Akbar (Hindustani: [kbr]; 14 October 1542 27 October 1605) kno!n as Akbar the Great !

!as "u#$a% &'(eror )ro' 1556 unti% $is deat$* He !as t$e t$ird and #reatest ru%er o) t$e "u#$a% +,nast, in -ndia* .kbar succeeded $is )at$er Hu'a,un under a re#ent /aira' 0$an !$o $e%(ed t$e ,oun# e'(eror e1(and and conso%idate "u#$a% do'ains in -ndia* . stron# (ersona%it, and a success)u% #enera% .kbar #radua%%, en%ar#ed t$e "u#$a% &'(ire to inc%ude near%, a%% o) t$e -ndian 2ubcontinent nort$ o) t$e 3oda4ari ri4er* His (o!er and in)%uence $o!e4er e1tended o4er t$e entire countr, because o) "u#$a% 'i%itar, (o%itica% cu%tura% and econo'ic do'inance* 5o uni), t$e 4ast "u#$a% state .kbar estab%is$ed a centra%ised s,ste' o) ad'inistration t$rou#$out $is e'(ire and ado(ted a (o%ic, o) conci%iatin# con6uered ru%ers t$rou#$ 'arria#e and di(%o'ac,* -n order to (reser4e (eace and order in a re%i#ious%, and cu%tura%%, di4erse e'(ire $e ado(ted (o%icies t$at !on $i' t$e su((ort o) $is non7"us%i' sub8ects* &sc$e!in# triba% bonds and -s%a'ic state identit, .kbar stri4ed to unite )ar7)%un# %ands o) $is rea%' t$rou#$ %o,a%t, e1(ressed t$rou#$ a 9ersianised cu%ture to $i'se%) as an e'(eror !$o $ad near7di4ine status* "u#$a% -ndia de4e%o(ed a stron# and stab%e econo', %eadin# to co''ercia% e1(ansion and #reater (atrona#e o) cu%ture* .kbar $i'se%) !as a #reat (atron o) art and cu%ture* He !as )ond o) %iterature and created a %ibrar, o) o4er 24 000 4o%u'es !ritten in 2anskrit Hindustani 9ersian 3reek :atin .rabic and 0as$'iri sta))ed b, 'an, sc$o%ars trans%ators artists ca%%i#ra($ers scribes bookbinders and readers* Ho%, 'en o) 'an, )ait$s (oets arc$itects and artisans adorned $is court )ro' a%% o4er t$e !or%d )or stud, and discussion* .kbar;s courts at +e%$i .#ra and <ate$(ur 2ikri beca'e centers o) t$e arts %etters and %earnin#* 9erso7-s%a'ic cu%ture be#an to 'er#e and b%end !it$ indi#enous -ndian e%e'ents and a distinct -ndo79ersian cu%ture e'er#ed c$aracterised b, "u#$a% st,%e arts (aintin# and arc$itecture* +isi%%usioned !it$ ort$odo1 -s%a' and (er$a(s $o(in# to brin# about re%i#ious unit, !it$in $is e'(ire .kbar (ro'u%#ated +in7i7-%a$i a s,ncretic creed deri4ed )ro' -s%a' Hinduis' =oroastrianis' and >$ristianit,* . si'(%e 'onot$eistic cu%t to%erant in out%ook it centered on .kbar as a (ro($et )or !$ic$ $e dre! t$e ire o) t$e u%e'a and ort$odo1 "us%i's* .kbar;s rei#n si#ni)icant%, in)%uenced t$e course o) -ndian $istor,* +urin# $is ru%e t$e "u#$a% e'(ire tri(%ed in si?e and !ea%t$* He created a (o!er)u% 'i%itar, s,ste' and instituted e))ecti4e (o%itica% and socia% re)or's* /, abo%is$in# t$e sectarian ta1 on non7"us%i's and a((ointin# t$e' to $i#$ ci4i% and 'i%itar, (osts $e !as t$e )irst "u#$a% ru%er to !in t$e trust and %o,a%t, o) t$e nati4e sub8ects* He $ad 2anskrit %iterature trans%ated (artici(ated in nati4e )esti4a%s rea%i?in# t$at a stab%e e'(ire de(ended on t$e co7o(eration and #ood7!i%% o) $is sub8ects* 5$us t$e )oundations )or a 'u%ticu%tura% e'(ire under "u#$a% ru%e !as %aid durin# $is rei#n* .kbar !as succeeded as e'(eror b, $is son @a$an#ir* Contents &ar%, ,ears and na'e .kbar !as born on 14 October 1542 (t$e )ourt$ da, o) Aa8ab B4B .H) at t$e Aa8(ut <ortress o) C'erkot in 2ind$ (in 'odern da, 9akistan) !$ere &'(eror Hu'a,un and $is recent%, !edded !i)e Ha'ida /anu /e#u' dau#$ter o) 2$aik$ .%i .kbar @a'i a9ersian [D] !ere takin# re)u#e* .)ter t$e ca(ture o) 0abu% b, Hu'a,un /adruddin;s circu'cision cere'on, !as $e%d and $is date o) birt$ and na'e !ere c$an#ed to t$ro! o)) e4i% sorcerers[B] and $e !as rena'ed @a%a%7ud7din "u$a''ad b, Hu'a,un a na'e !$ic$ $e $ad $eard in $is drea' at :a$ore* .kbar as a bo, Hu'a,un $ad been dri4en into e1i%e in 9ersia b, t$e 9as$tun %eader 2$er 2$a$ 2uri*[10] .kbar did not #o to 9ersia !it$ $is (arents but !as brou#$t u( in 0abu% b, t$e e1tended )a'i%, o) $is (aterna% unc%es 0a'ran "ir?a and .skari "ir?a and $is aunts in (articu%ar 0a'ran "ir?a;s !i)e* He s(ent $is ,out$ %earnin# to $unt run and )i#$t 'ade $i' a darin# (o!er)u% and a bra4e !arrior but $e ne4er %earned to read or !rite* 5$is $o!e4er did not $inder $is searc$ )or kno!%ed#e as it is said a%!a,s !$en $e retired in t$e e4enin# $e !ou%d $a4e so'eone read*[11][better source needed] -n Eo4e'ber o) 1551 .kbar 'arried $is )irst cousin Au6ai,a 2u%tan /e#u' at 0abu%*[12] 9rincess Au6ai,a !as t$e on%, dau#$ter o) $is (aterna% unc%e Hinda% "ir?a and !as $is )irst !i)e and c$ie) consort*[1F] 5$e 'arria#e !as arran#ed b, .kbar;s )at$er and Au6ai,a;s unc%e &'(eror Hu'a,un and took (%ace soon a)ter t$e unti'e%, deat$ o) Hinda% "ir?a !$o died in a batt%e*[14] <o%%o!in# t$e c$aos o4er t$e succession o) 2$er 2$a$ 2uri;s son -s%a' 2$a$ Hu'a,un recon6uered +e%$i in 1555 %eadin# an ar', (art%, (ro4ided b, $is 9ersian a%%, 5a$'as( -* . )e! 'ont$s %ater Hu'a,un died* .kbar;s #uardian /aira' 0$an concea%ed t$e deat$ in order to (re(are )or .kbar;s succession* .kbar succeeded Hu'a,un on 14 <ebruar, 1556 !$i%e in t$e 'idst o) a !ar a#ainst2ikandar 2$a$ to rec%ai' t$e "u#$a% t$rone* -n 0a%anaur 9un8ab t$e 1F7,ear7o%d .kbar !as ent$roned b, /aira' 0$an on a ne!%, constructed (%at)or' !$ic$ sti%% stands*[15][dead link][16] He !as (roc%ai'ed Shahanshah (9ersian )or G0in# o) 0in#sG)* /aira' 0$an ru%ed on $is be$a%) unti% $e ca'e o) a#e*[17] "i%itar, ca'(ai#ns Military innovations 5$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar is de(icted trainin# an e%e($ant

.kbar !as accorded t$e e(it$et Gt$e 3reatG due to $is 'an, acco'(%is$'ents [1D] a'on# !$ic$ !as $is record o) unbeaten 'i%itar, ca'(ai#ns t$at bot$ estab%is$ed and conso%idated "u#$a% ru%e in t$e-ndian subcontinent* 5$e basis o) t$is 'i%itar, (ro!ess and aut$orit, !as .kbar;s ski%%)u% structura% and or#anisationa% ca%ibration o) t$e "u#$a% ar',*[1B] 5$e "ansabdari s,ste' in (articu%ar $as been acc%ai'ed )or its ro%e in u($o%din# "u#$a% (o!er in t$e ti'e o) .kbar* 5$e s,ste' (ersisted !it$ )e! c$an#es do!n to t$e end o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire but !as (ro#ressi4e%, !eakened under $is successors*[1B] Or#anisationa% re)or's !ere acco'(anied b, inno4ations in cannons )orti)ications and t$e use o) e%e($ants* [1D] .kbar a%so took an interest in 'atc$%ocks and e))ecti4e%, e'(%o,ed t$e' durin# 4arious con)%icts* He sou#$t t$e $e%( o) Otto'ans and a%so increasin#%, o) &uro(eans es(ecia%%,9ortu#uese and -ta%ians in (rocurin# )irear's and arti%%er,*[20] "u#$a% )irear's in t$e ti'e o) .kbar ca'e to be )ar su(erior to an,t$in# t$at cou%d be de(%o,ed b, re#iona% ru%ers tributaries or b, ?a'indars*[21] 2uc$ !as t$e i'(act o) t$ese !ea(ons t$at .kbar;s Hi?ier .bu% <a?% once dec%ared t$at G!it$ t$e e1ce(tion o) 5urke, t$ere is (er$a(s no countr, in !$ic$ its #uns $as 'ore 'eans o) securin# t$e 3o4ern'ent t$an [-ndia]*G[22] 5$e ter' G3un(o!er &'(ireG $as t$us o)ten been used b, sc$o%ars and $istorians in ana%,sin# t$e success o) t$e "u#$a%s in -ndia* "u#$a% (o!er $as been seen as o!in# to t$eir 'aster, o) t$e tec$ni6ues o) !ar)are es(ecia%%, t$e use o) )irear's encoura#ed b, .kbar*[2F] The Struggle for North India .kbar !$o $ad been born in 1542 !$i%e $is )at$er Hu'a,un !as in )%i#$t )ro' t$e 4ictorious 2urs !as on%, t$irteen !