GSM Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

GSM RF Design and Planning Fundamentals
Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Cirta Consulting LLC
® Cirta Consulting LLC

A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony
During the 1980s, in Europe, Many Systems were used without any
Regulation, Standards, or Compatibilities. Most of them were Analog.
As a result :
* No Roaming between Countries
* Major Capacity Problems and Congestions
* Limited Market for each Technology
* Very high subscriber equipment cost...Further growth difficult !
In The USA and Canada DAMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone

Service) : Cheaper handsets, roaming, easy subscribing, etc
Modern Systems are :
* Digital : The signal is Digitized through A/D Converters, Modulated, and

then sent via the Antenna
* High Capacity : They are able to simultaneously serve a large number of

customers
* Encrypted : Due to the fact that they are digital, they have full protection
against fraud. Also, they are highly securised
* High Speech Quality : Due to Technology advance and electronics

improvements
* Spectrum Efficient : They offer optimised frequency spectrum use
* Possibility to roam within the GSM Community Networks (provided a signed

Roaming Agreement)
Role of the RF Design Engineer :
Design the Network Architecture
Select type of Antennas
Analyze the Links : Downlink and Uplink
Propose Solutions to Enhance the Capacity of a Base Station
Consider Marketing Inputs and Propose Design accordingly
Perform Drive Test to ensure Quality of the Link
Use Radio Planning rules to install Antennas in different sites
Use Radio Planning tools to assess the Coverage using Simulation
Perform RF Propagation Model Tunning using measurements
Selects the RF Infrastructure to fullfil the Link Budget requirements
Calculates Propagation, Site Clearance, Link Quality using different
Hardware and Software Tools

A GSM subscriber (Mobile) Should be able to :
Receive and Transmit within a given geographical area
Roam to other countries (If a Roaming Agreement exists)
Have a continuous Quality of Service (QoS)
A Mobile Station should be able to :

Change the Serving Base Station (BS) if the link is bad (or going to
become bad) on the actual BS. This is the Handover (or Hand-off)
Recognize which country, Network, or Base Station the user is
attached to
Inform the actual Network about the Identity of the User
Prevent forthcoming Drop Calls, Quality Problems due to
Interference, or Signal Level (shadowing by obstacles)

B. RF Fundamentals
Notation in dBm, dBW, dBi, dBd, dB
P (dBm) = 10Log10(P mW/1mW)

) Example : 100 mW power results in 10Log10(100)=20 dBm
P dBW = 10Log10(P W/1W)

) Example : 15 W power results in 10Log10(15)= 11.76 dBW
Relation between dBW and dBm :

) dBm = dBW + 30
) Example : 100 mW = 20 dBm = -10 dBW

B. RF Fundamentals : DC CIRCUITS
I
•Voltage U = RI
R
E U U2
•Power P = UI =
R
If an internal resistor is to be considered:
I R
•Voltage U= E
r
U R R+r
E
R
•Power P= E 2
(r + R) 2

B. RF Fundamentals : AC CIRCUITS
•Voltage u = Ri
i
• If e(t ) = E cos ωt
• Then
e
u R R
r e(t ) = E cos ωt ≡ U m cos ωt
R+r
•Power
U m2
p (t ) = u (t )i (t ) = cos 2 ωt
R
•RMS Notion = Root Mean Square
T
1 2
U= ∫
T 0
u (t )dt
B. RF Fundamentals : Exercise
Suppose we have a voltage : u (t ) = U m cos ωt

2π
With a period of T=
ω
Compute the RMS Voltage for Um = 50 V
Is the RMS dependent of the frequency ?

Complex numbers B.RF Fundamentals
* z1 = x1 + jy1 z1 ± z 2 = ( x1 ± x2 ) + j ( y1 ± y2 )
* z 2 = x2 + jy2 z1 × z 2 = ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + j ( x1 y2 + y1 x2
z1 z1 z 2 1
= 2
= 2 2
× {( x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 − y1 x2 )}
z2 z2 x2 y 2
 y1 
* If Θ1 = arg( z1 ) = tg −1
 
 x1  arg( z1 z 2 ) = Θ1 + Θ 2
 y2  z1
Θ 2 = arg( z 2 ) = tg −1
  arg( ) = Θ1 − Θ 2
 x2  z2
z1 = 1 + j 2 Θ1 = arg(z1 )
Given
z 2 = −1 + j 3 Θ 2 = arg(z 2 )
Exercise
z1  z1 
z1 + z 2 Θ 3 = arg 
Compute z2  z2 
z1 − z 2 Θ1 Θ 4 = arg(z1 z 2 )
® Cirta Consulting LLC z1 z 2 Θ2
B.RF.Fundamentals
Exercise Compute 1) Ζ1 + Ζ 2 , Ζ1 + Ζ 2 and arg(Ζ1 + Ζ 2 )

π
j
Ζ1 = 2e 3
Ζ1 Ζ1  Ζ1 
Given 2) , and arg 
Ζ2 Ζ2  Ζ2 
Ζ2 = 2 − j 3
3) Ζ1Ζ 2 , Ζ1Ζ 2 and arg(Ζ1Ζ 2 )
Υ
Given Ζ = Χ + jΥ Show that log Ζ = log Χ 2 + Υ 2 + jtg −1  
Χ
> U = Ζ• I
Impedance e ~ U where Ζ = jLω
ω = 2π f (rad • s )
−1
j
Ζ=− for a capacitor
Cω
Ζ = jLω for an inductor
Ζ®=Cirta
R Consulting
for a LLCpure resistor
B. RF Fundamentals : Complex numbers
Imaginary Part
Y Z
ρ
θ Real Part
X
jθ
Z = X + jY = ρe
X = ρ cosθ
Y = ρ sin θ
B. RF Fundamentals : Impedance
A I
U=Z I
U, Z and I are all Complex Numbers
ε
U Z
Zin
B
Z : The Impedance of the Load and Zin internal to the Generator

Z = R for a Resistor
Z = jLω for an Inductive Component
Z = − j / Cω for a Capacitor
In Low Frequencies, all the power delivered to Z is

absorbed or dissipated into heat
B. RF Fundamentals
Vertical Polarization r
E

Refers to the
direction of the Dipole
Electric Field Antenna r
Horizontal r Π
Polarization would
be to configure the H
dipole horizontally
r
Horizontal Π is the Poynting Vector (Power)
Polarization Refers r r
to the direction of
the Electric Field r E×H
Π=
η
B. RF Fundamentals : High Frequency considerations
A I
At RF domain, Energy flows
from the generator to the Load.
It can be fully absorbed by Z, or
ε
U Z Partly reflected and partly absorbed.
Zin
B
2
 VSWR − 1 
The % of Reflected Energy is ρ =  × 100
 VSWR + 1 
VSWR : Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( 1:1 is ideal )

Acceptable VSWR = 1.5 : 1
Impedance Match : Z* = Zin

B. RF Fundamentals
EIRP or Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power :
The Power to supply to an antenna to obtain the same power in all
directions at a distance d :
PE (θ , ϕ ) = P + G − Lr (θ , ϕ )
We always consider the main lobe direction where no losses exist
PE = P + G
dBi : Refers to an Isotropic antenna and dBd to the Dipole :
dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

