recycle stream constant (Figure 21.11d). (6) Keeping the ratio of fuel/air in a burner at its optimum value (most efficient combustion). flowrate in an '
(7) Maintaining the ratio of the liquid flowrate to vapor
absorber constant, in order to achieve the desired composition in the exit vapor stream. Figure 21.11e shows such a ratio control system in The secondary loop of
a more reliable cascade control configuration.
the cascade improves the response of the system by regulating better the flow of the liquid feed.
,SuMMARY
A feedforward control system measures the value of a disturbance and aicipates what its effect will be on the controlled output of a process.
Then, the controller changes the manipulated variable by such amount as to
eliminate the impact that the disturbance would have on the output. approach is substantially different from that of a feedback system.
Such an Its major
advantage is the ability to act beforehand, while its most serious drawback is its heavy dependence on the process model, which is almost always incompletely known. Additional weaknesses are; (i) th e requirement to know and measure all
possible disturbances and (ii) the inability to cope with changing process parameters. For all these reasons feedforward control is used with simple and Processes
well known processes and almost always with feedback compensation.
which benefit the most from feedforward control are those with very slow
- - ._.
response (usually multicapacity) and/or significant dead time.
Feedforward control, when appended with a feedback loop, offers significant feedback improvements, the response and robustness over pure feedforward or control. The combination of the two will be encountered quite often
in chemical processes. Ratio control is a special purpose f.eedforward control system. Primarily,
it is used to control the ratio of the flowrate of a "wild" stream to the floarate of a controllable stream. processes. It is extensively used in chemical

2.
Define the concept of feedforward control on physical grounds. Is driving a car mostly feedforward or feedback control? What about riding a bicycle?
3.
Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of feedforward and feedback control systems. Why the addition of feedback control ~. .::I : .i ._..
improves the performance of a feedforward system?

4.
What kinds of processes stand to benefit the most from feedforward control? Why? .: feedforward
5.
Do the stability characteristics of-a process change.with control, as they do with feedback?
Elaborate on your answer.
6.
In Section 21.4 it was claimed that the stability characteristics of a feedforward-feedback control system are affected only by the feedback loop. Explain why.
7.
Draw three different feedforward control configurations for the mixing process of Example 4.11.
8.
Under what conditions a steady state feedforward control system will yield the same performance as a dynamic feedforward controller in rejecting the effect of a disturbance?
9.
What is a +ag-lead component for
element and why is it considered to be a versatile control?
feedforward
18,
Consider the feedforward control of a distillation column? What kind of dynamic feedforward element will be needed: lag-lead, lag only, lead only, gain only? Give a rather qualitative explanation.
114
What is ratio control and why is it useful in process control? Give three specific examples.
12.
How do you select the desired value of the ratio in a ratio control system?
13.
Draw the feedforward and feedback control systems which regulate the flow through a pipe. Do you expect one of them to be significantly
better than the other in maintaining the desired flow or not? 14. In Figures 21.10a and 21.10b we see two different ratio control configurations. Which one would you prefer and why? (Hint: Examine
the static gain of the control loop in Figure 21.10a and consult Reference for details).
Table 21.1.
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Feedforward and Feedback Control
FEEDFORWARD Advantages 1. Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by the system. 2. Is good for slow systems (multicapacity) or with significant dead time. 3. /; ; It does not introduce instability in the closed-loop response. 3. 2. 1. Disadvantages Requires possible direct identification disturbances of and all their
measurement.
Cannot cope with unmeasured disturbances. Insensitive variations. to process parameter
4.
Requires good knowledge of the process model.
FEEDBACK Advantages 1. It does not require identification and measurement of any disturbance. 2. It is insensitive to modeling errors. h..3 . It is insensitive to parameter changes. Disadvantages It waits until the effect of the disturbances has been felt by the system, before control action is taken. It is unsatisfactory for slow processes or with significant dead time. It may create instability in the closed-loop response.
cc>
FEEDFO2WARD CcNTRCLLEI:
yure IF.
21.3
53/
_ Ti, -- _----- - ---7
FL
i I
5302
FE~DFxwA~zD CGNWOL MEC~AN~SN\ ----, .- - - - - - - - - I SET- P O I N T I I I , t
7 d t I
I ___-
----
----
Cb)
----1
.- __- _-_- -_--
533
Wi Id .streu7ll Ay$--Y
i
Des1 i-d
Rat; u *-- -__-______ Q -,
FT : Fhu: Sense r-
CHAPTER 22 ADAPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEW In this chapter we will examine two additional types of control systems; (a) adaptive, and (b) inferential. Although their basic objectives and
functions can be easily described in a qualitative manner, their practical implementation is rather complicated, involves extensive computations, and it For this reason we will
is accomplished through the use of digital computers.
postpone and quantitative discussion on these two control systems for Part VII, where we will study the use of digital computers for process control.
i
There-
fore, in this chapter we will only make a qualitative presentation of each control system, discussing its basic logic and giving examples of its practical application. 22.1 ADAPTIVE CONTROL Adaptive is called a control system,, which can adjust its parameters automatically in such a way as to compensate for variations in the characteristics of the process it controls. The various types of adaptive control
systems differ only in the way the parameters of the controller are adjusted. But, why are adaptive controllers needed in chemical processes? Two are the main reasons: - Most of the chemical processes are nonlinear. *-:-~.;dels Therefore, their linearized
which are used to design linear controllers depend on the particular It is clear then
steady state (around which the process is linearized).
that as the desired steady state operation of a process changes, the "best" values of the controller's parameters change. controller adaptation. This implies the need for
Example 10.5 demonstrates how the time constant
and process gain of a simple liquid storage tank depend on the value of the steady state liquid level.
536
- Most of the chemical processes are nonstationary, i.e. their characteristics change with time. Typical examples are; the decay of the catalyst activity
in a reactor and the decrease of the overall heat transfer coefficient in a heat exchanger, due to fouling (Example 10.6). This change leads again to
a deterioration of the linear controller, which was designed using some nominal values for the process parameters, thus, requiring adaptation of the controller parameters. Clearly, it is not to
What is the objective'of the adaptation procedure?
keep the controlled variable at the specified set-point. This will be accomplished by the control loop, however badly. criterion, We need an additional
an objective function which will guide the adaptation mechanism to To phrase it differently, Any of
the "best" adjustment of the controller parameters.
we need a criterion to guide the adaptive tuning of the controller.
the performance criteria we discussed in Chapters 16 and 18 could be used, i.e. - one-quarter decay ratio, - integral of the square error, - gain or phase margins, etc. There are two different mechanisms for the adaptation of the controller parameters. A. Programmed or Scheduled Adaptive Control
Suppose that the process is well known and that an adequate mathematical model for it is available. If there is an auxiliary process variable which
correlates well with the changes in process dynamics, then we can relate ahead of time the "best" values of the controller parameters to the value of the auxiliary process variable. Consequently, by measuring the value of the
auxiliary variable we can schedule or program the adaptation of the controller
parameters.
Figure 22.1 shows the block diagram of a programmed We notice that it is composed of two loops.
adaptive
control system.
The inner loop
is an ordinary feedback control loop.
The outer loop includes the parameter
adjustment (adaptation) mechanism and it is comparable to feedforward compensation, with no feedback to compensate for incorrect adaptation. example is the so-called gain scheduling adaptive control. A typical
Example 22.1 - Gain Scheduling Adaptive Control In a normal feedback control loop (Figure 22.2a) the control valve or 6.. _ ...i ._. . i. .'. .L _ _ q .::. another of its components may exhibit?a nonlinear character. In such case the gain of the nonlinear component will depend on the current steady state. Suppose that we want to keep the total gain of the overall system constant. From Figure 22.2a we find easily that the overall system gain is given by KOVERALL = K pmcf K K K = constant . of the nonlinear valve changes, the
It is clear then that as the gain Kf
gain of the controller, Kc, should change as follows

KC
constant/(KpKmKf) and Km are known exactly. Furthermore,
(22.1) if
We assume that the gains K
the characteristics of the control valve are known well, then, its gain, Kf, *can be calculated from the stem position. Therefore, by measuring the stem
;etion (auxiliary measurement) we can compute the Kf. Then, eqn. (22.1) yields the adaptation mechanism of this simple gain scheduling adaptive controller. Remark: Figure 22.2b shows the resulting control structure.
Notice that the gain scheduling is comparable to feedforward compensation. There is no feedback to compensate for incorrect
adaptation.
Example 22.2 - Programmed Adapative Control of a Combustion System Consider a burner where the fuel/air ratio is kept at its optimal value to achieve the highest efficiency of combustion. reduce the efficiency. Excess of fuel or air will
The optimal fuel/air ratio is maintained through a The control system is shown in
ratio control mechanism (section 21.5). . Figure 22.3a.
The otpimal value of the fuel/air ratio which maximizes the combustion efficiency depends on the conditions prevailing within the process, e.g. as the temperature of air changes, so does -. the optimal value of the fuel/air ratio. Consequently, From previous experimental data we know how the optimal fuel/air ratio changes with air temperature for maximum efficiency. Therefore, in order to temperature of air.
maintain the ratio continuously at its optimal value despite any changes in the air temperature, we can use a programmed adaptive control system. a system is shown in Figure 22.3b. Such
It measures the temperature of the air Notice
(auxiliary measurement) and adjusts the value of the fuel/air ratio.
again that the ratio adjustment mechanism is like feedforward compensation.
B.
Self-Adaptive
Control
If the process is not known well, we need to evaluate the objective :finction on-line (while the process is operating) using the values of the Then, the adaptation mechanism will change the controller
nntrolled output.
parameters in such a way as to optimize (maximize or minimize) the value of ttie objective function (criterion). In the following two examples we will
examine the logic of two special self-adaptive control systems; model reference adaptive control (MRAC) and self-tuning regulator (STR).
Example 22.3 -
Model-Reference
Adaptive
Control (MRAC)
Figure 22.4 illustrates a different way to adjust the parameters of the controller. We postulate a reference-model which tells us how the controlled The
process output ideally should respond to the command signal (set-point). model output is compared to the actual process output.
The difference (error,
Ed) between the two outputs is used through a computer to adjust the parameters of the controller in such a way as to minimize,the
t
integral square error, i.e.
Minimize ISE = I
0
[em( dt i ./, 4
The model chosen by the control designer for reference purposes is to a certain extent arbitrary. Most often a rather simple linear model is used.
We notice that the model-reference adaptive control is composed of two loops. The inner loop is an ordinary feedback control loop. The outer loop The
includes the adaptation mechanism and looks like a feedback loop too.
model output plays the role of the set-point while the process output is the actual measurement. There is a comparator whose output (error, cm) is the The key problem is to design the adaptation
input of the adjustment mechanism.
mechanism in such a way as to provide a stable system, i.e. bring the error Elll to zero. This is not a trivial problem and we will be concerned with it
in Chapter 32, i.e. after we have studied the use of digital computers for fdTp->cess control.
Example 22.4 - Self-Tuning
Regulator
(STR) It represents the structure
Consider the block diagram of Figure 22.5.
of a self-tuning regulator, which constitutes another way for adjusting the parameters of a controller.
The STR is composed, again, of two loops.
The inner loop consists of the The outer loop is used to
process and an ordinary linear feedback controller.
adjust the parameters of the feedback controller and is composed of, (a) a recursive troller parameter estimator and (b) an adjustment mechanism for the conparameters.
The parameter estimator assumes a simple linear model for the process, e.g.
Kpe Ts+l
-tds
Then, using measured values for the manipulated variable, m, and the controlled output, Y, it estimates the values of the parameters a a least-squares estimation technique. K, T and td, employing
Once the values of the process parameters
and b are known, the adjustment mechanism can find the "best" values for
the controller parameters using various design criteria like, - phase or gain margins, - integral of the squared error, etc. Both the parameter estimator and the adjustment mechanism require involved computations. For this reason the STR can be implemented only
through the use of digital computers.
Adaptive control systems have been applied in chemical processes.
The
range of their applicability has expanded with the introduction of digital computers for process control. Several theoretical and experimental studies
have appeared in the chemical engineering literature, while the number of industrial adaptive control mechanisms increases continuously. Most of the
adaptive control systems require extensive computations for parameter estimation and optimal adjustment of controller parameters which can be performed
on-line only by digital computers.
Therefore, we will delay any discussion on
the quantitative design of such systems until Chapter 32, i.e. after we have studied the use of digital computers for control. 22.2 INFERENTIAL CONTROL Quite often, the controlled output of a processing unit cannot be measured directly. Consequently, we cannot use feedback control or any other
configuration which necessitates the direct measurement of the controlled variable. If the disturbances which create the control problems can be
measured and an adequate process model is available, then we could use feedforward control to keep the unmeasured output at its desired value (see Chapter 21). What happens though if the disturbances cannot be measured? None of the control configurations studied so far can be used to control an unmeasured process output in the presence of unmeasured disturbances. This is the type Let us
of control problems where inferential control is the only solution. now examine the structure of an inferential control system.
Consider the block diagram of the process shown in Figure 22.6a, with one unmeasured controlled output (y) and one secondary measured output (2). The manipulated variable m and the disturbance d affect both outputs. The Wurbance is considered to be unmeasured. The transfer functions in the
&ock diagram indicate the relationships between the various inputs and outputs, and they are considered to be perfectly known. From Figure 22.6a we can easily derive the following input-output reliationships; 7 ? = G p1 = G p2 l
-iii + Gd l d
1
(22.2)
fi + Gd l ii
2
(22.3)
From eqn. (22.3) we can solve with respect to d and find the following estimate of the unmeasured disturbance,
(22.4)
Substitute the above estimate into eqn. (22.2) and find the following relationship, -f. 7 = :y ..__ + ., .- Gd <; -ii.-. :: ,: 8 i:,l; (22.5)
bpl-2GpJ;
Equation (22.5) provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured controlled output to measured quantities like m and z. Figure 22.6b Notice that
shows the structure of the resulting inferential control system.
the estimated value of the unmeasured output plays the same role as a regular measured output, i.e. it is compared to the desired set-point and the difference is the actuating signal for the controller. Figure 22.7 shows a simplified diagram of a typical inferential control system. Remarks: (1) It is important to notice that the success of an inferential control scheme depends heavily on the availability of a good estimator, which in turn depends on how well we know Thus, if the process transfer functions, G p1' G are perfectly known, then a perfect ' Gd Gd2 p2 1 estimator can be constructed and consequently we will have perfect control. When the process transfer functions are only and
the process.
approximately known (which is usually the case), then the inferential scheme provides control of varying quality depending on how well the process is known.
(2) In chemical process control the variable which is most commonly inferred from secondary measurements is composition. This is due to the lack of reliable, rapid and economical measuring devices for a wide spectrum of chemical systems. Thus, inferential control may be used for the control of chemical reactors, distillation columns and other mass transfer operations like driers, absorbers, etc. Temperature
is the most common secondary measurement, used to infer the unmeasured composition.
.-
.,
-.
,;
,.
Example 22.5 - Inferential Control of a Distillation Column Consider a distillation column with 16 trays, which separates a mixture of propane-butane into two products. The feed composition is the unmeasured
disturbance and the control objective is to maintain the overhead product molar composition 95% in propane. variable. Since the feed and overhead compositions are considered unmeasured, we can only use inferential control. The secondary measurement employed to Let us The reflux ratio is the manipulated
infer the overhead composition is the temperature at the top tray.
now examine how we can develop and design the inferential control mechanism. The process as defined above has two inputs and the two putputs, i.e. - inputs; feed composition (disturbance), reflux ratio (manipulation), - outputs; overhead propane composition (unmeasured controlled output) and
temperature of top tray (secondary measurement). How can we identify the four process transfer functions? In Example 4.13 we saw that a rigorous approach leads to an overwhelming mathematical model. The process reaction curve method, which was ciscussed in Section 16.4, is a
simpler approach and yields the transfer functions between the various inputs and outputs. Following this methodology, we developed the input-output
relationships (see also Figure 22.8a): y(s) 2 0.90*e-2S 70s + 1 ,;ics) + 1.20.e-lS 30s + 1 + ...(s)
Z(s)
= -
0.20 eB2 ;i. 60s + 1
Having developed the four process transfer functions it is easy to design the inferential control system (Figure 22.8b). Remarks: (1) The temperature of the top tray was selected arbitrarily to be the secondary measurement. But why did we not select the temperature of the second or third, etc. tray from the top? The answer is rather complex and will be given in
Chapter 32. (2) Were we to control the purity of the bottoms product, a different temperature would be needed. Most likely would be close to the bottom of the column. (3) Recall that the effectiveness of an inferential control scheme depends heavily on the goodness of the estimator, which in turn depends on the model which is available for the process. measured Assume that the overhead composition can be either by taking samples manually
intermittently,
and analyzing them or even better using on-line a gas chromatograph. From the composition measurements we can
take the useful information needed to judge how effective has been the inferential control. Thus, if the measured steady state value of the overhead composition deviates
significantly from the desired set-point value, we can use the deviation (error) through an adaptive mechanism to correct the estimator. Figure 22.3. The resulting system in shown in .-
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Adaptive and inferential control schemes are gaining importance and wider acceptability in the chemical process industry. Both depend on good process
models and for their implementation require extensive computations which are possible only through the use of modern digital computers. Therefore, in
Chapter 32 we will return to these two schemes for further design developments. Adaptive control is dictated by the nonlinearity and nonstationarity of chemical processes. Its objective is to adjust the controller parameters in Depending
such a way as to compensate for variations in the process itself.
on how the controller parameters are adjusted we may have programmed or selfadaptive mechanisms. The former is used in processes which are known well,
while the latter for processes which are poorly known. Gain scheduling is the most characteristic example of the programmed adaptive control, while model-reference adaptive control and self-tuning regulators are the most tppical digital configurations of self-adaptive control schemes. With the use of computers the range for adaptive control applications has expanded.
Inferential control is the only course of action if we want to regulate .an unmeasured output in the presence of unmeasured disturbances. A secondary
process output is measured and from it the value of the unmeasured controlled output is inferred. The effectiveness of inferential control depends very If the "unmeasured"
heavily on the availability of good process models.
controlled output can be measured intermittently, then an adapative scheme can be constructed which corrects the estimator of the inferential loop. Composition is the most commonly inferred process variable and temperature the usual secondary measurement.
With this chapter we close the series of advanced control systems of Part V. It should be noted that all control configurations studied in the
last four chapters possess a single manipulation for the regulation of a single controlled output. Thus, we have single-input, single-output (SISO)
systems.
But, most of the processing units in a chemical plant have more than This
one controlledoutputs,requiring more than one manipulated variables.
leads to systems with multiple-inputs and multiple-outputs (MIMO). How do we design control systems for such processes? chapters in Part VI. This will be the subject of the
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. 2. What is adaptive control and why is it needed in chemical process control? Give two examples of adaptive control for processing units, different than those described in Section 22.1. Describe qualitatively the
functions of the adaptive control schemes you proposed. 3. What is programmed adaptive and what is self-adaptive control? Give one example of each, different than those in Section 22.1. When would you recommend the programmed and when the self-adaptive scheme? 4. What is gain scheduling control and why can you use it in chemical process control? It was claimed in Example 22.1 that it resembles to Explain why. What are its advantages and
feedforward
compensation.
disadvantages? 5. Discuss the logic of model-reference adapative control and self-tuning regulator. Find the similarities and differences between the two
configurations.
547
6. Show qualitatively that the structure of a self-tuning regulator can be derived from that of a model-reference adapative control, if the parameter estimation is done by updating the reference model. 7. The outer loops in the MRAC and STR configurations, are they of feedforward or feedback nature? 8. Consider the neutralization with a caustic of an acidic effluent waste from a chemical plant. The titration curve of the waste being neu_. -.
-'tralized is nonlinear and changes with time due to unmeasured disturbances.
Develop a qualitative self-adaptive control scheme and (You can consult Reference
describe the functions of its components. .:

.> 9.
As it was discussed in Section 22.1, the purpose of an adaptive controller is not to keep the controlled output at its desired set point. This is accomplished by the regular feedback loop. What is then the criterion or the objective function ,that guides the parameter adjustment of an adaptation mechanism? How is this objective evaluated
by the programmed or self-adaptive schemes. 10. As it was discussed in Chapter 21, the effectiveness of a feedforward control loop depends heavily on the quality of the model which is available for the process. Develop an adaptive control mechanism for
a feedforward controller which will compensate for any process variations. 11. Discuss the logic of an inferential control scheme, Why is this control
scheme needed? Describe two examples of inferential control different than those of Section 22.2. 12, What do we mean when we say that a process variable is "unmeasured"?
13.
Consider two processes; one (process A) slow with time constant 5 hours and another (process B) faster with
time
constant 1 hour.
The compo-
sition of the output streams from the two processes is measured every 2-3 hours. Which of the two process outputs can be controlled by con-
ventional feedback and which one will require inferential control? 14. Show that the inferential control employed for process A or B in item 12 (above) can be improved through an adaptive mechanism which uses the direct composition measurement every 2-3 hours. 15. (Consult Example 22.5.)
Develop an inferential control scheme which can be used to control the drying of solids with warm air. Discuss how would you develop the (Consult a reference on solids
estimator of the inferential structure. drying with air and Reference 16. .)
If, in addition to the unmeasured disturbance there are measured disturbances in a system, we can develop a combined inferential-feedforward configuration. Develop such a configuration for a system of your choice.
1
ME,+SVRlNG (4 SENSoR
550
\I
Unmeasured Disfurbanfl _- ---7
Gd, c5
Gd, i) rzI
! I Y
i- _ - _ _ __ - _ - - - - - - _a** 0a
d - - - - - - -I r ----
J/
I ;
I !
--
I ii ,/
, I
PART VI DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR MDLTIVARIABLE PROCESSES. INTRODUCTION TO PLANT CONTROL.
The control configurations we have examined so far were confined to processes with a single controlled output, requiring a single manipulated input. Such single-input, single-output (SISO) systems are very simple and not the typical processing units encountered by a chemical engineer. Chemical pro-
cesses usually have two-or more controlled outputs, requiring two or more . manipulated variables. The design of control systems for such multiple-input,
multiple-output (MIMO) processes will be the subject of the three chapters in Part VI of this text. In particular; - Chapter 23 will discuss the new questions which must be answered for the controller design of MIMO systems. It will also present a methodology
for the development of alternative control configurations for such systems, based on their degrees of freedom. - In Chapter 24 we will examine the selection of the appropriate measurements rind manipulations in order to "close the loops". Furthermore, we will
study the design of "decoupled loops" for MIMO systems. - Finally, in Chapter 25 we will present an introduction to the design of control systems for complete plants, which constitute the most complex MIMO systems to be encountered by a chemical engineer.
CHAPTER 23 SYNTHESIS FOR OF ALTERNATIVE CONTROL CONFIGURATIONS PROCESSES
MULTIPLE-INPUT,
MULTIPLE-OUTPUT
The presence of multiple controlled outputs and multiple manipulated inputs creates a situation which we have not confronted so far, namely; there are more than one possible control configurations for a MIMO process. In this
chapter we will develop a concise methodology for the development of all feasible control systems for a single processing unit or processes composed of more than one interacting unit.
23.1 DESIGN QUESTIONS FOR MIMO CONTROL SYSTEMS Consider a general process with several inputs and outputs (Figure 2.1). There are several questions which must be answered before we attempt the design of a control system for such a process. (a) What are the control objectives? In other words, how many and which ones of all possible variables should be controlled at desired values? This seemingly simple question is quite critical for the design of efficient control systems. Once the control objectives have been
(b) What outputs should be measured?
identified we need to select the necessary measurements in order to monitor the operation of the process. outputs into two categories: Primary measurements; these are the controlled outputs through which We can classify the measured
we can determine directly if the control objectives are satisfied or not. Secondary measurements; these are not used to monitor directly the
control objectives but are auxiliary measurements employed for
cascade, adaptive or inferential control (see Figures 20.2, 22.1, 22.7). (c). What inputs can be measured? We assume that all of the manipulated
variables are measurable and therefore can be employed for adaptive (model-reference or self-tuning regulator) and inferential control
(see Figures 22.5, 22.7).
With respect to the disturbances only a These measurable
few can be measured easily, rapidly and reliably. disturbances can,be feedforward-feedback (Figure 21.10).
used to construct feedforward (Figure 21.3), (Figure 21.8) and ratio control configurations
(d) What manipulated variables should be used? A multiple input, multiple-output system possesses several manipulated variables which
can be used for the design of a control system.
The selection of
the most appropriate manipulations is a very critical problem and should be approached with care. Some manipulations have a direct,
fast and strong effect on the controlled outputs, some others do not. Furthermore, some variables are easy to manipulate in real life
(e.g. liquid flows), some others are not (e.g. flow of solids, slurries, etc.).
(e) What is the configuration of the control loops? Once all the possible measurements and manipulations have been identified, we need to decide how they are going to be interconnected through the control loops. In other words, what measurement will actuate a given manipulated variable or what manipulation will be used to regulate a given controlled output at its desired value? For MIMO systems there is a large number of alternative control configurations. The selection of the most appropriate is the central and critical question to be resolved.
Let us now examine the above design questions in more detail and develop systematic approaches to answer them.
23.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND THE NUMBER OF CONTROLLED AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES We have defined the degrees of freedom for a given process (see Section 5.2) as the independent variables which must be specified in order to define the process completely. The number of degrees of freedom was also found to be
given by the following equation, f = V E (23.1)
where V = number of independent variables describing a process and E = number of independent equations physically relating the V variables. It is clear that in order to have a completely determined process the number of its degrees of freedom should be zero. There are two sources which
provide the additional equations needed to reduce the number of degrees of freedom to zero. (a) The external world which specifies the values of certain input variables. As external world we mean everything outside the process like; - the general surroundings influencing the operating conditions, or - a previous unit which feed the process, or - a following unit when the outflow of the process is a manipulated inflow .~dor the following unit. (b) The control system which imposes certain relationships between the controlled outputs and the manipulated inputs (feedback) or between the measured disturbances and the manipulated inputs (feedforward). Thus, we can state easily that, "the maximum number of independent controlled variables in a processing system is equal to the number of degrees of freedom minus the externally specified variables," i.e.
(number of control objectives) = f -(number of externally specified inputs)

(23.2)
This relationship was used in Examples 5.7 and 5.8 in order to determine the number of controlled outputs in a binary distillation and a mixing process, respectively. Having determined the number of independent controlled outputs, the following question arises: How many independent manipulated inputs do we need
in order to keep the controlled outputs at their desired values (set points)? To answer this question, let us consider a process with the following specifications: - N controlled outputs (yl,y2,***,yN), - M independent manipulations (ml,m2,***,mM) with MzN, and
- L disturbances externally specified (dl,d2,***,dL). Let the following N equations represent the relationships between the controlled outputs, the y1
y2
manipulations
and
disturbances,
=
=
flbl,m2,***,y,+ dl,d2,***,dL)
f2bl,m29**9~; dl,d29***,dL)
(23.3)
---------me--
YN
fN(ml~m299mM;
dl,d2,*-,dL)
As the values of the disturbances change (specified by the external world), the values of the controlled outputs must remain the same. This is possible S N of the M manipulated variables are free to change so as to satisfy the system of eqns. (23.3). Therefore', "for the design of a control system the number of the required independent manipulated variables is equal to the number of independent controlled variables," i.e. (number = of f independent manipulated variables) = (number of controlled variables)
(23.4)
- (number of externally specified inputs)
Remarks:
(1) Let
k be the number of controlled variables given by Then, if the actually controlled variables
eqn. (23.2).
are fewer than k, say Il<k, then there are (k-k) process variables which change "wildly" in an uncontrolled manner and may cause problems to the operation of the process. But, if the effects of these "uncontrolled" variables on the operation of the process are acceptable, then it is perfectly legitimate to have fewer controlled variables than the number dictated by eqn. (23.2).
(2) It is impossible to design a control system which can
i regulate more controlled variables than the number by eqn. (23.2).
given
(3) The degrees of freedom of a process at dynamic state are equal in number of more than those at steady state. is due to the fact that the, dynamic balance equations contain the accumulation terms, while for steady state balances the accumulation is zero. An incorrect estimate of the number of degrees of freedom can have a profound effect on the design of the appropriate controller. ConThis
sider the simple, liquid holding tank of Example 10.1. The dynamic mass balance yields A dh dt = F i F 0
Here we have three independent variables (h, Fi, Fo) and one equation. The cross-sectional area, A, is a parameter Therefore, we have two degrees of is specified by the external world,
with given value. freedom. Since F,
we can have only one controlled variable.
This
suggests Had
the conventional feedback loop between h and Fo. we examined the steady state balance, where would have concluded (erroneously)
dh/dt = 0, we
that there is only one
degree of freedom and consequently no controlled output. (4) Recall Examples 20.6 and 20.7 on split-range control. Notice
that the number of manipulated variables used for control is larger than the number of controlled outputs. Therefore,
eqn. (23.4) determined the minimum number of required manipulations. i '! 1
Example 23.1 - Determining the Number of Controlled and Manipulated Variables for a Flash Drum Consider the flash drum shown in Figure 23.la. N components with molar fractions The feed is composed of As the liquid feed is
'i9 2 = 1,2,***,N.
"flashed" from the high pressure pf
to the lower pressure p of the drum, Steam
vapor is produced and reaches equilibrium with the remaining liquid.
flowing through a coil supplies'the necessary heat for maintaining the desired temperature in the drum, despite any variations in the operating conditions. For this process we would like to identify, (a) the controlled variables, ib) the manipulated inputs and (c) generate all feasible loop configurations. Let us first determine the degrees of freedom for the flash drum. modeling equations are: The
- Total mass balance (assuming constant molar density and insignificant vapor -boldup) dh 41 dt = Ff - (FV + FL>
- Component balances
d (hxi)
Ap - Heat balance cP,L Vapor-liquid yi Consistency
N ii1
A --d(W=
dt
Ffzi
- (FvYi + FLXi)
i = 1,2,***,N-1
dt
cp,fFfTf
- (cp,VFVT - c~,~F~T) + UAS(TS Y T)
equilibrium
=
relationships
. .- i = 1;2,i .a ,N >
Ki(T,p)exi
constraints
xi =
and
y 3
f i=l yi
All the above relationships constiute 4N + 14 variables.
a system of 2N+3 equations with
These variables are classified as follows: and KI(T,p) for i = 1,2,***,N P,f' cP,v' cP,L Tf, TE and zi for i = 1,2,***,N-1 xiY Yi for i = 1,2,***,N
Constants (N+6); A, AS, zd, c Externally specified (N+l);
Unspecified (2N+7); Ff, Fv, FL, p, T, h, kg and Therefore,
the number of controlled variables is equal to (2N+7) - (2N+3) = 4 unspecified variables will be selected as con-
But, which four of the (2N+7) trolled outputs?
The operating requirements dictate that T and p should
be kept constant in order to achieve the desired separation. Furthermore, %nr constant production the flowrate of the liquid feed should be maintained
* ST fie desired value. Finally, the liquid level should remain within certain bounds. Thus, T, P, Ff and h are the controlled variables. All four con-
XGoiled variables can be measured directly, using simple and reliable sensors (thermocouples, differential pressure cells, etc.) with fast responses. Therefore, the measured variables for the control system are; T, p, Ff and h.
From the set of (2N+7) manipulated variables.
unspecified variables we can select the required four Clearly these are; Ff, FV' FL and WS.
23.3
GENERATION
OF
ALTERNATIVE
LOOP
CONFIGURATIONS
After the identification of the controlled and manipulated variables we need to determine the control configuration, i.e. specify the manipulated variable which will control a given controlled variable. determine the configuration of the control loops. For a system with N controlled and N manipulated variables there are N! different loop configurations. Figure 23.2 shows the two possible loop In other words,
configurations for a process with 2 manipulations and 2 controlled outputs. As the number N increases, the number of different loop configurations increases very rapidly, e.g. for N=3 for N=4 for N=5 etc. The selection of the "best" among all possible loop configurations is a difficult triable - choose problem. Various criteria can be used to couple every controlled there are 3! = 6 there are 4! = 24 there are 5! = 120 different different different configurations configurations configurations
with the "best" manipulation, like; the manipulation which has a direct and fast effect on a controlled
variable; - choose the couplings so that there is a small dead time between every manipulation and the corresponding controlled variable;
- select the couplings so that the interaction of the control loops is minimal, etc.
In subsequent chapters we will develop more precise quantitative criteria for the selection of the loops.
Example 23.2 - Alternative Loop Configurations for the Flash Drum In Example 23.1 we identified the controlled and manipulated variables for the flash drum. loops? But, how are these interconnected to form the control 24(=4!) possible loop configurations resulting
Table 23.1 shows the
from all possible combinations among the controlled and manipulated variables. The "best" among the 24 can be found using the following qualitative arguments: - The effects of Ff, FV and FL on the temperature T are indirect and rather slow, while that of WS is direct and faster. Therefore, from ,._
the 24 loop configurations of Table 23.1, only the No. 1, 3, 7, 9, 14 and 18 look promising for efficient temperature control. - The effects of W8 and FL slow. Therefore, Ff and FV on the pressure p are also indirect and are better manipulated variables for con-
trolling p
and from the previously selected loop configurations only the
NO. 3, 7, 9 and 14 remain valid candidates. - Among the No. 3, 7, 9 and 14, the loop configuration No. 3 seems to be the best because it uses FL Yf directly. Remarks: to achieve fast level control and manipulates
This loop configuration is shown in Figure 23.lb.
(1) To select the most promising control configuration for the flash drum we employed qualitative arguments. In subsequent
sections we will study quantitative techniques for selecting the optimal coupling between controlled and manipulated variables.
(2) It should be emphasized that the four loops of the control configuration in Figure 23.lb interact with each other. Thus, increasing the steam flow-rate to control the temperature will affect and thus decontrol the pressure. The interaction among the control loops is an important design consideration. In Chapter 24 we will examine the relative
gain array method which determines how the manipulated variables should be coupled with the controlled variables in such a way as to minimize the interaction among the resulting loops.
23.4 EXTENSIONS TO SYSTEMS WITH INTERACTING UNITS In Sections 23.2 and 23.3 we studied the determination of the necessary controlled feasible and loop manipulated variables, as well as the generation of all In the present
configuration, for single processing units.
section we will extend these results to systems composed of several interacting plant. Consider a process composed of through material or energy flows. N units which interact with each other To determine all feasible control conprocessing units, since such are the systems encountered in a chemical
figurations for the overall process, we can adopt the following systematic procedure: Step 1. Divide the process into separate blocks. Every block may contain a
single processing unit or a small number of processing units with an inherent, common operational goal. For example, the block containing
a distillation column should also contain the condenser and reboiler attached to the column; two neighboring heat exchangers in series or
in parallel should be contained in the same block; a reactor and its feed preheater could be in the same block, etc. Step 2. Determine the degrees of freedom and the number of controlled and To do this, follow the procedure
manipulated variables for each block. described in Section 23.2. Step 3.
Determine all feasible loop configurations for each block.
Having
specified the controlled and manipulated variables for each block, it is easy to generate all possible configuration, following the approach described in Section 23.3. arguments, Using qualitative or quantitative
retain a small number of the "best" loop configurations
for each block. Step 4. Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations. It is clear
that the number of the generated loop configurations for the overall process is equal to the product of the retained configurations for all blocks. Step 5. Eliminate conflicts among the control systems of the various blocks.
The control configurations resulting in Step 4 usually lead to an overspecification of the overall controlled process. as follows: 23.3a). This can be explained
Consider two units connected by a common flow (Figure
When we design the loops for each unit separately, it is
possible to select the interconnecting flow as a controlled variable for both units but in different loops (Figure 23.3b). Also, it is possible to have the corm-non interconnecting flow as the manipulated variable in two different control loops (Figure 23.3~). Both situations
correspond to overspecified systems and lead to conflicts among the control systems. Such conflicts must be erased before we can have a
feasible control configuration for the overall process.
Let us now demonstrate the above procedure on two specific processing systems composed of several interacting units.
Example 23.3 - Generate the Control Loop Configuration for a Simple Chemical Process The heart of the process shown in Figure 23.4 is the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) where the simple, exothermic reaction, A-tB, takes place.
The reactor feed is preheated, first by the hot reactor effluent and then by steam. Coolant, flowing through a jacket around the reactor, removes the order to maintain the temperature of the
heat generated by the reaction,lin
reacting mixture at the maximum allowable (for highest conversion). The :; coolant is provided with two branches one of which is cooled while the other is heated. The rates of cooling and heating, i.e. Qc and Q, are constant.
With this configuration we can fine tune the temperature of the coolant (increase or decrease it) before it enters the jacket of CSTR. The reactor
effluent is first cooled by the feed in the feed-effluent heat exchanger and subsequently it is "flashed" in a flash drum. There it is separated into two
streams, a vapor and a liquid, which are further processed in separate units. Cooling water is provided to regulate the temperature in the drum. We would like to develop alternative loop configurations for this process which satisfy .&he
-.=
following
operating
objectives;
&zp
the conversion in the reactor at its highest permissible value,
- maintain a constant production rate and - achieve constant composition in the liquid product of the flash drum. 1 l.32p feeti . Divide the process into four blocks (Figure 23.4); coolant system, reactor, and flash drum with its feed cooler.
preheating,
Steps 2 and 3.
Determine the degrees of freedom as well as the controlled Also, generate all possible loop
and manipulated variables for each blocl.
configurations for each block and retain the "best". Coolant System (Figure 23.5a) Table 23.2 summarizes all the characteristics of the coolant system. are two controlled variables requiring two manipulations. requirements we can easily determine that: - Fc and TCO - Fc and TCO . __. There
From the operating
are the two controlled variables. are also the two measured variables.
I.
- The two manipulated variables, can be selected from the set,