$en $e !as (roc%ai'ed e'(eror in 1556* His )at$er $ad succeeded in re#ainin# contro% o) t$e 9un8ab +e%$i and .#ra !it$ 9ersian su((ort but e4en in t$ese areas "u#$a% ru%e !as (recarious and !$en t$e 2urs recon6uered .#ra and +e%$i )o%%o!in# t$e deat$ o) Hu'a,un t$e )ate o) t$e bo, e'(eror see'ed uncertain* .kbar;s 'inorit, and t$e %ack o) an, (ossibi%it, o) 'i%itiar, assistance )ro' t$e "u#$a% stron#$o%d o) 0abu% t$at !as at t$is ti'e in t$e t$roes o) an in4asion b, t$e ru%er o) /adak$s$an 9rince "ir?a 2u%ei'an a##ra4ated t$e situation*[24] I$en $is re#ent /aira' 0$an ca%%ed a counci% o) !ar to 'ars$a%% t$e "u#$a% )orces none o) .kbar;s c$ie)tains a((ro4ed o) it* Ho!e4er /aira' 0$an !as u%ti'ate%, ab%e to (re4ai% o4er t$e nob%es and it !as decided t$at t$e "u#$a%s !ou%d 'arc$ a#ainst t$e stron#est o) t$e 2ur ru%ers 2ikandar 2$a$ 2uri in t$e 9un8ab* +e%$i !as %e)t under t$e re#enc, o) 5ardi /ai# 0$an*[24]2ikandar 2$a$ 2uri $o!e4er (resented no 'a8or concern )or .kbar and a4oided #i4in# batt%e as t$e "u#$a% ar', a((roac$ed*[25] 5$e #ra4est t$reat ca'e )ro' He'u a 'inister and #enera% o) one o) t$e 2ur ru%ers !$o $ad (roc%ai'ed $i'se%) Hindu e'(eror and e1(e%%ed t$e "u#$a%s )ro' t$e -ndo73an#etic (%ains*[24] .kbar $a!kin# !it$ "u#$a% c$ie)tains and nob%e'an acco'(anied b, $is #uardian /aira' 0$an Cr#ed b, /aira' 0$an !$o re'ars$a%%ed t$e "u#$a% ar', be)ore He'u cou%d conso%idate $is (osition .kbar 'arc$ed on +e%$i to rec%ai' it*[26] .kbar;s ar', %ed b, /aira' 0$an de)eated He'u and t$e 2ur ar', on 5 Eo4e'ber 1556 at t$e 2econd /att%e o) 9ani(at 50 'i%es (D0 k') nort$ o) +e%$i*[27] 2oon a)ter t$e batt%e "u#$a% )orces occu(ied +e%$i and t$en .#ra* .kbar 'ade a triu'($ant entr, into +e%$i !$ere $e sta,ed )or a 'ont$* 5$en $e and /aira' 0$an returned to 9un8ab to dea% !it$ 2ikandar 2$a$ !$o $ad beco'e acti4e a#ain*[2D] -n t$e ne1t si1 'ont$s t$e "u#$a%s !on anot$er 'a8or batt%e a#ainst 2ikander 2$a$ 2uri !$o t$en )%ed east to /en#a%* .kbar and $is )orces occu(ied :a$ore and t$en sei?ed "u%tan in t$e 9un8ab* -n 155D .kbar took (ossession o) .8'er t$e a(erture to Aa8(utana a)ter t$e de)eat and )%i#$t o) its "us%i' ru%er* [2D] :ate in t$e sa'e ,ear a "u#$a% co''ander de)eated -bra$i' t$e %ast 2ur (rince and anne1ed @aun(ur t$e ca(ita% o) t$e )or'er 2u%tanate o) @aun(ur in t$e eastern 3an#etic 4a%%e,* 5$e "u#$a%s $ad a%so besie#ed and de)eated t$e 2ur )orces in contro% o) 3!a%ior <ort t$e #reatest stron#$o%d nort$ o) t$eEar'ada ri4er*[2D] 5$e )%urr, o) 4ictories (ut t$e 4ita% cities and stron#$o%ds %ocated bet!een :a$ore +e%$i .#ra and @aun(ur under .kbar;s contro%*[2D] 5$is !as Hindustan t$e o%d $eart%and o) "us%i' 5urko7.)#$an (o%itica% and 'i%itar, (o!er in -ndia* 5$e "u#$a%s %ike t$eir (redecessors !ere no! (oised to ta( t$e i''ense a#ricu%tura% (roducti4it, and trade (otentia% o) t$e e(icenter o) t$e -ndo73an#etic (%ains*[2D]Ao,a% be#u's a%on# !it$ t$e )a'i%ies o) "u#$a% a'irs !ere )ina%%, brou#$t o4er )ro' 0abu% to -ndia at t$e ti'eaccordin# to .kbar;s 4i?ier .bu% <a?% Gso t$at 'en 'i#$t beco'e sett%ed and be restrained in so'e 'easure )ro' de(artin# to a countr, to !$ic$ t$e, !ere accusto'ed*[24] .kbar $ad )ir'%, dec%ared $is intentions t$at t$e "u#$a%s !ere in -ndia to sta,* 5$is !as a )ar cr, )ro' t$e (o%itica% sett%e'ents b, $is #rand)at$er /abur and b, $is )at$er Hu'a,un bot$ o) !$o' $ad done %itt%e to indicate t$at t$e, !ere an,t$in# but transient ru%ers*[24][2D] Expansion into Central India /, 155B t$e "u#$a%s $ad %aunc$ed a dri4e to t$e sout$ into Aa8(utana and "a%!a*[2B] Ho!e4er .kbar;s dis(utes !it$ $is re#ent /aira' 0$an te'(orari%, (ut an end to t$e e1(ansion*[2B] 5$e ,oun# e'(eror at t$e a#e o) ei#$teen !anted to take a 'ore acti4e (art in 'ana#in# a))airs* Cr#ed on b, $is )oster 'ot$er "a$a' .na#a and $is re%ati4es .kbar decided to dis(ense !it$ t$e ser4ices o) /aira' 0$an* .)ter ,et anot$er dis(ute at court .kbar )ina%%, dis'issed /aira' 0$an in t$e s(rin# o) 1560 and ordered $i' to %ea4e onHa88 to "ecca*[F0] /aira' 0$an %e)t )or "ecca but on $is !a, !as #oaded b, $is o((onents to rebe%*[27] He !as de)eated b, t$e "u#$a% ar', in t$e 9un8ab and )orced to sub'it* .kbar $o!e4er )or#a4e $i' and #a4e $i' t$e o(tion o) eit$er continuin# in $is court or resu'in# $is (i%#ri'a#e o) !$ic$ /aira' c$ose t$e %atter* [F1] /aira' 0$an !as %ater assassinated on $is !a, to "ecca a%%e#ed%, b, an .)#$an !it$ a (ersona% 4endetta*

[2B]

-n 1560 .kbar resu'ed 'i%itar, o(erations*[2B] . "u#$a% ar', under t$e co''and o) $is )oster brot$er .d$a' 0$an and a "u#$a% co''ander 9ir "u$a''ad 0$an in4aded "a%!a* 5$e .)#$an ru%er /a? /a$adur !as de)eated at t$e /att%e o) 2aran#(ur and )%ed to 0$andes$ )or re)u#e %ea4in# be$ind $is $are' treasure and !ar e%e($ants*[2B] +es(ite initia% success t$e ca'(ai#n (ro4ed a disaster )ro' .kbar;s (oint o) 4ie!* His )oster brot$er retained a%% t$e s(oi%s and )o%%o!ed t$rou#$ !it$ t$e >entra% .sian (ractice o) s%au#$terin# t$e surrendered #arrison t$eir !i4es and c$i%dren and 'an, "us%i' t$eo%o#ians and 2a,,ids !$o !ere t$e descendants o) t$e 9ro($et "u$a''ad*[2B] .kbar (ersona%%, rode to "a%!a to con)ront .d$a' 0$an and re%ie4e $i' o) co''and* 9ir "u$a''ad 0$an !as t$en sent in (ursuit o) /a? /a$adur but !as beaten back b, t$e a%%iance o) t$e ru%ers o) 0$andes$ and /erar*[2B] /a? /a$adur te'(orari%, re#ained contro% o) "a%!a unti% in t$e ne1t ,ear .kbar sent anot$er "u#$a% ar', to in4ade and anne1 t$e kin#do'*[2B] "a%!a beca'e a (ro4ince o) t$e nascent i'(eria% ad'inistration o) .kbar;s re#i'e* /a? /a$adur sur4i4ed as a re)u#ee at 4arious courts unti%s unti% ei#$t ,ears %ater in 1570 $e took ser4ice under .kbar*[2B] +es(ite u%ti'ate success in "a%!a t$e con)%ict $o!e4er e1(osed cracks in .kbar;s (ersona% re%ations$i(s !it$ $is re%ati4es and "u#$a% nob%es* I$en .d$a' 0$an con)ronted .kbar )o%%o!in# anot$er dis(ute in 1562 $e !as struck do!n b, t$e e'(eror and t$ro!n )ro' a terrace into t$e (a%ace court,ard at .#ra* 2ti%% a%i4e .d$a' 0$an !as dra##ed u( and t$ro!n to t$e court,ard once a#ain b, .kbar to ensure $is deat$* .kbar no! sou#$t to e%i'inate t$e t$reat o) o4er7'i#$t, sub8ects*[2B] He created s(ecia%i?ed 'inisteria% (osts re%atin# to i'(eria% #o4ernance* Eo 'e'ber o) t$e "u#$a% nobi%it, !as to $a4e unnestioned (re7e'inence*[2B] I$en a (o!er)u% c%an o) C?bek c$ie)s broke out in rebe%%ion in 1564 .kbar decisi4e%, de)eated and routed t$e' in "a%!a and t$en /i$ar*[F2] He (ardoned t$e rebe%%ious %eaders $o(in# to conci%iate t$e'* /ut t$e, rebe%%ed a#ain so .kbar $ad to 6ue%% t$eir u(risin# a second ti'e* <o%%o!in# a t$ird re4o%t !it$ t$e (roc%a'ation o) "ir?a "u$a''ad Haki' .kbar;s brot$er and t$e "u#$a% ru%er o) 0abu% as e'(eror $is (atience !as )ina%%, e1$austed* 2e4era% C?bek c$ie)tains !ere subse6uent%, s%ain and t$e rebe% %eaders tra'(%ed to deat$ under e%e($ants* [F2] 2i'u%taneous%, t$e "ir?a;s a #rou( o) .kbar;s distant cousins !$o $e%d i'(ortant )ie)s near .#ra $ad a%so risen u( in rebe%%ion* 5$e, too !ere s%ain and dri4en out o) t$e e'(ire*[F2] -n 1566 .kbar 'o4ed to 'eet t$e )orces o) $is brot$er "u$a''ad Haki' !