EIRP = ERP + 2.15 dB
Example : G = 16 dBi, so G = 13.85 dBd and if P = 33 dBm (2 W)

Then PE = 16 + 33 = 49 dBm in the main Lobe
B. RF Fundamentals
60 60
32.5 32.5
0 0
10 10
3 - 32,5 3 - 32,5
0 - 60 0 - 60
dB dB
Horizontal Diagram Vertical Diagram
20.00
0. 00-20. 00
0.00
-20. 00-0. 00
-1. 05
-40. 00--20. 00
-0. 60 -20.00
-60. 00--40. 00
-0. 15 -40. 00
0.30 -60.00
0.75

B. RF Fundamentals
Directivity : Figure of Merit to quantify the ability of an antenna to

concentrate the Energy in a particular Direction
Wmax
D=
MeanPowerDensity @ d
Where Wmax is the Power Density at a distance d in the main lobe

direction
W
G = max
Generally, we use the Gain instead : PT
4π d 2
Where PT is the supplied power to the antenna, commonly known as

the output power (minus the cable and connector losses)
Given PT and G, we can compute the Power Density Wmax

B. RF Fundamentals
Relation Between W and E (The Electric Field) :
E2
E2 E2
W= = =
η 120π 377
Besides :
E2 PT GT 30 PT GT
= ⇒ E=
120π 4πd 2 d
Maximum Useful Power :
2
E 2 2
E2
λ  Eλ  G R
P= A= . GR =  
η 120π 4π  2π  120
B. RF Fundamentals
λ2
Effective Area of an Antenna (Reception) : A= G
4π
Received Power : P = WA
W : Power Density (Per Unit Area)
PT GT
W=
4πd 2
PT GT λ2
Finally, the received power reads : PR = GR
4πd 4π
2
Free Space Loss Between Isotropic Antennas (GR=GT = 1) :
PR
L(dB ) = 10 Log10 = −32.44 − 20 Log10 f MHz − 20 Log10 d km
PT

B. RF Fundamentals
Propagation Over a Plane Reflecting Surface (Flat Earth Model) :
Tx
Ht Rx
Hr
d
− jkδ
E = Ed − Ed e
Assuming d >> Ht and Hr, the Path Loss (Iinear) :
2
PR  Ht Hr 
= GT GR  2 
PT  d 
B. RF Fundamentals
Reflection :
Tx
Ht Rx
Hr
d
− jkδ
E = ΓE d e
Γ is the Complex Reflection Coefficient
The value of Γ depends upon frequency,
Polarization and Electric Characteristics
of the reflecting surface

B. RF Fundamentals
A B C
C
B
Shadow region
A
B. RF Fundamentals
Diffraction :
h
Tx
D1 Rx
Ht
D2 Hr
d
− jkδ
E = DEd e
D is the Complex Diffraction Coefficient
The value of D depends upon frequency,
Polarization, Geometry, and Angles of the
structure

B. RF Fundamentals
The Diffraction Loss is shown to be :
 20 Log (0.5 − 0.62v ) − 0 .8 < v < 0

 20 Log (0.5 exp(−0.95v)) 0 < v <1

L (v ) = 
 20 Log ( 0 . 4 − 0. 1184 − ( 0 .38 − 0. 1v ) 2
) 1 < v < 2 .4
 20 Log (0.225 / v ) v > 2 .4
Where v, the Fresnel Parameter is given by :
2( D1 + D 2)
v=h
λD1D 2
B. RF Fundamentals Compute L(v) for :
Hb = 20 m
Hp = 5 m
Ho = 15 m
Hm = 1.5 m
Hp A = 1250 m
B = 4.5 m
Frequency = 900 MHz
Hb
Ho
Hm
A B
02
01
T H R
h1 h2
Ht Hr
D1 D2
d1 d2 d3
Bullington Model :
“equivalent” Knife - edge
Test : Bullington Diffraction Loss Model
Compute H, D1, D2, and then L(v) the Diffraction

Loss given the following data :
Ht = 25 m
Hr = 1.5 m
d1=d2=d3=1000 m
h1 = 30 m, h2 = 15 m
Frequency = 1880 MHz
Compare L(v) to the Free Space Loss
Please Conclude

Propagation over irregular terrain
02
01
03
R
T
d1 x d2 x d3 x d4
The Epstein – Petersen diffraction construction

Propagation over irregular terrain
02
01
03
R
T
d1 x d2 x d3 x d4
Main edge
The Deygout diffraction construction
B. RF Fundamentals : Receiver Theory
Receiver Input
BS / MS
Demodulation Receiver
Receiver Output
& Selective
Filtering
To operate properly the receiver has to receive

a minimum power : Sensitivity
The Sensitivity depends on the technology involved

Receiver Sensitivity :
Is the minimum acceptable input signal level in dBm, at the
receiver‘s low noise amplifier, required by the system for reliable
communication
Carrier to Noise Ratio CNR or C/N :

For a given BER (Bit Error Rate) of about 10-3 for example, C/N is
the required minimum signal to noise ratio
Thermal/Environment Noise :
Is a combination of
) Antenna Noise (dBm)
) Receiver Noise Figure (NF) in dB
) Temperature and System Bandwidth

Receiver
NF
(S/N)in (S/N)out
S S Nin : Thermal Noise,

  =   + NF
 N in  N  out NF : Noise Figure
S
S in − N in =   + NF RECEIVER SENSITIVITY :
 N  out
S
S Sin = 10 Log10 (k .T .B) + NF +  
S in = N in +   + NF  N  out
 N  out

S
S in = 10 Log10 (k .T .B) + NF +  
 N  out
k : Boltzmann Constant ( 1.38 * 10-23 J/°K)

T : System Operating Temperature (°K)
B : System Bandwidth (Hz)
T : 290 °K typical value
Exercise : Compute Sin (dBm) for a GSM signal of 200 kHz

Bandwidth, with a receiver NF=6 dB and C/N = 9 dB

B. RF Fundamentals : Intermodulation
IM is a non-linear process that generates an output signal
Containing frequency components not present in the input
signal
x Non-Linear
Device a0 +a1x+a2x2 +a3x3 +...
Assuming x to be a two-carrier f1 and f2 sine wave :
x(t ) = A cos(2πf1t ) + B cos(2πf 2t )

y (t ) = a0 + a1 x + y2 + y3
y2 =
2
(
a2 2 a
) [ ]
A + B 2 + 2 A2 cos(2π (2 f1 )) + B 2 cos(2π (2 f 2 )) + a2 AB[cos(2π ( f1 + f 2 )) + cos(2π ( f1 − f 2 ))]
2
3630 MHz
1800 MHz 1830 MHz
3600 MHz 3660 MHz

0 30 MHz
DC f2-f1 f1 f2 2f1 f2+f1 2f2
Cellular Band
Spectral Characteristics of y2 Using
f1 = 1800 MHz and f2 = 1830 MHz, A=B=1, and a2 = 1
y (t ) = a0 + a1 x + y2 + y3
Six Different Frequencies are generated in IM3 :
3f1, 3f2, 2f1-f2, 2f1+f2, 2f2-f1, 2f2+f1
1800 MHz 1830 MHz
0 1770 MHz 1860 MHz
DC 2f1-f2 f1 f2 2f2-f1
Cellular Band
Spectral Characteristics of y3 Using
f1 = 1800 MHz and f2 = 1830 MHz, A=B=1, and a2 = 1
B. RF Fundamentals : Fade Margin
1  ( x − m )2 
p ( x) = exp − 

