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Management
International Journal of Cross Cultural
DOI: 10.1177/1470595806066326
2006; 6; 169 International Journal of Cross Cultural Management
Kanika T. Bhal and Nivedita Debnath
Professionals
Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas: Predictors of Workplace Ethics of Indian
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Growth of the Indian Information Technol-
ogy (IT) sector and the government policies
of globalization and opening up of the econ-
omy have seen a remarkable increase in the
number of Indian professionals working
across cultural boundaries in multinational
companies in India as well as abroad. Besides
the multinational, the rise of IT and ITES
Conceptualizing and Measuring
Gunas
Predictors of Workplace Ethics of Indian
Professionals
Kanika T. Bhal
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
Nivedita Debnath
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
ABSTRACT Researchers in the field of cross cultural research have highlighted the need to
study one culture in depth particularly to understand the complex causes of behaviors those
managers in a culture manifest. This article reports the conceptualization and measurement
of the Indian personality construct of Gunas; a possible predictor of ethics of Indian
managers. The Indian scripture The Gita identifies three personality constructs, collectively
referred to as Gunas, that are considered relevant for understanding ethical behavior. The
article reports the development of a scale to measure three Gunas Illumination, Passion
and Dullness, through a four-step process. In the first step, construct definitions and items of
the three Gunas are generated. The second, third and fourth steps report empirical studies
conducted on different samples to assess the factor stability, reliability, discriminant validity,
and other validities of the scale. The scale is used to predict spirituality, ethical frameworks
and acts of software piracy in organizations. Implications for cross cultural research as well
as practice are discussed.
KEY WORDS Gunas ethical frameworks spirituality
Copyright 2006 SAGE Publications
www.sagepublications.com
DOI: 10.1177/1470595806066326
CCM International Journal of
Cross Cultural
Management 2006 Vol 6(2): 169188
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sectors (call centers and other BPOs) has
significantly increased the cross cultural
interaction of Indian professionals as service
providers to the companies operating in dif-
ferent parts of the world. In light of these
changing socioeconomic configurations, it is
becoming increasingly important to under-
stand the individual side of these profes-
sionals and their personalities for effective
cross cultural management. One of the criti-
cisms of cross cultural research has been that
it has focused predominantly on exploring
American theories and how they work in
different countries instead of looking at the
theories indigenous to a culture and explor-
ing them in depth (Lowe, 2002; Sekaran,
1983). Further, cross cultural research has
found evidence for differences in managerial
behavior across different cultures, especially
in the situations involving an ethical dimen-
sion (e.g. Jackson and Artola, 1997), and
understanding the causes and correlates of
these behaviors requires a culturally rooted
explanation. Some researchers (Roberts,
1970) hence suggest that more effort should
be put into understanding behavior in a
single culture in depth before studying it
across cultures. The issue of understanding
culturally rooted personality assessment
assumes greater significance in areas of ethics
and morality in the workplace, as moral/
ethical codes are most significantly deter-
mined by the cultural context and are deeply
rooted in the history and philosophy of a
culture. It is worth noting that although there
has been some work on culturally rooted
ethical conduct, like Guanxi in the Chinese
context (e.g. Dunfee and Warren, 2001;
Millington et al., 2005), there are few (e.g.
Chakraborty, 1991) conceptual and empiri-
cal studies that have looked at these issues in
the cultural context of India. This article
looks at a personality construct of Gunas,
described in the traditional Indian philo-
sophical literature, which may be used to
understand the ethical conduct of Indian
professionals in the workplace and conse-
quently help in the cross cultural manage-
ment of these professionals.
Understanding and predicting employ-
ees ethicality in a multicultural organization
where different cultural values and beliefs
merge is an important task confronting the
organizations operating in multicultural con-
texts. Virtues ethicists (e.g. MacIntyre, 1981;
Pincoffs, 1986) focus on the traits and char-
acter of the actor, which requires identifying
the personality traits of the actor that can be
related to ethics and ethical conduct that
hold promise for understanding and pre-
dicting behavior at work (Hartman, 1998;
Solomon, 1992). The human traits associated
with ethics are discussed as Gunas in The Gita.
Much in line with the ethics of virtues, Gunas,
if literally translated, would mean inherent
attributes or character (or psychogenic sub-
stances; Chakraborty, 1985). Based on
descriptions given in the Indian scripture
Bhagvad Gita, in this research we first develop
an understanding and conceptualization of
Gunas. After developing construct definitions
and items under each construct, the article
reports the systematic process through which
a scale to measure three Gunas Illumina-
tion, Passion and Dullness is developed.
Through this research we try to incorporate
the Indian view of ethical virtues with con-
temporary understanding and analysis of
ethics in business.
Virtues ethics has long focused on moral
individuals. Aristotle gave the principle of
golden mean (a mean between two vices or
extremes) as a virtue that aims at achieving a
mean or a balance in feelings and actions
(Rackham, 1952; Sherman, 1989). St Thomas
Aquinas, a philosopher of the Middle Ages,
went one step beyond logic and reason and
added the theological or Christian virtues of
faith, hope and charity, the virtues that
enable a person to achieve a union with God
(Porter, 1990). Thus religion and religious
philosophies are closely associated with the
concept of virtue and the moral character of
individuals socialized in different cultures.
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The need however is to bring the concepts
from the realm of religion and develop a
scientific understanding of these concepts
and constructs as understood and used in
that cultural context.
The Concept of Gunas
Religious, cultural and social factors in ethics
have been found relevant in the Indian con-
text too (Beverly et al., 2002; Christie et al.,
2003; Worden, 2003). The ethical and reli-
gious philosophy, developed in ancient India,
provides a rich discussion on Gunas, which
have been identified as personality constructs
relevant for the study of ethical behavior.
The philosophy embodied in the Indian
scripture Bhagavad Gita (often referred to as
The Gita), has been applied most to social and
management thought (e.g. Chakraborty,
1987, 1991; Narayana and Krishnan, 2003),
owing primarily to the fact that it is set in the
midst of struggle, failure and triumph; situa-
tions descriptive of modern business reality.
The scripture uses the ethical struggle of war
among family members as an occasion to
develop the message. The Gita presents a
moral/ethical view of human life and living
and is perennial in nature (Huxley, 1942).