$o $ad 'arc$ed into t$e 9un8ab !it$ drea's o) sei?in# t$e i'(eria% t$rone* <o%%o!in# a brie) con)ontration $o!e4er "u$a''ad Haki' acce(ted .kbar;s su(re'ac, and retreated back to 0abu%*[F2] -n 1564 "u#$a% )orces con6uered t$e 3ond!ana kin#do'* 3ond!ana a t$in%, (o(u%ated $i%%, area in centra% -ndia !as o) interest to t$e "u#$a%s because o) its $erd o) !i%d e%e($ants*[FF] 5$e territor, !as ru%ed o4er b, Aa8a Hir Eara,an a 'inor and $is 'ot$er +ur#a4ati a Aa8(ut !arrior 6ueen o) t$e 3onds*[F2] .kbar did not (ersona%%, %ead t$e ca'(ai#n because $e !as (reoccu(ied !it$ t$e C?bek rebe%%ion but %e)t t$e e1(edition in t$e $ands o) .sa) 0$an t$e "u#$a% #o4ernor o) 0ara*[F2][F4] +ur#a4ati co''itted suicide a)ter $er de)eat at t$e /att%e o) +a'o$ !$i%e Aa8a Hir Eara,an !as s%ain at t$e <a%% o) >$aura#ar$ t$e 'ountain )ortress o) t$e 3onds*[F4]5$e "u#$a%s sei?ed i''ense !ea%t$ an unca%cu%ated a'ount o) #o%d and si%4er 8e!e%s and 1000 e%e($ants* 0a'a%a +e4i a ,oun#er sister o) +ur#a4ati !as sent to t$e "u#$a% $are'*[F4] 5$e brot$er o) +ur#a4ati;s deceased $usband !as insta%%ed as t$e "u#$a% ad'inistrator o) t$e re#ion*[F4] :ike in "a%!a $o!e4er .kbar entered into a dis(ute !it$ $is 4assa%s o4er t$e con6uest o) 3ond!ana*[F4].sa) 0$an !as accused o) kee(in# 'ost o) t$e treasures and sendin# back on%, 200 e%e($ants to .kbar* I$en su''oned to #i4e accounts $e )%ed 3ond!ana* He !ent )irst to t$e C?beks t$en returned to 3ond!ana !$ere $e !as (ursued b, "u#$a% )orces* <ina%%, $e sub'itted and .kbar restored $i' to $is (re4ious (osition*[F4] The Conquest of a!putana Ha4in# estab%is$ed "u#$a% ru%e o4er nort$ern -ndia .kbar turned $is attention to t$e con6uest o) Aa8(utana* Eo i'(eria% (o!er in -ndia based on t$e -ndo73an#etic (%ains cou%d be secure i) a ri4a% centre o) (o!er e1isted on its )%ank in Aa8(utana*[F4] 5$e "u#$a%s $ad a%read, estab%is$ed do'ination o4er (arts o) nort$ern Aa8(utana in "e!ar .8'er and Ea#or*[2D][F2] Eo! $o!e4er .kbar !as deter'ined to dri4e into t$e $eart%ands o) t$e Aa8(ut kin#s t$at $ad ne4er (re4ious%, sub'itted to t$e "us%i' ru%ers o) t$e +e%$i 2u%tanate* /e#ininnin# in 1561 t$e "u#$a%s acti4e%, en#a#ed t$e Aa8(uts in !ar)are and di(%o'ac,*[FF] "ost Aa8(ut states acce(ted .kbar;s su?eraint,; t$e ru%er o) "e!ar Cdai 2in#$ $o!e4er re'ained outside t$e i'(eria% )o%d*[F2] Aa8a Cdai 2in#$ !as descended )ro' t$e 2isodia ru%er Aana 2an#a !$o $ad died )i#$tin# /abur at t$e /att%e o) 0$an!a in 1527*[F2] .s t$e $ead o) t$e 2isodia c%an $e (ossessed t$e $i#$est ritua% status o) a%% t$e Aa8(ut kin#s and c$ie)tains in -ndia* Cn%ess Cdai 2in#$ !as reduced to sub'ission t$e i'(eria% aut$orit, o) t$e "u#$a%s !ou%d be %essened in Aa8(ut e,es*[F2] <urt$er'ore .kbar at t$is ear%, (eriod !as sti%% ent$usiastica%%, de4oted to t$e cause o) -s%a' and sou#$t to i'(ress t$e su(eriorit, o) $is )ait$ o4er t$e 'ost (resti#ious !arriors in /ra$'inica% Hinduis'*[F2] 5$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar s$oots t$e Aa8(ut !arrior @ai'a% durin# t$e 2ie#e o) >$ittor#ar$ in 1567 .kbar %eads $is ar'ies durin# t$e "u#$a% attack on Aant$a'bore in 156D -n 1567 .kbar 'o4ed to reduce t$e >$ittor#ar$ <ort in "e!ar* 5$e )ortress7ca(ita% o) "e!ar !as o) #reat strate#ic i'(ortance as it %a, on t$e s$ortest route )ro' .#ra to 3u8arat and !as a%so considered a ke, to

$o%din# t$e interior (arts o) Aa8(utana* Cdai 2in#$ retired to t$e $i%%s o) "e!ar %ea4in# t!o Aa8(ut !arriors @ai'a% and 9atta in c$ar#e o) t$e de)ense o) $is ca(ita%*[F5] >$ittor#ar$ )e%% on <ebruar, 156D a)ter a sie#e o) )our 'ont$s* .kbar $ad t$e sur4i4in# de)enders 'assacred and t$eir $eads dis(%a,ed u(on to!ers erected t$rou#$out t$e re#ion in order to de'onstrate $is aut$orit,*[F6][F7] 5$e tota% %oot t$at )e%% into t$e $ands o) t$e "u#$a%s !as distributed t$rou#$out t$e e'(ire*[FD] He re'ained in >$ittor#ar$ )or t$ree da,s t$en returned to .#ra !$ere to co''e'orate t$e 4ictor, $e set u( at t$e #ates o) $is )ort statues o) @ai'a% and 9atta 'ounted on e%e($ants*[FB] Cdai 2in#$;s (o!er and in)%uence !as broken* He ne4er a#ain 4entured out $is 'ountain re)u#e in "e!ar and .kbar !as content to %et $i' be*[40] 5$e )a%% o) >$ittor#ar$ !as )o%%o!ed u( b, a "u#$a% attack on t$eAant$a'bore <ort in 156D* Aant$a'bore !as $e%d b, t$e Hada Aa8(uts and re(uted to be t$e 'ost (o!er)u% )ortress in -ndia*[40] Ho!e4er it )e%% on%, a)ter a cou(%e o) 'ont$s*[40] .kbar !as no! t$e 'aster o) a%'ost t$e !$o%e o) Aa8(utana* "ost o) t$e Aa8(ut kin#s $ad sub'itted to t$e "u#$a%s*[40] On%, t$e c%ans o) "e!ar continued to resist*[40] Cdai 2in#$;s son and successor 9rata( 2in#$ !as %ater de)eated b, t$e "u#$a%s at t$e /att%e o) Ha%di#$ati in 1576*[40] He s(ent t$e re'ainder o) $is %i)e in e1i%e in t$e .ra4a%%i $i%%s* .kbar !ou%d ce%ebrate $is con6uest o) Aa8(utana b, %a,in# t$e )oundation o) a ne! ca(ita% 2F 'i%es (F7 k') I*2*I o) .#ra in 156B* -t !as ca%%ed <ate$(ur 2ikri (Gt$e cit, o) 4ictor,G)*[41] 5$e court o) ,oun# .kbar a#e 1F s$o!in# $is )irst i'(eria% act: t$e arrest o) an unru%, courtier !$o !as once a )a4orite o) .kbar;s )at$er* -%%ustration )ro' a 'anuscri(t o) t$e .kbarna'a Annexation of "estern and Eastern India .kbar;s ne1t 'i%itar, ob8ecti4es !ere t$e con6uest o) 3u8arat and /en#a% !$ic$ connected -ndia !it$ t$e tradin# centres o) .sia .)rica and &uro(e t$rou#$ t$e .rabian 2ea and t$e /a, o) /en#a%res(ecti4e%,* [40] <urt$er'ore 3u8arat $ad been a $a4en )or rebe%%ious "u#$a% nob%es !$i%e in /en#a% t$e .)#$ans sti%% $e%d considerab%e in)%uence under t$eir ru%er 2u%ai'an 0$an 0arrani* .kbar )irst 'o4ed a#ainst 3u8arat !$ic$ %a, in t$e crook o) t$e "u#$a% (ro4inces o) Aa8(utana and "a%!a*[40]3u8arat !it$ its coasta% re#ions (ossessed areas o) ric$ a#ricu%tura% (roduction in its centra% (%ain; an i'(ressi4e out(ut o) te1ti%es and ot$er industria% #oods and t$e busiest sea(orts o) -ndia*[40][42].kbar intended to %ink t$e 'ariti'e state !it$ t$e 'assi4e resources o) t$e -ndo73an#etic (%ains*[4F]Ho!e4er t$e ostensib%e casus be%%i !as t$at t$e rebe% "ir?as !$o $ad (re4ious%, been dri4en out o) -ndia !ere no! o(eratin# out o) a base in sout$ern 3u8arat* "ore4er .kbar $ad recei4ed in4itations )ro' c%i6ues in 3u8arat to oust t$e rei#nin# kin# !$ic$ ser4ed as 8usti)ication )or $is 'i%itar, e1(edition*[40] -n 1572 $e 'o4ed to occu(, .$'edabad t$e ca(ita% and ot$er nort$ern cities and !as (roc%ai'ed t$e %a!)u% so4erei#n o) 3u8arat* /, 157F $e $ad dri4en out t$e "ir?as !$o a)ter o))erin# token resistance )%ed )or re)u#e in t$e +eccan* 2urat t$e co''ercia% ca(ita% o) t$e re#ion and ot$er coasta% cities soon ca(itu%ated to t$e "u#$a%s*[40] 5$e kin# "u?a))ar 2$a$ --- !as cau#$t $idin# in a corn )ie%d; $e !as (ensioned o)) b, .kbar !it$ a s'a%% a%%o!ance*[40] Ha4in# estab%is$ed $is aut$orit, o4er 3u8arat .kbar returned to <ate($ur 2ikiri !$ere $e bui%t t$e/u%and +ar!a?a to co''e'orate $is 4ictories but a rebe%%ion b, .)#$an nob%es su((orted b, t$e Aa8(ut ru%er o) -dar and t$e rene!ed intri#ues o) t$e "ir?as )orced $is return to 3u8arat*[4F] .kbar crossed t$e Aa8(utana and reac$ed .$'edabad in e%e4en da,s 7 a 8ourne, t$at nor'a%%, took si1 !eeks* 5$e outnu'bered "u#$a% ar', t$en !on a decisi4e 4ictor, on 2 2e(te'ber 157F* .kbar s%e! t$e rebe% %eaders and erected a to!er out o) t$eir se4ered $eads*[40] 5$e con6uest and sub8u#ation o) 3u8arat (ro4ed $i#$%, (ro)itab%e )or t$e "u#$a%s; t$e territor, ,ie%ded a re4enue o) 'ore t$an )i4e 'i%%ion ru(ees annua%%, to .kbar;s treasur, a)ter e1(enses*[40] .kbar $ad no! de)eated 'ost o) t$e .)