R σ 2π  2σ 2

x : is the received level
m: Mean value of x
σ : Standard Deviation of x
• Due to shadowing and terrain effects the signal level measured on a circle
around the BS shows radom behaviour around the predicted value given by the
Propagation Model
• This Random Signal level through the cell boundary has a Log-Normal
distribution
• Log-Normal variable is in fact a Gaussian Process when expressed in dB

PDF-Gaussian
B. RF Fundamentals 0.06
0.05
0.04
1  ( x − m )2  0.03 PDF-Gaussian
p( x) = exp − 

0.02
σ 2π  2σ 2
 0.01
-110.00
-104.00
-98.00
-92.00
-86.00
-80.00
-74.00
-68.00
-62.00
-56.00
-50.00
Theory shows that to ensure 90 % of Surface Reliability,
One may push the received signal level requirement to
Higher values than m (50%).
This leads to a notion called :
Fade Margin : the additional margin to fullfil y % of surface

Covered.
Fade Margin
50% is the median value. To achieve higher %, one may add
a Fade Margin to fullfil X% > 50%
The Probability that a Field Strength Exceeds a Threshold E0 is :
∞
p E 0 = p ( E ≥ E0 ) = ∫ p( E )dE
E0
1  E m − E0  
p E0 = 1 − erf   
2  σ 2 

Fade Margin
The Lognormal Margin is defined as :

Mlog = Em – E 0
Hata Model has a general form :
E0 ( r ) = Em − 10γ log10 ( r / R )
The Contour Probability can be written as :
1   r 
p E0 =  1 − erf  a + b ln  
2   R 
Fade Margin Em − E0
a =
σ 2
The parameters a and b are :
10 log 10 e
b =
σ 2
The Area Coverage Probability over a Circle of Radius R is :
1
Pcov = 2
πR ∫∫ p E0 (r ,θ )rdrdθ
The contour probability depends only upon the radius r, which simplifies
the computation and leads to :
1  2ab + 1   ab + 1  
Pcov = 1 + erf (a ) − exp 2 1 − erf   
2  b   b  

Contour and Area Coverage Probability Versus the Fade Margin
100
90
80
Probability (% )
70
60
Cell Edge %
50
Area %
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fade Margin (dB)

Ms Antenna
Gain Loss
ERP
Gains and losses in uplink
Body Loss
In-Building Car
Penetration Loss
Fade margin
GA LCCC
Path Loss
RY
Combiner
RX Base = PAm + Gm − Lbody − LBldg − M Fade − Plup + GB − LCCC Cable &
Connector
Plup = PAm + Gm − LBody − LBldg − M fade − RX Base + GB − LCCC
Losses

Gains and Losses in Down Link
PA
ERP
LCCC Fade margin
Path Loss
Power
Amplifier
GB In-Building Car
Penetration Loss
Body Loss
Combiner
Cable & MS Antenna
Connector Gain Loss
Losses
RX
RXMobile = PAB − LCCC + GB − MFade − MDown − LBldg − LBody + GM
PAB = RXMobile+ LCCC − GB + MFade + PLDown + LBldg + LBody − GM
Maximum Allowable Path Loss
Starting with the reverse link UL

•Find the maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
- Start from MS maximum power

- Subtract all the losses in due to, RF components
- Subtract all the margins due to fading and interference
for a given target loading
- Add all the gains in the path e.g. antenna and diversity gains
- Subtract the receiver sensitivity of the base station
for a given FER
- The result is MAPL
MAPL = PLUp − AllLosses + AllGains − RX base

Balance Equation:
PLUp = PAm + GM − LBody − LBldg − MFade − RXBase + GB + GDiv − LCCC

PLDown = PAB − LCCC + GB − MFade − RXMobile − LBldg − LBody + GM
PLDown = PLUp
•Write the balance equation and see which terms
get cancelled
•Find the Base station and EIRP that results
in balanced paths.
•Changing which parameter jeopardizes the path
balance?
- Antenna Gain
- Antenna Height
-® PA
Cirta output
Consulting LLC
Cell Size / Count Estimation
• Objective
- To determine the number of cells required to provide
coverage for a given area
• Required Input:
- Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
- Propagation Loss Model

From MAPL to Cell Size
Path Loss Propagation Loss Model
MAPL
Distance from TX
Range or
Cell Radius
Cell Size Information With Hata Model
•Using Hata’s Empirical Formula
PL = 69.55+ 26.16log10 fc −13.82log10 hb + (44.9 − 6.55log10 hb ) log10 R − a(hm ) − CF
•Solve it backward to find cell radius estimate
MAPL + CF − 69.55 − 26.16 log10 f c + 13.82 log10 hb + a ( hm )

log10 R =
44.9 − 6.55 log10 hb

H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation
BS Installation Requirements :
A certain isolation has to be present between Tx and Rx antennas
Radiation Patterns must not be distorted by obstacles or reflections
nearby the antennas
Isolation :
Between 2 antennas : Attenuation from the connector of one
antenna to the connector of the other antenna when both
antennas are in their installation positions
To avoid unwanted signals into the receiver Rx, the following

isolation values are required :
) 40 dB Between a Tx Antenna and a Rx Antenna
) 20 dB Between 2 Tx Antennas
Isolation :
To obtain the Isolation values the antennas have to be placed at

certain minimum distance from each other
The distance depends on : Antenna types, configuration
Omnidirectional antennas require greater horizontal distance than

directional antennas
Vertical separation requires less distance than horizontal separation

H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Vertical Separation
Pre-condition : a > 1 m
Tx-Tx : 0.2 m minimum
Tx-Rx : 0.5 m minimum
k
As a General Rule :
Isolation :
k
AV = 28 + 40 Log10   dB
λ
For GSM 900, λ = 0.33 m
a
AV = 47 + 40 Log10 k dB
With A = 35 dB, k = 0.5 m

H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Horizontal Separation
G1 : Gain of antenna 1 in dBd

G2 : Gain of antenna 2 in dBd
d 
AH = 22 + 20 Log10   − (G1 + G2 ) dB General
λ
AH = 31 + 20 Log10 d − (G1 + G2 ) dB @ 900 MHz
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Horizontal Separation
Omni Antenna Tx-Rx distance Tx-Rx distance

Gain (dBd) (40 dB) (20 dB)
0 3.0 m 1.0 m *
3 5.5 m 1.0 m *
6 11.0 m 1.0 m
9 22.0 m 2.5 m
10 28.0 m 3.0 m
Could be less for Tx-Tx but 1.0 m is a conservative option to

avoid shadowing effects
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Combined H/V Separation
α°
A ≈ ( AV − AH ). + AH
90°
h
D

Antenna height
4
Step function
3
First Fresnel zone
2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 distance(m)
The mast is allowed Mast

to swing 1° at a wind
velocity of 30 m/s
±1
a
2 m is recommended



o
Max. 15
o
90
Forward direction

RxA RxB
Maximum diversity
H
Axis
Ground level
a
h
D

Antenna height (m)
4
Step function
3
First Fresnel zone
2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 distance(m)
Top view
Forward direction
Wall

Top view Forward direction
Maximum 15°
Cell sector
including
safety margin ± 75°

Top view Forward direction
More than 15°
Cell sector
including
safety margin ± 75°
Wall

H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Diversity
Definition
Diversity is the statistical improvement of the received signal when

more than one signal is used.
To improve the overall received signal level, due to multipath

phenomenon, it is interesting to use more than one antenna and
consider internally the best received signal.
Diversity in cellular is used only at the Base Station end, although it is

theoretically possible for mobiles, it is quite cumbersome to have two
antennas moving with the subscriber !