The term Guna, used in The Gita, indicates
the basis of attitudes with which the mind
functions. The psychological being in all
individuals comes under the influence of
three different climatic conditions prevalent
in our minds, under which mind and intellect
live (Chinmayanand, 1992). The three Gunas
identified in The Gita are Sattva (translated as
Illumination by Radhakrishnan, 1948, and
as Purity by Chinmayananda, 1992), Rajas
(translated as Passion and/or Activity) and
Tamas (translated as Dullness and/or
Inactivity). Since the Gunas are discussed as
virtues/vices in the ethical context, in this
article we use the terms Illumination for
Sattva, Passion for Rajas and Dullness for
Tamas. According to The Gita, Illumination is
clarity of the mind; it is the power of har-
mony, balance, knowledge and intelligence
the higher or spiritual potential. Passion is
the power of energy, action, change and
movement. Dullness is the power of darkness,
inertia, sloth and inactivity. The most widely
used and acknowledged description and
interpretation of The Gita and Gunas are those
by two authors in two different realms
Radhakrishnan (1942) and Chinmayanand
(1992). The former is academic and the latter
is more prescriptive in nature. The following
description of the Gunas is a convergence of
these two interpretations.
Illumination
Illumination is absolutely pure in character,
and is untainted by any form of evil; hence it
is illuminating and free from morbidity of
any kind. It lends illumination to the mind
and the senses, uprooting evil propensities
and vices (14.6, The Gita). Evil is anything
whereby we try to satisfy the appetites of the
flesh, the selfish agitations of the mind and
the egocentric desires of the head. Illumina-
tion is a state of knowledge and peace, where
the mind is purified from all its agitations and
the intellect is cleansed of passions and crimi-
nal lust. There is inward peace and happi-
ness. The ego is dissolved and actions are
purely for the sake of actions, and agitation
and volatility are completely absent.
Passion
Desire is the basic element of Passion, and
motivates people to look for satisfaction of all
their desires. Desire is the mental relationship
with those objects that have not yet been
acquired by us, and with which there is a
strong attachment. These two factors desire
for the acquisition of things and attachment
to the things so acquired characterize a
person with Passion. Such a person is con-
stantly guided by desire for things not
acquired, and ambition to climb to a higher
status in life at every opportunity. This
attribute is often accompanied by hard work,
lack of peace, and volatility of the mind. At
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the subjective level, attachment and desire
are the causes of Passion, which, in turn,
result in ambition, motivation that causes
activity, and sensual enjoyment leading to
further attachment and desire. It is likely that
these people believe in ethical principles, but
when their ego and achievement are involved,
these principles might be bypassed.
Dullness
This corresponds to lack of activity and the
inability to perceive. It is a mental state
where there is ignorance. Dullness, as the
name indicates, creates laziness, sleep and
inattention. It involves lack of mental activity
and insensitivity. People high on Dullness do
not initiate anything useful or new. Those
who are of this nature tend toward procrasti-
nation and are resistant to change. They lack
motivation and ambition, and have a very
narrow worldview, and a value system that is
totally body- and self-centered.
Gunas, hence, are attitudinal dimensions
that influence the behavior of the body and
the mind in different proportions, and the
unique combinations of these influences
provide a distinct flavor in each personality.
The differences in the character, conduct
and behavior of each individual may partly
be explained by these influences. The fact
that the three Gunas can coexist in one indi-
vidual suggests that they are interdependent.
Gunas, Spirituality, Cognitive
Ethical Frameworks and
Ethical Behavior
Virtues are seen as the closest manifestation of
spirituality (Cavanaugh and Bandusch,
2002). Since spirituality is mystic and trans-
personal (MacDonald, 2000), it is beyond the
realm of sensory perceptions. Spirituality has
been shown to have a high degree of import
for human beings and is associated with
mental health (Koeing, 1998; MacDonald
and Holland, 2002, 2003), human behavior
and attitudes. Its study is, therefore, practical
and relevant in understanding human behav-
ior. Based on an extensive literature survey
(e.g. MacDonald and Friedman, 2002;
MacDonald et al., 1999a; MacDonald et al.,
1999b; and MacDonald et al., 1995) and
rigorous empirical research, MacDonald
(2000) proposed a multidimensional con-
ceptualization of spirituality consisting of five
dimensions. These are: cognitive orientation
towards spirituality (perceptions of spirituality
and spiritual beliefs having direct influence on
day-to-day functioning), experiential/pheno-
menological (i.e. spiritual) experience, exist-
ential well-being (i.e. sense of inner strength to
cope with existential issues in life), para-
normal beliefs (belief in validity of para-
normal phenomenon), and religiousness
(intrinsic religious beliefs and religious prac-
tices).
Roland (1988), based on a psychoanalytic
study of Indians, concludes that the Indian
self has a significant component of spiritu-
ality, which is concerned with the indi-
viduals attempt at uncovering the deeper
reality. Gunas, too, have been discussed in the
context of spirituality. The individual, in The
Gita too, is conceptualized as a multi-
dimensional entity that comprises the body
and the soul. The body manifests itself
through Gunas. Gunas have been conceptual-
ized in The Gita as a part of the individual that
is tied with the soul. Gunas are seen as the
manifest and worldly side of an individual
who is essentially a spiritual being; however,
people with different Gunas have varied
understanding and experience of spirituality.
In Chapter XVIII, verses 37 to 39 of The
Gita, it is mentioned that those high on
Illumination derive happiness by getting in
touch with their spiritual or higher selves
whereas those high on Passion and Dullness
derive happiness by associating with worldly
and bodily pleasures. Thus people high on
Illumination are likely to be high on Spiri-
tuality as a whole. Not only do the three
Gunas vary in terms of the extent of spiritual
orientation, their manifestations of spiritu-
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ality too may be different. The knowledge
and awareness of spirituality in the three
Gunas vary, which may be equated to the first
dimension of spirituality; that is, cognitive
orientation towards spirituality. People high
on Illumination are most likely to be cogni-
tively aware and conscious of spirituality
(Chapter XIV, verses 11 and 13). In Chapter
VIII verses 26, 27 and 28 it is mentioned that
those high on Illumination have no egotism,
are full of resolution and zeal, and remain
unmoved by success and failure. These
people, hence, are likely to be high on
existential well-being whereas those high on
Passion are likely to be low on it, as they are
very attached to the results and are likely to
become either too happy or unhappy in
success or failure, respectively. Chapter
XVII, verse 4 indicates that those high on
Dullness worship ghosts and spirits, and if
paranormal beliefs are taken to mean the
existence of ghosts, then those high on
Dullness are likely to be high on paranormal
beliefs. The religiousness of the three Gunas
too is supposed to vary. In the same verse
(verse 4 of Chapter XVII), it is mentioned
that people high on Illumination have a
positive faith but those high on Dullness do
not. In this light, although people high on
Illumination are likely to be high on reli-
giousness, people high on Passion too are
likely to be high on religiousness, but their
religiousness is more ritualistic in nature
instead of real realization. For those high on
Passion, religiousness may be perceived as a
way of achieving worldly success. Spirituality
hence provides a base for rooting the three
Gunas, and we expect an association of the
three Gunas with spirituality as a whole and
with different dimensions of Spirituality
uniquely.
