CHAPTER-III

THERMAL RECOVERY METHODS

Thermal recovery pertains to oil recovery processes in which heat
plays a principal role. The most widely used thermal techniques are in-situ
combustion, continuous injection of hot fluids such as steam, water or
gases, and cyclic operations such as steam soaking.
Heat is applied to the crude to
-reduce the viscosity of the crude,
-activate a solution gas drive in some instances,
-result in thermal expansion of the oil and hence increased relative
permeability,
-create distillation and, in some cases, thermal cracking of the oil.
Thermal methods are generally of three types:
Cyclic Steam Injection: (Steam Stimulation, Steam Soak or Huff and
Puff). In this process, steam is injected down a producing well to heat up
the area around the well bore and increase recovery of the oil immediately
adjacent to the well. After injection of short period, the well is placed back
on production. This is essentially a well bore stimulation technique, each well
responding independently.
Steam Drive: (Steam Flooding, Continuous Steam Injection). Steam is
injected through injection wells and the oil is displaced to surrounding
producing wells as in conventional fluid injection operations.
In-Situ Combustion: (Fire-flood). This process involves in-situ combustion
of portions of the oil. Air is pumped into the reservoir which either self-
ignites or is ignited, depending on reservoir temperature and composition.
Heat and gases from the combustion pressurize the reservoir, and decrease
viscosity both by heating and cracking. Often water is injected behind the
fire front.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
Before discussing heat transfer mechanisms, it is important to define
the physical significance of thermal properties, quantities and concepts to
be used.
Heat: is a form of energy (enthalpy), is the amount of thermal energy in a
given mass of the material above a prescribed reference temperature ad
pressure.
Temperature: is a manifestation of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a material due to thermal agitation. Temperature is not
energy; rather, it is a measure of the thermal energy content of a material.
Heat Capacity: is the quantity of heat required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of the material by one degree of temperature,
while maintaining a constant pressure.
Thermal Conductivity: is a material property that indicates the quantity of
heat transferred in unit time through the material permit cross sectional
area normal to a unit temperature gradient under steady state conditions
and in the absence of any movement of fluid or particles.
Thermal Diffusivity: is defined as the ratio of the thermal conductivity to
the volumetric heat capacity.
Latent Heat of Vaporization: is the amount of heat necessary to change a
unit mass of liquid into its vapour without a change in temperature and is
numerically equal to the latent heat of condensation.
Heat of Reaction: is the amount of heat released or absorbed during a
chemical reaction per unit mass of reactant. (Exothermic: The reaction of
oxygen and fuel during combustion releases Heat. Endothermic: The
thermal decomposition of limestone & dolomite requires addition of heat)
Potential Energy: is the energy per unit mass resulting from the position of
an element of mass in the earths gravitational field above a reference
plane.
Kinetic Energy: is the energy of an element of mass associated with its
motion.
Total Energy: in thermal recovery processes the total energy per unit mass
can be considered to be composed of enthalpy and potential components.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
There are only three mechanisms for transferring heat,
-Conduction,
-Convection,
-Radiation

Heat Conduction: is the process by which heat is transferred through non-
flowing materials by molecular collisions from a region of high temperature
to a region of lower temperature. The physical law describing heat
conduction known as Fouriers first law.

q = -kA T / x
k = thermal conductivity of the material.
k = 0.5778 Btu / hr-ft-.
o
F
q/A = 0.317 Btu / hr-ft
2


Thermal resistance for conductive heat transfer:
R = x / k A
Thermal conductivity of a porous rock increases with an increase in
bulk density and total liquid saturation, and a decrease in temperature. It
also varies with pressure and direction of fluid flow.
The volumetric heat capacity of a fluid-saturated rock is often used
in thermal calculations (M);
M =
o
C
o
S
o
+
w
C
w
S
w
+ (1- )
r
C
r

M = Btu / ft
3
-
o
F ; = lb / ft
3
; C = Btu / lb-
o
F
Thermal diffusivity, , of a rock;
= k h / M ; (ft
2
/ hr)
Typical values (rock):
k
h
1.0 to 1.4 Btu / hr-ft-
o
F
M 30 to 35 Btu / ft
3
-
o
F
0.04 ft
2
/ hr
Heat Convection: is the process by which energy is transferred by a
flowing fluid. To express the overall effect of convection, we use Newtons
law of cooling.
Q = h A T
h = convection heat transfer coefficient (Btu / ht-ft
2
-
o
F)
-natural convection: without an external source of motion
-forced convection: with an external source of motion
ROCK TYPE Density
(lb/cu ft)
Specific Heat
(Btu / lb,
o
F)
Thermal Conduc.
(Btu/hr-ft-
o
F)
Thermal Diffusiv.
(ft
2
/ hr)
Sandstone 130 0.183 0.507 0.0213
Silty sand 119 0.202 0.400 0.0167
Siltstone 120 0.204 0.396 0.0162
Shale 145 0.192 0.603 0.0216
Limestone 137 0.202 0.983 0.0355
Sand (fine) 102 0.362 0.632 0.0194
Sand (coarse) 109 0.322 0.322 0.0161
Sandstone 142 0.252 1.592 0.0445
Silty sand 132 0.288 1.500 0.0394
Siltstone 132 0.276 1.510 0.0414
Shale 149 0.213 0.975 0.0307
Limestone 149 0.266 2.050 0.0517
Sand (fine) 126 0.339 1.590 0.0372
Sand (coarse) 130 0.315 1.775 0.0433