#$an re'nants in -ndia* 5$e on%, centre o) .)#$an (o!er !as no! in /en#a% !$ere 2u%ai'an 0$an 0arrani an .)#$an c$ie)tain !$ose )a'i%, $ad ser4ed under 2$er 2$a$ 2uri !as rei#nin# in (o!er* I$i%e 2u%ai'an 0$an scru(u%ous%, a4oided #i4in# o))ence to .kbar $is son +aud 0$an !$o $ad succeeded $i' in 1572 decided ot$er!ise*[44] I$ereas 2u%ai'an 0$an $ad t$e k$utba read in .kbar;s na'e and ackno!%ed#ed "u#$a% su(re'ac, +aud 0$an assu'ed t$e insi#nia o) ro,a%t, and ordered t$e k$utba to be (roc%ai'ed in $is o!n na'e in de)iance o) .kbar* "uni' 0$an t$e "u#$a% #o4ernor o) /i$ar !as ordered to c$astise +uad 0$an but %ater .kbar $i'se%) set out to /en#a%*[44] 5$is !as an o((ortunit, to brin# t$e trade in t$e east under "u#$a% contro%*[45] -n 1574 t$e "u#$a%s sei?ed 9atna )ro' +aud 0$an !$o )%ed to /en#a%*[44] .kbar returned to <ate$(ur 2ikri and %e)t $is #enera%s to )inis$ t$e ca'(ai#n* 5$e "u#$a% ar', !as subse6uent%, 4ictorious at t$e /att%e o) 5ukaroi in 1575 !$ic$ %ed to t$e anne1ation o) /en#a% and (arts o) /i$ar t$at $ad been under t$e do'inion o) +aud 0$an* On%, Orissa !as %e)t in t$e $ands o) t$e0arrani d,nast, as a )ie) o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire* . ,ear %ater $o!e4er +aud 0$an rebe%%ed and atte'(ted to re#ain /en#a%* He !as de)eated b, t$e "u#$a% #enera% 0$an @a$an Ju%i and $ad to )%ee into e1i%e* +aud 0$an !as %ater ca(tured and e1ecuted b, "u#$a% )orces* His se4ered $ead !as sent to .kbar !$i%e $is %i'bs !ere #ibetted at 5anda$ t$e "u#$a% ca(ita% in /en#a%*[44] Ca#paigns in Afghanistan and Central Asia <o%%o!in# $is con6uests o) 3u8arat and /en#a% .kbar !as (reoccu(ied !it$ do'estic concerns* He did not %ea4e <ate$(ur 2ikri on a 'i%itar, ca'(ai#n unti% 15D1 !$en t$e 9un8ab !as a#ain in4aded b, $is brot$er "ir?a "u$a''ad Haki'*[44] .kbar e1(e%%ed $is brot$er to 0abu% and t$is ti'e (ressed on deter'ined to end t$e t$reat )ro' "u$a''ad Haki' once and )or a%%*[44] -n contrast to t$e (rob%e' t$at $is (redecessors once

$ad in #ettin# "u#$a% nob%es to sta, on in -ndia t$e (rob%e' no! !as to #et t$e' to %ea4e -ndia*[44] 5$e, !ere accordin# to .bu% <a?% Ga)raid o) t$e co%d o) .)#$anistan*G[44] 5$e Hindu o))icers in turn !ere additiona%%, in$ibited b, t$e traditiona% taboo a#ainst crossin# t$e -ndus* .kbar $o!e4er s(urred t$e' on* 5$e so%diers !ere (ro4ided !it$ (a, ei#$t 'ont$s in ad4ance*[44] -n .u#ust 15D1 .kbar sei?ed 0abu% and took u( residence at /abur;s o%d citide%* He sta,ed t$ere )or t$ree !eeks in t$e absence o) $is brot$er !$o $ad )%ed into t$e 'ountains*[44] .kbar %e)t 0abu% in t$e $ands o) $is sister /ak$t7un7Eisa /e#u' and returned to -ndia* He (ardoned $is brot$er !$o took u( de )acto c$ar#e o) t$e "u#$a% ad'inistration in 0abu%; /ak$t7un7Eis continued to be t$e o))icia% #o4ernor* . )e! ,ears %ater in 15D5 "u$a''ad Haki' died and 0abu% (assed into t$e $ands o) .kbar once a#ain* -t !as o))icia%%, incor(orated as a (ro4ince o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire*[44] 5$e 0abu% e1(edition !as t$e be#innin# o) a %on# (eriod o) acti4it, o4er t$e nort$ern )rontiers o) t$e e'(ire* [46] <or t$irteen ,ears be#innin# in 15D5 .kbar re'ained in t$e nort$ s$i)tin# $is ca(ita% to :a$ore in t$e 9un8ab !$i%e dea%in# !it$ c$a%%en#es )ro' be,ond t$e 0$,ber 9ass*[46] 5$e #ra4est t$reat ca'e )ro' t$e C?beks t$e tribe t$at $ad dri4en $is #rand)at$er /abur out o) >entra% .sia*[44]5$e, $ad been or#ani?ed under .bdu%%a$ 0$an 2$a,banid a ca(ab%e 'i%itar, c$ie)tain !$o $ad sei?ed /adak$s$an and /a%k$ )ro' .kbar;s distant 5i'urid re%ati4es and !$ose C?bek troo(s no! (osed a serious c$a%%en#e to t$e nort$!estern )rontiers o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire*[44][47] 5$e .)#$an tribes on t$e border !ere a%so rest%ess (art%, on account o) t$e $osti%it, o) t$e Kusu)?ai o) /a8aur and 2!at and (art%, o!in# to t$e acti4it, o) a ne! re%i#ious %eader /a,a?id t$e )ounder o) t$e Aos$ani,,a sect*[46] 5$e C?beks !ere a%so kno!n to be subsidi?in# .)#$ans*[4D] -n 15D6 .kbar ne#otiated a (act !it$ .bdu%%a$ 0$an in !$ic$ t$e "u#$a%s a#reed to re'ain neutra% durin# t$e C?bek in4asion o) 2a)a4id $e%d 0$orasan*[4D] -n return .bdu%%a$ 0$an a#reed to re)rain )ro' su((ortin# subsidi?in# or o))erin# re)u#e to t$e .)#$an tribes $osti%e to t$e "u#$a%s* 5$us )reed .kbar be#an a series o) ca'(ai#ns to (aci), t$e Kusu)?ais and ot$er rebe%s*[4D] .kbar ordered =ain 0$an to %ead an e1(edition a#ainst t$e .)#$an tribes* Aa8a /irba% a reno!ned 'inister in .kbar;s court !as a%so #i4en 'i%itar, co''and* 5$e e1(edition turned out to be a disaster and on its retreat )ro' t$e 'ountains /irba% and $is entoura#e !ere a'bus$ed and ki%%ed b, t$e .)#$ans at t$e "a%andarai 9ass in <ebaruar, 15D6*[4D] .kbar i''ediate%, )ie%ded ne! ar'ies to rein4ade t$e Kusu)?ai %ands under t$e co''and o) Aa8a 5odar "a%* O4er t$e ne1t si1 ,ears t$e "u#$a%s contained t$e Kusu)?ai in t$e 'ountain 4a%%e,s and )orced t$e sub'ission o) 'an, c$ie)s in 2!at and /a8aur*[4D] +o?ens o) )orts !ere bui%t and occu(ied to secure t$e re#ion* .kbar;s res(onse de'onstrated $is abi%it, to c%a'( )ir' 'i%itar, contro% o4er t$e .)#$an tribes*[4D] +es(ite $is (act !it$ t$e C?beks .kbar nurtured a secret $o(e o) recon6uerin# >entra% .sia )ro' .)#$anistan* [4B] Ho!e4er /adaks$an and /a%k$ re'ained )ir'%, (art o) t$e C?bek do'inions* 5$ere !as on%, a transient occu(ation o) t$e t!o (ro4inces b, t$e "u#$a%s under $is #randson 2$a$ @a$an in t$e 'id717t$ centur,* [47] Ee4ert$e%ess .kbar;s sta, in t$e nort$ern )rontiers !as $i#$%, )ruit)u%* 5$e %ast o) t$e rebe%%ious .)#$an tribes !ere subdued b, 1600*[47] 5$e Aos$ani,,a 'o4e'ent !as )ir'%, su((ressed* 5$e .)ridi and Orak?aitribes !$ic$ $ad risen u( under t$e Aos$ani,,as $ad been sub8u#ated*[47] 5$e %eaders o) t$e 'o4e'ent !ere ca(tured and dri4en into e1i%e*[47] @a%a%uddin t$e son o) t$e Aos$ani,,a 'o4e'ent;s )ounder /a,a?id !as ki%%ed in 1601 in a )i#$t !it$ "u#$a% troo(s near3$a?ni*[47] "u#$a% ru%e o4er .)#$anistan !as )ina%%, secure (articu%ar%, a)ter t$e (assin# o) t$e C?bek t$reat !it$ t$e deat$ o) .bdu%%a$ 0$an in 15BD*[4D] Conquests in the Indus $alley I$i%e in :a$ore dea%in# !it$ t$e C?beks .kbar $ad sou#$t to sub8u#ate t$e -ndus 4a%%e, to secure t$e )rontier (ro4inces*[4D] He sent an ar', to con6uer 0as$'ir in t$e u((er -ndus basin !$en in 15D5 .%i 2$a$ t$e rei#nin# kin# o) t$e 2$ia >$ak d,nast, re)used to send $is son as a $osta#e to t$e "u#$a% court* .%i 2$a$ surrendered i''ediate%, to t$e "u#$a%s but anot$er o) $is sons Ka6ub cro!ned $i'se%) as kin# and %ed a stubborn resistance to "u#$a% ar'ies* <ina%%, in @une 15DB .kbar $i'se%) tra4e%%ed )ro' :a$ore to 2rina#ar to recei4e t$e surrender o) Ka6ub and $is rebe% )orces*[4D] /a%tistan and :adak$ !$ic$ !ere 5ibetan (ro4inces ad8acent to 0as$'ir (%ed#ed t$eir a%%e#iance to .kbar*[50] 5$e "u#$a%s a%so 'o4ed to con6uer 2ind$ in t$e %o!er -ndus 4a%%e,* 2ince 1574 t$e nort$ern )ortress o) /$akkar $ad re'ained under i'(eria% contro%* Eo! in 15D6 t$e "u#$a% #o4ernor o) "u%tan tried and )ai%ed to secure t$e ca(itu%ation o) "ir?a @ani /e# t$e inde(endent ru%er o) 5$atta in sout$ern 2ind$*[4D] .kbar res(onded b, sendin# a "u#$a% ar', to besie#e 2e$!an t$e ri4er ca(ita% o) t$e re#ion* @ani /e# 'ustered a %ar#e ar', to 'eet t$e "u#$a%s*[4D] 5$e outnu'bered "u#$a% )orces de)eated t$e 2ind$i )orces at t$e /att%e o) 2e$!an* .)ter su))erin# )urt$er de)eats @ani /e# surrendered to t$e "u#$a%s in 15B1 and in 15BF (aid $o'a#e to .kbar in :a$ore*[50] Sub!ugation of %alu&histan .s ear%, as 15D6 about $a%) a do?en /a%uc$i c$ie)s $ad been (ersuaded to attend t$e i'(eria% court and ackno!