As mentioned earlier, the main reason for
operationalizing and measuring Gunas is to
predict ethical conduct and ethical frame-
works. The entire philosophy in The Gita in
general and the concept of Gunas in particu-
lar has an ethical orientation. The ethicality
and the ethical cognitive frameworks operat-
ing in the three types of Gunas too have been
discussed. Early research by psychologists in
the field of moral judgment indicated that
individuals making judgments about the
same person or situation arrive at different
conclusions because they use different cogni-
tive processes (Sharp, 1898). Subsequently
many psychologists have offered different
approaches to explain these differences.
Forsyth (1980) proposed a model of assessing
the cognitive philosophies used by indi-
viduals by taking into account two basic
factors. The first assesses the universal versus
relative aspects of moral decision-making.
This dimension assesses the extent to which
the individual uses universal moral values as
opposed to relative ones. The second dimen-
sion assesses the extent of idealism in ones
moral attitude. High idealists would assume
that the right action always leads to desir-
able consequences; however low idealists
would believe that even the right actions
have a mix of desirable and undesirable
consequences, and vice versa. These moral
philosophies influence ethicality/morality in
the workplace too (Forsyth, 1992), and can
be assessed as a function of the three Gunas.
In Chapter XVIII verses 29 to 32, it is
mentioned that those high on Illumination
are clear about the right way and they follow
an idealistic approach. Those high on
Passion are likely to be confused about the
moral values, whereas those high on Dullness
are low on idealism. There is no discussion
on relativism as an ethical framework in the
context of Gunas, hence we would like to
explore whether there is any relationship at
all between the two.
It is important that the Gunas predict not
only ethical frameworks but ethical conduct
too. Based on the description of the three
Gunas, it may be appropriate to conjecture
that Illumination is likely to lead to behavior
that is in conformance with the societal
standards and norms. Since people high on
Passion are driven by achievement and
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ambition, they may indulge in unethical
behavior for the sake of goal accomplish-
ment; however those high on Dullness are
body-centric and they may indulge in un-
ethical acts for their own and their bodys
sake. The three Gunas hence are likely to
predict ethical behavior uniquely in the
workplace.
Although Gunas may be an important
personality concept for studying ethical
behavior, their adequacy cannot be exam-
ined until they are operationalized. Though
many modern-day management thinkers
and practitioners (e.g. Chakraborty, 1987;
Sharma and Bhal, 2004) have found Gunas
particularly relevant in studying the behavior
of managers, a systematic assessment of the
same is missing. It is important for any
attempt at measuring these aspects to be
rigorous and systematic. To the best of
our knowledge, no systematic and scientific
effort has been made to develop a scale for
measuring Gunas.
Thus the prime objective of this article is
to develop a scale to measure the three Gunas.
The scale can be used to assess the personal-
ity orientation of Indian managers and to
predict their behavior in ethically loaded
situations. Understanding the individuals
personality in this way will help in effective
management of Indian professionals working
in cross cultural contexts. The rest of the arti-
cle describes the steps taken to develop this
scale. Its adequacy is verified by examining
its relationship with other related concepts of
spirituality, ethical cognitive frameworks and
ethical conduct in the workplace.
Method and Results
The scale was developed through four phases.
In the first phase, construct definitions and
items were identified. In the second phase,
the construct validation was conducted to
prune out wean the weak and poor perform-
ing items. In the second, third and fourth
phases construct, convergent, divergent and
criterion/predictive validity and other psy-
chometric properties of the scale were assessed.
Phase 1: Construct Definitions
and Item Development
At the very outset the aim was to develop
conceptually consistent theoretical defini-
tions of the three types of Gunas. The con-
struct definitions that follow are based on
the discussion of Gunas by Radhakrishnan
(1948), Chinmayanand (1992) and Chakra-
borty (1987).
Illumination
The moral standards of these individuals are
clear and they have no hesitation in making
decisions in situations of ethical dilemma.
Their emotions are under control and they
dont experience extreme sorrows or joys.
Their mind is at peace and there is no agita-
tion, mental, verbal or physical. Though they
are hard working, they work for the inherent
joy of working and the work itself becomes
satisfying. They work without any attachment
with the results and the outcomes. They are
calm and mellow.
Passion
This is a state where the mind is agitated.
These individuals are under the control of
worldly desires. They are caught in ambition,
and motivation that cause activity and sensual
enjoyment. They are very active, constantly
working but for material pleasures and
rewards. They are attached to the results and
experience extreme sorrows and joys. Though
these people might have a sense of right and
wrong, they are likely to compromise their
ideals in the pursuit of worldly and material
benefits. These people are aggressive.
Dullness
This is a state of ignorance where the mind is
unclear. The moral standards are not clear.
These people lack motivation and ambition.
They are lazy and resistant to change. They
are careless and lack attentiveness. They tend
toward procrastination and self-centric behav-
ior. They display lack of peace, agitation and
volatility. Such people have a very narrow
worldview, and a value system that is totally
materialistic and body centered.
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Item generation and preliminary con-
struct validation On the basis of these
construct definitions of Illumination, Passion
and Dullness a pool of 45 items was gener-
ated with 15 items in each dimension. The
items were worded in the form of interroga-
tive statements. The items were reviewed and
judged at this stage for content validity.