Base Station
Mobile
Station (BS)
(MS) Antenna #1
Antenna #2
The Receiver uses different
combining techniques. The most
popular is the Maximum Combining
Ratio Technique

Received signal
Time
Signal Level Received by Antenna 1 (RxA)
Signal Level Received by Antenna 2 (RxB)
Improvement due to Antenna Diversity
Typical Diversity Gains : 3.5 dB for Cross-Polarised antennas, 4.5 dB for Space
Diversity. The maximum theoretical value is 6 dB.
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Correlation vs distance
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
αJ (k .d ) 2
0
Correlation Function
d
0.7
10λ 40λ Normalized Distance

H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Diversity Requirements
H
a≥
10
a = distance between
a
Rx antennas RxA RxB
H = height of mast
plus building
(Effective antenna height)
H
Ground level

Maximum diversity RxB

RxA
Minimum diversity
a
90°

RxB
Coverage area
Optimum
diversity
RxA

Market Boundaries
•Usually a midsize market covers heterogeneous areas,e.g.
- Downtown,Urban or dense urban areas
- Suburban, Light residential areas
- Rural, open areas, farmland…
Urban
Suburban
Rural

Radio Planning Methodology
Define Design Rules and Parameters
Business Planning
Set Long Term Plans and Performance

Targets
Design Iteration
Coverage Requirement &
Demand Forecasts from Design Nominal Cell Plan
Marketing
Acquire Sites and Implement Cell Plan
Computer-Based
Modelling
Produce Frequency Plan
Optimise Network

Market Boundaries

Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments
Lu = 69,55 + 26,16Log( f ) −13,82Log(hb ) − a(hm ) + [44,9 − 6,55Log(hb )]Log(d )
a(hm ) = [1,1Log( f ) − 0,7]hm − [1,56Log( f ) − 0,8] For a Midium Size City
a(hm ) = [3,2Log(11,75hm )] hm − 4,97

2
For a Big Size City and f > 400 MHz
Lsu = Lu − 2[Log( f / 28)] − 5,4

2
For Suburban Environments
Lro = Lu − 4,78[Log( f )] +18,33Log( f ) − 40,94 For Rural Environments

2
Lrqo = Lu − 4,78[Log( f )] +18,33Log( f ) − 35,94 For Semi-Rural Environments

2

Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments
Hata Model is valid under certain conditions :
Frequencies between 150 and 1000 MHz

Base Station Antenna Height between 30 an 200 m
Mobile Station Antenna Height between 1 and 20 m
BS-MS Distance between 1 and 20 km
As a Result, it is suitable for GSM900 only and NOT

GSM1800 or PCS1900 !!!

COST231-Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments
Lu = 46,33 + 33,9 Log ( f ) − 13,82 Log (hb ) − a (hm ) + [44,9 − 6,55 Log (hb )]Log (d ) + Cm
a (hm ) = [1,1Log ( f ) − 0,7]hm − [1,56 Log ( f ) − 0,8]
Cm = 0 dB For Medium Size Cities and Suburbs
Cm = 3 dB For Big Metropolitan Centers
Validity : Frequencies between 1500 MHz and 2000 MHz

Table of Penetration Losses
In Building penetration (dB) 15 - 25
In Car penetration (dB) 3 - 10
Body Loss (dB) 2- 5
For all receiving environments

a loss associated with the effect
of users body on propagation
has to be included.
This effect is in the form of a

few dB loss in both uplink and
downlink directions.

Tower Mounted Amplifier :
Effect on Coverage and Quality

TMA 4 dB Gain
in the UL
3 dB cable loss
BTS BTS
Static Sensitivity=-110 dBm Static Sensitivity=-110 dBm
S(without TMA) = -110 + 3 = -107 dBm* S(with TMA) = -110 + 3-4 = -111 dBm*
* Body
® Cirta Consulting LLC Loss and Lognormal Fading have to be added
Overview on Linkbudget Impact (1/2)
Cell Range R computed using :

MAPL=A+B*log(R)
MAPL : Maximum Allowed Path Loss
MAPL = EIRP-Effective Sensitivity
Example :
) Given EIRP=Pout+Gant-CableLoss
) with Pout=40 dBm; Gant=18 dBi; Cable Loss=3 dB
) EIRP=40+18-3=55 dBm
) MAPL =
• 55 - (-107+7+5) = 150 dB without TMA

• 55 - (-111+7+5) = 154 dB with TMA
MAPL : The higher the bigger the cell radius
) log(R) = (MAPL-A)/B ⇒ R = 10^((MAPL-A)/B)

Numerical Example :
Assume we use a Rural Propagation Model PL = 135 + 30*log(R)
Cell Radius R=
) 10^( (150-135)/30 )= 3.2 km without TMA
) 10^( (154-135)/30 )= 4.3 km with TMA !
Path Loss (dB) 135+30*lod(d)

MAPL=154 dB with TMA
4 dB due to TMA
MAPL=150 dB without TMA
3.2 km 4.3 km
® Cirta Consulting LLC Distance (km)
Uplink Coverage
Downlink Coverage
Directional
Antenna
Due to linkbudget imbalance
TMA Improves Uplink vs Downlink: To balance the Linkbudget

the BTS output power has to be raised by 4 dB ! (the TMA gain)
Measurements and Propagation Model Calibration
Three Types of measurement equipment are commonly used :
1. Narrowband measurements (CW)

a) Prior to starting the design
b) For calibrating the prediction model
c) For verification of critical and borderline coverage areas
2. Test Mobile Measurements
a) Once the Network has been built
b) For analysis of System Parameters and Handover behavior
c) For Network Optimization
3. Reflection Measurements (channel sounder)
a) As a research tool
b) For analysis of Multipath Propagation and Delay Spread
c) Normally only necessary in mountainous regions

Measurement requirement for Tool Calibration
- To measure out to the cell radius, requires typically 145 dB (MAPL)

- To measure out to the point where interference is significant, requires typically
another 20 dB (i.e. a total of 165 dB dynamic range)
- The measuring equipment should handle this range easily, i.e. should have a
dynamic range of the order of 175 dB
- To achieve this dynamic range, narrowband CW measurements are necessary
Wideband Receivers and Test Mobiles (Based on a

modified subscriber handset – measuring GSM RXLEV) are
unsuitable for model calibration but may be used later for
confirmation of coverage