Fc' Fcl'
Fc2, Fcl
F Y
Fcl'Fc2 Con-
Table 23.2 also indicates a few of the possible loop configurations.
figuration No. 1 seems to be the simplest and is selected for the control of the coolant system (Figure 23.5a). Feed Preheating System (Figure 23.5d) This block requires one controlled variable (see Table 23.3) which is the temperature Ti. The only available manipulated variable is the steam flowrate
Ws, thus yielding only one loop configuration (Figure 23.5b) Reactor (Figure 23.5~) Table 23.4 shows that there should be two controlled variables for the 'reactor which are easily identified as the temperature, T r' and Q9 of the reactor effluent stream. Fi 3 Tco (01: Fc> The No. 3 corresponds Available manipulations are, concentration,
Table 23.4 shows the three possible loop configurations.
to cascade temperature control and, as we have seen in Section 20.1 and Example 20.1, it provides fast compensation. the reactor. Thus, configuration No. 3 is selected for
543
Flash Drum (Figure 23.5d) This is similar to the flash drum system analyzed in Examples 23.1 and 23.2 with one difference; instead of the steam heating (see Figure 23.la) there is a water cooling system (Figure 23.5d). Therefore, following the same pro-
cedure as in Example 23.1 we conclude that there should be, - four controlled variables [Fi, pf, Tf, h], and
- four manipulated variables [Fi, FV, FL, FW]. We can generate 24 possible loop configurations, similar to those tabulated in Table 23.1. The configuration shown in Figure 23.5d is selected as the "best"
because it provides direct and fast regulation of all controlled variables. i 4 Step . Recombine the four blocks with their control configurations. Con," sidering that the four blocks (coolant system, feed preheating, reactor, flash drum) possess 6, 1, 2 and 24 possible loop configuration, we can generate in principle 288 (=6xlx2~24) overall process. control configurations for the
Not all of them need to be examined for consistency Figure 23.6a shows the resulting con-
because some are obviously bad.
trol system if the "best" loop configurations are selected for each block. 5 Step . Eliminate confliects among the control loops of the various blocks.
Consider the control system for the overall process shown in Figure 23.6a. We notice quickly two overspecifications which create conflicts
among the control loops. (a) The coolant flowrate different is used as manipulated variable by two
loops; the temperature cascade loop of the reactor
and the feedforward flow control loop of the coolant system. (b) The flowrate Fi (feed to the reactor, and reactor effluent) is controlled by two different loops; the feedback concentration
control loop in the reactor and the feedforward flow control loop in the flash drum. To eliminate conflict (a) we can delete the feedforward flow control loop in the coolant system. To erase conflict (b) we delete the flow Thus, the final control configuration
control loop in the flash drum.
for the overall process is shown in Figure 23.6b.
It has no conflicts
among the loops and the process is exactly specified.
Example 23.4 - Generate the Control Loop Configuration for an Integrated Chemical Plant : i' : Consider the process shown in Figure 23.7. An exothermic reaction :; A+B+C takes place in the gas phase. The product C is taken from the top of a distillation column. The unreacted raw materials A and B are
both recycled to the reactor from the flash drum and the bottom of the disstillation column, respectively. Compressors (C-l, C-2) are used to increase The liquid B is vaporized in
the pressure of the feed and recycled gas A. a series of two heat exchanger (E-l, E-2).
The reactor is a tubes-and shell
heat exchanger with the reaction taking place in the tubes and the coolant flowing in the shell around the tubes. The basic control objective is; maintain the desired steady state prodllirtion rate and quality of product C for a long period. $?%Pi?* Divide the processinto seven blocks as shown in Figure 23.7:
(a) Compressor for the fresh feed gas A, (b) Compressor for gas A recycled from the flash drum, B and the recycled from the-
(c) .Mixing drum for the fresh feed
bottom of the distillation column, (d) Feed vaporizing and preheating,
(e) Reactor, (f) Flash drum with its feed cooler, and (g) Distillation column with its condenser and reboiler. Steps 2 and 3. To simplify the presentation of this example, we have omitted for variables, determination of
the details of modeling, accounting
controlled and manipulated variables, etc.
Figure 23.8a through 23.88
show the selected "best" loop configurations for each block. 4 Step . Figure 23.9 presents the control structure for the overall plant,
resulting from the particular loop configurations shown in Figure 23.8. D Step 5. Close observation of the control-configuration in Figure 23.9 reveals
the following conflicts among the various control loops: (i> The flowrate of the recycles stream B from the bottom of the
distillation column is controlled by two loops; the feedback level control at the bottom of the distillation column (stream 22) and the feedforward flow,control (stream 3). in the mixing drum
To erase this conflict eliminate the feedforward
loop in the mixing drum because the level controller is absolutely necessary for the good operation of the distillation column. (ii) The flowrate of the reactor feed is controlled by three loops;
the flow control loop in the mixing drum (stream 6), the flow control loop in the feed preheating block (stream 8) and the flow control loop in the reactor block (stream 9). Eliminate
the conflict by retaining the flow control on stream 6 only. (iii) Delete the flow control on the feed of the flash drum (stream 11) because its flow is determined by the flow of stream 6.
(iv>
The flow-rate of the feed to the distillation column is controlled by two loops; the level control of the flash drum (stream 15) and the flow control on stream 16. and eliminate the first. Retain only the second loop
6 Step .
Improve the control configuration generated in Step 5. After the
elmination of the four conflicts among the control loops, which we described above, we can make two additional modifications which improve the quality of the resulting control. (CL) The pressure control of both gaseous streams 1 and 13 may be excessive. Since the pressure of stream 5 is the one of prac-
tical importance, we can replace the two pressure control loops by one, which measures the pressure of stream 5 and manipulates the bypass flow around compressor C-l. (B) For the pressure control in the flash drum we use the flowrate of the vapor (stream 13) as the manipulated. But, the variations
in stream 13 are fed back to the main process and may cause additional disruptions in the operation. For better pressure
control introduce a purge stream (stream 23) and manipulate its flowrate. Figure 23.10 shows the final configuration of the
control loops after eliminating any conflicts (Step 5) and making the two modifications described in Step 6.
"SUMMARY
The typical processes in a chemical plant involve more than one inputs and outputs and necessitate the design of multivariable control systems. Several questions need to be answered for either single MIMO units or processes with several interacting units; (a) how many and which ones are the
controlled variables, (b) h ow many measurements and manipulated variables are needed, (c) what is the configuration of the control loops, etc. The notion of degrees of freedom in a system dictates that: - the number of controlled variables is equal to the total number of degrees of freedom minus the number of externally specified variables, also, - the number of required manipulations is at least equal to the number of controlled variables.
But, besides knowing the necessary number of controlled and manipulated variables, how does one select them among several process variables? One can use the following general guidelines: I _
- Identify as controlled the variables which are directly dictated by the operating objectives for a process. Any remaining freedom should be used
to control hold-ups or flows (in a feedforward manner). - Consider that all controlled variables are measurable and constitute the set of required measurements. If any controlled variable is unmeasurable,
examine the possibility for inferential control. - Select the necessary number of controlled variables among all those available so that they provide direct, easy, and fast regulation of the controlled variables.
For a process with N controlled and N manipulated variables there are N! possible control configurations, composed of single loops. Which configuration
3.~: -ihe best?
In this chapter we have not addressed directly this question,
and all evaluations were made at a qualitative level. For complex processes composed of several interacting units we can use the following generalized procedure for the synthesis of feasible control configurations:
573
- Divide the process into blocks and generate alternative loop configurations for each block. - Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations and eliminate any overspecification which creates conflicts among the loops. This chapter has been concerned with the generation of feasible control configurations and not their precise evaluation. Some general and fallible
qualitative arguments were used to select the "best" loop configuration. In Chapter 24 we will study the most popular method for the quantitative evaluation of alternative loop configuration, i.e. the relative-gain array. -.. This method indicates what manipulations should be coupled. with every controlled variable, so that the interaction among the control loops is minimal. Furthermore, we will study the design of special decoupling control systems in case that strong interaction among loops persists. THINGS TO THINK &OUT
1.
What is a MIMO process and in what sense is the design of a control system for a MIMO process different than that for a SISO process?
2. 3,
Discuss the design questions related to a MIMO control system. Why do we assume that all manipulated variables are measurable? Is this assumption correct? How would you use the values of manipulated
variables in a control system? -4. Why do we claim that there is a large number of control configurations for a MIMO process? Find the number of alternative loop configurations
for a process with N controlled variables and M manipulations, where M>N. 5. "Prove" equations (23.2) and (23.3) which determine the number of necessary controlled and manipulated variables.
6.
Construct a physical example where we can have fewer controlled variables than dictated by equation (23.2) and the operation of the process is acceptable.
7.
Equation (23.3) determines the minimum number of required manipulations for a process. Why is it minimum? Could you use more manipulations and
how? Construct a physical example with more manipulations than dictated by equation (23.3). 8. Is it sufficient to control the temperature and pressure in a flash drum in order to have vapor and liquid products of desired composition? Elaborate on your answer and explain why yes or no. 9. Consider the stirred tank heater example. tinct loop configurations. Show that there are two dis-
One of them is unacceptable because it Which one is this configuration and Consider the effects of manipulations
renders an uncontrollable system. why is it unacceptable? (Hint:
on the controlled variables.) 10. Extend the observation made for the uncontrollability of the stirred tank heater to other systems. loop 11. configurations leading to State qualitatively a test for rejecting uncontrollable systems.
Assuming that all variables can be measured, how many measurements do you need for the design of a control system with N controlled variables?
':12 *
Consider the process examined in Example 23.3. Are there more degrees of freedom when the processing units are considered together in an integrated whole, or when the various units are considered separately detached from each other? Explain why.
13..
Why is the overall process overspecified when the various blocks with their corresponding loop configuration are recombined to yield the
control configuration for the overall process (see Steps 4 and 5 in Section 23.4)? How does the overspecification manifest itself in the Discuss how you can eliminate
configuration of the control loops? it. 14.
Determine the number of controlled and manipulated variables for the flash drum (Example 23.1) assuming steady state operation. Why are the results different than those of Example 23.1? State the danger involved
when we consider steady state models to design a MIMO control system. 15. What are the controlled variables which remain unidentified when we use steady state models to'determine controlled and manipulated ; variables? How can you overcome this drawback and still use steady
state models?
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L_
_ .-
---_
--____
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_~~
..__
~__
_ .
--__-.--
--..- -.-----_-._ _~--._--------I_- -.
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-.; ._ _~_ i .-
__-. I ;-+ . . ..
--- _-m3LLLig25Y---_--..-, I / I-I
[Fig 23. uce
Z]
r------___
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FEED fu.WfAT~N~t
- - - -
- ----me;
FLASH
DRUM
cc
*. I .:*
1 Figure
23.5)
II 0
,a- ,. ., I1 ,W --- ---_ - __ - -- - - --e-J I
---- ---- -----8 I ++-.&p u 1 ii
. . . ..I. .:::....*.:.. . ...(. . a.....: . .. . . .. .:.... L-; 1 r l(l=J=L?:; ,?T \ .. .,. :: . . . . . . . . . . ., l. : . . :-.:. . . . .I. . . : IF
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I
CHAPTER 24 INTERACTION AND DECOUPLING OF CONTROL LOOPS From the discussion in Chapter 23, two characteristics should be clear concerning the design of control systems for processes with multiple inputs and multiple outputs: - First; a control system is composed of several interacting control loops. - Second; there is a large number of feasible, alternative of control loops. For example, to control the operation of a flash drum we need a configuration of four loops, which must be selected from 24 possible such loop configurations (Example 23.2). These two characteristics dictate the content of this chapter. ticular we will study; - the interaction among the control loops of a MI130 process, - the relative-gain array method which determines how the controlled and manipulated variables should be coupled to yield control loops with minimal interaction, and finally In parconfigurations
- the design of special control systems with non-interacting loops. 24.1 INTERACTION OF CONTROL LOOPS
Consider a process with two controlled outputs and two manipulated inputs @Zgzzre 24.la). Y,(S)
Y2W
The input-output relationships are given by = = Hll(d