Content validation was performed in two
phases. First, the authors along with two
other experts served as judges to evaluate
each of the 45 items to be identified in the
three dimensions. This exercise was also
geared towards recommending modifications
(change, drop, add) and identifying unclear
items. It resulted in 10 confusing, unclear
and inappropriate items, thus reducing the
size of the scale to 35 items for further assess-
ment. After this stage of item generation and
pruning, the researchers (authors) were not
involved in subjective evaluation of the items
and experts from five diverse disciplines
(philosophy, management, psychology, soci-
ology and anthropology) were given con-
struct definitions. The task of the judges was
to sort the various statements on the basis of
item descriptions, and to match them with
the construct definitions. Each item was
followed by the following four choices: 1
Illumination, 2 Passion, 3 Dullness, and 4
None of the above. They were asked to rate
each item as belonging to one of the four
categories described. The statements on
which there was an agreement of 80% (i.e. at
least four judges rated it as belonging to the
same category) were accepted as items of that
category. In this way the total number of
items was reduced to 27; of these 8 belonged
to Illumination, 9 to Passion and 10 to
Dullness.
Phase 2: Construct Validation,
Item Reduction and Content
Adequacy
Next, the factor structure of the proposed
measure was examined by identifying poorly
performing items. In this phase a survey of
the MBA students was conducted. The study
results were further discussed with construct
validation experts to include the right items
and delete the confusing and poor perform-
ing ones, as suggested by Schreisheim et al.
(1999).
Respondents and instrument used Since
the objective is to understand the personality
constructs of Indian managers, a question-
naire survey was conducted on 108 MBA
students of a major engineering and manage-
ment institute in India. Of these 81 were
male and 27 were female, and 98 were in the
age group of 20 to 30 years and the remain-
ing 10 were in the range of 30 to 40 years.
The 27 items identified in the first stage
were given to the respondents and they were
asked to rate how true each item was to them
on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true;
5 = very true).
Using SPSS version 9.0, the responses to
the 27 items were subjected to an exploratory
factor analysis as a partial test of construct
validation. For retaining a factor two criteria
were used: (a) the eigenvalue of the factor was
greater than 1, and (b) more than three items
loaded heavily on a factor. At this stage the
results of this factor analysis were used for
initial screening of the items, hence any item
that showed a factor loading in the range of
.45 and cross-loading below .35 was in-
cluded. The factor loadings, mean, standard
deviation and percentage variance explained
are contained in Table 1.
The factor analysis results were discussed
with two experts one from the discipline of
philosophy and the other from management
before eliminating or including items at this
stage.
It can be seen that the first factor con-
tained six items (including the item that
cross-loads on factor 2). All these items
belonged to the Dullness dimension of our
scale. They represent general inactivity of
the mind and body, an inability to make
decisions, carelessness and negligence.
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Five items loaded clearly on the second
factor. All the items belonged to the Passion
dimension. The items indicate restlessness,
intense activity, obsession for worldly posses-
sions, agitation and extreme emotions. Item
6 showed a cross-loading on this factor too.
We can see that this item is about lack of
activity, motivation and drive that represent
Dullness, but loads negatively on Passion, as
extreme activity is the characteristic feature
of people with Passion. Hence we decided to
include this item on both the dimensions as a
positive indicator of Dullness and a negative
indicator of Passion.
Four items loaded on the third factor. All
the items loading on this dimension belonged
to the Illumination dimension, and hence the
factor was labeled Illumination. The items
indicated predictability of behavior, control
of emotions, consistency and detachment
from the results.
Factor analysis results reveal that Indian
managers manifest these three distinct Gunas.
The reliability coefficients for the three
dimensions too are acceptable (Table 1).
Further, the literature is clear that
Illumination is the ideal, whereas Dullness is
the extreme opposite, and Passion lies some-
where in between. Thus Illumination is
likely to have a negative relationship with
both Passion and Dullness, although the
three are empirically distinguishable from
one another. Dullness showed a correlation
of .078 (not significant) and .188 (p < .05)
with Passion and Illumination respectively,
while Passion showed a correlation of .131
(not significant) with Illumination. The three
dimensions, in most cases, are not signifi-
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 6(2) 176
Table 1 Factor loadings of the items and scale characteristics of Gunas Phase 2
Item
Factor Loadings
nos. Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
1. (D) My faculty of judgment gets blurred often .485 .285 .03
2. (D) My mind and senses go blank often .744 .07 .18
3. (D) I indulge in frivolous and non serious activities often .62 .137 .027
4. (D) I feel at times my powers of judgment and understanding
get lost .709 .09 .173
5. (D) I often ignore very serious issues .608 .180 .024
6. (D) I often lack motivation and drive .535 .409 .016
7. (P) I take part in various activities otherwise I feel restless .106 .691 .033
8. (P) I have an obsession for accumulating wealth .102 .547 .314
9. (P) I feel the need for various forms of enjoyment in my life .258 .504 .268
10. (P) I get motivated and ambitious to fulfill my desires .184 .509 .122
11. (P) I have a strong desire for material things .150 .597 .289
12. (I) I believe my emotions are always under control .286 .288 .556
13. (I) My behavior is consistent and predictable .354 .200 .499
14. (I) I dont get agitated and violent in my actions .241 .151 .443
15. (I) I dont think about rewards while doing my work .277 .238 .461
Eigenvalue 4.503 2.929 2.458
Percentage variance 16.68 10.85 9.105
Reliability* .7624 .6993 .6486
Note: N = 108; * Cronbachs coefficient alpha is used as the reliability estimate.
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cantly correlated; this shows the indepen-
dence of the three dimensions. However,
there is a negative correlation (though weak,
p < .05) between Illumination and Dullness.
It was an indication that the correlations
were in the right direction. At this stage a set
of 15 items were retained for further refine-
ment and validation.
Phase 3: Test of Construct,
Convergent, Divergent and
Criterion Validity
In this phase, we further tested the construct
and divergent validity of the scale through data
collected on another sample. As mentioned
earlier, the information technology sector and
consequently software professionals, are grow-
ing both in significance and size. The fact that
these professionals work almost always in
cross cultural situations, makes them a par-
ticularly relevant sample for this study.
Respondents and procedure The sam-
ple for this study consisted of 273 working
professionals from two geographical regions
in India, one from the west (120 respondents)
and the other from the south (153 respon-
dents). There were 205 males and 68 females
in the sample, with 259 of the respondents in
the age range of 20 to 30 years and 14
between 30 and 40 years of age.
The questionnaire contained 15 items of
Gunas that resulted from our previous study
and demographic factors like age and gender
of the respondents.