%ed#e t$e 4assa%a#e o) .kbar* -n (re(arations to take 0anda$ar )ro' t$e 2a)a4ids .kbar ordered t$e "u#$a% )orces to con6uer t$e rest o) /a%uc$istan in 15B5*[50][51] 5$e "u#$a% #enera% "ir "asu' %ed an attack on t$e stron#$o%d o) 2ibi situated to t$e nort$!est o) Juetta and de)eated a coa%ition o) %oca% c$ie)tains in a (itc$ed batt%e*[51] 5$e, !ere 'ade to ackno!%ed#e "u#$a% su(re'ac, and attend .kbar;s court* .s a resu%t t$e !$o%e o) /a%uc$istan inc%udin# t$e strate#ic re#ion o) "akran t$e coasta% stri( runnin# )ro' -ndia to -ran beca'e a (art o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire*[51] 5$e "u#$a%s no! )rontiered 9ersian ru%ed 0anda$ar )ro' t$ree sides*
[51]

The Safavids and 'andahar

0anda$ar !as t$e na'e #i4en b, .rab $istorians to t$e ancient -ndian kin#do' o) 3and$ara*[52] -t !as inti'ate%, connected !it$ t$e "u#$a%s since t$e ti'e o) t$eir ancestor 5i'ur t$e !ar%ord !$o $ad con6uered 'uc$ o) 2out$ >entra% and Iestern .sia in t$e 14t$ centur,* Ho!e4er t$e 2a)a4ids considered it as an a((ana#e o) t$e 9ersian ru%ed territor, o) 0$orasan and dec%ared its association !it$ t$e "u#$a% e'(erors to be a usur(ation* -n 155D !$i%e .kbar !as conso%idatin# $is ru%e o4er nort$ern -ndia t$e 2a)a4id e'(eror 5a$'as( - $ad sei?ed 0anda$ar and e1(e%%ed its "u#$a% #o4ernor* <or t$e ne1t t$irt, ,ears it re'ained under 9ersian ru%e*[50] 5$e reco4er, o) 0anda$ar $ad not been a (riorit, )or .kbar but a)ter $is (ro%on#ed 'i%itar, acti4it, in t$e nort$ern )rontiers a 'o4e to restore "u#$a% ru%e o4er t$e re#ion beca'e desirab%e*[50] 5$e con6uests o) 2ind$ 0as$'ir and /a%uc$isan and t$e on#oin# conso%idation o) "u#$a% (o!er o4er .)#$anistan $ad added to .kbar;s con)idence*[50] <urt$er'ore 0anda$ar !as at t$is ti'e under t$reat )ro' t$e C?beks but t$e &'(eror o) 9ersia $i'se%) be%ea#uered b, t$e Otto'an 5urks !as unab%e to send an, rein)orce'ents* >ircu'stances )a4oured t$e "u#$a%s*[50] -n 15BF .kbar recei4ed t$e e1i%ed 2a)a4id (rince Aosta' "ir?a a)ter $e $ad 6uare%%ed !it$ $is )a'i%,* [5F] Aosta' "ir?a (%ed#ed a%%e#iance to t$e "u#$a%s; $e !as #ranted a rank ('ansab) o) co''ander o) 5000 'en and recei4ed "u%tan as a 8a#ir*[5F] /e%ea#uered b, constant C?bek raids and seein# t$e rece(tion o) Aosto' "ir?a at t$e "u#$a% court t$e 2a)a4id (rince and #o4ernor o) 0anda$ar "o?a))ar Hosa,n a%so a#reed to de)ect to t$e "u#$a%s* "o?a))ar Hosa,n !$o !as in an, case in an ad4ersar, re%ations$i( !it$ $is o4er%ord 2$a$ .bbas !as #ranted a rank o) 5000 'en and $is dau#$ter !as 'arried to .kbar;s #randson t$e "u#$a% (rince 0$urra'*[50][5F] 0anda$ar !as )ina%%, secured in 15B5 !it$ t$e arri4a% o) a #arrison $eaded b, t$e "u#$a% #enera% 2$a$ /a,# 0$an*[5F]5$e recon6uest o) 0anda$ar did not o4ert%, disturb t$e "u#$a%7 9ersian re%ations$i(*[50] .kbar and t$e 9ersian 2$a$ continued to e1c$an#e a'bassadors and (resents* Ho!e4er t$e (o!er e6uation bet!een t$e t!o $ad no! c$an#ed in )a4our o) t$e "u#$a%s*[50].kbar $ad bui%t a %ar#e and secure e'(ire )or $i'se%) !$i%e 9ersian (o!er $ad dec%ined*[50] .d'inistration (oliti&al govern#ent Koun# .bdu% Aa$i' 0$an7-70$anason o) /aira' 0$an bein# recei4ed b, .kbar .kbar;s s,ste' o) centra% #o4ern'ent !as based on t$e s,ste' t$at $ad e4o%4ed since t$e+e%$i 2u%tanate but t$e )unctions o) 4arious de(art'ents !ere care)u%%, reor#anised b, %a,in# do!n detai%ed re#u%ations )or t$eir )unctionin# 5$e re4enue de(art'ent !as $eaded b, a wazir res(onsib%e )or a%% )inances and 'ana#e'ent o) jagir and inam %ands* 5$e $ead o) t$e 'i%itar, !as ca%%ed t$e mir bakshi a((ointed )ro' a'on# t$e %eadin# nob%es o) t$e court* 5$e mir bakshi !as in c$ar#e o) inte%%i#ence #at$erin# and a%so 'ade reco''endations to t$e e'(eror )or 'i%itar, a((oint'ents and (ro'otions* 5$e mir saman !as in c$ar#e o) t$e i'(eria% $ouse$o%d inc%udin# t$e $are's and su(er4ised t$e )unctionin# o) t$e court and ro,a% bod,#uard* 5$e 8udiciar, !as a se(arate or#ani?ation $eaded b, a c$ie) qazi !$o !as a%so res(onsib%e )or re%i#ious be%ie)s and (ractices Taxation .kbar set about re)or'in# t$e ad'inistration o) $is e'(ire;s %and re4enue b, ado(tin# a s,ste' t$at $ad been used b, 2$er 2$a$ 2uri* . cu%ti4ated area !$ere cro(s #re! !e%% !as 'easured and ta1ed t$rou#$ )i1ed rates based on t$e area;s cro( and (roducti4it,* Ho!e4er t$is (%aced $ards$i( on t$e (easantr, because ta1 rates !ere )i1ed on t$e basis o) (rices (re4ai%in# in t$e i'(eria% court !$ic$ !ere o)ten $i#$er t$an t$ose in t$e countr,side*[54] .kbar c$an#ed to a decentra%i?ed s,ste' o) annua% assess'ent but t$is resu%ted in corru(tion a'on# %oca% o))icia%s and !as abandoned in 15D0 to be re(%aced b, a s,ste' ca%%ed t$e dahsala*[55] Cnder t$e ne! s,ste' re4enue !as ca%cu%ated as one7t$ird o) t$e a4era#e (roduce o) t$e (re4ious ten ,ears to be (aid to t$e state in cas$* 5$is s,ste' !as %ater re)ined takin# into account %oca% (rices and #rou(in# areas !it$ si'i%ar (roducti4it, into assess'ent circ%es* Ae'ission !as #i4en to (easants !$en t$e $ar4est )ai%ed durin# ti'es o) )%ood or drou#$t*[55].kbar;s dahsala s,ste' is credited to Aa8a 5odar "a% !$o a%so ser4ed as a re4enue o))icer under 2$er 2$a$ 2uri [56] and t$e structure o) t$e re4enue ad'inistration !as set out b, t$e %atter in a detai%ed 'e'orandu' sub'itted to t$e e'(eror in 15D27DF*[57] Ot$er %oca% 'et$ods o) assess'ent continued in so'e areas* :and !$ic$ !as )a%%o! or uncu%ti4ated !as c$ar#ed at concessiona% rates*[5D] .kbar a%so acti4e%, encoura#ed t$e i'(ro4e'ent and e1tension o) a#ricu%ture* 5$e 4i%%a#e continued to re'ain t$e (ri'ar, unit o) re4enue assess'ent*[5B] =a'indars o) e4er, area !ere re6uired to (ro4ide %oans and a#ricu%tura% i'(%e'ents in ti'es o) need to encoura#e )ar'ers to (%ou#$ as 'uc$ %and as (ossib%e and to so! seeds o) su(erior 6ua%it,* -n turn t$e ?a'indars !ere #i4en a $ereditar, ri#$t to co%%ect a s$are o) t$e (roduce* 9easants $ad a $ereditar, ri#$t to cu%ti4ate t$e %and as %on# as t$e, (aid t$e %and re4enue*[5D] I$i%e t$e re4enue assess'ent s,ste' s$o!ed concern )or t$e s'a%% (easantr, it a%so 'aintained a %e4e% o) distrust to!ards t$e re4enue o))icia%s* Ae4enue o))icia%s !ere