Thermal resistance for convective heat transfer:
R = 1 / h A

Approximate values for h:
Mode h (Btu / ht-ft
2
-
o
F)
Free convection, air 1-5
Forced convection, air 2-100
Forced convection, water 20-3000
Boiling water 500-5000
Condensation of water vapor 1000-20000

Radiation: is the process by which heat is transferred by means of
electromagnetic waves.
q = A (T
1
4
T
2
4
)
= Stefan-Boltzman constant; 1.713 x 10-9 Btu / ft
2
-hr-R
4
The above equation is called Stefan-Boltzmann law of thermal radiation, and
it applies only to black bodies, and valid only for thermal radiation.
Real bodies emit radiation at a lower rate than block bodies.
q
r
= A
1

1
(T
1
4
T
2
4
)

1
= emissivity of the surface


Emissivity of Some Metals
Metal Temperature (
o
F) Emissivity
Oxidized or unpolished (Al) 400 to 1100 0.11 to 0.19
Unoxidized or polished (Al) 400 to 1100 0.04 to 0.08
Oxidized or unpolished (Fe) 400 to 1100 0.75 to 0.95
Unoxidized or polished (Fe) 350 to 1200 0.05 to 0.30
Polished (stainless steel) 450 to 1600 0.50 to 0.60
There is a little thermal radiation through opaque materials, such as rocks.
Therefore it is not considered to be an important heat transfer mechanism
in porous media.
Steady-State Heat Transfer-One Dimension:
Heat flow (q);
A k
X
A k
X
A k
X
T T
q
C
C
B
B
A
A

+

=
4 1
= Thermal potential difference / thermal
resistance
Radial Systems:
C B A
k
r r
k
r r
k
r r
T T L
q
) / ln( ) / ln( ) / ln(
) ( 2
3 4 2 3 1 2
4 1
+ +

=




The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient:
The overall heat transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside or
outside area of the tube;
(

+ +
=
o o
i i o i
i
i
h A
A
kL
r r A
h
U
1
2
) / ln( 1
1

+ +
=
o
i o o
i i
o
o
h kL
r r A
h A
A
U
1
2
) / ln( 1
1

Example-1:
Calculate heat required to vaporize 1 kg of water at 20 C and atmospheric
pressure.
Solution:
In order to vaporize water, it must be heated to 100 C
Cw = 4.3245 3.69x10
-3
T + 2.428x10
-5
T
2

at 20 C C
w
4.18 kJ/kg-K
Heat required to heat 1 kg of water from 20 C to 100 C will be:
4.18 kJ/kg-K * 1 kg * (100 20) = 334 kJ
Heat required to vaporize it:
L
v
= h
s
- h
w

h
w
= C
w
T
h
w
= 4.18 * 100 = 418 kJ/kg
h
s
= 27772 P
s
0.01267

P
s
= 14.7 psia * 6894 Pa/Psia * 1/100 Mpa/Pa = 0.10133 MPa
h
s
= 2772 (0.10133)
0.01267
= 2692 kJ/kg
L
v
= h
s
h
w
= 2692 418 = 2274 kJ/kg
Total heat required;
334 + 2274 = 2608 kJ/kg
Example-2 :
How many s.m
3
of 250 C hot gas will be required to heat 1 m
3
of oil sand
from 20 C to 250 C. (
sand
= 2500 kg/m
3
)
Solution:
C
p
= 0.8 + 1.3 x 10
-3
T 9 x 10
-7
T
2
;kJ/kg-K
C
p
= 0.8 + 1.3 x 10
-3
(273 + 20) 9 x 10
-7
(273 + 20)
2

= 1.11 kJ/kg-K
M = C
p
= Volumetric heat capacity = 2500 * 1.11 = 2780 kJ/m
3
- K
Assume that, no heat loss to the surroundings, so all the heat will be
utilized to increase temperature of the porous sand;
Heat required to increase the sand temperature from 20 to 250 C;
= 2780 kJ/m
3
-K * (250 20) K * 1 m
3
= 63.9 x 10
4
kJ
The heat available in 1 scf of gas at 250 C is = C
p

C
p
= 1.0 kJ/kg-K for gas
= 29 / 379 lb/scf (gas with molecular weight close to air)
(C
p
) T = 1 kJ/kg-K * 29 /379 lb/ft
3
* 16.01 (kg/m
3
) / (lb/ft
3
) * (250
20) K
= 282 kJ/m
3