Results and discussion In this section we
discuss the results in terms of construct valid-
ity/factor stability, scale characteristics, and
discriminant validity of the Gunas scale.
To test for construct and convergent
validity a principal components factor analy-
sis was conducted, but before analyzing
the results of factor analysis, a KMO sam-
pling adequacy test was conducted to assess
whether there were sufficient correlations
among the items to perform principal com-
ponents factor analysis. The KMO coeffi-
cient was .675 (the usual cut-off point for
KMO and anti-image correlation is .6) and
hence we proceeded with factor analysis.
Only those factors that had eigenvalues over
1 were included. Items in a factor were
retained only when the factor loadings were
above .50 and cross-loadings were generally
below .35. Subsequently, the data from two
geographical regions West and South India
were independently subjected to the same
method of factor analysis. In line with the
recommendations of Schwab (1980) and
DeVellis (1991) factor analysis was con-
ducted on each sample separately, to test for
factor stability and convergent validity. The
results of factor analysis for the combined
data, and for the data from West and South
India separately are given in Table 2.
It can be seen from Table 2 that for the
first two factors, the same items emerged
from all three analyses. In this analysis too
Dullness emerged as the first factor that
consisted of five items. Passion was again the
second factor, also with five items. The third
factor was that of Illumination, with three
items emerging from the overall data and for
the respondents from West India. However,
for the third factor in the analysis of the data
from South India, only two items showed
clear factor loadings; one did not show high
loadings. We retained the third item in our
final scale as the factor analysis for the total
sample showed high loading, despite the fact
that the sample from South India was the
larger of the two and was more likely to influ-
ence the overall results. The emergence of
the same factors with same items provided
proof of factor stability.
Table 3 lists the descriptive statistics of
the items and inter-item correlations. It can
be seen from Table 3 that the items within a
factor showed high correlations, as opposed
to the items across factors.
The three subscales were not correlated
(see Table 4), thereby showing subscale inde-
pendence. However, the sample from South
Bhal & Debnath: Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas 177
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International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 6(2) 178
Table 2 Factor loadings of the Gunas measure (South, West and combined samples)
Phase 3
Items Combined West India South India
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
D1: My faculty of judgment .611 .278 .09 .719 .204 .137 .609 .186 .05
gets blurred often
D2: My mind and senses .651 .258 .08 .742 .118 .09 .552 .205 .328
go blank often
D3: I feel at times my .732 .33 .02 .731 .172 .223 .746 .319 .165
powers of judgment and
understanding get lost
D4: I often ignore very .698 .29 .09 .717 .01 .366 .599 .413 .216
serious issues
D5: I often lack motivation .640 .16 .02 .649 .09 .235 .539 .264 .290
and drive
P1: I take part in various .251 .554 .08 .226 .657 .216 .06 .566 .03
activities otherwise I feel
restless
P2: I have an obsession .462 .550 .129 .238 .600 .311 .520 .547 .03
for accumulating wealth
P3: I feel the need for .270 .670 .157 .09 .737 .03 .498 .552 .168
various forms of enjoyment
in my life
P4: I get motivated and .382 .692 .160 .01 .781 .05 .597 .555 .05
ambitious to fulfill my
desires
P5: I have a strong desire .118 .762 .119 .101 .810 .168 .158 .738 .01
for material things
I1: I believe my emotions .02 .224 .771 .247 .198 .658 .21 .425 .702
are always under control
I2: My behavior is .08 .07 .814 .388 .193 .618 .38 .196 .748
consistent and predictable
I3: I dont get agitated and .02 .05 .512 .238 .03 .716 .07 .04 .06
violent in my actions
Eigen value 2.879 2.589 1.763 3.260 2.811 1.825 3.061 2.465 1.551
Percentage of variance 19.191 17.261 11.755 21.731 18.738 12.169 20.406 16.433 10.339
Reliability coefficients .778 .759 .569 .801 .780 .650 .754 .743 .474
(Cronbachs coefficient )
Note: N = 273.
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India showed a negative correlation between
Illumination and Dullness at the .05 level,
which is the same as the result of the previous
study (Phase 2).
The concept of discriminant validity, in
part, assumes that the focal construct(s)
should be weakly related or unrelated to dis-
similar constructs (Schwab, 1980). Hence, it
was hypothesized that the three focal con-
structs should be unrelated to the gender of
the respondents. To assess this, a t-test was
conducted for all the three constructs
Dullness, Passion and Illumination. Table 5
contains the result of the t-test. It can be seen
from the table that there is no significant dif-
ference between men and women for any of
the three dimensions. This provided support
for the discriminant validity of the scale.
Phase 4: Further Test of
Construct, Convergent, and
Predictive/Criterion Validity
In this phase too an empirical study was con-
ducted. To begin with, the factor structure of
the Gunas scale was reassessed as a partial test
of construct validity. Since spirituality, cogni-
tive ethical frameworks and ethical conduct
have close association with the three Gunas,
their relationships with Gunas were assessed
as a test of predictive and convergent validity.
Respondents and procedure The sample
for this study consisted of 114 respondents
who were alumni of a major management
department. Data were collected during an
alumni gathering. Of the respondents 99
were male and 15 were female, and their
mean age was 26.16 years (sd of 3.98) with a
range of 22 to 42 years. The average work
experience of the respondents was 3.14 years
(sd of 3.88) with a range of 1 to 20 years.
Gunas were measured through a 13-item
scale developed in the previous studies (of
which three corresponded to Illumination,
five to Passion and five to Dullness).
To assess spirituality, the 30-item scale by
MacDonald (2000) was used, which assessed
the five dimensions of spirituality (i.e. Cogni-
Bhal & Debnath: Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas 179
Table 3 Scale characteristics and inter-item correlations Phase 3
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 I1 I2 I3
D1 1.00
D2 .47 1.00
D3 .50 .45 1.00
D4 .34 .29 .54 1.00
D5 .25 .30 .36 .57 1.00
P1 .07 .07 .00 .00 .04 1.00
P2 .11 .15 .13 .11 .13 .35 1.00
P3 .05 .05 .03 .00 .08 .29 .32 1.00
P4 .08 .05 .02 .10 .09 .27 .53 .49 1.00
P5 .03 .12 .16 .12 .01 .34 .32 .47 .48 1.00
I1 .00 .01 .06 .06 .02 .10 .05 .03 .09 .15 1.00
I2 .02 .12 .01 .05 .01 .12 .00 .05 .08 .07 .56 1.00
I3 .19 .07 .05 .08 .07 .00 .10 .02 .05 .17 .15 .20 1.00
Mean 2.77 2.92 2.74 2.44 2.41 3.27 3.12 3.60 3.23 3.63 3.71 3.68 3.72
sd .99 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.03 1.06 1.10 .89 1.05 .96 .91 .92 .89
Note: N = 273; D1 to D5 = five items of Dullness, P1 to P5 = five Items of Passion, I1 to I3 = three items of
Illumination (these items correspond with items in Table 2).