#uaranteed on%, t$ree76uarters o) t$eir sa%ar, !it$ t$e re'ainin# 6uarter de(endent on t$eir )u%% rea%isation o) t$e re4enue assessed*[60] Military organi)ation Main article: Mansabdari An Emperor shall be ever Intent on Conquest !therwise "is enemies shall rise in arms against him# *alal+ud+,in Muha##ad Akbar .kbar or#ani?ed $is ar', as !e%% as t$e nobi%it, b, 'eans o) a s,ste' ca%%ed t$e mansabdari* Cnder t$is s,ste' eac$ o))icer in t$e ar', !as assi#ned a rank (a mansabdar) and assi#ned a nu'ber o) ca4a%r, t$at $e $ad to su((%, to t$e i'(eria% ar',*[56] 5$e mansabdars !ere di4ided into FF c%asses* 5$e to( t$ree co''andin# ranks ran#in# )ro' 7000 to 10000 troo(s !ere nor'a%%, reser4ed )or (rinces* Ot$er ranks bet!een 10 and 5000 !ere assi#ned to ot$er 'e'bers o) t$e nobi%it,* 5$e e'(ire;s (er'anent standin# ar', !as 6uite s'a%% and t$e i'(eria% )orces 'ost%, consisted o) contin#ents 'aintained b, t$e mansabdars* [61] 9ersons !ere nor'a%%, a((ointed to a %o! mansaband t$en (ro'oted based on t$eir 'erit as !e%% as t$e )a4our o) t$e e'(eror*[62] &ac$ mansabdar !as re6uired to 'aintain a certain nu'ber o) ca4a%r,'en and t!ice t$at nu'ber o) $orses* 5$e nu'ber o) $orses !as #reater because t$e, $ad to be rested and ra(id%, re(%aced in ti'es o) !ar* .kbar e'(%o,ed strict 'easures to ensure t$at t$e 6ua%it, o) t$e ar'ed )orces !as 'aintained at a $i#$ %e4e%; $orses !ere re#u%ar%, ins(ected and on%, .rabian $orses !ere nor'a%%, e'(%o,ed* [6F] 5$e mansabdars !ere re'unerated !e%% )or t$eir ser4ices and constituted t$e $i#$est (aid 'i%itar, ser4ice in t$e !or%d at t$e ti'e*[62] Capital $iwan%i%&has (Ha%% o) 9ri4ate .udience) in <ate$(ur 2ikri .kbar !as a )o%%o!er o) 2a%i' >$is$ti a $o%, 'an !$o %i4ed in t$e re#ion o) 2ikri near .#ra* /e%ie4in# t$e area to be a %uck, one )or $i'se%) $e $ad a 'os6ue constructed t$ere )or t$e use o) t$e (riest* 2ubse6uent%, $e ce%ebrated t$e 4ictories o4er >$ittor and Aant$a'bore b, %a,in# t$e )oundation o) a ne! !a%%ed ca(ita% 2F 'i%es (F7 k') !est o) .#ra in 156B !$ic$ !as na'ed <ate$(ur (Gtown o' victor(G) a)ter t$e con6uest o) 3u8arat in 157F and subse6uent%, ca'e to be kno!n as <ate$(ur 2ikri in order to distin#uis$ it )ro' ot$er si'i%ar%, na'ed to!ns*[F5] 9a%aces )or eac$ o) .kbar;s senior 6ueens a $u#e arti)icia% %ake and su'(tuous !ater7)i%%ed court,ards !ere bui%t t$ere* Ho!e4er t$e cit, !as soon abandoned and t$e ca(ita% !as 'o4ed to :a$ore in 15D5* 5$e reason 'a, $a4e been t$at t$e !ater su((%, in <ate$(ur 2ikri !as insu))icient or o) (oor 6ua%it,* Or as so'e $istorians be%ie4e .kbar $ad to attend to t$e nort$!est areas o) $is e'(ire and t$ere)ore 'o4ed $is ca(ita% nort$!est* Ot$er sources indicate .kbar si'(%, %ost interest in t$e cit,[64] or rea%ised it !as not 'i%itari%, de)ensib%e* -n 15BB .kbar s$i)ted $is ca(ita% back to .#ra )ro' !$ere $e rei#ned unti% $is deat$* &cono', Trade 5$e rei#n o) .kbar !as c$aracterised b, co''ercia% e1(ansion*[65] 5$e "u#$a% #o4ern'ent encoura#ed traders (ro4ided (rotection and securit, )or transactions and %e4ied a 4er, %o! custo' dut, to sti'u%ate )orei#n trade* <urt$er'ore it stri4ed to )oster a c%i'ate conducti4e to co''erce b, re6uin# %oca% ad'inistrators to (ro4ide restitution to traders )or #oods sto%en !$i%e in t$eir territor,* -n order to 'ini'i?e suc$ incidents bands o) $i#$!a, (o%ice ca%%ed rahdars !ere en%isted to (aro% roads and ensure sa)et, o) traders* Ot$er acti4e 'easures taken inc%uded t$e construction and (rotection o) routes o) co''erce and co''unications* [66] -ndeed .kbar !ou%d 'ake concerted e))orts to i'(ro4e roads to )aci%itate t$e use o) !$ee%ed 4e$ic%es t$rou#$ t$e 0$,ber 9ass t$e 'ost (o(u%ar route )re6uented b, traders and tra4e%%ers in 8ourne,in# )ro' 0abu% into "u#$a% -ndia*[66] He a%so strate#ica%%, occu(ied t$e nort$!estern cities o) "u%tan and :a$ore in t$e 9un8ab and constructed #reat )orts suc$ as t$e one at .ttock near t$e crossin# o) t$e 3rand 5runk Aoadand t$e -ndus ri4er as !e%% as a net!ork o) s'a%%er )orts ca%%ed thanas t$rou#$out t$e )rontier to secure t$e o4er%and trade !it$ 9ersia and >entra% .sia*[66] Coins .kbar !as a #reat inno4ator as )ar as coina#e in concerned* 5$e coins o) .kbar set a ne! c$a(ter in -ndia;s nu'is'atic $istor,* 5$e coins o) .kbar;s #rand)at$er /abur and )at$er Hu'a,un are basic and de4oid o) an, inno4ation as t$e )or'er !as bus, estab%is$in# t$e )oundations o) t$e "u#$a% ru%e in -ndia !$i%e t$e %atter !as ousted b, t$e .)#$an <arid 0$an 2$er 2$a$ 2uri and returned to t$e t$rone on%, to die a ,ear %ater* I$i%e t$e rei#n o) bot$ /abur and Hu'a,un re(resented tur'oi% .kbar;s re%ati4e %on# rei#n o) 50 ,ears a%%o!ed $i' to e1(eri'ent !it$ coina#e* .kbar introduced coins !it$ decorati4e )%ora% 'oti)s dotted borders 6uatre)oi% and ot$er t,(es* His coins !ere bot$ round and s6uare in s$a(e !it$ a uni6ue ;'e$rab; (%o?en#e) s$a(e coin $i#$%i#$tin# nu'is'atic ca%%i#ra($, at its best* .kbar;s (ortrait t,(e #o%d coin ("o$ur) is #enera%%, attributed to $is son 9rince 2a%i' (%ater &'(eror @a$an#ir) !$o $ad rebe%%ed and t$en sou#$t reconci%iation t$erea)ter b, 'intin# and (resentin# $is )at$er !it$ #o%d "o$ur;s bearin# .kbar;s (ortrait* 5$e to%erant 4ie! o) .kbar is re(resented b, t$e ;Aa'7

2i,a; si%4er coin t,(e !$i%e durin# t$e %atter (art o) .kbar;s rei#n !e see coins (ortra,in# t$e conce(t o) .kbar;s ne!%, (ro'oted re%i#ion ;+in7e7i%a$i; !it$ t$e -%a$i t,(e and @a%%a @a%a%7Hu t,(e coins* 5$e coins be%o! re(resent a )e! o) t$ese inno4ati4e conce(ts introduced b, .kbar t$at set t$e (recedent )or "u#$a% coins !$ic$ !as re)ined and (er)ected b, $is son @a$an#ir and %ater b, $is #randson 2$a$ @a$an* +i(%o'ac, Matri#onial allian&es 5$e (ractice o) #i4in# Hindu (rincesses to "us%i' kin#s in 'arria#e !as kno!n 'uc$ be)ore .kbar;s ti'e but in 'ost cases t$ese 'arria#es did not %ead to an, stab%e re%ations bet!een t$e )a'i%ies in4o%4ed and t$e !o'en !ere %ost to t$eir )a'i%ies and did not return a)ter 'arria#e*[67][6D] Ho!e4er .kbar;s (o%ic, o) 'atri'onia% a%%iances 'arked a de(arture in -ndia )ro' (re4ious (ractice in t$at t$e 'arria#e itse%) 'arked t$e be#innin# o) a ne! order o) re%ations !$erein t$e Hindu Aa8(uts !$o 'arried t$eir dau#$ters or sisters to $i' !ou%d be treated on (ar !it$ $is "us%i' )at$ers7in7%a! and brot$ers in7%a! in a%% res(ects e1ce(t bein# ab%e to dine and (ra, !it$ $i' or take "us%i' !i4es* 5$ese Aa8(uts !ere 'ade 'e'bers o) $is court and t$eir dau#$ters; or sisters; 'arria#e to a "us%i' ceased to be a si#n o) de#radation e1ce(t )or certain (roud e%e'ents !$o sti%% considered it a si#n o) $u'i%iation*[6D] 5$e 0acc$!a$a Aa8(ut Aa8a /$ar'a% o) .'ber !$o $ad co'e to .kbar;s court s$ort%, a)ter t$e %atter;s accession entered into an a%%iance b, #i4in# $is dau#$ter Hark$a /ai in 'arria#e to t$e e'(eror* 5$ere $as been considerab%e discussion a'on# $istorians !$et$er Harka bai or Aa8ku'ari Hira 0un!ari t$e !i)e o) .kbar and t$e dau#$ter o) Aa8a /$ar'a% o) .'ber is t$e @od$a bai or not* 5u?k7e7@a$an#iri t$e autobio#ra($, o) @a$an#ir doesn;t 'ention @od$a /ai*[6B] 5$erein s$e is re)erred to as "aria' u? =a'ani* [70] Eeit$er t$e.kbarna'a (a bio#ra($, o) .kbar co''issioned b, .kbar $i'se%)) nor an, $istorica% te1t )ro' t$e (eriod re)er to $er as @od$a /ai*[70] [71][72] 2$e died in 162F* . 'os6ue !as bui%t in $er $onor b, $er son @a$an#ir in :a$ore*[7F] /$ar'a% !as 'ade a nob%e o) $i#$ rank in t$e i'(eria% court and subse6uent%, $is son /$a#!ant +as and #randson "an 2in#$ a%so rose to $i#$ ranks in t$e nobi%it,*[67] Ot$er Aa8(ut kin#do's a%so estab%is$ed 'atri'onia% a%%iances !it$ .kbar but 'atri'on, !as not insisted on as a (recondition )or )or'in# a%%iances* 5!o 'a8or Aa8(ut c%ans re'ained a%oo) t$e 2isodi,as o) "e!ar and Hadas o) Aant$a'bore* -n anot$er turnin# (oint o) .kbar;s rei#n Aa8a "an 2in#$ - o) .'ber !ent !it$ .kbar to 'eet t$e Hada %eader 2ur8an Hada to e))ect an a%%iance* 2ur8an acce(ted an a%%iance on t$e condition t$at .kbar did not 'arr, an, o) $is dau#$ters* >onse6uent%, no 'atri'onia% a%%iance !as entered into ,et 2ur8an !as 'ade a nob%e and (%aced in c$ar#e o) 3ar$70atan#a*[67] >ertain ot$er Aa8(ut nob%es did not %ike t$e idea o) t$eir kin#s 'arr,in# t$eir dau#$ters to "u#$a%s* Aat$ore 0a%,andas t$reatened to ki%% bot$ "ota Aa8a Aao Cdaisin#$ and @a$an#ir because Cdai 2in#$ $ad decided to 'arr, $is dau#$ter to @a$an#ir* .kbar on $earin# t$is ordered i'(eria% )orces to attack 0a%,andas at 2i!ana* 0a%,andas died )i#$tin# a%on# !it$ $is 'en and t$e !o'en o) 2i!ana co''itted @au$ar*[74] 5$e (o%itica% e))ect o) t$ese a%%iances !as si#ni)icant* I$i%e so'e Aa8(ut !o'en !