H21W
iiil(s) =l(s>
+ +
H12(~) fii2W H2+4 i5,W
(24.1) (24.2)
Huts),
H12W,
H21(s) and H22(~) are the four transfer functions relating Equations (24.1) and
the two outputs to the two inputs (see Section 9.2).
(24.2) indicate that a change in ml or m2 will affect both controlled outputs.
Let
US
form two control loops by coupling ml with yl and m2 with To simplify the presentation, we have assumed
y2 as shown in Figure 24.lb.
that the transfer functions of the measuring devices and final control elements in both loops are equal to 1. If Gel(s) and Gc2(s) are the trans-
fer functions of the two controllers, then the values of the manipulations are given by y(s)
q4
= Gcl[~l,SpW - Y1l
=
(24.3) (24.4)
Gc2[Y2,sp(S)
T21
To understand the nature of interaction between two control loops and how it arises, we will study the affects of input changes on the outputs when; (a) one loop is closed and the other open and (b) both loops are closed. (a) One Loop Closed. 24.2a). Assume that Loop 1 is closed and Loop 2 is open (Figure
Assume also that m2 = constnat, i.e. E,(s), and make a change in the After substituting eqn. (24.3) into eqns. (24.1) and
set point yl,SPm (24.2) we take:
Tl
HllGcl 1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP
(24.5)
1,SP Lt is clear then that any change in the set point yl,sp k& behavior of the controlled output yl,
3.
(24.6)
will not only affect
but also the uncontrolled output
The dotted lines in Figure 24.2a indicate schematically the routes affects the two outputs. Similar conclusions are drawn The situation becomes more
through which yl sp ,
if we consider Loop 1 open and Loop 2 closed. complex when both loops are closed.
(b) Both Loops Closed (Figure 24.2b).
Initially the process is at steady Consider a change in the
state with both outputs at their desired values. set point yl,SP 7 2,SP = O.
only and keep the set point of Loop 2 the same, i.e.
Then, the following things happen:
- The controller of Loop 1 will change the value of ml in such a way as to bring the output yl effect of m1 on Yl to the new set-point value. This is the direct
through Loop 1, and is shown schematically by the
dashed line in Figure 24.2b. - The control action of ml will not only attempt to bring yl to the new Then,
set point, but will also disturb y2,
from its steady state value.
the controller of Loop 2 attempts to compensate for the variations in y2 by changing appropriately-the value of the manipulated variable m2. change in m2 ml on affects in turn output yl. But a
This is an indirect effect of
yly through Loop 2, and is shown schematically by the dotted line It constitutes the essence of interaction between two
of Figure 24.2b. control loops. Analogous conslusion change
on the loop interaction will be drawn if we consider a In summary, we can make
in y2,Sp, while keeping yl,Sp the same.
the following statement which described the interaction between two control loops: "The regulatory action of a control loop deregulates the output of another loop (in the same process), which in turn takes control action to compensate for the variations in its controlled output, disturbing at the same time the output of the first loop." Having completed a qualitative presentation, let us now examine the quantitative ramifications of the interaction between two control loops. stitute eqns. (24.3) and (24.4) into eqns. (24.1) and (24.2) respectively and take: Sub-
(1
+ HllGcl)Yl+
(H12Gc2)~2=H11Gcl*~l
, SP+H12Gc2?2 , sp
(24.7) (24.8) and
(H21Gcl)71 + (1 +
H22Gc2)~2=H21Gcl~l,~~
H22Gc2*55,~~
Solve eqns. (24.7) and (24.8) with respect to the controlled outputs yl y2 and take 3 y2 where Pll(S)
p&d p21w p&J
the = =
following Pll(S)
p21w
closed-loop
p12w p&s)
input-output
Y2,sp 72,sp
relationships, (24.9) (24.10)
Qsp + iysp +
=
=
{HllGcl + GclGc2(HllH22
I h
-yH12H21)~/Q(s)
H12Gc2/Q(s> H21Gc2/Q(s>
= =
(H22Gc2 + GclGc2(HllH22
- H12H21))/Q(d
and Q(s) Remarks: = (l + HllGcl)(l + H22Gc2) - %2H21GclGc2 (24.11)
(1) Equations (24.9) and (24.11) describe the response of outputs y1 and y2 when both loops are closed, i.e. they have
accounted for the interaction between the two loops. (2) When = 0, there is no interaction between the H12 = H21 The closed-loop outputs are given by
two control loops.
the following equations, HllGcl Tl = 1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP H22Gc2
7, = 1 + H22Gc2 '2,SP
The closed-loop stability of the two noninteracting loops depends on the roots of their characteristic equations. Thus, if the roots of the following two equations 1 + HllGcl = 0 1 + H22Gc2 = 0 (24.12)
have negative real parts, the two noninteracting loops are stable. (3) The stability of the closed-loop outputs of two interacting loops is determined by the roots of the characteristic equation -H12H21GclGc2 = 0 (24.13)
Q(s) 5 (1+H11Gcl(l+H22Gc2)
Thus, if the roots of eqn. (24.13) have negative real parts, the two interacting loops are stable. (4) Suppose that the two feedback controllers Gel and Gc2 -.. are tuned separat'ely, ite. keeping the loop under tuning closed and the other open. Then, we cannot guarantee
stability for the overall control system, where both loops are closed. The reason is simple: Tuning each loop
separately we force the roots of the characteristic eqns. (24.12) for the individual'loops to acquire negative real parts. But the roots of these equations are different
from the roots of the characteristic eqn. (24.13) which determines the stability of the overall system with both loops closed. (5) Normally, we tune the two controllers in such a way that the roots of all eqns. (24.12) and (24.13) have negative real parts. Such tuning guarantees stability when both
loops are closed (roots of eqn. (24.13)), or only one is closed while the other is open due to a hardware failure (roots of eqns. (24.12)). (6) The previous discussion indicates that the interaction between control loops is a significant factor and affects
in a very profound manner the "goodness" of a control system. For this reason, a control designer attempts to
couple the manipulated variables with the controlled outputs in such a way as to minimize the interaction of the resulting control loops. If strong interactions
persist for any possible pairing, then he will design a sp,ecial,control system which eliminates the interaction
(decoupling the loops).
Example 24.1 - Interaction of Contro14Loops : Consider once more the.stirred
ins Stirred Tank Heater
tank heater (Example 4.4). Figure 24.3
shows the two control loops; Loop 1 controls the liquid level by manipulating the effluent flowrate, and Loop 2 regulates the temperature by manipulating the steam flowrate. Let us see how the two loops interact: (load) or the desired value of liquid level
- When the inlet flowrate
(set point) change, Loop 1 attempts to compensate for the changes by manipulating the value of the effluent flowrate. This in turn will dis-
turb the temperature of the liquid in tank and Loop 2 will compensate by adjusting appropriately the value of steam flowrate. - If on the other hand, the temperature of the inlet stream (load) or the %!
.-
&sired value of the temperature (set point) change, Loop 2 will adjust ,-be steam flowrate liquid to compensate for the changes. This will leave the
level undisturbed. In other words,
.1y. 5;.rz;-zs9
we notice that Loop 1 affects Loop 2 but not vice versa. is in a single direction.
thsinteraction
Example 24.2 - Interaction of Control Loops in a Stirred Tank Reactor In the CSTR of Figure 24.4, the temperature is controlled by the flow of coolant in the jacket while the effluent concentration is controlled by the inlet flowrate. Assume that initially both effluent concentration and tem-
perature are at their desired values. . - Consider a change in the inlet concentration (load) or the desired effluent concentration (set point). Loop 1 will compensate for these changes by However, this change in the feed rate also
manipulating the feed flowrate.
disturbs the reactor temperature away from the desired value. The, Loop 2 attempts to compensate for the change in temperature by varying the coolant flowrate, which in turn affects the effluent concentration. - On the other hand, when to compensate for changes in feed temperature (load) or the desired set point of reactor temperature, it also causes the effluent concentration to vary. Then, Loop 1 attempts to compensate for the change
in effluent concentration by varying the feed rate, which in turn disturbs the reactor temperature.
It is clear from the above that Loop 1 interacts with Loop 2 in both directions (unlike the loops of the stirred tank heater which interac in a single direction).
&ample 24.3 - Tuning the Controllers of Two Interacting LOOPS Assume that the input-output relationships of a process with two controlled outputs and two manipulated variables are given by, 7, = 1 O.ls+l % 1 ml 0.5s+l + 5 O.ls+l m2 2 0.5s+l :2
Y2
Form two loops by coupling ml with yl and
m2 with y2.
The closed-
loop input-output relationships are given by eqns. (24.9) and (24.10) where 1 Hll = O.ls+l 5 H12 = O.ls+l 1 H21 = 0.5s+l 2 H22 = 0.5s+l with
Let the two controllers be simple proportional G cl = Kcl and G c2 =
controllers Kc2
(a) Tuning each loop separately:
The charactewristic
equation of Loop 1
when Loop 2 is open is given by, 1 + Hll~cl = 1 + K C-l o.ls+l=O
and yields the closed-loop pole s = -lO(l + Kcl) < 0
Therefore, when Loop 2 is open, Loop 1 is stable for any value of gain &Cl. Similarly, the closed-loop pole for Loop 2 when Loop 1 is open
is given by
S
-2(1 + Kc2) < 0
and consequently, Loop 2 is stable for any value of Ka2, when Loop 1 is open. (b) Tuning with both loops closed: When both loops are closed, the charac-
teristic equation is given by eqn. (24.13) and for this example takes the following form: 1 0.5s+l'K,1'Kc2 = O
(1 + oK;;+l)(l +.2Kc2, - O.ls+1 5
+(0.6+0.5Kcl+0.1Kc2)s+(1+KclfKc2-9KclKc2) = 0
(24.14)
According to the first test of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability (see
Section 15.3), eqn. (24.14) has at least one root with positive real part if any of its coefficients is negative. Thus, the closed-loop behavior of the
process is unstable if the following inequality is satisfied, 1 + Kc1 +

Kc2 -
9KclKc2
<
Cl
(24.15)
Inequality (24.15) places restrictions on the values that Kc1 and Kc2 can take, to render a stable performance when both loops are closed. This is in
direct contrast to our earlier result (see (a) above), whereby all values of K
Cl
and K c2
were acceptable if each loop were tuned separately. K --..g
[Note: The
allowable range of values for n-Kcl--:and
which render stable responses
when both loops are closed can be found by applying the second test of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.]
24.2 THE RELATIVE-GAIN ARRAY AND THE SELECTION OF LOOPS In the previous chapter we recognized that for a process with N controlled outputs and N manipulated variables there are N! to form the control loops. Which one is the best? different ways
One way to answer this loop The .-
question is to consider the interactions among the loops for all N! configurations and select the one where the interactions are minimal.
Relative-Gain Array is exactly such methodology whereby we select pairs of input and output variables in order to minimize the amount of interaction - among the resulting loops. It was first proposed by Bristol and today is a
very popular tool for the selection of control loops. Let us now study the logic of the mehtod and present some examples describing its usage. A. Definitions Consider a process with two outputs and two inputs (Figure 24.la). Then, do the following two experiments:
(a) Assume that
m2
remains constant (Figure 24.5a). of magnitude Am1
Introduce a step
change in the input ml
and record the new steady
state value of output yl. steady state. in ml'
Let Ayl be the change from the previous
It is clear that it has been caused only by the change
The open-loop static gain between yl and ml when m2 is
kept constant is given by (see Section 10.4 and eqn. (10.20)) (AyllAml)m 2 (b) In addition to the static gain computed above, there is another open-loop gain between yl and ml, when m2 varies by a feedback loop conThus, introducing a-step
trolling the other output, y2 (Figure 24.5b). change Am1 yl*Ayl reason: we record a change Ayl
in the steady state value of
will be, in general, different than Ayl for the following The input change Am1 does not only affect yl but also y2.
Then, the control loop attempts to keep y2 constant by varying m2, which in turn affects the steady state value of yl. is the compound result of the effects from open-loop gain between Yl and ml when ml y2 and Therefore, m2' Ay;
Let the new
is kept constant by the
control loop, be given by
(AYi/AmlIy
2
The ratio of the two open-loop gains computed above defines the relative gain, k, between output yl and input ml, i.e. .^ (Ayl/Aml)m x11 = (Ayljoml)y2 2 (24.16)
The relative gain provides a useful measure of interaction,
In particular:
- If Xl1 = 0, then yl to control Yl'
does not respond to ml and ml should not be used
- If Xl1 = 1, then ~2 Yl and
does not affect yl
and the control loop between In this case
ml does not interact with the loop of y2 and m2.
we have completely decoupled loops. - If 0 < Xl1 < 1, then an interaction exists and as m2 the steady state value of yl. the interaction becomes. causes a strong effect on yl and in the opposite varies it affects xl1' the larger
The smaller the value of
- If Xl1 < 0, then m2
direction than that caused by ml. very dangerous.
In this case, the interaction effect is
In a similar manner as above we can define the following three remaining relative gains between the 2 inputs and 2 outputs of the process we have been considering, i.e. : relative gain between yl and m2 : relative gain between Y2 and ml 1 /(Ay,/Am,) 1 Yl : relative gain between y2 and m2
52 = (Ayl/Am2)m /(Ayl/Am2)y 1 2 x21 = (Ay2/Aml)m 2 /(Ay2/Aml)y
x22 = (Ay2/Am2)m
The values of these gians can also be used as measured of interaction for the corresponding cases in a similar way as it was done above for B. Selection of Loops For a process .with two inputs and two outputs there are two different ..loop configurations, shown in Figure 23.2. Let us see how we can use the xll*
relative gains to select the configuration with minimum interaction between thf! loops.
Arrange the four relative gains, All, Xl2, X21 and X22 into a matrix form, which is known as the relative-gain array, i.e.
ml
A = =
m2 x12
r
+ +
Xl1
x21 1
x22 y2 -1
y1
It can be shown that the sum of the relative gians in any row or column of the array is equal to 1. x11 x21
Xl2 x22
Thus, = = 1
and _.
x11 %2
+ +
/.,
A21 x22
1
:;* .- (2$*1!)
= '1 I
Therefore, we need to know only one of the four relative gains while the other three can be easily computed. 0.25 and X22 = 0.75. Depending on the value of ferent situations: Then, the relative-gain array is, Xll, we can distinguish the following difFor example, if All = 0.75 then Xl2 = A21 =
- All = 1.
and it is obvious that we can have two noninteracting loops formed by; ml coupled with yl and m2 -31 = O. coupled with y2 (Figure 23.2a).
The, the relative-gain array is given by,
a =
71
11
0 I
.Ihe 1 in the off-diagonal elements indicate that we can form two noninteracting control loops by coupling (Figure 23.2b). ml with y2 and m2 with yl
- 51
= 0.5. Then, 3.5 0.5 0.5 I
L0.5
and the amount of interaction between the two loops is the same in both configurations of Figure 23.2.
.
In other words, it does not matter how we
couple inputs and outputs. - 0 < Al1 < 0.5, say Al1 = 0.25. Then,
The two larger number, i.e. 0.75, indicate the recommended coupling with the samller amount of interaction. with yl (Figure 23.2b). - 0.5 -C xl1 < 1, say Xl1 = 0.8. Then, Thus, we couple ml with y2 and m2
and the recommended coupling is the opposite of the previous case, i.e. Couple - All> 1. ml with yl and m2 with y2 (Figure 23.2a).
Then, A22 = Xl1 > 1 and Al2 = h21 = 1 - Xl1 < 0. Situations
with relative gains outside the range 0 to 1 create difficult control voblems. 51) Let us see why.
Suppose that you couple yl with ml and y2 with m2. The corresponding relative gains, X 11 and x22' are larger than 1.
Then, from the definition of the relative gains we conclude that,
(Ayl/Aml>
m2 In other words
> (~yl/A~l~y2
and
(Ay2/Am2) ml
> (Ay2/Am > 2 y1
the response of the outputs is held back by the
interaction from the other loop and the larger the values of the
relative gains above unity, the larger the "holding back" effect will be. Thus, we need larger values for the controller gains.
(2) If you couple yl with m2 and y2 with ml, the corresponding gains Xl2 and A21 are negative. In this case, the interaction will take the controlled outputs in the opposite direction than that desired by the control effort and control will be lost altogether. Therefore, never form loops by coupling inputs to
outputs with negative relative gains. We can summarize all the above observations with the following rule for selecting the control loops: "Select the control loops by pairing the controlled outputs in such a way that Yi with the manipulated variables m. J the relative gains Aij are positive and as close as possible to unity." Remarks: (1) The relative gains provide a measure of interaction based on steady state considerations. Therefore, the rule given above
for the selection of loops does not guarantee that the dynamic interaction between the loops will be also minimal. (2) The relative-gain array is a square matrix, which implies that the number of manipulated variables is equal to the number of controlled outputs. Now, suppose that we have a
process with two outputs and three possible manipulations, ml' m2 and m 3' There are three possible pairs of maniTherefore,
pulated variables; (ml,m,), (m,,m,) and (m3,ml). we can form three different relative-gain arrays,
ml
m2
m2
m3
m3
ml
and we need to examine all of them before we can select the set of two loops with minimal interaction. general, hil # All, xi2 # A12, etc.1 (3) There are two ways of obtaining the relative gains of a process; a computational approach using a steady state input. output model for the process and an experimental approach. 2When a steady state model is available, then we can obtain the numerator and denominator of the relative gain (see eqn. (24.16)) by simple differentiation. This way we can express the relative gains in terms of the controlled and manipulated variables . themselves, which enables us to evaluate the [Note: In
interaction across a range of operating conditions.
(4) For an existing process we can evaluate the relative gains experimentally, by performing the following two experiments: Experiment 1 (all loops open). Keeping all loops open make
a small step change Am1 in ml, keeping m2 constant. Record the changes in the steady state values of yl and y2, i.e. Ayl and Ay2. Then, compute and 2
(AYl/Aml)m
(Ay2/Aml)m
Return the system to the initial steady state and repeat the same experiment by varying Ayl and Ay2 and compute, m2 by Am2. Record the changes
(AYl/Am2)m
1
and
(Ay2/Am2> "1 Make a small change Am1
Experiment 2 (one loop closed). in m 1, while keeping y2 m2' Record the change Ayl
constant by feedback control using in the steady state of yl and
compute the gain
(aYl/Aml~y
Repeat the same experiment, but now keep yl constant through a control loop with m2. . and compute the gain (Ay2/Amlly 1 Similarly, we can compute the following two gains, (Ayl/Am2> y2 Taking and (Ay2/Am2) y1 Record the change Ay2
the ratios of the corresponding gains in Experiments
1 and 2, we can compute the relative gains Xll, X12, X21, x22* [Note: Remember that you do not need to compute all
relative
gains, since they are related by eqns. (24.17)].
(5) The definition of the relative gains and their use in selecting the control loops are not limited to systems with two inputs and two outputs. cesses is straightforward. The extension to general proThus, the relative gain between is defined by
an output y. 1
and a manipulation m. J (Ayi/Amj)m/(Ayi/Amj)y
x ij
The
subscript
m denotes constant values for all manipula-
tions except m., i.e. all loops open, while subscript y J indicates all outputs except yi are kept constant by the
control loops, i.e. all loops closed. relative-gain array is given by ml m2 '12 A = = '22
l
Similarly,
the
'1N '2N
'1 y2
The entries of a satisfy the following two properties; for j=1,2,***,N ill ' ij =. 1 . N
j&l ij
summation by columns
= 1 for: i=1,2,***,N
summation by rows
The loop selection rule remains the same.
Example 24.4 - Select the Loops Using the Relative-Gain Array Consider a process with the following input-output relationships:
Yl
Y2
=
=
l-iTi ml
1 + O.ls+l
%2
(24.18)
-0.2 0.5s+l ml +
0.8 s+1 m2
(24.19)
Let us compute the relative gains: -Bake a unit step change in ml, i.e. iii1 = l/s, while keeping m2 constant, 3.e. iii 2 = 0. Then, from eqn. (24.18) we take,
Recall the final-value theorem (Section 7.5) and find the resulting new steady state in yl, i.e.
Yl,ss
= lim [s y,(s)]
S-to
lim [l/(s+l)]
S-4
= 1
Therefore, - Keep y2 ml'
= l/l = 1. 2 constant under control by varying rn2' must remain constant, i.e. should change;
(Ayl/Aml)m
Intorduce a unit step in
Since y2
7 2 = 0, eqn. (24.19) will tell
us by how much m2 ii) =
0.2 s+l ti? \ 0.8 0. Ss+l
Substitute this value in eqn. (24.18) and find
71
s+l 1 ml +
1
O.ls+l
.-. 0.2
0.8
s+l
0.5s+l
ii
Then, the resulting new steady state
for y1
is given by,
yl SS=lim , S-+O Therefore,
1 1 1 0.2 1 s+l [s Yl]=lim s* -as+l s + O.ls+1'0.8' 0.5s+l'S s+o Ilr