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tive orientation towards spirituality, Experi-
ential/Phenomenological Dimension, Exist-
ential Well-being, Paranormal Beliefs and
Religiousness). Each dimension contained six
items. The respondents were asked to rate
their agreement (1 = Not at all agree; 5 =
Strongly agree) in terms of whether they
described themselves.
Ethical frameworks/logics were assessed
using the 20-item scale developed by Forsyth
(1980). Of these, 10 belonged to Idealism and
10 to Relativism. The respondents were asked
to rate their agreement (1 = Not at all agree;
5 = Strongly agree) in terms of whether they
described themselves.
Ethical conduct was assessed through two
vignettes on software piracy; one describing
software piracy for the organization and the
other for the self. Each vignette was followed
by three items on their perception of the
ethicality of the act, and three items on their
likelihood of indulging in the act of piracy.
Thus we assessed perceived ethicality and
likelihood of piracy both for self and the
organization (please see Appendix 1 for the
vignettes and the items).
Results and discussion In this section we
first discuss the results of confirmatory factor
analysis of the Gunas scale as further proof of
factor stability and construct validity. Subse-
quently the scale properties (reliability coeffi-
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 6(2) 180
Table 4 Correlations among the three dimensions of Gunas Phase 3
Dullness Passion Ilumination
Passion .052(273)
.002(120)
.105(153)
Ilumination .001(273) .063(273)
.154(120) .089(120)
.176*(153) .036(153)
Notes: Numbers in parentheses are the sample size N. Numbers in bold are for the data from the West and those in
italics are for the data from the South. * = p < .05.
Table 5 Means and t-tests for Gunas for male and female Phase 3
Gunas Gender N Mean Standard deviation t
Dullness Male 205 2.65 .77
.456
Female 68 2.69 .71
Passion Male 205 3.40 .74
1.036
Female 68 3.29 .68
Illumination Male 205 3.73 .67
.959
Female 68 3.64 .65
Note: t is not significant for any of the three Gunas.
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cients means and sds) are discussed. This is
followed by a test of convergent and predic-
tive validity of the scale.
Confirmatory factor analysis of the Gunas
was conducted as a test of the construct validity
of the scale. The hypothesized three-factor
model was tested against a one-factor model
using Amos 5.0 software. The one-factor
model provided poor fit indices (
2
=
185.549, df = 65, p = .000, GFI = .779,
AGFI = .691, CFI = .538 and RMSEA =
.128); however, the hypothesized model pro-
vided very good fit indices (
2
= 70.829, df =
65, p = .290, GFI = .915, AGFI = .881, CFI
= .978, and RMSEA = .028). Compared to
the one-factor model, the three-factor model
provided much-improved fit indices (
2
=
114.70, p = .000). All the items were signifi-
cant predictors of their respective latent
dimensions.
For convergent and criterion validity were
tested using spirituality, ethical frameworks
and ethical behavior. The inter corelations,
means, sds and reliability of the study vari-
ables is given in Table 6.
It can be seen that all the relationships
are in expected directions.
As has been mentioned earlier, the five
dimensions of spirituality are likely to associ-
ate uniquely with the three Gunas. To test for
this assertion, zero order, partial and multi-
ple correlations were conducted and are
reported in Table 7. Partial correlations were
conducted by assessing the relationship of
each Guna after controlling for the other two.
Multiple correlations were calculated by
combining all five dimensions of spirituality
and assessing the correlations with each of
the three Gunas.
Illumination shows a positive relationship
with cognitive orientation towards spiritu-
ality and religiousness dimensions. This is
much in line with the expected relationship
as mentioned earlier. Passion did not show
any relationship with any dimension of
spirituality. Dullness showed a negative cor-
relation with existential well-being. Further,
the total spirituality score showed a signifi-
cant positive relationship with Illumination.
Though not all the hypothesized relation-
ships found support, all the results were in
the expected direction. This provides some
proof of the convergent validity of the scale.
Predictive/criterion validity of the three
Gunas scale was tested by predicting ethical
frameworks and ethical conduct. Multiple
regression analysis was conducted.
First, relativism was regressed on the
three Gunas dimensions; the model was not
significant (p = .221) and none of the Gunas
predicted relativism. Next, idealism was
regressed on the three Gunas and the model
was significant (R
2
= .119, p = .003), and the
standardized beta coefficients for Illumina-
tion, Passion and Dullness were .236 (p =
.010), .01 (p = .813) and .228 (p = .013),
respectively. Both Illumination and Dullness
predict idealism significantly, and although
Illumination shows a positive relationship,
Dullness shows a negative one. The results
are evidence of the predictive validity of the
scale. Finally, and most significantly, ethical
attitude and conduct in the workplace was
predicted using the newly developed scale,
for which perceived ethicality and likelihood
of piracy for self and for the organization
were regressed on the three Gunas. The
results are contained in Table 8.
It can be seen from Table 8 that,
although perceived ethicality of piracy for the
organization is not predicted by any of the
three Gunas, Passion does predict the likeli-
hood of indulging in piracy for the organiza-
tion. Dullness predicts both perceived ethi-
cality and likelihood of piracy for self. Results
show that those high on Dullness do not
consider software piracy for self as unethical
and that they are also likely to indulge in it.
All the results are in the expected direction
and provide evidence of the predictive
validity (predicting job-related attitudes and
behavior) of the scale.