$o entered .kbar;s $are' con4erted to -s%a' t$e, !ere #enera%%, (ro4ided )u%% re%i#ious )reedo' and t$eir re%ati4es !$o continued to re'ain Hindu )or'ed a si#ni)icant (art o) t$e nobi%it, and ser4ed to articu%ate t$e o(inions o) t$e 'a8orit, o) t$e co''on (o(u%ace in t$e i'(eria% court*[67] 5$e interaction bet!een Hindu and "us%i' nob%es in t$e i'(eria% court resu%ted in e1c$an#e o) t$ou#$ts and b%endin# o) t$e t!o cu%tures* <urt$er ne!er #enerations o) t$e "u#$a% %ine re(resented a 'er#er o) "u#$a% and Aa8(ut b%ood t$ereb, stren#t$enin# ties bet!een t$e t!o* .s a resu%t t$e Aa8(uts beca'e t$e stron#est a%%ies o) t$e "u#$a%s and Aa8(ut so%diers and #enera%s )ou#$t )or t$e "u#$a% ar', under .kbar %eadin# it in se4era% ca'(ai#ns inc%udin# t$e con6uest o) 3u8arat in 1572* [75] .kbar;s (o%ic, o) re%i#ious to%erance ensured t$at e'(%o,'ent in t$e i'(eria% ad'inistration !as o(en to a%% on 'erit irres(ecti4e o) creed and t$is %ed to an increase in t$e stren#t$ o) t$e ad'inistrati4e ser4ices o) t$e e'(ire*[76] .not$er %e#end is t$at .kbar;s dau#$ter "e$erunnissa !as ena'oured b, 5ansen and $ad a ro%e in $is co'in# to .kbar;s court*[77]5ansen con4erted to -s%a' )ro' Hinduis' a((arent%, on t$e e4e o) $is 'arria#e !it$ .kbar;s dau#$ter*[7D][7B] <orei#n re%ations elations -ith the (ortuguese +eat$ o) /a$adur 2$a$ o) 3u8arat at +iu in )ront o) t$e9ortu#uese in 15F7*[D0] .t t$e ti'e o) .kbar;s ascension in 1556 t$e 9ortu#uese $ad estab%is$ed se4era% )ortresses and )actories on t$e !estern coast o) t$e subcontinent and %ar#e%, contro%%ed na4i#ation and sea7trade in t$at re#ion* .s a conse6uence o) t$is co%onia%is' a%% ot$er tradin# entities !ere sub8ect to t$e ter's and conditions o) t$e 9ortu#uese and t$is !as resented b, t$e ru%ers and traders o) t$e ti'e inc%udin# /a$adur 2$a$ o) 3u8arat*[D1] -n t$e ,ear 1572 t$e "u#$a% &'(ire anne1ed 3u8arat and ac6uired its )irst access to t$e sea t$e %oca% o))icia%s in)or'ed .kbar t$at t$e 9ortu#uese $a4e be#un to e1ert t$eir contro% in t$e -ndian Ocean* Hence .kbar !as conscious o) t$e t$reat (osed b, t$e (resence o) t$e 9ortu#uese re'ained content !it$ obtainin# a cartaz ((er'it) )ro' t$e' )or sai%in# in t$e 9ersian 3u%) re#ion*[D2].t t$e initia% 'eetin# o) t$e "u#$a%s and t$e 9ortu#uese durin# t$e 2ie#e o) 2urat in 1572 t$e 9ortu#uese reco#nisin# t$e su(erior stren#t$ o) t$e "u#$a% ar', c$ose to ado(t di(%o'ac, instead o) !ar and t$e 9ortu#uese 3o4ernor u(on t$e re6uest o) .kbar sent

$i' an a'bassador to estab%is$ )riend%, re%ations*[DF] .kbar;s e))orts to (urc$ase and secure )ro' t$e 9ortu#uese so'e o) t$eir co'(act .rti%%er, (ieces !ere unsuccess)u% and t$at is t$e reason !$, .kbar cou%d not estab%is$ t$e "u#$a% na4, a%on# t$e 3u8arat coast*[D4] .kbar acce(ted t$e o))er o) di(%o'ac, but t$e 9ortu#uese continua%%, ackno!%ed#ed t$eir aut$orit, and (o!er in t$e -ndian Ocean in )act .kbar !as $i#$%, concerned !$en $e $ad to re6uest a (er'it )ro' t$e 9ortu#uese be)ore an, s$i(s )ro' t$e "u#$a% &'(ire !ere to de(art )or t$e Ha88 (i%#ri'a#e to "ecca and "edina*[D5] -n 157F $e issued a 'irman directin# "u#$a% ad'inistrati4e o))icia%s in3u8arat not to (ro4oke t$e 9ortu#uese in t$e territor, t$e, $e%d in +a'an* 5$e 9ortu#uese in turn issued (asses )or t$e 'e'bers o) .kbar;s )a'i%, to #o on Ha88 to "ecca* 5$e 9ortu#uese 'ade 'ention o) t$e e1traordinar, status o) t$e 4esse% and t$e s(ecia% status to be accorded to its occu(ants*[D6] -n t$e ,ear 157B @esuits )ro' 3oa !ere a%%o!ed to 4isit t$e court o) .kbar and $e $ad $is scribes trans%ate t$e Ee! 5esta'ent and #ranted t$e @esuits )reedo' to 'ake con4erts and raise one o) $is sons*[D7] 5$e @esuit did not con)ine t$e'se%4es to t$e e1(osition o) t$eir o!n be%ie)s but re4i%ed -s%a' and t$e 9ro($et in unrestrained %an#ua#e* 5$eir co''ents enra#in# t$e -'a';s and C%a'a !$o ob8ected to t$e re'arks o) t$e @esuit but .kbar $o!e4er ordered t$eir co''ents to be recorded and obser4ed t$e @esuits and t$eir be$a4ior care)u%%,* 5$is e4ent !as )o%%o!ed b, a rebe%%ion o) "us%i' c%erics %ed b, "u%%a$ "u$a''ad Ka?di and "ui?7u%7"u%k t$e c$ie)Jadi o) /en#a% in t$e ,ear 15D1 !$en t$ese rebe%s !anted to o4ert$ro! .kbar and insert $is brot$er "ir?a "u$a''ad Haki' ru%er o) 0abu% on t$e "u#$a% t$rone* .kbar $o!e4er success)u%%, de)eated t$e rebe%s and $ad #ro!n 'ore cautious about $is #uests and $is (roc%a'ations !$ic$ $e %ater c$ecked !it$ $is ad4isers care)u%%,*[DD] elations -ith the .tto#an E#pire -n t$e ,ear 1555 !$i%e .kbar !as sti%% a c$i%d t$e Otto'an .d'ira% 2e,di .%i Aeis 4isited t$e"u#$a% &'(eror Hu'a,un* :ater in t$e ,ear 156B durin# t$e ear%, ,ears o) .kbar;s ru%e anot$er Otto'an .d'ira% 0urtoL%u HM?Mr Aeis arri4ed on t$e s$ores o) t$e "u#$a% &'(ire* 5$ese Otto'an .d'ira%s sou#$t to end t$e #ro!in# t$reats o) t$e 9ortu#uese &'(ire durin# t$eir -ndian Ocean ca'(ai#ns* +urin# $is rei#n .kbar $i'se%) is kno!n to $a4e sent si1 docu'ents addressin# t$e Otto'an 2u%tan 2u%ei'an t$e "a#ni)icent*[DB][B0] -n 1576 .kbar sent a 4er, %ar#e contin#ent o) (i%#ri's %ed b, 0$!a8a 2u%tan Ea6s$bandi Ka$,a 2a%e$ !it$ 600 000 #o%d and si%4er coins and 12 000 0a)tans o) $onor and %ar#e consi#n'ents o) rice*[B1] -n October 1576 t$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar sent a de%e#ation inc%udin# 'e'bers o) $is )a'i%, inc%udin# $is aunt 3u%badan /e#u' and $is consort 2a%i'a on Ha88 b, t!o s$i(s )ro' 2urat inc%udin# an Otto'an 4esse% !$ic$ reac$ed t$e (ort o)@edda$ in 1577 and t$en (roceeded to!ards "ecca and "edina*[B2] <our 'ore cara4ans !ere sent )ro' 1577 to 15D0 !it$ e16uisite #i)ts )or t$e aut$orities o) "ecca and "edina*[BF][B4] 5$e i'(eria% "u#$a% entoura#e sta,ed in "ecca and "edina )or near%, )our ,ears and attended t$e Ha88 )our ti'es* +urin# t$is (eriod .kbar e4en )inanced t$e (i%#ri'a#es o) 'an, (oor "us%i's )ro' t$e "u#$a% &'(ire and a%so )unded t$e )oundations o) t$e Jadiri,,a2u)i Order;s der4is$ %od#e in t$e Hi8a?* [B5] 5$e "u#$a%s e4entua%%, set out )or 2urat and t$eir return !as assisted b, t$e Otto'an 9as$ain @edda$* [B6] +ue to .kbar;s atte'(ts to bui%d "u#$a% (resence in "ecca and "edina t$e %oca% 2$ari);s be#an to $a4e 'ore con)idence in t$e )inancia% su((ort (ro4ided b, "u#$a% &'(ire t$is %essened t$eir de(endenc, u(on Otto'an bount,*[B5] "u#$a%7Otto'an trade a%so )%ouris$ed durin# t$is (eriod in )act 'erc$ants %o,a% to .kbar are kno!n to $a4e reac$ed and so%d s(ices d,estu)) cotton and s$a!%s in t$e /a?aars o) .%e((o a)ter arri4in# and 8ourne,in# u(ri4er t$rou#$ t$e (ort o) /asra*[B7] .ccordin# to so'e accounts "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar e1(ressed a desire to )or' an a%%iance !it$ t$e 9ortu#uese 'ain%, in order to ad4ance $is interests but !