=
= 1.25
(Ayl/Am ) IL Y2
1.2511
1.25 and = l/l.25 = 0.8
x11 = (Ayl/Am,)m2/(Ayl~~ml)y2 Using eqns..(24.17) we find
A12 = x21 = 0.2 and X22 = 0.8. It is easy now and m2 with y2 to form two
to conclude that we should pair ml with yl 1~op.s with minimum interaction.
It should be noted that had we selected the
loops differently, i.e. couple ml with y2 and m2 with yl, the interaction of the loops would have been four times larger (i.e. 0.8/0.2 = 4).
Example 24.5 - Selecting the Loops in a Mixing Process Two streams with flowrates Fl and F2 and compositions (moles per cent)
"1 = 80% and x2 = 20% in a chemical A, are mixed in a vessel (Figure 24.6a). We would like to form two control loops to regulate the product composition, x, and flowrate, F. while Fl E ml Let F z yl and x z y2 and F2 Z m2 be the two controlled outputs,
are the two available manipulated variables. Two
are the possible control configurations with different pairings between the inputs and outputs, and they are shown in Figures 24.6b and 24.6~. should we prefer? The steady state mass balances yield: F = F1 + F2 (24.20) (24.21) Which one
Fx = [Note:
FIXl
F2X2
We have neglected the energy balance because the temperature of the The desired steady
product stream is not in our operating reqyirements.] state for operational purposes is, F = 200 moles/hr and x =
60% (by moles)
With these values we find the following steady state solution of eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) Fl = 133.4 and F2 = 66.6
To compute the relative gain between F and Fl, do the following: - Change same. Fl by one unit, i.e. F1 = 134.4, while holding F2 = 66.6 the Solve eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) for F and x and find the
following new steady states F Therefore, (AF/AFl)F 2 = l/l = 1 (Ax/AF~)~ 2 = 0.6012/1 = 0.6012 = 201
X
= 0.6012
- Change Fl by one unit, i.e. F1 = 134.4, while holding x = 60% constant. Solve eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) and find: F = Therefore, (AF/AFl)x Consequently, = 1.6711 = 1.67 201.67 F2 = 67.27
the relative gain between F and F1 is:
x11
(AF/AFl),2/(AF/AFl)x
l/l.67
0.6
It follows easily that the complete relative-gain array is F1 -0.6

A I =
F2 0.4 F 0.6 I x
0.4 1
Two are the main conclusions we can draw: First; with the two loops with minimum interaction are formed when we couple F F1 and x with F2 (Figure 24.6b).
Second; although the interaction between the two selected groups is smaller than that of the other alternative configuration (Figure 24.6c), it is still significant. Thus, any control action to regulate F will seriously disturb
x and vice versa.
24.3
DESIGN
OF
NONINTERACTING
CONTROL
LOOPS
The relative-gain array indicates how the inputs should be coupled with the outputs to form loops with the smaller amount of interaction. But, the
persisting interaction, although it is the smaller possible, may not be small enough. Example 24.5 demonstrated this aspect clearly. In such case, the two
control loops still affect each other's operation very seriously, and the overall control system is characterized unacceptable.
When the designer is confronted with two strongly interacting loops, he introduces in the control system special new elements called decouplers. purpose of the decouplers is to cancel the interaction effects between the two loops and thus render two noninteracting control loops. Let us now study The
how we can design the decouplers for a process with two strongly interacting loops.
667
consider the process whose input-output relationships are given by eqns. Form two interacting loops by coupling ml with yl and
(24.1) and (24.2). m2
with y2 (see Figure 24.lb). Assume that initially both outputs are at their desired set point values.
Suppose that a disturbance or a set point change cause the controller of Loop 2 to vary the value of m2. for Loop 1 and will cause yl could m2' change This will create an undesired disturbance However, we
to deviate from its desired value.
ml by such an amount as to cancel the interaction effect from
But, the question arises; how much should we change m2? From eqn. (24.1) we find that in order to keep yl constant, i.e.
% = 0, m2 { 1
should change by the following amount, =- H12(s) HllW m2
(24.22)
Equation (24.22) implies that we can introduce a dynamic element with a transfer function,
H12W
I+)
Hll(d m2
(24.23)
which uses the value of
as input and provides as output the amount by m2 on yl'
which we should change ml, in order to cancel the effect of
This dynamic element is called decoupler and when is installed in the control system (Figure 24.7a) it cancels any effect that Loop 2 might have on Loop 1 but not vice versa. To eliminate the interaction from Loop 1 to Loop 2, we can follow the same reasoning as above and we find that the transfer function of the second decoupler is given by,
H21(d
D2(s)
H22(~)
(24.24)
The block diagram of the process with two feedback control loops and two decouplers is given in Figure 24.7b. From the block diagram of Figure 24.7b it is easy to develop the following two closed-loop input-output relationships:
Yl
Gcl[H1l - H12H21'H223 l + Gcl[Hll - H12H21'H221 Gc2[H22 - H12H21'H223 l + Gc2[H22 - H22H21'H211

l
-7 1,SP
(24.25)
Y2
Y2,SP
(24.26)
The last two equations demonstrate the complete decoupling of the two loops since the controlled variable of each loop depends only on its own set point and not on the set point of the other loop. Figure 24.7~ shows the net block
diagram of the two noninteracting loops described by eqns. (24.25) and (24.26). It is completely equivalent to that of Figure 24.7b. Remarks: (1) Two interacting control loops are perfectly decoupled only when the process is perfectly known, because only in this case the transfer functions known exactly. Hll,
H12, H21
and
H22 are
Since this requirement is rarely satisfied
in practice, the decouplers offer only partial decoupling with some weak interaction still persisting between the two loops. (2) As we have mentioned repeatedly, chemical processes are mostly nonlinear and nonstationary (i.e. the values of their parameters initially change the change). Therefore, even if the decoupling is
perfect, as the desired operating conditions decoupling deteriorates. One solution to this Thus, as the proH1ly
problem is to use adaptive decouplers.
cess changes we estimate the new transfer functions
H12'
H21
and
H22
and compute new decouplers.
How to
design adaptive decouplers is quite complex and goes beyond the scope of the present text. (3) Perfect or very good decoupling allows the independent tuning of each controller without risking the stability of the overall system. (4) A close examination of Figure 24.7b reveals that for all practical purposes the decouplers are essentially feedforward control elements. Thus, decoupler Dl measures the changes in m2 and takes appropriate action to canwould have on yl before it has
cel the effect that m2 been felt by yl.
(5) If the decouplers are designed using steady state models for the process, then we talk about steady state or static decoupling. Equations (24.23) and (24.24) provide the
design of dynamic decouplers. It should be emphasized that for severely interacting loops static decoupling is better than no decoupling at all. (6) For a general process with two inputs and two outputs we need two decouplers to produce n&interacting loops.
Whenever we use only one decoupler, despite the fact that two are needed, we, talk about partial or one-way decoupling. Such systems allow the interaction to travel in one direction. the loops. Figure 24.7a shows a partial decoupling of Thus, disturbances entering Loop 2 cannot Dl' On the other hand,
enter Loop 1 due to the decoupler
disturbances originating in Loop 1 may enter Loop 2 but cannot be returned.
Example 24.7 - Partial Decoupling; Let us return to the mixing process we studied in Example 24.5. Suppose
that the operating requirements allow small variations in the product flowrate F, while dictating very tight control on the concentration x of the product. Then, we can use partial or one-way decoupling to cancel any effects that interaction might have on x, leaving the simple feedback loop to regulate
the value of the product flowrate, F. Assuming that x yield (Fl or F2 = Fl/2 which cancels + F2)0.6 = 0.8Fl + 0.2F2 is kept at the desired value of 0.6, then eqn. (24.21)
The last equation describes the necessary steady state decoupler
any effects that the flow control loop might have on the composition control loop.
Example 24.8 - Physically Unrealizable Decouplers --Consider a process whose input-output relationships are given by 0.5e-1'5S s+l 2e-l.0s
Y2
y1
ml + e-Os5' _ 2s+l m2
0.5s+l
1 ml + s+l iii2 Then,
Form the two control loops by coupling yl with ml and y2 with m2. the transfer functions of the two decouplers (24.24), i.e.
are given by eqns. (24.23) and
Dl(s)
R12(s) Hll(s) H21(S)

H22(4
s+l 22s+l' s+l 2 0.5s+l
+1.0s e -1.0s e +1.0s . On the other
D2(s)
Decoupler hand makes D2 D1
Dl is
is physically unrealizable due to term e realizable.
The reader should elaborate more on the reason that
unrealizable.
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
Interaction among the control loops creates several undesirable effects on the operation of a process. The loops disturb each other, i.e. load or But .I. others return back to the original loop and may destabilize the process altogether. These hidden feedback actions deteriorate the performance of
set point changes entering a control loop are propagated to other loops.
what is even more serious, the disturbances propagating from one loop to the
the control system and constitute the main "headache" for the control designer. Bristol's relative-gain array provides a simple and useful tool to select the couplings between the various inputs and outputs in such a way that the interaction among the resulting loops is minimal. The foundations of the
method are heuristic in nature and there have been instances where the relative-gain array gave the wrong recommendations. But its simplicity and
practicality are two very attractive features which made it very popular. Whenever severe interaction still persists even for the best configuration of control loops, the addition of decouplers recommended. in the control system is is to provide a control action Thus,
The main function of a decoupler
equal in size but of opposite sign to the propagating loop interaction.
the interaction effect is cancelled and the loops behave as if they were completely independent. It must be noted that perfect decoupling is possible Since this is hardly ever the case
only if the process is completely known. with chemical
processes, the decoupling is only partial, but even so some
form of decoupling should be preferred over no decoupling at all. There is still large body of material concerning the design of control systems for processes with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. two chapters we have only scratched the surface of the problem. In the last Several s domain.
theories and design techniques are available, either in the time or
Due to their mathematical complexity, they are beyond the scope of this text. The interested reacer the end of Part VI. can find several relevant references on these methods at
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. Explain in your own words the interaction among the control loops of a flash drum (Figure 23.lb). column (Figure 5.6). 2. Can you tune separately two interacting loops and retain the stability of the overall process? 3. Explain why yes or no. Couple yl with m2 and y2 Do the same for the loops of a distillation
Consider the process of Figure 24.la. with m 1, to form the two loops. the resulting closed-loop
Draw the corresponding block diagram. input-output Has relationships, the similar
Develop
to those given by eqns. (24.9) and (24.10). characteristic 4. equation changed or not?
closed-loop
Define the two open-loop gains used in the definition of the relative gain X12. Give two different ways for computing X12. Why is Xl2 a
good measure of loop interaction? Can you compute All, A21 and X22 when you only know X12? If yes show how, if not explain why.
5.
Repeat item 4. for the relative gain. A.. of a general process with 1J N inputs and N outputs. What do the subscripts i and j denote?
6.
Define the relative-gain array for a process with 2 inputs and 2 outputs. Extend the d-finition to a process with N inputs and N
outputs. 7. Consider a process with the following transfer functions; H12(s)

H21W
= 0 and Hll(s),
H22(~) # 0.
Show that the relative-gain array
is given by
I I
1 0 0
8.
1'
What are the properties of a relative-gain array? How many relative gains do you need to compute in order to specify completely the relativegain array of a process with; (a) 3 inputs and 3 outputs, (b) PJ inputs and N outputs?
9.
Explain how you can use the relative-gain array to select the loops with with minimum a interaction. Why would you avoid coupling an output yi X ij < 0 Explain. imply
if h < O? Does ij mj that another relative gain is larger than 1 or not?
manipulated
variable
10.
In Example 24.5 let xl = 0.3 and x2 = 0.7 and select the control loops. physical or Have they remained the same or not? Explain your result on grounds. Has the interaction between the two loops increased
decreased?
Explain why.
11.
Define an interaction index as follows, (1 - Xij)/Xij Consider the following relative-gain array
A =
and take the interaction index array (using the above definition)
I =
1 1
-4 1/4 1/4 interaction
4-
Which of the two arrays i and f shows more clearly the amount of relative 12. between the corresponding loops?
What do we mean by the term decoupling two control loops? Do the two loops of the process in item 7 need decoupling? Why, yes or no?
13.
Consider the process of Figure 24.la. y1 with m2 two and y2 with ml.
Form the two loops by coupling
Find the transfer functions of the
required 14.
decouplers.
Find the steady state decouplers for the two control loops selected in the process of Example 24.4.
15.
What is one-way decoupling of two control loops and why could it be acceptable?
16.
Explain in your own words the feedforward control nature of a decoupler. When do you have perfect decoupling and when not?
17.
After
introducing
the
necessary
decouplers, can you tune the controllers
of two loops separately so that the stability of the overall process is guaranteed or not? [Hint: Examine'closely the closed-loop character-
istic equations of two decoupled loops.] 18. What do we mean when we say that a decoupler is physically unrealizable? Explain why decoupler D1 in Example 24.8 is physically unrealizable.
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CHAPTER 25 DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL LOOPS
A typical control loop consists of the following components (Figure 26.1); (a) process, (b) measuring sensor and the accompanying transducer (if necessary), (c) controller, (d) final control element with the associated electropneumatic converter (if necessary) and (e) transmission lines for either the process measurement or the control command signal. As long as
the controller is an analog device (pneumatic or electronic) it can, (i) process continuously the analog signals generated by the sensors and/or the corresponding transducers, and (ii) produce continuous, analog command. It is obvious that in such case
signals for the final control element.
all transmission lines carry continuous, analog signals. The above picture has been the basis for all control systems we have examined so far. The introduction though of a digital computer in the place
of an analog controller creates the need for new hardware elements and new control design problems. Before we examine what they are, let us briefly
review the characteristics of a digital computer and how it is interfaced to the external world. 26.1 THE DIGITAL COMPUTER Despite the differences in capacity, speed, architecture, all digital computers designed for process control have much the same functions. Figure
26.2 indicates the basic components of such a typical digital computer and the associated peripherals. Let us briefly describe their basic features.
A.
Central
Processing
Unit
CPU is the * heart of a computer system and maintains control over all its functions. Thus, it is the CPU that, - determined what is the next operation to be performed by the computer, - executes the various arithmetic or logic operations, - retrieves or stores information from or to the memory, - directs various other operations.like data transfer between memory and peripheral devices.
Usually it is designated and referred to as CPU for short.
The smallest unit of information that the computer uses for communication or computations is the bit (from binary digir), which can assume values 0 or 1. A specified number of bits together form a word. In addition to the bit
and word, an intermediate unit called byte is also used to characterize information of 8-bit long (i.e. 1 byte - 8 bits).' The byte is a useful unit because all alphabet letters, numbers, other typing characters, control characters, Code etc. can be fully specified by one byte according to the ASCI standards). The CPU stores information in the memory or The length of a word varies
(industry
verifies
information from it in terms of words.
among the various computers with 8-, 16-, or 32-bit words being the most common. Thus, consider the following 16-bit word; 1001101110010110. A usual
16-bit word computer arranges the binary digits in an octal system (composed of three binary digits); i.e. 1 001 101 110 010 110
The first digit is reserved for the sign (e.g. 0 = +, 1 = -> and the other 15 form five groups of three digits each and are used to represent an integer number. Thus, the above binary is equal to the following octal integer,
-156268 = -{l.84 + 5.83 + 6.82 + 2.8l + 6.81 E -705210
Therefore,
the range of integers in a l&bit word computer is, from