Bhal & Debnath: Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas 181
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Table 6 Means, sds, inter corelations, and reliabilities of the study variables Phase 4
Mean
(sd) PES LS PEO LO Ill Pass Dull COS EDS EWS PBS RS EOR EOI
PES 2.33 .94
(1.12)
LS 3.32 .45*** .95
(1.20)
PEO 2.67 .45*** .03 .97
(1.19)
LO 3.58 .22*** .48*** .32*** .95
(1.15)
Ill 3.53 .04*** .01 .04 .04 .52
(.80)
Pa 3.49 .17 .19* .00 .14 .03 .72
(.71)
Du 2.47 .09 .09 .19* .20 .10 .05 .75
(.74)
CO 3.57 .21* .13 .03 .00 .23* .01 .04 .76
(.72)
ED 2.84 .10 .00 .01 .07 .15 .11 .10 .54*** .85
(.83)
EW 3.62 .07 .24** .07 .18 .09 .11 .54*** .16 .36*** .83
(.78)
PB 2.57 .07 .12 .05 .07 .17 .01 .08 .32*** .37*** .36*** .72
(.72)
R 3.53 .13 .09 .01 .02 .33*** .11 .10 .64*** .43*** .09 .30** .81
(.78)
EOR 3.41 .15 .15 .19* .25** .09 .15 .09 .06 .19* .07 .10 .03 .86
(.75)
EOI 3.89 .08 .09 .16 .13 .26** .04 .25** .26** .21* .05 .17 .39*** .14 .78
(.51)
Note: N= 114. Figures along the diagonal are reliability coefficients (alpha). Abbreviations: PES and LS = Perceived Ethicality and Likelihood of Piracy for Self; PEO and LO
= Perceived Ethicality and Likelihood of Piracy for Organization. Ill = Illumination, Pa = Passion, Du = Dullness, CO = Cognitive Orientation, ED = Experiential
Dimension, EW = Existential Well-being, PB = Paranormal Beliefs, R = religiousness, EOR = Ethical OrientationRelativism, EOI = Ethical OrientationIdealism.

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Discussion and Conclusions
Most of the research on cross cultural under-
standing of ethics in the workplace has either
focused on behavioral responses of managers
(to the situations of ethical dimension) across
different cultures/nations, or on testing
American models across different cultures.
All these researches provide useful insights
into what people across different cultures do
when confronted with situations involving
ethical decision making, however under-
standing causes of these behaviors in terms of
culturally rooted explanations is likely to pro-
vide more significant understanding for
many reasons. First, it lets us know the origin
of the behavior; second, it provides for
exploring more than one reason for a par-
ticular behavior (Kumar, 2004). In this
research we have tried to understand the
behavior of managers in terms of the person-
ality construct of Gunas explicated in tradi-
tional Indian philosophy. As has been men-
tioned earlier, although the interpretation
and prescriptive use of Gunas in the work-
place have been studied by some thinkers,
almost no systematic account of any empiri-
cal work in the organizational setting is avail-
able. We had started with the objective of
conceptualizing and measuring the three
Gunas personality factors identified in
Indian scriptures as predictors of ethical con-
duct and rooted in the concept of spirituality.
Researchers and practitioners have empha-
sized the relevance and importance of study-
ing these Gunas in the context of the work-
place, but most of the efforts have been
focused on prescribing the right or correct
way to live and act. Despite having under-
stood its importance, these constructs have
not been precisely defined or adequately
measured. This research shows the develop-
ment of a valid and reliable scale to measure
the three dimensions of Gunas.
The conceptualization of the three Gunas
in literature (The Gita) finds support in the
empirical evidence in this article. The emer-
gence of the same three factors in the same
order from different samples at different
points in time provides strong evidence for
construct validity and factor stability.
Of the three dimensions we started with,
we realized Illumination was the most diffi-
cult to tap and hence it emerged as a third
factor. Illumination showed a positive rela-
tionship with spirituality and idealism, pro-
viding strong evidence of predictive and
convergent validity. As has been mentioned
in the earlier sections, thinkers and experts
on Indian philosophy feel that Illumination is
difficult to assess as it does not relate only to
here and now but is transcendental in nature.
Bhal & Debnath: Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas 183
Table 7 Zero-order, partial and multiple correlations among Spirituality and Gunas dimensions
Phase 4
Illumination Passion Dullness
Cognitive Orientation .231* (.229) .007 (.001) .038 (.015)
Experiential Dimension .152 (.162) .114 (.117) .104 (.127)
Existential Well-being .095 (.055) .114 (.168) .536** (.541)
Paranormal Beliefs .174 (.183) .013 (.012) .081 (.100)
Religiousness .331** (.324) .113 (.106) .103 (.071)
Multiple Correlation .340** .048 .170
Note: N = 114. Numbers in parentheses indicate partial correlation. Multiple correlations of aggregated Spirituality
score with each dimension of Guna are reported.
* = p < .05, ** = p < .01.
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Spirituality too includes experiences that are
religious . . . mystical, transpersonal and
transcendental (MacDonald, 2000: 158).
The fact that spirituality and its dimensions
correlate positively with Illumination and
that it also predicts the use of idealism as an
ethical framework indicate that the items
used to measure Illumination capture the
essence of the construct as envisaged in The
Gita.
Passion and Dullness have clear behav-
ioral manifestations and it is easier to tap
them on a personality scale. The results of
factor analysis from different samples provide
strong evidence of factor stability and con-
struct validity. However, Passion showed no
association with either spirituality or ethical
frameworks. Passion is closely associated with
modern-day managers. Chakraborty (1987:
79) also observed that correspondence could
be seen between the attitude of the modern
man towards life and some of the characteris-
tics of Passion. These include love of fame,
pride, and display of power. However, Passion
predicts job-related attitudes and behavior,
though not for self. Results indicate that those
high on Passion (driven by fame and ambi-
tion) are likely to indulge in software piracy if
the organization expects them to.
Dullness showed strong factor stability
and some evidence of convergent validity. Its
negative association with one dimension of
spirituality provides some support for con-
vergent validity. Dullness also predicts job-
related attitude and behavior. People high on
Dullness do not consider software piracy as
unethical and are likely to indulge in it for
their personal benefit.
Dullness and Illumination showed a
negative correlation in both the studies. As
explained earlier, Dullness was characterized
by lethargy, confusion and ignorance; where-
as Illumination is characterized by purity, and
clarity of thought and action (Chakraborty,
1985: 1878). It has been mentioned in The
Gita that strengthening of Illumination
hastens our approach towards a pure mind,
which means reducing or going away from
Dullness, and that might be an explanation
for a negative relationship between the two.