Volume of gas required = 63.9 x 10
4
kJ / 282 kJ/m
3
= 2267 m
3
of gas /
m
3
of sand is required.
Example-3:
Calculate heat content of 1 m
3
of 25 % porosity rock filled with 150 F hot
water for rock. (
sand
2500 kg/m
3
)
Solution:
C
p
= 1.11 kJ/kg-K , M
r
= (C
p
)
rock
= 1.11 * 2500 = 2780 kJ/m
3
- K
For rock matrix; (1 - ) (C
p
)
r
= (1-0.25)(2780) = 2085 kJ/m
3
- K
(C
p
)
water
= 4180 kJ/m
3
- K
For water in pores; (C
p
)
w
= 0.25 * 4180 = 1045 kJ/m
3
- K
1 m
3
of porous rock will have
2085 + 1045 = 3130 kJ/m
3
- K If rock is filled with hot gas
(C
p
)
gas
= 1 kJ/kg-K * 29/379 lb/ft
3
* 16.01 (kg/m
3
)/(lb/ft
3
) 1.225
kJ/m
3
- K
for gas in pores = (C
p
)
gas
= 0.25 * 1.225 = 0.3 kJ/m
3
- K
1 m
3
of porous rock will have 2085 + 0.3 = 2085.3 kJ/m
3
- K
So almost heat is stored in the rock.
Liquid to Vapor Phase Change:
Boiling Point: By application of heat, water gains internal energy and the
temperature increases (A B). When the boiling point B is reached, some
liquid molecules have enough kinetic energy to escape through the liquid
surface tension as vapor. At higher pressures the boiling temperature
increases. The amount of heat required to raise the water temperature
until the boiling point B is reached is called Sensible Heat, Q
s
(J)
Q
s
= m C T
where; m = mass of water, kg ;C = specific heat capacity, J/kg-C
( C = heat required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass)
T = T
1
T
o
, C, T
1
= final temperature, T
o
= initial temperature.
Vaporization Point: Continued application of heat causes the water to boil
and vaporize at a constant temperature and pressure (line B V). When
vaporization point V is reached all water in the liquid phase changes to
vapor. The amount of heat required to change the phase from liquid (water)
to vapour (steam) at a constant temperature and pressure is called Latent
Heat of Vaporization , L
v
(J)
L
v
= m l
v

where; l
v
= enthalpy of vaporization (J/kg)
Further addition of heat causes the temperature of steam to rise without
an increase in pressure. This steam is said to be Superheated.
Water-Steam Pressure-Volume Diagram
The line joining points B with different pressure values is called the bubble
point line or saturated liquid line.
-When the liquid is saturated (one phase) and heat is added, the
temperature remains constant, the vaporization process begins and liquid
phase changes to vapor phase (B-V, two phases)
-The line joining points V is called the dew point line or saturated vapor line.
-When the vapor is saturated and heat is added, the temperature increases
(V-S, one phase) and the steam is superheated.
-Each A-B-V-S line is also a constant pressure line.

Heat Content of Steam:
The total amount of heat Q
T
absorbed in the process of converting water
into steam is given by:
Q
T
= Q
s
+ L
v
= m C T + m l
v

Steam Enthalpy:
The amount of heat per unit of mass is called ENTHALPY, h (J/kg).
Saturated water has a zero enthalpy value at 0 C (32 F) temperature and
0.006 atm (h
datum
= 0) or 0.08854 psia.
-The amount of heat necessary for a mass unit of at 32 F and 0.08854 psia
to reach the boiling point B on the saturation liquid curve is given by the
enthalpy of saturated liquid h
f
, J/kg (sensible heat).
-The total enthalpy h
g
necessary to vaporize all liquid and to reach the point
V on vaporization line is :
h
g
= h
f
+ h
fg

where; h
fg
is the amount of absorbed heat needed to vaporize the water
and is called enthalpy of vaporization at a given saturation temperature and
the corresponding pressure (latent heat of vaporization)
In the field steam generators do not convert all water into steam.
Only a certain mass fraction, f
s,
of water is converted. Output from the
generator is a mixture of saturated water and dry steam. This is called
Wet Steam of quality f
s
. The enthalpy of wet steam is:
h
gw
= h
f
+ f
s
h
fg