to
111
111
111
111
111 = -777778 - 1 = 32,767lO
0 111 111 l-l 111 111 = +777778 = +32,76810
The CPU is equipped with a set of hardware instruction to perform some very basic operations like; - addition, subtraction and logical comparisons between integer numbers, - storing data in and recalling data from the memory, and - transferring data between CPU and the various peripheral devices. More complicated operations can be performed using combinations of the above basic hardware instructions.
'To expedite and facilitate operations, modern CPU's are equipped with various hardware options. Among all possible options the following are of
great value to process control computers. (1) Hardware Floating-Point arithmetic Processor. and Performs with very high speed expands tremendously the computational
floating-point
operations
speed of the machine. (2) Real-Time Clock. Every digital computer used for process control must This is the device that keeps track of the real
have a real-time clock.
world's time and allows the computer to schedule its functions at time intervals, in coordination with the various needs of the real world. Thus,
it is the real-time clock that determines when the computer should take data from measuring sensors or change the values of manipulated variables. '(3) Power Fail-Safe/Automatic Restart. In the event that power to the com-
puter is lost, this option senses the power failure and executes a prespecified set of instructions before the machine becomes inoperable. These instructions
may transfer the control of the process from the digital computer to another
back-up control system and/or save information necessary for an orderly and automatic restart of the control programs, when electrical power has been restored to the computer. trolled (4) processes. Timer. This is another valuable option for process control This option enhances the safety of computer con-
Watchdog
computers.
It allows the computer to determine if the control program is
being executed smoothly or if the program is "hung-up" in a never ending loop. In the second case an alarm alerts the operator that the computer has
lost control of the process, due to software problems. B. Memory This is the place where the computer stores, (a) the instructions of the program it executes and (b) the values of the initial data, intermediate and final results from computations. The smallest unit of storage is the bit, Thus, 4K words memory is comEach memory word is
but the memory is organized in terms of words.
posed of 4,000 16-bit words (for 16-bit word computers).
characterized by a unique address and during the execution of a program the CPU keeps track of the memory address which contains the data or the instruction under execution. There are two general types of memory: The Random Access Memory (RAM)
allows data and instructions to be "written" and "read" at any location Jaddress) in the memory. On the contrary, the Read Only Memory (ROM), as its
name implies, does not allow alterations of its content, i.e. a program can "read" information from the locations of the ROM but cannot "write" in it. The RAN is used for the storage of any size general purpose programs, while ROM is employed for the execution of highly specific and small in size programs. Most of the ROM is "programmed" in the factory and it is used to store
basic instructions for starting up the computer or basic input/output
commands, etc.
Recently
field-programmable
ROM's
have
been
introduced.
The cycle time of a computer is the time required by the CPU to read the content of one word from memory and restore its content. According to the
value of the cycle time, we can distinguish the following types of RAM: - Core memory, with typical cycle time -1 us (slow) and low cost, it is constructed with ferrite rings which retain the stored information when power fails. - Metal-Oxide Silicon Nemory (MOS), with typical cycle -500 ns, is faster and
cheaper than core memory and is based on simple semiconductor device. - Bipolar Transistor Memory, with typical cycle -300 ns is still faster but , more expensive. It is constructed from complex integrated circuits. The cycle time is not the only factor that determines how fast a computer is. Various additional determinants, like the number and type of basic
instructions in CPU, the number of general purpose registers, etc., affect the speed with which a computer executes a program. C. Mass Storage Devices
Are used to store large amounts of data and/or instructions. Various types of mass storage devices are available with different, (a) capacity for storage, (b) purchase cost and (c) speed for accessing and retrieving information. The most common units are: words),
- Disks, with very large capacity for storage (1 f 100 million 16-bit low access time (5 -:- 100 us) and high cost. into fixed-head and moving head disks.
The disks are distinguished
The first have capacities in the
range 1-10 million 16-bit words and access time -5 us, while the second have longer access times (50 :- 75 US) but higher capacities (up to 100 million words). Floppy disks are low cost, small capacity devices and are
the most common mass storage facilities for microcomputers.
- Magnetic Tapes.
These are slow speed mass storage devices with significant They are seldomly found on process con-
capacity (10 f 20 million words).
trol computers and they are used to store off-line large programs and large amounts of data. D. Communication Peripherals
These equipments are used for communication between the operator and the computer and include; typewriter terminals, line printers, video display units, storage scope graphics terminals, card readers, X-Y plotters, etc. Uith such
devices the computer can display data describing the current state in the operation of the process it controls, or inform the operator about the current control actions taken by the computer. Furthermore, the communication
peripherals allow the operator to intervene and change set points, gains and other characteristic parameters of a control loop, or switch control from the computer to manual or other back-up control systems. The communication
peripherals must be supported by easy to use, highly informative and well organized software. If this is not the case, then the operator may become
frustrated or lose confidence in the computer control system, thus rendering it useless. E. Input/Output (I/O) Interface
This is the device which allows the communication between the computer and the process to be controlled. functions: (a) It receives the signals from the measuring sensors and transducers associated with the various measured process variables. may be continuous, alalog electrical voltages These signals output, In particular, the I/O performs the following
(thermocouple
flow or pressure transducer signals), or simple digital information (onoff), e.g. various relays, on-off valves, etc.
(b) It sends out command signals to the various manipulated variables, either in analog or digital form. (c) It allows communication with other computers, which are used either as process controllers or number "crunchers". use of several computers for the "distributed This feature permits the digital control systems".
A digital computer without an input/output interface cannot function as a process controller. But, what are the features of such interface, how does it
operate and how one selects the appropriate interface for a given process control application? These questions are quite central in the design of a
computer based control system and will be covered in the next section with some details. Remark: It is common practice to characterize the digital computers as large or maxi-computers, mini-computers or micro-computers. The stan-
dards for such classification are often obscure. Generally though a large computer has words of 32 or 64 bits, memory larger than 128,000 words and a large number of associated peripherals. It is primarily used for scientific or business purposes and physically it occupies a large number of cabinets (10 to 15). Its cost is nor-
mally larger than $500,000. A minicomputer is a 12-, 16-, or 18-bit machine (16-bit the most popular) with 4,000 up to 128,000 words of memory. It has several peripherals and its cost may go up to
$200,000, depending on the size of memory and associated peripherals. Microcomputers are normally characterized machines with 8-bit
words, although one may see 16-bit micros.
processors characterized as
They possess from 1,000 up to 32,000 words of memory and The cost of the basic CPU is less than
a few peripheral devices.
$1,000 and goes up depending on the memory size and peripherals.
1laxicomputers are not used.
are very costly for process control purposes and Minicomputers are well suited to control a large But, the future in process control
number of control loops.
applications belongs to micros due to their low cost and tremendous 26.2 COMPUTER-PROCESS abilities. INTERFACE FOR DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL
Return to Figure 26.1, which shows all necessary hardware elements in a loop with analog controller. Replace the controller by a digital computer.
Then, the control functions (e.g. feedback P, PI, PID laws) will be performed by an executable program (in BASIC, FORT&W, assembly language, etc.), which resides in the memory of the computer. It is obvious that such control
program requires as data (input) the values of the measured outputs and produces as results (output) the values that the manipulated variables should have in order to keep the controlled variables a't the desired set points. For a digital computer both input (data) and output (results) are in digital form and correspond to discrete-time values. Here is where problems of
incompatibility arise and dictate the necessary hardware elements for an input/output interface between a digital computer and the controlled process. A. Samplers The process measurement data (flow rates pressures, liquid levels, temperatures, sensors and etc.) are provided continuously in time by the various measuring transducers. The computer though can handle information on a
discreteltime
basis, i.e. at given time instants for the following reason:
the time taken by the computer to "read" the measured value, calculate the error, and make a control correction is finite. measured computer value If during this period the Then, the
changed, this is not recognized by the computer.
"reads" in effect at discrete time intervals.
This is denoted
through the use of a sampler, which is simply a switch closing at specified time intervals. In other words, a sampler takes in values of a continuous
signal and produces a sequence of sampled values at particular time instants (Figure 26.3a). B. Hold Elements
On the ohter hand, most of the final elements (pneumatic valves in particular) are actuated by continuous in time signals (e.g. compressed air). Therefore, the control commands produced by the computer program should be This is accom-
converted from discrete time to continuous in time signals. plished by the hold elements. Figure 26.3b
shows schematically the conversion
of a sequen-e of discrete in time signals to a stair-step like continuous signal. Here, the hold element keeps the value of a discrete in time signal
constant for all the period until the next signal comes along. C. Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) The measurement data are not only provided continuously in time, but they are also analog electrical signals in nature. They cannot be used directly by
the control program which requires data in a digital form (e.g. information coded in l&bit words, for a 16-bit word machine). Therefore, the input
interface should contain an analog to digital converter (ADC or A/D converter). The analog signals coming from measuring devices and sensors are modified so that they fall within a prespecified voltage range, e.g. 0-lOV, 0-5V, tlOV, or +5V, etc. The digital signal produced by an A/D converter is expressed by The resolution of the conversion depends
an integer number in a binary form.
on the number of bits used by the converter to encode an analog value in digital form. The most common converters use 8-bit or 12-bit resolution, with
the second providing smaller error and being more costly.
Consider a voltage range 0-1V and an n-bit converter. define 2n
The n bits
integer numbers (including zero), which in turn define 2n-l Thus, the accuracy of the conversion * (26.1)
voltage intervals between 0 and 1.
expressed by the value of resolution is given by, 1 Resolution = 2"-1
For a 12-bit converter the resolution is about 0.05 per cent, i.e. when two voltage values differ by more than 0.05% of the prespecified voltage range, the converter will distinguish the two signals and assign two different integers for them. 0.4%. control For an 8-bit converter the resolution is smaller, about
Usually, both 8-bit and 12-bit converter's are satisfactory for process purposes. Converters with more than 12 bits are used only when
extremely high precision is required and are quite costly. The conversion speed is very high and typical A/'D converters used for process control allow 20,000-lOO,O-0 conversions per second. Higher rates
can be achieved by high-performance converters and are useful only for very special problems. ,
To avoid the need for a large number of A/D converters handling the conversion of a large number of different analog signals, it is usual practice to use a multiplexer. This is an electronic switch with several ports, which
can serve sequentially several lines carrying analog signals (Figure 26.4). D. D i g i t a l (DBC)
The control commands produced by the control program are in digital form, but most of the final control elements, pneumatic valves in particular, are actuated by analog signals (e.g. compressed air). To erase this incompati-
bility, the output interface should include a ) (DAC or D/A converter).
D/A converters function in the reverse manner than A/D converters. for a 12-bit converter we can have 2 12
Thus,
= 4096 integer numbers defining 4095 . intervals of the prespecified voltage range, say 0-10 volts. Then, the integer number 516 causes an analog output of $$lO E. Digital I/O = 1.26 volts.
A digital computer control system may be required to handle digital inputs or outputs for a variety of reasons. (a) Information
l
Typical examples are:
concerning
the status of relays turning pumps, valves, lights and other devices onoroff,
l l
the status of multiplexers, the settings of various switches,
a the status of communication peripherals and various digital logic devices. (b) Control
l
commands
to
relays, switches, solenoids, digital logic devices,
0 stepping motors. (c) Communication between 0 several computers