Tx Antenna Rx Antenna Trigger MS

BTS
Amplifier Rx/Computer Storage
Transmitter Navigation
Antenna
Trigger Wheel

For CW measurements it is important to record an averaged value of
instantaneous measurements
1. Rayleigh Fading makes instantaneous measurement

unrepresentative
a) Aim to eliminate the Rayleigh fading, but not the shadow fading
b) Average over an interval which is less than the magnitude of streets and
buildings. Some refereneces speak about a distance of 40λ
2. Averaging interval should be greater than the Rayleigh Fading

interval, but shorter than the building interval
a) 13 m outdoors
b) 6.5 m indoors
3. Separation of instantaneous measurements should be :

a) More than 36 per interval to reduce averaging variation to less than 1 dB
b) Corresponds to 0.36 m (1.1λ at 900 MHz)
Sampling Rates
RMS Error (dB) Number of Resulting
averaged samples Sampling Interval
in 13 m (λ)
0.50 144 0.28

0.75 64 0.63
1.00 36 1.11
1.25 23 1.74
1.50 16 2.50
1.75 12 3.40
2.00 9 4.44

Guidelines for CW Measurements
1. The Survey Route should include various road directions and street
widths in built up areas
2. Special features relevant to propagation such as tunnels, bridges, etc.

should be clearly marked in the case of calibration measurements
3. If possible, measurement antennas should be the same as the planned

antenna in type and installation
4. Measurements must be conducted and documented accurately,

especially regarding antenna installation and transmitter height
5. Only measure within 3 dB beamwidth (antenna aperture)

The pattern outside the main beam may not correspond to the stored antenna
pattern, due to local obstructions, such as the mast and other antennas

* To effectively calibrate a propagation model, many measurements
are needed :
1. About 10 different base stations in each city

2. At least 75 km of survey route for each city
3. At least 1000 km of route in total
* Measurements at each point are compared to the predictions at

each point and the error statistics analyzed
Errors may be broken down by :
1. Clutter class
2. LOS/NLOS
3. Within a given range
4. Outside a given range
• Error Analysis Statistics
• The Error is commonly defined as the difference between the
predicted value (Propagation Model) and the measured value. At
a given distance of index i, the error is noted εi
• Root Mean Square Error and Mean Error are given by :

N
∑ i
(ε − ε ) 2
RMS = i =1
N The target is to ensure a mean error=0
N and an RMS < 9 dB (The Lower the Better)
∑ε i
ε= i =1
N

Non-uniform Propagation Types
• Each area has a different correction factor.

• Also the coverage objectives are usually different for
urban, suburban and rural areas.
• Therefore MAPL and the corresponding cell size has to
be calculated for each region and cell count is:
• For each area: A = 2.6 R 2 where R is
the cell radius and A is the area of the
corresponding hexagon.
UrbanArea( Km 2 ) SuburbanArea( Km 2 ) RuralArea( Km 2 )

CellCount = 2
+ 2
+
AUrban ( Km ) ASuburban ( Km ) ARural ( Km 2 )

Introduction
•Definition of Outdoor signal level design threshold to be

used in prediction tool.
•Insure good quality communications.
•Threshold important because it is the basis for the

design, and cell size and no. of cells depend on this.
•Aim: understand the different elements in the determination

of the threshold.

Introduction 2
• Receiver Sensitivity (from vendor or standard)
Use of Different Margins
• Outdoor coverage design threshold

Receiver sensitivity margin (1)
•Sensitivities defined in GSM Rec. 05.05
Portable: -104 dBm
Handheld: -102 dBm
DCS1800: -100 dBm
•Sensitivity : Min required signal level at receiver to meet

performance requirements
•Sensitivities defined for mobiles in an urban environment

traveling at 50 km/h (TU 50)
•These sensitivities with a C/I of 9dB correspond to error

rate of 10% or RxQual =6
•These values include a margin for Rayleigh Fading

•Today many handsets used at walking pace or static
•At 50 km/h effect of fading is averaged but”static”

mobiles will remain in fading “holes” longer.
•Measurements show that for a handheld moving at 3

km/h (TU3) then for an acceptable audio quality we need:
- RxQual = 4 ( system without frequency hopping)
- RxQual = 5 ( system with frequency hopping)
Quality margin must be introduced

• Measurements campaign by CNET to link C/N, C/I and
Rxqual
• With no interference, without frequency hopping a
Rxqual = 4 is obtained with C = -97 dBm
• Quality margin = 5 dB
• (FT 3 dB, Cellnet 4 dB)
5 dB
3 Km/h
® Cirta Consulting LLC 50 Km/h
Prediction/Lognormal Margin (1)
• Propagation model predicts mean signal level (σ )

• Characteristics: Mean error (0) and standard deviation
• Shadow fading (obstacles) not taken into account
• Model this shadow fading by a probability following a

lognormal law
• Introduce Margin to guarantee a certain percentage of

cell surface area is covered

Standard Deviation of Level of guarantee

Prediction model Required (probability)
Lognormal Margin
• To calculate the margin we use coverage probability

at cell border which corresponds to the required
coverage probability over the surface of the cell.

•Typical values:
- Urban environment (Typical distance exponent = 3.5 )
- Standard Deviation of prediction model = 7 dB
Margin in dB Coverage probability Coverage

on cell bordure % Probability
Over cell surface %
0 50 77 - GSM Rec 3.30
5 75 90
7 84 95
9 90 97
12 95 99

Head Effect
•The human body creates loss for handheld mobile.

•Loss due to distortion of antenna diagram
•Some suggested values :
•Recommendations GSM 03.30 = 3 dB.
•Dr. Lee proposes 5 dB in worst case ( mobile on belt)
•Most operators use 6 dB.
•Motorola proposes 9 dB head effect, 15 dB at belt.
•Telemate suggested value is 5 dB.

Other Margins
• Hand – Over: Some Operators use a 2 dB margin to ensure a

good HO to neighboring cell
• Material imperfections: we take a 1 dB margin to account

for the tolerance in MS and BTS output power
• Interference Margin: Some vendors use an interference

margin to overcome interference impairments

Example Calculation of Outdoor coverage
threshold for 2W GSM handheld
Sensitivity ( GSM Rec. 5.50 ) - 102 dBm
Sensitivity margin 5 dB
Lognormal margin ( for 90% area 7 dB

coverage probability)
Head Effect Margin 5 dB
Outdoor Coverage Threshold - 85 dBm

Indoor Threshold (1)
• Different types of Indoor Threshold corresponding to

different services
- Indoor Window: Near to window
- Indoor: In room with windows
- Indoor Deep : In corridor (loss through 2 walls)
• Penetration loss varies greatly. Depends on type of

materiel, architecture (no. of windows…), floor within
building etc.
• Mean penetration loss must be determined from

extensive measurement campaigns

Indoor Threshold (2)
•To determine an Indoor threshold from the penetration

loss there are two methods:
- Use the distribution function of the measurements to find

the loss corresponding to 90 % of the samples
- Use the mean penetration loss and increase the

lognormal margin to take into account the standard
deviation of the indoor measurements.