Oil field steam generators produce wet steam usually of 80 to 85 % quality.
This means 80 to 85 % of the water mass is vaporized and 10 to 15 % is still
in the liquid phase. The decrease in the latent heat content of steam
becomes larger than the increase of the sensible heat with pressure.
Steam Injection:
Wet-Steam Generators: Wet-steam generators are usually rated in
millions of BTUs per hour of heat absorbed. Those used in EOR range from
12 to 50 MM BTU/hr steam output. They can produce steam with a
saturation pressure of up to 2000 2500 psia and a quality frequently
between 80 and 85 percent.
Example-4:
Find the capacity in tons of steam per hour and the saturation temperature
of a 24 MM BTU/hr wet steam generator operating at 1560 psia saturation
pressure and producing steam with f
s
= 80 % quality.
Solution:
From Steam Tables;
P = 1560 psia h
f
= 619.1 BTU/lbm h
fg
= 543.3 BTU/lbm
The heat content of the wet steam;
h
gw
= h
f
+ f
s
h
fg
= 619.1 + 0.8 (543.3) = 1053.7 BTU/lbm

1 lb mass of steam has 1053.7 BTU
1000 kg/0.4536 kg/lbm x
x = 2.323 x 10
6
BTU
24 MMBTU/hr = 24 x 10
6
BTU/hr / 2.323 x 10
6
BTU/ton = 10.33 tons /hr
of steam.
Heat Losses
The amount of formation heated depends on the amount of heat lost
-In the steam generator
-On the surface transmission lines
-From the well bore
-To adjacent formations
Steam Generator Heat Loss
The heat lost in the steam generator, Q
g
is given by a material balance
between the heat released through the fuel-burning process and the heat
gained by steam. The total heat, Q liberated by the direct combustion of
fuel is:
Q = m H , J/kg
H = heat of combustion or the heat evolved when a unit mass of fuel is
completely burned. The heat gained by steam is
feedw fg s f feedw gw
h h f h h h + = ) (

Therefore, the steam generator heat loss is
( ) [ ]
feedw fg s f g
h h f h Q Q + =

Example-5:
A steam generator produces steam of 85 % quality at 1000 psia saturation
pressure, consuming 911 lbm/hr fuel oil with 19800 BTU/lbm heat of
combustion. The feed water rate is 150 m
3
/day at 60F. Find the heat loss
and the efficiency of the generator.
Solution:
From Steam Table;
At 1000 psia h
f
= 542.4 BTU/lbm h
fg
= 649.4 BTU/lbm
Total heat produced is
Q = H m = 19800 BTU/lbm * 911 lbm/hr = 18.04 x 10
6
BTU/hr
Wet-steam enthalpy from feed water to wet steam is
1094.4 28.06 = 1066.34 BTU/lbm
The total heat gained by steam is
150 m
3
/day * 1000 kg/m
3
* 2.204 lbm/kg * 1 day/24 hr *1066.34 BTU/lbm
= 14.689 x 10
6
BTU/hr
The heat lost is:
( ) [ ]
feedw fg s f g
h h f h Q Q + =

= (18.04 14.689) x 10
6
= 3.35 x 10
6
BTU/hr
or 18.6 % (due to flue gas emissions)
The generator efficiency is
E = 1- (Q
g
/ Q
in
) = 1 3.35 x10
6
/18.04 x 10
6
= 0.814 or 81.4 %
Heat Loss on the Surface Transmission Lines
The surface transmission lines conduct steam from the generator to the
wellhead and into the well bore. The heat lost, Q
s
, by conduction and
radiation on surface lines is:
Q
s
= A U
o
T
A = the surface area of steam pipelines, ft
2

U
o
= overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/hr-ft
2
-F
T = T
int
T
ext
, temperature difference, F
The heat losses are minimized to 3 to 5 percent if the surface steam
pipelines are insulated or buried and are higher if lines are bore and/or the
climate is cold.
To calculate the combined heat loss rate by radiation and convection, for an
insulated pipe, it is necessary to calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient,
ins
o e e
r c
o
k
d d d
h h
U
2
) / ln( 1
1
+
+
=
BTU/hr-ft
2
-F
where; k
ins
= thermal conductivity of the insulating material, BTU/hr-ft-F
Q
s
= A U
o
(T
s
T
a
)
In order to calculate h
c
and h
r
, T
surf
is needed,
A U
Q
T T
s
s surf
*
=

where U
*
= (2 k
ins
)/(d
e
ln (d
e
/d
o
))
The overall procedure is as follows;
-assume T
surf
, calculate h
c
and h
r
.
-calculate U
o
then Q
s
.
-Calculate (T
surf
)
calc
and compare with (T
surf
)
ass
.
( ) ( ) 1 . 0
ass
surf
calc
surf
T T

It is customary to express the heat loss rate as Q
s
in BTU/hr-ft length of
pipe.
Steam Quality Drop in Surface Piping :
( ) ( )
v
s
utlet generatoro st wellhead st
mL
L Q
f f =