l
a computer and its peripherals, etc. the I/O interface is not designed to receive analog digital input
Therefore,
and output signals. The digital signals are fully compatible with a computer so that no special converters are needed in the I/O interface. The transmission (input
or output) of digital signals by the I/O interface can be done either in
parallel (two-way, in and out, simultaneous transmission) or in series (oneway, in or out transmission). The length of a digital information transmitted machine). The transmission
in or out is one word (i.e. 16 bits for a 16-bit
rates vary from very low to very high, and are expressed in terms of band rates, where one band = lOx(number Remark: of bytes transmitted/second).
When the prespecified range of voltages involves negative and positive values then the first bit of an A/D or D/A converter is used to denote the sign. Thus, consider the range k5V. For a
(12-1) 12-bit converter we have 2 = 2048 positive integer numbers (including zero) to represent voltage values in the positive range 0 5 volts 2 5. Also, there are 2047 negative integer num-
bers (excluding zero) covering the range -5 5 volts < 0. 26.3 COMPUTER CONTROL LOOPS
In the previous two sections we gave a brief description of a digital computer and its characteristics, of the associated peripheral and of the In this section we
I/O interface required for data acquisition and control.
will examine the various types of control loops, which result when a digital computer is used as the main controller, as well as the necessary hardware components. A. Single-Loop Control
Figure 26.1 shows the hardware elements of a single-loop control system, using an analog controller. digital When we replace the analog controller by a
computer, the following changes take place:
(a) The measurement signal from the sensor or transducer is sampled at prespecified intervals of time, using a simple sampler. converted from continuous to discrete-time signal. Thus, it is
This in turn is
converted from analog to digital by an A/D converter and enters the computer.
(b) The hardwired analog logic of an analog controller is replaced by the software of the control program which resides in the memory and is executed by the computer whenever it is called. (c) The control commands produced by the control program are digital and discrete-time signals. They are first converted to analog by a D/A
converter and then to continuous in time signals by simple hold elements before they actuate the final control elements. Figure 26.5 summarizes the above changes and indicates all hardware components present in a single computer control loop. We observe that both continuous They are denoted by c:
and discrete-time signals are present in the loop. and d: respectively. It should also,be
noted that the set-point values,
as well as the values of the adjustable control parameters (e.g. gains, reset - or rate time constants, etc.), are now introduced by the operator through a typewriter B. terminal. Control
Multiple-Loop
A digital computer can be used to control simultaneously several outputs and not only one as discussed above. We will still need an interface between
the computer and the process, but now is somewhat different. Thus: - Instead of using one A/D converter for every measured variable, we employ a single A/D converter which serves all measured variables sequentially through a multiplexer. - A multiplexer can also be used to obtain several outputs from a single D/A converter. - The control program is now composed of several subprograms, each one used to control a different loop. Furthermore, the control program should be
able to coordinate the execution of the various subprograms so that each loop functions properly.
Figure 26.6 shows the use of a single computer (CPU) to control two outputs.
When a digital computer has assumed all control actions of a conventional controller, then we talk about direct digital control (DDC). Figures 26.5 and 26.6 are examples of direct digital control. C. Supervisory Control Both systems in
Unlike the situation of direct digital control, we may use the computer to change only the set points or the values of the adjustable control parameters of the local controllers. supervisory control (Figure 26.7a). The resulting system is known as
The local controllers may be conventional, analog devices or digital computers implementing direct digital control. An I/O interface is needed to
inform the supervising computer about the state of the local control loops and for the computer to provide the set point or other changes to the local controllers. When the local controllers are digital computers, then the I/O
interface carries only digital signals, allowing the communication between the supervising computer and the local DDC's. Supervisory control has been applied extensively in chemical processes, to optimize their operation (minimize operating cost, maximize efficiency in energy or raw materials utilization, maximize production profit, etc.).
Thus, one computer supervises and coordinates the operating of several control loops, deciding what are the best set-point values for the various loops. Figure 26.7b shows schematically the architecture of a supervisory control
system for a chemical plant. Remarks: (1) In some cases, the voltage signal produced by the measuring sensor or transducer is very low and easily corrupted by noise. Typical example is the ou.tput of a thermocouple which Low voltage signals are
is of the order of milivolts.
normally amplified to the prespecified voltage range for
A/D
conversion.
If several signals need amplification, then
we may use a multiplexer first, followed by a single common amplifier. (2) The computer is physically located at some distance from the controlled process. We can put the computer-process
I/O interface, (a) close to the computer or (b) close to the controlled process. In the first case we have analog signals transmitted over some distance between the process and the interface. This approach yields satisfactory
results if the analog signals are transmitted over short distances, i.e. no longer than 200-300 ft. For longer distances there is significant deterio-
ration in the transmitted signal due to voltage losses and cable capacitance. Furthermore, signal. Alternative (b) is preferred when the transmission distance is long and there are strong sources of external noise. In such case the proximity external noise may seriously corrupt the transmitted analog
between process and interface allows conversion of "clean" and "strong" analog signals to ditital, which can then be transmitted to the computer. Digital signals are less susceptible to external noise and can be transmitted over long distances by telephone lines. (3) Microcomputers are normally used for local direct digital control of several loops (5 to 10). Minicomputers are usually employed as supervising computers in a supervisory control architecture.
26.4 NEW CONTROL DESIGN PROBLEMS The introduction of a digital computer for process control raises some new design questions, which were not covered by earlier chapters.
(a>
The digital computer uses and produces information in discrete-time form. Therefore, the continuous process models which we have used for We need to
the design of analog controllers are not appropriate.
develop a mechanism which will convert the differential equations describing the process to difference equations, which are convenient for discrete-time representation.
(b)
How fast should we sample a measured variable to produce its discretetime equivalent? Does the sampling rate affect the quality of control?
(4
How should we reconstruct a continuous signal from its discrete-time equivalent, so that we can actuate the final control elements? How
does the type of reconstruction (i.e. type of hold element) affect the quality of control?
Cd)
The Laplace
transforms allowed us to develop simple input-output
relationships for a process and provided the framework for easy analysis and design of loops with continuous, analog controllers. For discrete-time systems we need to introduce new analytical tools. This will be provided by the z-transforms.
(e>
Does the design of a control loop change when we use digital computer control? loop? What about the stability conditions and the tuning of a
(f) How can we use the tremendous computational power of a computer to implement some advanced notions of process control like; feedforward, adaptive, inferential, optimizing, etc.?
In the following chapters we will address all the above and other questions related to the design of computer control system. Before closing this section, let us make a few remarks on the software required to implement the control laws, and which constitutes a neiJ design problem introduced by the use of digital computers. There are two classes of software programs needed for computer process control programs. (1) Computer System Programs. Are supplied by the manufacturer of process They include: applications; the computer system nrograms - and the application control
control computers or specialized software houses.
- Operating Systems, which deal with the real-time operation of the computer control system. They supervise the execution of the control programs and
to this end organize the various operations of the hardware components in an orderlymannerprovidingefficientuse of the CPU, memory, communication
peripherals and I/O interface. - Utility Programs, such as assemblers, editors, debuggers, compilers, etc. which support the development of the application programs written by the users. (2) Application Programs. These are written by the user and perform the
specific functions required by the control problem such as; - monitoring the measured process variables at specified time intervals, - executing the algorithms of the control laws, - coordinating the control actions to the various final control elements, - computing and changing set points,
- computing and changing the values of the adjustable controller parameters, - calling alarms if process variables exceed preset limits, etc. The application programs may be written in high level languages such as FORTRAN or low level such as machine language. High level languages are
easily understood by the programmer and allow an easy statement for the solution procedure. They require though increased memory and slow down the
execution because the FORTRAN statements for example must be translated into the machine language before they can be executed. Normally, one writes the
complex part of a control program'in a high level language because it is an overwhelming task for machine language programming, which is only used to encode those functions performed at high speeds and repeatedly (data acquisition, SLWMARY implementation of control commands, etc.).
Digital computers in chemical process control are already a successful reality and offer exciting possibilities for the future. The high compu-
tational speed coupled with large capacities to store information make the digital computers very "intelligent" process controllers. It must be noted
though that the advanced and continuously advancing technology of the microprocessors has not been fully exploited by the process control designer, and that a tremendous potential exists. chemical engineers. This is the challenge for the new
A computer control system is composed basically of (a) the central processing unit with the associated peripherals (memory, mass storage devices, communication devices) and (b) the I/O interface between the computer and the process it controls. From all specific hardware features we should single out
the real-time clock which allows the computer operations to be synchronized
with the real-time needs of the controlled process. computer control without a real-time clock.
It is not easy to have
A digital computer is a machine that handles information in digital and discrete-time form, which is incompatible with the largely analog and continuous in time signals of a chemical process. This incompatibility is
erased by the computer process I/O interface with its samplers, hold elements, multiplexers, A/D and D/A converters. Two are the main modes of computer control; the direct digital (DDC) and the supervisory control. The first is implemented by local microcomputers
which can handle from 5 to 10 loops each, thus replacing as many analog controllers. The economics of DDC are favorable and their use expands continuously.
The second does not implement all control actions but it is limited to the supervision of local controllers and the change of their set points and adjustable parameters. Supervisory control is employed to optimize the
performance of a chemical plant by optimally adjusting the set points of the local controllers, which may analog or digital. The use of a digital computer as process controller creates a new set of design questions such as; mathematical tools to handle discrete-time signals
and process models, process analysis and controller design techniques for discrete-time systems, how to use the computational power for advanced control techniques, follow. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1.
etc.
These questions define also the scope of the chapters to
What is a digital and what is an analog signal (information)? Identify their differences and discuss how one can be converted to the other.
2.
Define the units of bit, tyte, word. information in a digital system?
Why are all needed to encode
637
3.
Describe
the structure
of a conventional
digital computer, and identify in this structure.
the characteristics 4.
of each hardware
component
What are the basic and what are the optional features of a central processing unit? computer? Are all of them needed for a process control
5.
What is the real-time it very difficult real-time clock?
clock needed for? How does it function?
Why is a
to use a computer for process control without Do you have any suggestions clock?
on how you can count
time elapsed without a real-time 6. Identify the functions I/O interface. 7. Explain
and hardware
components of a computer-process
in simple physical terms how you can convert a continuous
to
a discrete in time signal and vice versa. necessary 8. Describe in a computer-process
Why are these two operations
I/O interface? of a signal from analog to needed in the I/O
in physical terms the conversion
ditital and vice versa. interface? 9. What
Why are these conversions
is easier and less costly to do; (a) multiplex
N analog signals
first and then use a common A/D converter signals to digital first and then multiplex through a single, common word of storage? 10. Repeat question
or (b) convert the N analog them to enter the computer
9., but now use N digital signals, a multiplexer
and
D/A converters. 11. For a prespecified voltage range of +lOV, find the resolution of a
12-bit A/D converter. voltages volts?
What are the integer numbers representing conversion error in
of -2V and +5V? What is the possible
12.
Find the voltages which are represented by the integer numbers -712 and +1514, within a prespecified range +lOV. error in volts? What is the possible conversion
13.
Find the number of bits needed for a D/A converter to yield an error less than 0.0001 volts, for a prespecified range of voltages 0 to 5V.
14.
Define the direct digital and supervisory control. Which one is used for regulatory control actions and which for servo operations? In a supervisory control mode, what are better as local controllers, Discuss relative advantages and disadvantages.
analog or digital devices? 15.
What size computers would you use for DDC and supervisory control? Why?, How do the local DDC's communicate with the supervising computer?
16.
Identify all components of a DDC system suing one microprocessor to handle the four loops of a flash drum (see Example 23.2, Figure 23.lb).
17.
Describe supervisory control system for the plant of Example 23.4 (Figure 23.10) using as local controllers; (a) analog devices controlling one loop each, and (b) microcomputers which are capable of handling four loops each. How would you select the loops to be con-
trolled by each local microprocessor? 18. What is high level and what a low level language for computer control applications? 19. Which one would you use and why?
Discuss the new design problems raised by the use of a digital computer for process control.
TRAPJSDUCER
CEN TRA L PROCESSING CCtiA~VlcCAT!O~ PEizl PH ERALS I UN\l(CPU)
i3A.51
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F EATU RES
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CCNTROLLEP ARITHb4\6TlC
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LOCAL CONTROiL=S [ANALOG

O R
PIGI-T~L)
CHAPTER 26 FROM CONTINUOUS TO DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS r When we use.continuous, analog controllers, all signals in a loop are
continuous in time.
Then, the dynamic behavior of each component in the loop
(process, measuring device, controller, final control element). as well as the response of the overall control system can be effectively analyzed by continuous models (differential equations in the time domain or transfer functions in the Laplace domain).
Theintroduction of a digital computer in a process control loop changes the above picture because a computer can handle information on a discrete-time basis only, i.e. at particular time instants. As we can see from Figure 26.5,
in a computer control loop we have both continuous and discrete-time signals present. The implication of this feature is twofold:
(a) Continuous signals must be converted to discrete-time before they can be "read" by the computer and the discrete-time control commands produced by the computer must be converted to continuous signals before they can actuate the final control elements. (b) The continuous models (e.g. differential equations in the time-domain, or input-output models in the Laplace domain) are not convenient to -
analyze the dynamic behavior of loops with computer control and discretetime models are needed. Therefore, computer before proceeding with the development of design techniques for control systems, we should study how to convert continuous signals This is the subject
and models to discrete-time equivalents and vice versa. of Chapter 27.
27.1
SAMPLING
CONTINUOUS
SIGNALS
Consider a line carrying a measurement signal y, which varies continuously in time as shown in Figure 27.la. switch, called sampler, which closes every T s The line is interrupted by a seconds and remains closed
for an infinitesimally short period of time (theoretically a time point). The x's of Figure 27.lb show the value y, of the line, when T S = 1 second. of the signal at the other end
We notice that the resulting signal has

time
values only when the time is multiple of T5, i.e. at t = nT

S
points
n=0,1,2,*** The signal of Figure 27.lb is called
and it is zero for any other times.
discrete-time or sampled representation of the continuous signal in Figure 27.la, with a sampling period of 1 second. Figure 27.1~ shows another sampled
representation of the same continuous signal but with sampling period of three seconds. Two observations are easy to make:
- As the sampling period tends to zero, the sampled representation comes closer to the continuous signal but requires an increasingly large number of sampled values. - On the other hand, as the sampling period increases, fewer sampled values are required, but the sampled representation of a continuous signal deteriorates, or impossible. Thus, the obvious question arises: "How does one select the best sampling period so that the sampled representation of a continuous signal is satisfactory, without requiring excessively large number of sampled values?" There exists a mathematical answer to the above question whose development is quite complex and goes beyond the scope of this text. We will try to give a and the reconstruction of the original signal becomes poor
practical answer based on the typical dynamic responses encountered in chemical processes.
Example 27.1 - Sampling the Response of First-Order Systems Consider a first-order linear system subject to an input step change. Figure 10.4 shows the response of the system with time. In Section 10.4 we
found that the response reaches the 63.2% of its final value when the time elapsed is equal to one time constant Also, when t = 2r the response P' P has reached 86.5% of the final value, at t = 3r the 95%, etc. Therefore, P if the sampled represenntation of the response is going to be of any value, the sampling period must be smaller than one time constant. How much smaller? r
Practical experience suggests that a sampling period between 0.1 and 0.2 of one time constant yields satisfactory results. Suppose that the first-order system possesses dead time. response to a step input is given by Figure 12.3a. Then its
If the dead time, td, is P' then select the
of the same order of magnitude as the time constant, T sampling period equal to 0.1 ~~ or 0.1 T
whichever is smaller. If td P' is much smaller than then neglect the dead time and take Ts = 0.1 T . rP P The above rational can be extended.
Exam le 27.2 - Sam line 2 The rule developed in Example 27.1 for the sampling rate of a firstorder response can be extended to cover a large class of overdamped systems. Figure 16.12a shows the experimental response of an overdamped process to an The S-shaped response of Figure 16.12a can be approximated
input step change.
by the response of a first-order plus dead-time system, as described in
Section 16.5. dead time td.
Thus, we can identify the dominant time constant r
and the
The sampling period should be 0.1 -cp or p.1 td, whichever td is much smaller than rP'
is smaller, or 0.1 T if P .
Example 27.3 - Sampling the Oscillating Response of a System Oscillatory behavior is exhibited by underdamped open or closed-loop systems (see Chapter 11) and by the steady state response of linear systems in general subject to periodic, sinusoidal input changes (Chapter 17). To develop a good sampled representation of an oscillating signal follow the rule: "Sample an oscillating signal more than two times per cycle of oscillation, otherwise it is impossible to reconstruct the original signal from its sampled values." To domonstrate the above rule consider the sinusoidal signal of Figure 27.2a sampled once per cycle. The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.2b and
Figure 27.2~ shows clearly that we cannot reconstruct uniquely the original sinusoid because there exist several waves passing through the sampled values. Therefore, sampling with a period equal to the period of oscillation
renders useless sampled values. The example of Figure 27.3 demonstrates a serious error which can be committed by an improper selection of the sampling period. The sinusoid
of Figure 27.3a is sampled with a period equal to 314 of the period of oscillation (i.e. 413 samples per period or better expressed 4 samples per 3 cycles of oscillation). The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.3b. When
we attempt to reconstruct the sinusoid going through these sampled values, we take the signal of Figure 27.3~ which is clearly different than the original.
Let us now develop a quantitative description for the sampling operation and the resulting sampled values of a continuous signal. The sampler is a physical switch which stays closed for a very small but finite period of time, At, around the sampling instant. During this time the
sampler output takes the value of the continuous signal and has the form shown in Figure 27.4a, or approximately the pulse form of Figure 27.4b. To develop a concise mathematical descripti.on we assume that the sampler acts instantly, i.e. At-@. To retain the same area under the pulse as At+0 the
height of the pulse goes to infinity and at the limit we take an impulse of infinite magnitude, zero duration and an area ("strength") under the impulse Thus,
equal to the magnitude of the continuous signal at a sampling instant. the impulse at the sampling point t = n Ts; n=0,1,2,*** is given by
Y* (nTs)
= y(nT,)*b(t
- nTs)
(27.1) t = nT, (see
where &(t - nTs) is the. unit impulse or Dirac function at Section 7.2 and Figure 7.3).
A sampler with the idealized output given by
eqn. (27.1) is known as ideal impulse sampler. We can extend eqn. (27.1) to apply for any time. Thus, the sequence of impulses y*(t) coming out of an impulse sampler is expressed by the following equation in the time-domain y"(t) = y*(OTs) + y*(lT,) + y*(2Ts) +
l
. . . - 2Ts) +
l
= y(0)6(t) + y(Ts)6(t - Ts) + y(2Ts)6(t and finally, y"(t) = nzo y(nTs>S(t - nTs)
*a
(27.2)
Equation (27.2) is compatible with the idealized physical picture we have considered, i.e.
- at the sampling instants the "strength" of the impulses is equal to the value of the continuous signal, and - between the sampling instants the "strength" is zero, that is, no output value. Remark: Take the Laplace transforms of both sides of eqn. (27.2) -nT y*(s) = ngo y(nTs,dh - nT,)] = nY& Y(nTs) e
s c&s(t) 1
From the last equation we find an expression for the sequence of impulses coming out of the impulse sampler in the Laplace (i.e. s-domain),
-TS
domain
T(s)
nzo y(nTs)
(27.2a)
27.2 RECONSTRUCTION OF CONTINUOUS SIGNALS FROM
THEIR DISCRETE-TIXE
VALUES
The discrete-time nature of a digital computer implies that when a computer is used to control a process the control commands are given periodically as impulses at particular time instants and not continuously in time. Such
sequence of control impulses cannot maintain a final control element continuously in operation. Thus, a valve opens when a control impulse from the
computer reaches the valve, but then it closes until the next control impulse arrives at the valve. Such control action is undesirable and the question is;
how can we construct a continuous signal from its discrete-time values? Consider a control signal produced intermittently every T seconds by a computer and expressed by a series of impulses (discrete-time values) shown in Figure 27.5a, m*(O) = m(O)d(t), m*(T) = m(T)G(t-T), m*(2T) = m(2T)6(t-2T),**-
The simplest way to convert a sequence of discrete-time values into a continuous signal is to keep the discrete-time value of the signal at t = nT,
n=0,1,2,***
constant, until the.next
one comes along.. Thus, if
m(t) is
the resulting continuous signal, we have, m(t) = m(nT) for and In particular; - for - for O<t<T T5t< 2T m(t) = m(O) m(t) = m(T) m(t) = m(2T), etc. nT L t s (n+l)T n=0,1,2,*** '(27.3)
- for 2T -< t < 3T
The resulting stair-step continuous signal is shown in Figure 27.5b. The conversion represented by eqn. (27.3) is known as zero-order hold. It does
not represent the only way to construct a continuous signal from its discretetime values. Consider two successive discrete-time values, say m[(n-l)T] and m(nT). We assume that for the next period nT 5 t -< (n+l)T the continuous signal can
be given by a linear extrapolation of the'previous two values, i.e.
m(t)
for and
m(nT)
m(nT) - m[(n-1)Tl .(t - nT) T
nT I t < (n+l)T n=2,3,4,***
Equation (27.4) yields the so-called first-order hold and the continuous signal it produces is shown in Figure 27.5~. Notice that the first-order hold
element needs at least two values to start the construction of the continuous signal while the zero-order hbld need only one. It is possible to develop second-, third-, or higher-order hold elements. They need 3, 4, or more initial discrete-time values before they can start the construction of a continuous. As the order of a hold element increases, the marginal improvements
computational load increases and becomes more complex, with
in the quality of reconstructed signal.
Therefore,
for most of the process
control applications the zero-order hold element provides satisfactory results with low computational load and it is normally used. To improve the quality of
a reconstructed signal is better to decrease the period between two successive discrete-time values, rather than increase the order of the hold element.
Example 27.4 - Comparing the Results of Zero- and First-Order Hold Elements We will consider two distinct cases of discrete-time signals; (a) slowly varying with time (Figure 27.6a) and (b) rapidly changing with time (Figure 27.7a): - For the slowly varying signal the superviority of the first-order hold is obvious (see Figures 27.6b and 27.6~). This is due to the almost constant slope of the changing signal over large periods of time which permits a successful linear extrapolation. Nevertheless, the performance
of the zero-order hold is also considered satisfactory. - For the rapidly changing signal both reconstructions are rather poor (see Figures 27.7b and 27.7~). This is mainly due to the long period of
occurrence of discrete-time values and any improvement should come from shortening this period, i.e. have more discrete-time values of the signal per unit of time. Nevertheless, Figures 27.7b and 27.7~ indicate some very useful
l
features:
The zero-order hold element by this nature it never generates "extreme" values, outside the range of the discrete-time values. In
other words, the zero-order hold produces a "conservative" continuous signal which is satisfactory during periods of slow change and unsatisfactory during periods of fast change in the values of the discrete-time signal.
The first-order hold produces significant excursions beyond the range of the discrete-time values. This could produce undesirably large
control actions which may endanger the stability of the controlledprocess.
Remarks:
(1) The mathematical basis behind the construction of a hold element, independently of its order, is the following. Consider the continuous signal, m(t), which must be constructed etc. from discrete-time values m(T), m(wT), m(3T),
The Taylor series of
m(t) around a sampled value
m(nT) is given by 2 (d) dt2 t=nT(t-nT)2+***
m(t) = m(nT) + ($)t=nT(t-nT)++
If we retain only the zero-order terms (i.e. constant) we take the zero-order hold element (eqn. (27.3)), m(t) = m(nT) nT < t < (n+l)T (27.3)
If we retain the zero- and first-order terms we take, m(t) = m(nT) + (g)t=nT(t-nT) The derivative (dm/dt)t=nT can be approximated by,
(chn) t=nT = m(nT) - ;[ (n-l)Tl