Use of margins
• Understand what goes into the determination of coverage

thresholds.
• Make sure that all margins are included but only once!
• Translate the clients requirements for service quality into

margins
• Thresholds must be validated by the client.

TEST : Link Budgets
Balanced link budgets show Maximum Allowable Path Losses for the
coverage objectives shown below. Drive tests have shown the following
propagation equations are valid. Determine the cell radius for each
coverage objective.
Coverage objectives: Rural on-street MAPL = 147 dB

Suburban in-car MAPL = 135 dB
Urban in-building MAPL = 125 dB
Propagation equations:
Rural: path loss = 110 + 32 log d
Surburban: path loss = 115 + 37 log d
Urban: path loss = 120 + 48 log d

The Cellular Concept
Urban Areas : High Interference Amounts

C/(N+I)=C/I, The System is Interference-Limited
Coverage is not a problem (in General)
Service Criterion : C > I
Rural Areas : Low Interference Profile

C/(N+I)=C/N, The System is Noise-Limited
Interference is not a problem (in General)
Service Criteria : C > N

The Cellular Concept
Frequency Planning aims at :
Optimising the Allocated Spectrum
Guaranteeing a seamless coverage
Ensuring minimum interference
Main Difficulty of Frequency Planning is :

Limited Number of TRXs (Available Channels)
The concept of Frequency Re-Use overcomes the

Spectrum Limitations. Caution has to be made concerning
the risk of generating co-channel and adjacent channel
interference
GSM Spectrum
Allocated GSM1800 Band comprises two sub-bands :
1710 – 1785 MHz for Uplink (MS->BTS)
1805 – 1880 MHz for Downlink (BTS->MS)
Each Sub-band = 375 Channels of 200 kHz associated to a given
carrier
95 MHz are necessary to ensure the isolation between Up and
Down Links Duplexing
Each Operator is allocated a DL/UL band
GSM uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
) 1 Physical Channel = 8 Logical Channels
) 1 Logical Channel = TCH or Signalling Channel (SDCCH,

FCCH, SCCH, AGCH, RACH, etc...)

Interference
Definition of the Signal to Noise Ratio irrespective to the co-
or adjacent channels
C/I = Puseful/Pharmfull
Co-Channel Interference
Interference Due to a Signal using the same Frequency :
C  C
  = 0
 I  co −channel I1 + I 2
0
C is the useful Signal, I1 and I2 are co-channel interferers

using the same frequency as C
C, I1 and I2 are linear units (i.e. Watts or mW)

Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference are due to out-of-band
spurious transmission
GSM RF Mask is based upon the GMSK Modulation
Scheme (GMSK = Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying)
C C 0.5 dB
  =0 1 2
 I Resulting I +I +I +...+N
-30 dB
GMSK RF Mask -60 dB
f-400 kHz f-200 kHz f f+200 kHz f+400 kHz

Interference
Interference = Impossible to identify and extract the wanted
and interfering signal (noise included)
GSM Specifications require C/I to be higher than 9 dB
GSM Recommendation
Protection C/I (dB) C/I Protection
Co- 9 7.94 0
Channel
1st Adjacent -9 0.125 18
2nd -41 0.0000794 50

Adjacent
3rd -49 0.0000125 58
Adjacent
Traffic Theory : Erlang B
Poisson Input with mean of λ arrivals/sec.

Mean Service Time = 1/µ
Traffic Intensity = A = λ. 1/µ
Number of Serving Trunks (Channels) = S
Blocked Calls Abandoned
AS
Pb = B( S , A) = S S! k
A
∑k = 0 k!

Traffic Theory : Erlang B
Nb Carriers Nb TCH Erlang
1 7 2.3
2 14 8.2
3 22 14.9
4 29 21.0
5 37 28.3
6 45 34.7
7 52 42.1
8 59 48.7
Etc.

Traffic Theory : Erlang C
Negative Exponential Service Time with mean = 1/µ
Blocked Calls held until served
Pr ob( Delay) = C ( S , A) = P[τ D > 0]
AS S
.
C (S , A) = S! S − A
s −1
AS S Ai
. + ∑
S! S − A i=0 i!
Traffic Theory : Erlang C
Probability of Delay Greater than t :
− (1− A ) sµt
P(τ D > t ) = C ( S , A)e
Average Delay :
C ( S , A)
E[τ D ] =
(1 − A) Sµ

Traffic Theory : Poisson
Negative Exponetial Service Time with Mean = 1/µ
Blocked Calls Held
∞ k
A
Pb = P( S , A) = e ∑
−A
k = S k!

Capacity Planning
Aims of Capacity Planning
9 To allocated Sufficient Channels to support the expected traffic load
9 To ensure future sites are planned and implemented in time to meet
subscriber growth (Business Plan)
9 To provide Traffic Loading Figures on which the fixed network can be
based
Traffic Unit
9 Traffic is measured in Erlang : Etot = Esub*Nsubs
9 Etot is the total Traffic
9 Esub is the average traffic per subscriber
9 Nsub Number of Subscribers
Example : Esub = 25 mE* and Nsub = 100, then Etot = 2.5 Erlangs
*25 mE = 1.5 minutes of occupied TCH per Hour

Capacity Planning
Procedure for Calculating Number of Required Channels
First Compute Busy Hour Traffic per Subscriber (Erlangs) :

9 Average Daily Number of Call Attempts × Average Call Length
9 Plus Number times length of Incoming Calls
9 Times Proportion of Total Calls made in the Busy Hour
Then Calculate Total Traffic as Average Traffic Times Number of

Subscribers
Finally Use Erlang B Tables to determine the number of Channels

required for a given Blocking Level
Example : For GSM, 2 % is the typical blocking rate used

Capacity Planning
TEST ON DIMENSIONING USING CAPACITY DEMANDS
Given a Dense Urban Area of about 35 km2 and a penetration rate estimated
to 9 % over a total population of 500.000 inhabitants
Assuming 4 TRX 3-sector BTSs will be used,
Each sector (using 4 TRXs) has a cell radius of 0.45 km
Each Subscriber will require a 25 mE traffic
Compute the total required Traffic (Erlang) within this dense urban area,
along with the required number of 3-sectorial BTSs
What would be these numbers if the unit traffic increase to 40 mE ?