Q
s
= heat loss rate, BTU/hr-ft
L = total length of pipe, ft
m = mass flow rate of steam, lb/hr
L
v
= average enthalpy of vaporization, BTU/lb
Heat Loss from the Well bore:
Well bore heat loss is a factor seriously limiting the use of steam
injection to shallow wells. As the wet steam flows through tubing down the
well bore to the reservoir, the tubing is heated to the steam temperature.
The tubing loses heat with time by transferring it through the annulus to
the casing and through the current behind the casing to the ground.
Increasing the injection rate causes the steam pressure to decline
due to higher friction along the tubing string. Correspondingly, at a lower
saturation pressure, there is a lower temperature and more hot liquid will
vaporize the steam quality increases and the heat loss as a percentage of
total heat can be reduced.
For a given steam injection rate, field methods to reduce heat loss from
the well bore include,
-Insulated tubing
-Casing-tubing annulus vented to atmosphere
-Concentric tubing strings with insulating material
-Crude oil gel placed in the annulus
-High-pressure gas pack in the annulus.
All these methods increase the resistance to heat flow from the well
bore. The total heat loss from the well bore when steam is injected down
tubing can be estimated in the field using Ramey's (1965) equation for the
heat loss rate Q
w
, BTU/day.
( )
)
`

+
=
2 ) (
2
) / (
2
az
z b T
t Uf r k
Uk r
day BTU Q
o
D i e
e i
w

r
i
= inside tubing radius, ft
U = overall heat transfer coefficient between inside of tubing & outside of
casing (based on inside diameter, A), BTU/day-F-ft
2

k
e
= thermal conductivity of the earth, BTU/day-ft-F
T
o
= saturation temperature of steam at prevailing pressure, F
z = formation depth, ft
a = geothermal gradient, F/ft
f(t
D
) = dimensionless transient heat conduction time function
2
w
e
D
r
t
t

=
if there is no altered zone behind the casing.
2
e
e
D
r
t
t

=
if there is an altered zone

e
= thermal diffusivity of the earth, ft
2
/day
t = time from the start of heating, days
For values, t
D
= 100
403 . 0 ) ln(
2
1
) ( +
D D
t t f

For values, t
D
100, look at Table 3.1 (from Willhites book, p.73)
For different casing sizes and injection times, and assuming that
e
= 0.96
ft
2
/day, the dimensionless transient heat conduction time function f(t
D
)
values are given in the following table.
CASING INJECTION TIME (days)
SIZE (in) 5 25 50 75
100
4
1/2
2.96 3.81 4.08 4.37 4.48
5
1/2
2.89 3.56 3.99 4.08 4.27
7 2.64 3.32 3.64 3.90 3.98
8
5/8
2.46 3.10 3.42 3.64 3.81

Example-6:
Calculate the percentage of heat loss in a well-insulated well bore when the
wet steam produced by a generator reaches the wellhead and is injected
through 2 in tubing to a 2000 ft depth. The injection time is 100 days.
Geothermal gradient, a = 0.02 F/ft
Geothermal surface temperature = 70 F
Tubing size = 2 in.
r
i
= 1 in/12 in/ft
P
saturation
= 1000 psia
Casing size = 7 in.
k
e
= 33.6 BTU/day-F-ft

e
= 0.96 ft
2
/day

Solution:
T
s
= 544.61 F when P
s
= 1000 psia
f(t
D
) = 3.98 at t = 100 days and 7 casing.
A
F ft day
BTU
ft
F ft day
BTU
F ft day
BTU
F ft day
BTU
ft in
in
Q
w
*
) 98 . 3 ( * ) ( 30 *
12
0 . 1
) ( 6 . 33
) ( 6 . 33 * ) ( 30 *
/ 12
0 . 1
2
2
2



+


=

( )
)
`

=
2 2
) 2000 ( * /
2
02 . 0
2000 * 70 61 . 544 ft ft F ft F A


day BTU x Q
w
/ 10 02 . 11 ) 40000 94920 (
550 . 43
78 . 527
6
= =

or = 459116 BTU/hr
If total heat gained by steam is 14.689 x 10
6
BTU/hr (from previous
example) , this represents 3.12 % heat lost from the total heat gained by
steam.
Quality of Steam as a Function of Depth:
During injection of steam, it is important to know the quantity of the steam
delivered to the formation. Satter has shown that when the overall specific
thermal resistance R
h
and the steam temperature do not vary appreciably
with depth, the steam quality at any depth.

+ =

v
h
v
h
s s
Q
R
aZ
Q
R
aZ Z
f Z f
2
1 * ) 0 ( ) (
2
1

where
) 0 (
s v i v
f L W Q =

, BTU/day rate of injection of latent heat.

a
J g
g R W
b T Z
c
h i
inj
/
1
)
`

=
, ft
778
1
=
J g
g
c

b = surface temperature, F
a = geothermal gradient, F/ft
L
v
= h
fg
= enthalpy of vaporization, BTU/lbm
W
i
= mass rate of injection, lbm/day
( )
a inj
h
w
T T
R L
Q
=
1

Q
w
= well bore heat loss, BTU/day
T
a
= mean surface temperature, F
R
h
= (BTU/ft-day-F)
-1

The depth at which all the injected steam has condensed (hot water point)
is found by setting f
s
(z) = 0.