It must be noted here that the scales on
ethical framework and spirituality have been
developed for a more universal sample and
the fact that Gunas relate to these scales pro-
vides a measure of cross cultural validity.
However, for a more robust and rigorous
test, cross cultural studies need to be con-
ducted.
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 6(2) 184
Table 8 Regression results for Gunas as predictors of ethical frameworks and ethical
behavior Phase 4
Dependent variable
Predictor EOR EOI PES LS PEO LO
Illumination .099 .236** .016 .05 .043 .00
Passion .149 .021 .010 .15 .176 .198*
Dullness .103 .228** .190* .210* .103 .097
Model statistics R
2
.04 .12 .04 .07 .04 .05
F 1.53 4.97** 1.398 2.54 1.585 1.809
df 3,110 3,110 3,110 3,110 3,110 3,110
Note: N = 114. Figures in bold are standardized beta coefficients. * = p < .05, ** = p < .01. For abbreviations,
please see Table 6.
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Limitations, Implications and
Future Research
Though the study provides useful insights
into the studied relationship, the results may
be viewed in the light of possible limitations.
To begin with, all the variables were taken
from the same source and there is a possi-
bility of common methods variance (though
no major multicollinearity issues were con-
fronted in the study). Further, since all the
data were cross-sectional and were collected
at the same time (for any one study), the
causality can only be assumed but not con-
firmed. Lastly all the data collected through
self-reports are likely to be influenced by
social desirability response bias. This bias
cannot be ruled out, but some researches
have shown that social desirability may not
be a source of bias in measuring organiza-
tional perceptions (Moorman and Podsakoff,
1992; Spector, 1987).
The study provides a possible predictor of
the ethical conduct of Indian managers in
terms of Gunas. Future research can take two
possible courses. In the first, the concept of
Gunas and their association with ethical con-
duct can be tested across different cultures in
a traditional cross cultural mode. It needs to
be noted in this context that although the
concept of Gunas is rooted in Indian culture,
it has the possibility of being applied to a uni-
versal sample. A broader cross cultural study
will be able to establish whether Gunas are
applicable universally or are relevant for
studying the Indian managers only. Besides
this, a cross-national study comparing Indian
professionals working in India and abroad
is likely to establish the importance of the
context (country) in the manifestation and
operationalization of Gunas.
The second line of research would focus
on the aspect of developing a culture-specific
theory in more detail. Some researchers (e.g.
Roberts, 1970) have suggested that before
testing a theory across cultures, it is impor-
tant to understand its manifestation in one
culture in depth, thereby developing a
middle level theory. This middle level theory
once developed can subsequently be tested
across cultures. In this line of thought some
concepts that can be further explored in the
context of Gunas are ethical leadership and
motives of and motivators for Indian man-
agers, as some researchers (e.g. Chakraborty,
1985) suggest a relationship between Gunas,
leadership and drivers of behavior.
One of the objectives of cross cultural
research is to understand what it takes to
successfully manage people and organiza-
tions in different cultures. So what implica-
tions does this study have for managers in
multinational corporations to improve the
cross cultural management of Indian pro-
fessionals? To begin with our study provides
personality dimensions of Indian managers,
which can be used for predicting their ethical
conduct. Since Gunas have the potential to
enable the understanding of the psyche of
Indian managers more holistically, using this
framework to understand the mindset of
Indian managers could be useful in devising
strategies and plans to manage and interact
with Indian managers more effectively. The
personality predispositions are also relevant
for understanding motives and motivations;
thus the framework can be used for the
design of human resource management
systems in general, and reward systems for
Indian managers in particular.
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Bhal & Debnath: Conceptualizing and Measuring Gunas 187
Appendix 1
There are 2 situations in the 2 columns. Each situation has to be addressed in terms of 6 questions,
which are given in the rows. Please tick the answer of your choice for every situation on all 6 questions.
Situation 1 Situation 2
Your company has purchased Your company wishes to provide
a licensed version of the newest word processing capability on all
spreadsheet for use on a company its computers. They buy one
PC. Although the license copy of the software package
restricts usage to a single PC, an and ask you to install it on all the
employee makes a copy, which is computers
taken home and installed on
the family PC.
Not Not
Very Not Not at all Very Not Not at all
true True sure true true true True sure true true
1. I think it is correct
to indulge in this activity.
2. I consider this.
activity right.
3. I feel there is absolutely
nothing wrong with this
4. I am likely to do this.
5. There is a high
probability that I will
do this activity.
6. There are high chances
that I will do it.
at MADURAI KAMRAJ UNIV on June 18, 2009 http://ccm.sagepub.com Downloaded from
KANIKA T. BHAL and NIVEDITA DEB-
NATH are in the Department of Management
Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, New
Delhi-110016 India.
All correspondence regarding this article may be
addressed to Dr Kanika T. Bhal, Associate
Professor in the Department of Management
Studies. [email: kanika@dms.iit.ernet.in;
ktbhal@hotmail.com]
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 6(2) 188
Rsum
Conceptualisation et Mesure des Gunas : Facteurs prdictifs de lthique des
professionnels indiens sur leur lieu de travail (Kanika T. Bhal and Nivedita
Debnath)
Les chercheurs dans le domaine de la recherche cross-culturelle ont mis laccent sur la nces-
sit dtudier en profondeur une culture en particulier pour comprendre les causes complex-
es des comportements que manifeste ses managers dans une culture. Cet article rend compte
de la conceptualisation et de la mesure du construit indien de Gunas li la personnalit;
facteur prdictif possible de lthique des dirigeants indiens. Le livre sacr indien Gita identi-
fie trois construits de la personnalit, dsignes collectivement sous le nom de Gunas qui sont
considres applicables la comprhension du comportement thique. Larticle rend compte
du dveloppement dune chelle de mesure des trois Gunas Inspiration, Passion et Morosit,
par un processus en quatre tapes. Dans un premier temps, on gnre les dfinitions des con-
struits et les articles des trois Gunas. Les seconde, troisime et quatrime tapes rapportent les
tudes empiriques entreprises sur diffrents chantillons afin dvaluer le facteur de stabilit,
la fiabilit, le discriminant, et les validits de lchelle. Lchelle est utilise pour prvoir les
cadres spirituels et thiques et les actes de piratage logicielle dans les organisations. On dbat
aussi bien les implications pour la recherche cross-culturelle que celles pour la pratique.

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