Tower Mounted Amplifier :
Effect on Coverage and Quality

TMA 4 dB Gain
in the UL
3 dB cable loss
BTS BTS
Static Sensitivity=-110 dBm Static Sensitivity=-110 dBm
S(without TMA) = -110 + 3 = -107 dBm* S(with TMA) = -110 + 3-4 = -111 dBm*
* Body
® Cirta Consulting LLC Loss and Lognormal Fading have to be added
Cell Range R computed using :

MAPL=A+B*log(R)
MAPL : Maximum Allowed Path Loss
MAPL = EIRP-Effective Sensitivity
Example :
) Given EIRP=Pout+Gant-CableLoss
) with Pout=40 dBm; Gant=18 dBi; Cable Loss=3 dB
) EIRP=40+18-3=55 dBm
) MAPL =
• 55 - (-107+7+5) = 150 dB without TMA

• 55 - (-111+7+5) = 154 dB with TMA
MAPL : The higher the bigger the cell radius
) log(R) = (MAPL-A)/B ⇒ R = 10^((MAPL-A)/B)

Numerical Example :
Assume we use a Rural Propagation Model PL = 135 + 30*log(R)
Cell Radius R=
) 10^( (150-135)/30 )= 3.2 km without TMA
) 10^( (154-135)/30 )= 4.3 km with TMA !
Path Loss (dB) 135+30*lod(d)

MAPL=154 dB with TMA
4 dB due to TMA
MAPL=150 dB without TMA
3.2 km 4.3 km
® Cirta Consulting LLC Distance (km)
Uplink Coverage
Downlink Coverage
Directional
Antenna
Due to linkbudget imbalance
TMA Improves Uplink vs Downlink: To balance the Linkbudget

the BTS output power has to be raised by 4 dB ! (the TMA gain)
RF Repeater : Problem Statement (1/2)
Base Station
High Penetration Loss
added to propagation loss
In Car Coverage Threshold not reached

No Coverage Tunnel

RF Repeater : Problem Statement (2/2)
High Diffraction and Shadowing Loss : Hills, Blockings, etc.
MS
Base Station

RF Repeater : Design Issues
Repeater = Bidirectional Amplifier used to
* Provide Coverage to “shadowed” rural areas
* Provide Coverage to Tunnels
* Provide Coverage to Indoor Areas where Capacity is not an issue
Repeater comprises :
* A High Gain Amplifier
* A Duplex-filter for Up and Downlink Service
* A Donor Antenna : From the Repeater to the Donor Site
* A Re-Radiating Antenna : From the Repeater to the Area to be
covered
Repeater Features :
* High Amplifier Gain
* High Isolation Between the Repeater Ends to avoid oscillation
* High LLC
® Cirta Consulting Channel or Band Selectivity
RF Repeater : Components
Donor Antenna (BTS)
High Gain, Very Directional High Gain Amplifiers
To donor Cell up to 85 dB
BPF
BPF
Band-Pass High Rejection Filters :

Channel or Band Selective
To poor area
Re-Radiating coverage
Antenna (MS)
Lower Gain, Wide Beamwidth
RF Repeater : Typical Antennae Mounting
To donor
To donor
cell
cell
Uni- or Bidirectional
High Gain Antenna
R
To Tunnel
To a valley
wide bandwidth
antenna
R

RF Repeater : Design Tricks
1. Donor Antenna should be :
a. Preferably in LOS with the Donor Cell

b. High Gain and High Directional
c. Mounted in a location so that the RxLev > its static sensitivity
d. Dip Fades have to be avoided : RF Measurements done prior to
installation (Go or not Go)
2. To avoid interference between Donor and Re-Radiating antennas, an isolation is

required : this should prevent the Repeater to oscillate.
3. Never have LOS between Re-Radiating antenna and Donor Cell
4. Depending on the application : Re-radiating antenna has to be chosen accordingly

a. Tunnels : High gain (uni- or bidirectional)
b. Valley or “shadow” : wide beamwidth and typical antenna gains

RF Repeater : Antennae Location
To donor
cell NOT RECOMMENDED To donor
cell
To a valley
wide bandwidth
R antenna R
RECOMMENDED
To a valley
wide bandwidth
antenna

RF Repeater : Powerbudget (1/3)
Allgon Indoor Repeater Technical Specs :
Gain : 45 - 70 dB
Noise Figure : 5 dB
Maximum input power : +13 dBm
Assumptions :
Donor BTS @ 4.5 km from the Repeater : Free Space and LOS
assumed. BTS Donor Antenna EIRP : 48 dBm
Donor Antenna to Repeater cable loss : 1.5 dB
Re-radiating Antenna to Repeater cable loss : 0.5 dB
Donor Antenna Gain : 18.5 dBi
Re-radiating Antenna Gain : 14 dBi
Task : Balance the UL and DL, then compute the repeater cell
radius
Received Power at the donor antenna connector :
Pr(donor)=EIRP(donor BTS)-PL = -56.6 dBm
) PL = 32.44+20*log10(4.5*900) = 104.6 dB (free space loss)
) EIRP(donor BTS) = 48 dBm
Input Power at the Repeater (Downlink) :

Pin = Pr(donor) - Cable Loss(DL) + G(donor)
) Pin = -56.6 -1.5 + 18 = -40 dBm
Repeater Output power (downlink) :

Pout(min) = Pin + Gmin(Repeater) = -40 + 45 = 15 dBm
Pout(min) = 15 dBm > 13 dBm (need a 2 attenuation)
EIRP(Re-Radiating) = Pout - Cable(to antenna) + G(Re-Radiating)
EIRP(Re-Radiating) = 13 - 0.5 + 14 = 26.5 dBm
Without a repeater the penetration loss of 15 dB leads to :

® Cirta Rxlev (indoor)
Consulting LLC = -56.6 - 15 = -71.6 dBm !!! @ the vicinity of the lossy wall
Received Power at the Re-radiating antenna connector :
Pr(Re-Rad.)=EIRP(MS)-PL = 33 - 106.5 = - 73.5 dBm
) PL = 120 + 45*log(0.5) = 106.5 dB (e.g. Okumura-Hata Model)
) EIRP(MS) = 33 dBm (no Power control considered)
Input Power at the Repeater (Uplink) :

Pin = Pr(Re-Rad) - Cable Loss(UL) + G(Re-rad)
) Pin = -73.5 - 0.5 + 14 = -60 dBm
Repeater Output power (Uplink) :

Pout(min) = Pin + Gmin(Repeater) = -60 + 45 = -15 dBm
Pout(min) = -15 dBm < 13 dBm (OK)
EIRP(Donor) = Pout - Cable(to antenna) + G(Re-Radiating)
EIRP(Donor) = -15 - 1.5 + 18 = 1.5 dBm
Uplink Power Amp. Of repeater must be raised to maximum 75 dB
EIRP (donor) = 1.5 + 30 = 31.5 dBm
Hybrid Combiners : Possible Usage
To Antenna To Antenna
Matched Load
50 Ω
-3 dB -3 dB
50 Ω 50 Ω
-3 dB -3 dB
TX1 TX2
TX1 TX2 TX3 TX4

Hybrid Combiners : Features
Hybrid Combiners :
4-Port Balanced Passive Devices
Reciprocal : Tx/Rx
Disadvantage :
High insertion loss : 3 to 3.3 dB
Not suitable for large Number of Transmitters : High Losses
Advantage :
Linear Device : Sufficient isolation between Transmitters
Cost-effective combining solution for small number of Transmitters
Being relatively Wide-band, permits Transmitter Frequency Hopping :
Synthesized or Baseband

Slow Frequency Hopping
Radio Propagation Channel :

Dynamic : Mobility and Scattering problems
Fast Fading : Frequency Selective (dispersive)
) Some frequencies are more or less affected by Multipath fast fading
(Reighley Fading)
) Fast Moving mobiles less sensitive to Multipath : GSM Standard define
TU3 and TU50 and a Sensitivity margin of 4 dB is considered.
) Effective Receive Sensitivity improved for Fast Mobiles
Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH) :