2
1
1
2
1 1
aZ
R Q
Z Z
h v
cond

For depths greater than (Z
cond
), where only hot water flows,
In many cases
2
1
2 aZ R Q
h v

Whenever this is the case, the hot water point may be approximated by
[ ]
(

=
J g
g W R
T T R f L W Z
c
i h
e inj h s v i cond
) 0 ( / ) 0 (

Overall Thermal Resistance (R
h
)

+ + + + + + + =
e
D
ea
w ea
cem
co w
p
ci co
ins rcan ins
o ins
p
i o
i f
h
k
t f
k
r r
k
r r
k
r r
r h k
r r
k
r r
r h
R
) ( ) / ln( ) / ln( ) / ln( 1 ) / ln( ) / ln( 1
2
1

) (
1
a b
h
ls
T T
R
Q =

Heat Amount to the Formation:
The heat losses in a steam injection system begin at the steam
generator and continue to the surface injection lines, to the well bore, and
to the adjacent strata. The remaining heat is given up to the formation
itself, and some of it is transported with the fluids produced.
The beneficial effect of steam injection on oil displacement and
recovery depends on the amount of heat transferred to the formation
itself and on the porous volume swept by the hot fluids. To evaluate this
effect the amount of heat loss to adjacent strata must be known.
The amount of heat lost to adjacent strata varies directly with time
of injection and inversely with formation thickness. So the heat lost can be
a high percentage of the cumulative heat injected in a steam drive process
life time. To reduce the amount of heat lost to adjacent strata, a process
of heat scavenging is accomplished by displacing the hot fluids slug with
cold water injection.
Gates and Ramey (1964) expressed the cumulative heat loss resulting
from injection of hot fluid from time zero to time t
o
, followed by injection
of cold fluid from time t
o
time t as;
( ) ( ) ( )
(

\
|

=

o
t t o
o
t o
o
t o
W
t
t t
W
t
t
W

(W
o
)
t
= vertical heat loss, fraction of total heat injected
t = total time of injection (hot and cold fluid), days
t
o
= time heat was injected, days
W
o
*
= is obtained from figure at times (t) and (t-t
o
)
Example-7:
Heat at amount of 14 MM BTU/hr is injected as wet steam into a
formation 70 ft thick for a period of 400 days followed by cold water
injection for another 500 days. Calculate the vertical heat loss to adjacent
strata if the thermal diffusivity = 0.96 ft
2
/day.
Solution:
t = 400 + 500 = 900 days t
o
= 400 days
At time t,
2
) (
4
log log
h
t
t

=

15 . 0
) 70 (
) 900 )( 96 . 0 )( 4 (
log
2
= From Rubinsteins Figure (W
o
*
)
t
= 0.3
At time t t
o
= 500
4 . 0
) 70 (
) 500 )( 96 . 0 )( 4 (
log
2
= From Figure (W
o
*
)
t-to
= 0.22
Vertical heat loss;
40 . 0 22 . 0
900
400 900
30 . 0
400
900
) ( =
(

\
|
=
t o
W
or 40 % of the total heat injected into the formation is lost to the
adjacent strata.
Heated Radius:
The remaining heat raises the temperature of the rock and fluids content
above the reservoir temperature. The heated radius r
h
, assuming radial and
uniform propagation can be calculated using;
h T T M
Q
r
s s
f
h
) (
=

, ft
where;
Q
f
= net amount of heat available to formation, BTU
M
s
= volumetric heat capacity of steam saturated rock, BTU/ft
3
-F
T
s
= steam temperature, F
T = reservoir temperature, F
h = formation thickness, ft
Example-8:
Heat at an amount of 14 MMBTU/hr is injected as wet steam into a
formation 70 ft thick for a period of 400 days followed by cold water
injection for another 500 days. Estimate the heat lost to the overburden,
the net heat gained by the formation, and the heated radius.
T
formation
= 100 F Steam quality = 72 %
Steam injection pressure = 760 psia at sand face
M
s
= 36 BTU/ft
3
-F
Solution:
Heat lost to the overburden, fraction = 0.40 (from previous example)
From steam tables; at P
s
= 760 psia and 72 % steam quality T
s
= 512.3 F
The wet steam enthalpy
fg s f gw
h f h h * + =

(saturated liquid) (vaporization)
h
gw
= 502.6 + (0.72) 697.1 = 1004.5 BTU/lbm
the water enthalpy at 100 F = 67.9 BTU/lbm
the net enthalpy of the steam injected into the formation;
h
gw
h
w
= 1004.5 67.9 = 936.6 BTU/lbm
Steam injection rate is (bbl/day)
lbm BTU bbl lbm
day hr hr BTU x
q
s
/ 5 . 1004 * / 350
/ 24 * / 10 14
6
= = 955.7 bbl/day
available heat above reservoir temperature;
day hr
lbm BTU bbl lbm day bbl
/ 24
/ 6 . 936 * / 350 * / 7 . 955