Thus, we take the first-order hold element (eqn. (27.4)), m(t) = m(nT) + m(nU - m[(n-1)Tl T (t-nT) 3rd, etc. (27.4)
Similarly, by retaining additional terms, 2nd,
order we can develop higher-order hold elements. necessary derivatives will be numerically
All
approximated
as above, but they will require an increasing number of discrete-time values.
(2) The output of a zero-order hold element is like pulse, having a constant height equal to m(nT) and duration T. After recalling that the Laplace transform of a unit
pulse is given by eqn. (7.12), then from eqn. (27.3) we find that the Laplace put is given by 1 - emST
S
transform of a zero-order hold out-
iids>
m(nT)
The last equation implies that the transfer function of a zero-order hold element is given by -ST Ho(s) = 1 - e
S
(27.5)
(3) In a similar manner we can find the transfer functions of a first-order 'hold element 1 + ST (1 - ewST 2 T > S
HIW
(27.6)
27.3
CONVERSION
OF
CONTINUOUS
TO
DISCRETE-TIME
MODELS
We will start by recalling the typical computer loop for direct digital control shown in Figure 26.5. For presentational purposes only we simplify
the loop to that shown in Figure 27.8 by retaining its basic four components; process, A/D converter with the associated sampler, digital controller, and D/A converter with teh associated hold element. We notice that both continuous and discrete-time signals are *present in the loop. Pius:
- The process has continuous input and output signals and consequently it can be described by continuous models (differential equations in the time domain, transfer functions in the Laplace domain).
- The discrete-time output of the A/D converter can be modeled as a function of the continuous input, by eqn. (27.2) in the time domain or by eqn. (27.2a) in the Laplace domain.
- The hold elements can be represented by the corresponding transfer functions (eqns. (27.5) and (27.6)).
time.
- The digital controller has both input and output signals discrete in
So far we have not studied any techniques to model such systems which from now on we will call discrete. Let us go a step further. If the main controller were a continuous feed-
back PID device, the output of the controller would be given by eqn. (13.6) in Section 13.2,
KC
c(t)
= K$t)
+T c(t)dt I i
+ Kc rD
g + cs
(13.6)
A continuous model for the control action such as that of eqn. (13.6) is inconvenient for a digital controller which uses error values at particular . time instants, i.e. E(O), c(TS), E(2TS) ,*-*,E(nTS) ,*** and produces control commands at discrete c(T), c(2T),***,c(nT),*** But, how can we convert a continuous model to an equivalent discrete-time one? This is the question to resolve in this section.
time
points, i.e.
Example 27.5 - The Discrete-Time Model of a Digital PID Controller Start with the continuous analog of a PID control action, given by eqn. (13.6). We will examine each term (proportiaonal, integral, derivative)
separately:
- Every sampling period a sampled value of the process output enters the Let y(nTs) be the sampled value at the n-th sampling instant. . y(nTs) is compared to the set-point value at the same instant and yields the value of the discrete-time error, E(nT,) = ySp(nTs) y(nTs) computer.
Then, the discrete-time control action produced by the proportional mode is,
Kc E(nTs)
- The control action produced by the integral mode is based on the integration of errors over a time period. Since the values of the errors are
available on a discrete-time basis, the integral /s(t)dt can only be approximated by numerical integration. Figure 27.9a shows the numerical integration. It is easy to
evaluation of an integral, using see that
rectangular
c(t>dt
T s k;. 4kTs)
Therefore,
the integral model control action is given by
Kc Ts n - $0 ENS)
3 - For the derivative mode action we need a numerical evaluation of the derivative deldt. Figure 27.9b shows a first-order difference approxiTherefore,
mation of the derivative. K
rD ds c rD dt = Kc < {E(nTs) - c[(n-l)Tsl) the control action of a digital PID controller is determined
Consequently,
by the follwoing discrete-time model,
c(nTs) = K;E ,(nTs) + ~~ kz0
KcTs
KCTD dkTs) + -y- {s(nTs) - s[(n-l)Tsll+cs

S
(27.6)
which is nothing else but a numerical approximation of its continuous counterpart. Due to the use of finite differences for the approxi-
mation of integrals and derivatives, eqn. (27.6) is known as the difference equation.
Example (27.5) is very instructive on how to develop a discrete-time model from its equivalent continuous one. The procedure can be generalized
for any continuous dynamic model as follows: (a) Start with the differential equations describing a continuous model in the (b)
time
domain.
Approximate the derivatives of any order by finite differences.
(c) Approximate any integral terms in the model by a scheme of numerical integration. (d) The values of any simple terms are equated to the corresponding discrete-time values at the sampling instants. The discrete-time
modeling equation(s) resulting from the above procedure is known as the difference equation(s) in contrast to the term differential equation(s) used for continuous model. From courses in numerical analysis we know that there exists a variety of techniques to approximate derivatives and integral terms. A detailed
exposition of such methods goes beyond the scope of the present text and the interested reader can consult the various references on numberical cited in the References section at the end of Part VII. Let us close this section with more examples on the time discretization of continuous models. analysis
Example 27.6 - Discrete-Time Model of a First-Order Process A nonlinear first-order process is described by, AY dt = f(y,d (27.7)
Approximate the derivative by first-order difference, i.e. LiY dt yn+l - yn T
Then, at a given time instant t = nT eqn. (27.7) yields, Yn+l = yn + T-f(yn,mn> (27.8)
Equation (27.8) is the discrete-time dynamic model of a first-order process and shows what the output of the process will be at the next time instant, using current values of the input, mn, and output, y,. For a linear first-order system we have (see eqn. (10.2)) ay = + y = KPm
rP
and using the above we can easily derive the difference equation which is the discrete-time model, KPT m rP n
Yn+l [Note:
= (1 --;T-)y, + P
(27.9)
In all the above expressions we have used the following simplifying and m(nT) z mn. values]. T is the time period between two
notation, y(nT) 5 Y, successive
discrete-time
Example 27.7 - Discrete-Time Model of a Second-Order Process A linear second-order system is described by eqn. (11.2),
p &
251 ay dt
+ y = Kpm
(11.2)
dt2 We have already seen how to approximate the first-order derivative, i.e.
h57
4.Y
Yn+1 - YIl
= T
dt
For the second-order derivative we have:
= $ (Y,+2 - 2Yn+1 + Y,) Replace the derivatives in eqn. (11.2) by their approximations and take the following difference equation, + 25 I (Y,+~ - Y,) + Y, = Kp mn
12 (Yn+2 - 2yni-l + Y,) T2 or
2 2 = 2(1 5 +)Y~+~ (T 25 $ + l)y, + Kp G m Y n-i-2 n T T2
(27.10)
Equation (27.10) represents the discrete-time model of a second-order process. Notice that in order to compute the next value (Y~+~) previous two values (~,+~,y,). For 3rd, 4th, of y, we need its
and higher-order systems we will
need the previous 3, 4, and more values of y to approximate all derivatives.
Example
27.8 - Discrete-Time Model of a Multivariable Process
Consider the following process with two inputs and two outputs:
dyl
dt dy2 dt + allyl + a12Y2 = bllml + b12m2 + a2gl +.
a22Y2
b2pl
b22m2
With the first-order difference approximation fot the derivatives we take the following difference equations which represent the discrete-time model of the multivariable process,
y1,*+1 - y1,n T y2,n+l - y2,n T

OK
allyl,n
+ +
a12y2,n a22Y2,n
= =
b11m1,n b21ml,n
+ +
b12m2,n . b22m2,n
a21Yl,n
yl,n+l = (l--Tall)yl,n
- Ta12y2,n + Ubllml,n + b12m2,J
(27.11) (27.12)
y2,n+l = -T a21yl,n + (1 - Ta22)y2,n + T(b21ml,n + b22m2,n)
Remarks:
(1) Numerical differentiation of process measurement data can cause serious problems when there is appreciable process noise, i.e. random effects appearing during the operation but not included in the assumed model. To overcome this difficulty we can use digital filters which filter out any ' noise and yield "smooth" measurement data. In a sub-
sequent chapter we will study the development of such filters. (2) The discretizationof continuous models with dead time is rather straightforward. For example, consider a first-
order process with dead time, td, between the input, m(t), and the output, y(t), i.e. dv + rp z Let y = Kp m(t - td>
td = k T, i.e. the dead time is an integer multiple Then the discrete-time model is easily
of the period, T. found to be
Y n+l
= (1 -+-)y, P
+ y m p (n-k'0
(27.13)
(3) The quality of an approximate discrete-time model improves as the value of the discretization time interval, T, decreases. Why? (4) The conversion of a discrete to continuous model in the time domain is possible but not simple. In the next
chapter we will see that such conversions are more easily done in the Laplace domain.
SUM?URY AND CONCLLDING REMARKS D The presence of a digital computer in a control loop implies the coexistence of continuous and discrete-time signals and systems in the loop. Therefore, we should have the mathematical facility for converting continuous signals and systems to discrete-time ones and vice versa. The assumption of an ideal impulse sampler - - allows an easy quantification of discrete-time signals produced from their continuous counterpoarts. On
the other hand it is easy to construct and describe hold elements of various orders, with the zero-order being the most popular. Laplace transforms for
both components (sampler, hold element) are possible and yield an analytical description of the two conversions (continuous to discrete and discrete to continuous). The discrete nature of a digital computer imposes the need for a discrete-time representation of the various components in the loop. Such
discrete models for the process, controllers, etc. can be easily derived by numerical various approximation for of the corresponding continuous models. There exist
forms
approximating numerically derivatives of any order, varying complexity and computational requirements. The
integrals,
etc., with
preferred approximation depends on the charactewristics model and the desired quality of the discrete model.
of the continuous
In the present chapter all conversions have been confined in the time domain. With the introduction of z-transforms in the next chapter, we will
develop the mathematical framework which allows easy analyses of discretetime process dynamic and design of discrete-time computer control systems. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. Explain in your own words why we need to convert continuous signals to discrete-time ones and vice versa. Give a physical example for this
need using as reference the computer control of a stirred tank heater. 2. Using the same computer control system as in 1. above, explain why we need to convert continuous to discrete-time models and vice versa. 3. What is a sampled signal? its 4. continuous counterpart. Sketch one and indicate how it is related to
Define the ideal impulse sampler. How does it differ from a real sampler? Draw two sketches indicating the outputs of an ideal impulse
and a real sampler. 5. Develop two mathematical expressions describing the output of an ideal impulse domain. 6. How would you select the sampling rate for, (a) the response of a general underdamped open-loop system and (b) the oscillating response of a closed-loop 7. system? smapler; one in the time domain and the other in the Laplace
Is it satisfactory sampling rate to take three samples every two cycles of an oscillating sinusoidal signal? why yes or no. Demonstrate graphically
8.
Discuss the mathematical basis for the construction of various orders of hold elements. Develop the time domain expressions for zero- and
first-order
hold
elements.
Describe their functions in physical terms.
Can you construct simple electrical circuits which function as zero. and first-order hold elements? 9. Consider the discrete-time signals shown by the two sequences of impulses in Figures 27.Q-la and 27.Q-lb. What type of hold element
would you select to construct the corresponding continuous signals? Elaborate on your answer. 10. Describe the different ways which can be used to improve the quality of a reconstructed continuous signal from its discrete-time values. Outline relative advantages and disadvantages of the two methods. 11. Describe the general procedure for converting a continuous model to a discrete-time 12. one.
Why is a discrete-time model an approximation of its continuous counterpart?
13. 14.
Discretize in time the continuous mode& of a stirred tank heater. Consider

0.01
the
$f
following
+ y = m
two
first-order and
systems
With a discretization time interval T=l second, which one of the two systems will have a better discrete-time representation? Why. Explain
Also, show how you can improve the quality of the other (worst) model.
discrete-time 15.
How many sampled output values do you need to construct the discretetime model for a third-order process? Explain why.
Ii-
-iqc;tre
27.3
(ai
::
x , ,
(a)
ii
FIRST- ORDER
HOLD >
(b)
m k) T
I Fi j ure
.2T.6 I
---- ----- _____ ( \

. #
I Stt--Po;nt
r ----.---- -----------I
yL!Lt)oLD i-&z. ; :jp=&p&q --- -_----- ___-_--1. L- iv-----------! , fL -- _--------- ----I 4 -7 I
, I ( I /

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I:

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 5. MODELING CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTROL PURPOSES . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7. LAPLACE

7.1 Definition of the Laplace 7.2 The Laplace

Transforms of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .

7.3 Laplace 7.4 Laplace

Transforms of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . Transforms of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 What is a First-Order System? 10.2 Processes Modeled as

11.1 What is a Second-Order System?

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF HIGHER-ORDER SYSTEMS

12.1 N Capacities in Series

................. ............. Response . . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES.............................. PROBLEMS............... i...............

Transmission Final Control

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REMARKS ................

DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21.1 The Logic of Feedforward Control

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 23. EXPERIMENTAL MODELING OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . . . . . . .

Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCLUDING REMARKS ................

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. .

THE CONTROL OF PROCESSES WITH MULTIPLE INPUTS, MULTIPLE OUTPUTS (MIMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Interaction of Control Loops the Loops.

The Relative-Gain Array Method . .

25.3 Design of Non-Interacting Control Loops . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY.AND CONCLUDINGREMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTROL OF CHEMICAL PLANTS

.......... ...... Manipulations

Cause-and-Effect Decomposition Example

.................. REMARKS ...........

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REFERENCES . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . PROBLEMS.......: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 27. 27.1 27.2 27.3

Continuous to Discrete-Time Systems. The Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29.2 The z-Transform and Its Properties

29.3 The z-Transform of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 32. THE DESIGN OF SAMPLED-DATA,

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .

Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control ....................

and serve only to demonstrate the various

CHAPTER INCENTIVES FOR CHEMICAL

integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner.

concentration of chemicals, etc. should always be within

For example, if a reactor has been designed to operate

As another example, we should try

and quality of the final products.

Various federal and state laws may specify

plant have constraints inherent to their operation.

utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human labor.

minimum operating cost, or maximum profit; etc.

through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring devices, valves, controllers,

of the reach of the human operator.

1.1 - Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater

heated with steam (having a flowrate flowrate

Fs, lb/min). Let F and T be the

any supervision and control. since T i and Fi

are subject to frequent changes.

is sent to a control mechanism T to return

If E > 0 which implies T < Ts, the conO n t h e It

the valve that affects theaeffluent

the temperature of the.inlet stream provide more or less steam. Such

control and is shown in Figure 1.4.

Processes whose variables follow the pattern indicated by y

hydrocarbon duel with air is such an unstable system. Riding a bicycle is an