Allows an effective “Frequency Diversity”
SFH statistically improves the overall signal receive power
SFH “diversity” gain : between 3 and 6 dB (ref. W.Y. Lee)

Slow Frequency Hopping : Implementation
Synthesized Frequency Hopping :
The processor controlling the Tx retunes it to a new frequency on a per
time-slot basis, according to a predetermined pattern or sequence
The Output from the Tx varies across a wide range of frequencies :

Handled by the Hybrid combiner (wide-band device)
Baseband Frequency Hopping :

The Digital baseband signal is applied to what is effectively a fast electronic
switch, which is controlled by a processor in the Tx.
The Switch is connected to a number of Txs, each being fixed-tuned to a
different frequency
On a per time-slot basis, baseband digital signal is switched between
different transmitters
Cavity Filter Combiners or Hybrid Combiners can be used

Synthesized and Baseband Frequency
Hopping : Comparison
Synthesized FH :
Offersa versatile solution for multiple channels
Cost-effective : No Cavity Filter Combiners required
Few Transmitters can be used for more channels
hopped
Baseband FH :
Low losses when Cavity Filter Combiners are used
Hopping can only occur over the same number of
frequencies as there are Transmitters

Slow Frequency Hopping : Implementation
Synthesized Baseband
Frequency Hopping Frequency Hopping
To Antenna
Cavity Filters
Baseband Data
Varying Frequency f1
Electronic
11001101110
TX1 Switch TX1 BPF
To Antenna
Tunning Control
f2
Hybrid Baseband Data
TX Combiner
11001101110
TX2 BPF
Processor
f3
0110110110
TX2 TX TX3 BPF
Varying Frequency
Baseband Data Processor
Matching Stub
Receiver Multicoupler
Rx Rx
Antenna Antenna
A B
AC/DC POWER
RECEIVER MULTICOUPLER
SUPPLY
RX A RX B RX A RX B
RX1 RX2
DUPLEX FILTER
Common TX/RX
Antenna
Passes DL Passes UL
Frequencies only Frequencies only
DUPLEX
FILTER
From TX
To RX
Typical Antenna Connection : X-POL
Diversity
Cross-Polarized
Antenna Assembly
Tx/Rx A Rx B
Bandpass Filter
Duplex
Filter
Rx B
Matched Load Receiver
Multicoupler
Rx A
Hybrid
Combiner Rx A
Tx Rx
Rx B Rx A
® Cirta Consulting LLC Tx Rx Rx B

Polarization Diversity Systems
Using Separate Tx Antenna Top View of 3-sector site
Without Duplex Filter with Vertical Polarization Diversity
d
Tx 2 Rx
2 Rx Tx
Tx RxA RxB
Tx 2 Rx
BTS Equipment

Vertical
Tx/Rx Antenna
Horizontal
Rx Antena
Tx/Rx Tx/Rx
Duplexer Tx/Rx
Tx Rx A Rx B

d1
d2 d2 Rx
Tx
Tx
Rx Rx
Rx A Tx Rx B
Rx Tx Rx
Horizontal separation d1 for diversity = 10λ

Horizontal Separation d2 for 30 dB Isolation = 2λ

GSM Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

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GSM Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

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GSM RF Design and Planning Fundamentals

Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

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* No Roaming between Countries

* Major Capacity Problems and Congestions

* Limited Market for each Technology

* Very high subscriber equipment cost...Further growth difficult !

In The USA and Canada DAMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone

* Digital : The signal is Digitized through A/D Converters, Modulated, and

* High Capacity : They are able to simultaneously serve a large number of

* High Speech Quality : Due to Technology advance and electronics

* Spectrum Efficient : They offer optimised frequency spectrum use

* Possibility to roam within the GSM Community Networks (provided a signed

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 A Mobile Station should be able to :

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 P (dBm) = 10Log10(P mW/1mW)

 P dBW = 10Log10(P W/1W)

 Relation between dBW and dBm :

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 Suppose we have a voltage : u (t ) = U m cos ωt

 Is the RMS dependent of the frequency ?

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Exercise Compute 1) Ζ1 + Ζ 2 , Ζ1 + Ζ 2 and arg(Ζ1 + Ζ 2 )

Z : The Impedance of the Load and Zin internal to the Generator

In Low Frequencies, all the power delivered to Z is

VSWR : Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( 1:1 is ideal )

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 dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

 Example : G = 16 dBi, so G = 13.85 dBd and if P = 33 dBm (2 W)

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 Directivity : Figure of Merit to quantify the ability of an antenna to

 Where Wmax is the Power Density at a distance d in the main lobe

 Where PT is the supplied power to the antenna, commonly known as

 Given PT and G, we can compute the Power Density Wmax

 Free Space Loss Between Isotropic Antennas (GR=GT = 1) :

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 Assuming d >> Ht and Hr, the Path Loss (Iinear) :

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 20 Log (0.5 − 0.62v ) − 0 .8 < v < 0

 Where v, the Fresnel Parameter is given by :

 Compute H, D1, D2, and then L(v) the Diffraction

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To operate properly the receiver has to receive

The Sensitivity depends on the technology involved

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 Carrier to Noise Ratio CNR or C/N :

) Receiver Noise Figure (NF) in dB

) Temperature and System Bandwidth

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S S Nin : Thermal Noise,

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k : Boltzmann Constant ( 1.38 * 10-23 J/°K)

T : 290 °K typical value

Exercise : Compute Sin (dBm) for a GSM signal of 200 kHz

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Assuming x to be a two-carrier f1 and f2 sine wave :

x(t ) = A cos(2πf1t ) + B cos(2πf 2t )

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3600 MHz 3660 MHz

DC f2-f1 f1 f2 2f1 f2+f1 2f2

A Mobile Station should be able to :

P (dBm) = 10Log10(P mW/1mW)

P dBW = 10Log10(P W/1W)

Relation between dBW and dBm :

Suppose we have a voltage : u (t ) = U m cos ωt

Is the RMS dependent of the frequency ?

dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

Example : G = 16 dBi, so G = 13.85 dBd and if P = 33 dBm (2 W)

Directivity : Figure of Merit to quantify the ability of an antenna to

Where Wmax is the Power Density at a distance d in the main lobe

Where PT is the supplied power to the antenna, commonly known as

Given PT and G, we can compute the Power Density Wmax

Free Space Loss Between Isotropic Antennas (GR=GT = 1) :

Assuming d >> Ht and Hr, the Path Loss (Iinear) :

Where v, the Fresnel Parameter is given by :

Compute H, D1, D2, and then L(v) the Diffraction

Carrier to Noise Ratio CNR or C/N :

The Lognormal Margin is defined as :

Hata Model has a general form :

To avoid unwanted signals into the receiver Rx, the following

To obtain the Isolation values the antennas have to be placed at

The distance depends on : Antenna types, configuration

Omnidirectional antennas require greater horizontal distance than

Vertical separation requires less distance than horizontal separation

Diversity is the statistical improvement of the received signal when

To improve the overall received signal level, due to multipath

Diversity in cellular is used only at the Base Station end, although it is

Hata Model is valid under certain conditions :

Frequencies between 150 and 1000 MHz

As a Result, it is suitable for GSM900 only and NOT