Q
ah
= 13 MMBTU/hr
Heat lost to the overburden is;
Q
ov
= 0.40 x 13 x 10
6
BTU/hr
= 5.2 MM BTU/hr
Net heat to the formation
Q
f
= Q
ah
Q
ov
= (13 5.2) x 10
6
BTU/hr
Q
f
= 7.8 x 10
6
BTU/hr x 24 hr/day x 400 days = 74.88 x 10
9
BTU
The heated radius
ft F F ft BTU
BTU x
r
o o
h
70 * ) 100 3 . 512 ( * / 36 *
10 88 . 74
3
9

=

= 151.5 ft
Steam Drive Displacement
Several analytical and empirical models have been developed and are
available in the literature describing the displacement of oil by continuous
steam injection. Most of the investigators improved and refined the frontal
displacement model of Marx and Langenheim (1959), modified by Ramey
(1965) to evaluate steam drive projects.
Correlation charts for predicting steam flood oil recovery as a function of
reservoir characteristics were also developed. (Gomma, 1980, JPT,
February).
Oil Displacement Rate
The rate V
o
at which oil is displaced from the reservoir is given by the
Marx-Langenheim equation;
( ) erfcx e
T M
S S H
day bbl V
x
s
or o o
o
2 ) (
273 . 4 ) / (
)
`

=


where;
H
o
= heat injection rate, BTU/hr S
o
= oil saturation, fraction
= effective porosity S
or
= residual oil saturation, fraction
T = T
s
T
r
, F M
s
= heat capacity, BTU/ft
3
-F
The error function is the group of terms in the parentheses on the RHS
5 . 0
2
t
h M
k
X
c s
c
|
|

\
|
=

, dimensionless
where;
k
c
= thermal conductivity of the cap rock, BTU/ft-hr-F

c
= thermal diffusivity of the cap rock, ft
2
/hr
t = injection time, hr
h = formation thickness, ft
The thermal diffusivity of the cap rock (overburden) is
c c
c
c
C
k

c
= cap rock density, lbm/ft
3

C
c
= specific heat of the cap rock, BTU/lbm-F
Marx and Langenheim also provide an equation for the cumulative heated
area at time t;
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|

= 1
2
4
) (
2
2

x
erfcx e
T k
h M H
t A
x
c
c s o
, ft
2

and the cumulative oil displaced:
) ( 7758 *
43560
* ) (
or o
S S
h t A
= , bbl
The heated area will expand continuously with time, and assuming an
isotropic and homogeneous formation, the expansion will be radial. When
the so-called critical time is reached, steam drive projects are evaluated
using more complex models (Myhill and Stegemeiers model, JPT, 1978).
Example-9
An isotropic and homogeneous oil reservoir is subjected to a steam drive
process in which 1200 bbl/day wet steam of 80 % quality is injected at 660
psia into 65 ft of productive formation. Calculate the oil displaced by steam
drive and the cumulative heated area if the injection period is 5 years and
the reservoir rock characteristics are as follows;
= 26 %
c
= 0.70 ft
2
/day
S
o
= 0.60 oil saturation at the start of the process
S
or
= 0.12 residual oil saturation is steam zone
T
r
=32 BTU/ft
3
-F k
c
= 0.95 BTU/ft-hr-F (cap rock)
Solution:
Heat injection rate, H
o
is
( )
w fg s f s o
h h f h Cq H + =
, BTU/hr
where;
q
s
= steam injection rate, bbl/day
f
s
= steam quality, fraction
h
f
= enthalpy of saturated liquid, BTU/lbm
h
fg
= enthalpy of vaporization, BTU/lbm
h
w
= enthalpy of water at initial reservoir temperature, BTU/lbm
hr bbl
day lbm
day hr
bbl lbm
C
*
*
583 . 14
/ 24
/ 350
= =
f
s
= 0.80 h
f
= 478 BTU/lbm h
fg
= 728 BTU/lbm h
w
= 99.9 BTU/lbm
NET ENTHALPY OF WET STEAM INJECTED INTO THE FORMATION
= (h
f
+ f
s
h
fg
- h
w
) = 960.54 BTU/lbm
Wet steam water enthalpy at 130 F
hr MMBTU
lbm BTU
day
bbl
hr bbl
day lbm
H
o
/ 808 . 16
/
54 . 960 * 1200 *
*
*
583 . 14 = =
Rate of oil displaced, V
o
(bbl/day) is;
( )
( ) erfcx e
T M
S S H
V
x
s
or o o
o
2
273 . 4
)
`

=


( )
( )
( ) erfcx e
F
F ft
BTU
ft day
hr BTU bbl hr
V
x
o
o
o

|
|

\
|

=
2
130 58 . 496 * 32 *
12 . 0 60 . 0 ( * 26 . 0 * / 10 * 808 . 16 *
273 . 4
3
3
6

( ) erfcx e
x
2
6 . 698 =

where
5 . 0 5 . 0
24 / 70 . 0 65 * 35
95 . 0 * 2 2
t t
h M
k
x
s
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=

t x 0053 . 0 =
hours


Steps Time
(days)
Time
(hrs)
x
erfcx e
x
2

Oil Displaced Bbl/day
bbl/step Cum. Oil Bbl
1 1 24 0.0259 0.9715 678.6 678.6 679
2 50 1200 0.1836 0.8224 574.4 30698 31377
3 100 2400 0.2596 0.7632 533.1 27686 59064
4 200 4800 0.3672 0.6907 482.4 50775 109839
6 600 14400 0.6360 0.5521 385.6 173600 283439
8 1000 24000 0.8211 0.4819 336.6 144440 427879
10 1400 33600 0.9715 0.4338 303.0 127920 555799
12 1825 43900 1.1092 0.3995 279.0 123675 679474

Oil displaced bbl/step = t
RATE RATE
i i
|

\
| +
+
*
2
1

30698 49 *
2
4 . 574 6 . 679
= |

\
| +
bbl
The cumulative heated area after 5 years of steam injection;
|
|

\
|
+ |

\
|

= 1
2
4
) (
2
2

x
erfcx e
T k
h M H
t A
x s o
, ft
2

|
|

\
|
+

= 1
2
) 130 58 . 496 ( * / ) 95 . 0 ( * 4
/
24
70 . 0
* 65 * / 32 * / 10 808 . 16
2
2
2 3 6

x
erfcx e
F F hr ft BTU
hr ft ft F ft BTU hr BTU x
x
o o
o

6514 . 0 1
2 2
= +

x
erfcx e
x
(from table)
t x 0053 . 0 = , t = 5 years * 365 day/year * 24 hr/day
x = 1.1092
A(t) = 770531 ft
2
* 0.65114 = 501 723 ft
2

The cumulative oil displaced;
) ( * * 7758 *
43560
* ) (
or o
S S
h t A

, bbl
) 12 . 0 60 . 0 )( 26 . 0 ( / 7758 *
/ 43560
65 * 501723
3
2
= acre bbl
acre ft
ft ft

= 724860 bbl
The cumulative oil displaced corresponds to the entire thickness of the
formation. In reality, as we saw less oil is displaced since the steam
segregates gravitationally and overrides. However, oil displaced does not
mean oil produced. Areas of reservoir rock between producers or the lower
half of the formation thickness can receive some of the displaced oil.
Oil-Steam Ratio
This is the ratio of oil production to the cumulative steam injected,
expressed as barrels of condensate.
Cyclic Steam Injection
Cyclic steam injection is a method of simulating well production to obtain
higher oil rates from the first 3 to 4 steam cycles.
A very simple solution for estimating the reservoir response to cyclic steam
injection, taking into consideration only its effect on viscosity, was given by
Smith (1985).
The effect of the heated zone on well productivity can be understood by
picturing a system of two concentric hollow cyclinders of radii (r) and (r
e
)
with a pressure drop given by
( ) ( )
w e w e
P P P P P P + =
where;
P
e
P
w
= pressure drop before the first steam injection cycle
(P
e
P) + (P P
w
) = pressure drop after the steam cycle injection
Using Darcys Law ;
) / ln( ) / ln(
) / ln(
h e
cold
o w h
hot
o
w e
cold
o
cold
o
hot
o
r r r r
r r
q
q

+
=

where


( )h T T M
Q
r
s s
f
h

, ft
Example-10:
Calculate the productivity increase of a well that produces oil from Kern
River reservoir with 1100 cp initial viscosity, assuming after the first cycle
of steam injection that;
r
h
, heated radius = 47 ft r
w
= 3.5 / 12 ft
T
r
= 100 F T
h
= 300 F
o
= 10 cp
R
e
= 200 ft, drainage radius
SOLUTION :
) 47 / 700 ln( 1100 ) 29 . 0 / 47 ln( 10
) 29 . 0 / 700 ln( 1100
+
=
cold
o
hot
o
q
q
= 2.83 times
and is due only to the decrease of the oil viscosity. The productivity of the
well is also improved by the steams well bore cleanup effect, which
increases the rock permeability around the well bore.


GENERAL EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS :
Steam Temperature, T
s
( F)
225 . 0
* 1 . 115
s s
P T =
P
s
= psia
Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid, h
f
(BTU/lbm)
2574 . 0
* 91
s f
P h =
P
s
= psia
Enthalpy of Vaporization, h
fg
(BTU/lbm)
2
) *(ln 160416 . 0 *ln 8406 . 1 41641 . 1
s s
P P
fg
e h
+
=
P
s
= Psia
Enthalpy of Water, h
w
(BTU/lbm)
) 32 ( 999 . 0 = T h
w
T = F