$ene4er t$e 9ortu#uese atte'(ted to in4ade t$e Otto'ans t$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar (ro4ed aborti4e*[BD][BB] -n 15D7 a 9ortu#uese )%eet sent to attack Ke'en !as )erocious%, routed and de)eated b, t$e Otto'an Ea4, t$erea)ter t$e "u#$a%79ortu#uese a%%iance i''ediate%, co%%a(sed 'ain%, due to t$e continuin# (ressure b, t$e "u#$a% &'(ire;s (resti#ious 4assa%s at @an8ira*[100] elations -ith the Safavid ,ynasty 5$e 2a)a4ids and t$e "u#$a%s $ad a %on# $istor, o) di(%o'atic re%ations$i( !it$ t$e 2a)a4id ru%er5a$'as( - $a4in# (ro4ided re)u#e to Hu'a,un !$en $e $ad to )%ee t$e -ndian subcontinent )o%%o!in# $is de)eat b, 2$er 2$a$ 2uri* +urin# t$e 16t$ and 17t$ centuries t$e t!o e'(ires a%on# !it$ t$e Otto'an &'(ire to t$e !est !ere t$e site o) 'a8or (o!er stru##%es in .sia* Ho!e4er t$e 2a)a4ids di))ered )ro' t$e "u#$a%s and t$e Otto'ans in )o%%o!in# t$e 2$iite sect o) -s%a' as o((osed to t$e 2unni sect (ractised b, t$e ot$er t!o*[101] One o) t$e %on#est standin# dis(utes bet!een t$e 2a)a4ids and t$e "u#$a%s (ertained to t$e contro% o) t$e cit, o) Janda$arin t$e Hindukus$ re#ion )or'in# t$e border bet!een t$e t!o e'(ires*[102] 5$e Hindukus$ re#ion !as 'i%itari%, 4er, si#ni)icant o!in# to its #eo#ra($, and t$is !as !e%%7reco#nised b, strate#ists o) t$e ti'es* [10F] >onse6uent%, t$e cit, !$ic$ !as bein# ad'inistered b, /aira' 0$an at t$e ti'e o) .kbar;s accession !as in4aded and ca(tured b, t$e 9ersian ru%er Husain "ir?a a cousin o) 5a$'as( - in 155D*[102] 2ubse6uent to t$is /aira' 0$an sent an en4o, to 5a$'as( -;s court in an e))ort to 'aintain (eace)u% re%ations !it$ t$e 2a)a4ids* 5$is #esture !as reci(rocated and a cordia% re%ations$i( continued to (re4ai% bet!een t$e t!o e'(ires durin# t$e )irst t!o decades o) .kbar;s rei#n*[104] Ho!e4er t$e deat$ o) 5a$'as( - in 1576 resu%ted in

ci4i% !ar and instabi%it, in t$e 2a)a4id e'(ire and di(%o'atic re%ations bet!een t$e t!o e'(ires ceased )or 'ore t$an a decade and !ere restored on%, in 15D7 )o%%o!in# t$e accession o) 2$a$ .bbas to t$e 2a)a4id t$rone*[105] 2$ort%, a)ter!ards .kbar;s ar', co'(%eted its anne1ation o) 0abu% and in order to )urt$er secure t$e nort$7!estern boundaries o) $is e'(ire it (roceeded to Janda$ar* 5$e cit, ca(itu%ated !it$out resistance on 1D .(ri% 15B5 and t$e ru%er "u?a))ar Hussain 'o4ed into .kbar;s court*[106] Janda$ar continued to re'ain in "u#$a% (ossession and t$e Hindukus$ t$e e'(ire;s !estern )rontier )or se4era% decades unti% 2$a$ @a$an;s e1(edition into /adak$s$an in 1646*[107] +i(%o'atic re%ations continued to be 'aintained bet!een t$e 2a)a4id and "u#$a% courts unti% t$e end o) .kbar;s rei#n*[10D] elations -ith other &onte#porary kingdo#s Hincent .rt$ur 2'it$ obser4es t$at t$e 'erc$ant "i%den$a%% !as e'(%o,ed in 1600 !$i%e t$e estab%is$'ent o) t$e >o'(an, !as under ad8ust'ent to bear a %etter )ro' Jueen &%i?abet$ to .kbar re6uestin# %ibert, to trade in $is do'inions on ter's as #ood as t$ose en8o,ed b, t$e 9ortu#uese*[10B] .kbar !as a%so 4isited b, t$e <renc$ e1(%orer 9ierre "a%$erbe*[110] Ae%i#ious (o%ic, .kbar as !e%% as $is 'ot$er and ot$er 'e'bers o) $is )a'i%, are be%ie4ed to $a4e been 2unni Hana)i "us%i's*[111] His ear%, da,s !ere s(ent in t$e backdro( o) an at'os($ere in !$ic$ %ibera% senti'ents !ere encoura#ed and re%i#ious narro!7'indednness !as )ro!ned u(on*[112] <ro' t$e 15t$ centur, a nu'ber o) ru%ers in 4arious (arts o) t$e countr, ado(ted a 'ore %ibera% (o%ic, o) re%i#ious to%erance atte'(tin# to )osterco''una% $ar'on, bet!een Hindus and "us%i's*[11F] 5$ese senti'ents !ere ear%ier encoura#ed b, t$e teac$in#s o) (o(u%ar saints %ike 3uru Eanak 0abir and >$aitan,a [112] t$e 4erses o) t$e 9ersian (oetHa)e? !$ic$ ad4ocated $u'an s,'(at$, and a %ibera% out%ook [114] as !e%% as t$e 5i'urid et$os o) re%i#ious to%erance in t$e e'(ire (ersisted in t$e (o%it, ri#$t )ro' t$e ti'es o) 5i'ur to Hu'a,un (t$e second e'(eror o) t$e 'u#$a% e'(ire) and in)%uenced .kbar;s (o%ic, o) to%erance in 'atters o) re%i#ion* [115] <urt$er $is c$i%d$ood tutors !$o inc%uded t!o -rani 2$ias !ere %ar#e%, abo4e sectarian(re8udices and 'ade a si#ni)icant contribution to .kbar;s %ater inc%ination to!ards re%i#ious to%erance*[115] I$en $e !as at <ate$(ur 2ikri $e $e%d discussions as $e %o4ed to kno! about ot$ers; re%i#ious be%ie)s* On one suc$ da, $e #ot to kno! t$at t$e re%i#ious (eo(%e o) ot$er re%i#ions !ere o)ten bi#ots ( into%erant o) ot$ers re%i#ious be%ie)s )* 5$is %ed $i' to )or' t$e idea o) t$e ne! re%i#ion 2u%$7e7ku% 'eanin# uni4ersa% (eace* His idea o) t$is re%i#ion did not discri'inate ot$er re%i#ions and )ocused on t$e ideas o) (eace unit, and to%erance* Asso&iation -ith the Musli# aristo&ra&y 5$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar !e%co'es $is son 9rince 2a%i' at <ate$(ur 2ikri (.kbarna'e$)* +urin# t$e ear%, (art o) $is rei#n .kbar ado(ted an attitude o) su((ression to!ards "us%i' sects t$at !ere conde'ned b, t$e ort$odo1, as $eretica%*[116] -n 1567 on t$e ad4ice o) 2$aik$ .bdu;n Eabi $e ordered t$e e1$u'ation o) "ir "urta?a 2$ari)i 2$ira?i 7 a 2$ia buried in +e%$i 7 because o) t$e #ra4e;s (ro1i'it, to t$at o) .'ir 0$usrau ar#uin# t$at a G$ereticG cou%d not be buried so c%ose to t$e #ra4e o) a 2unni saint re)%ectin# a restricti4e attitude to!ards t$e 2$ia !$ic$ continued to (ersist ti%% t$e ear%, 1570s*[117] He su((ressed"a$da4is' in 157F durin# $is ca'(ai#n in 3u8arat in t$e course o) !$ic$ t$e "a$da4i %eader /anda#i "i,an 2$iek "usta)a !as arrested and brou#$t in c$ains to t$e court )or debate and re%eased a)ter ei#$teen 'ont$s*[117] Ho!e4er as .kbar increasin#%, ca'e under t$e in)%uence o) (ant$eistic 2u)i ',sticis' )ro' t$e ear%, 1570s it caused a #reat s$i)t in $is out%ook and cu%'inated in $is s$i)t )ro' ort$odo1 -s%a' as traditiona%%, (ro)essed in )a4or o) a ne! conce(t o) -s%a' transcendin# t$e %i'its o) re%i#ion*[117] >onse6uent%, durin# t$e %atter $a%) o) $is rei#n $e ado(ted a (o%ic, o) to%erance to!ards t$e 2$ias and dec%ared a (ro$ibition on 2$ia72unni con)%ict and t$e e'(ire re'ained neutra% in 'atters o) interna% sectarian con)%ict*[11D] -n t$e ,ear 157D t$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar )a'ous%, re)erred to $i'se%) as: 2i%4er coin o) .kbar !it$ inscri(tions o) t$e-s%a'ic dec%aration o) )ait$ t$e dec%aration reads: G5$ere is none !ort$, o) !ors$i( but .%%a$ and"u$a''ad is t$e 'essen#er o) .%%a$*G -n 15D0 a rebe%%ion broke out in t$e eastern (art o) .kbar;s e'(ire and a nu'ber o)'atwas dec%arin# .kbar to be a $eretic !ere issued b, Ja?is* .kbar su((ressed t$e rebe%%ion and $anded out se4ere (unis$'ents to t$e Ja?is* -n order to )urt$er stren#t$en $is (osition in dea%in# !it$ t$e Ja?is .kbar issued a mazhar or dec%aration t$at !as si#ned b, a%% 'a8or ulemas in 157B*[11B][120] 5$e mahzar asserted t$at .kbar !as t$e &hali'a o) t$e a#e t$e rank o) t$e &hali'a !as $i#$er t$an t$at o) a Mujtahid in case o) a di))erence o) o(inion a'on# t$e "u8ta$ids .kbar cou%d se%ect an, one o(inion and cou%d a%so issue decrees !$ic$ did not #o a#ainst t$e nass*[121] 3i4en t$e (re4ai%in# -s%a'ic sectarian con)%icts in 4arious (arts o) t$e countr, at t$at ti'e it is be%ie4ed t$at t$e Mazhar $e%(ed in stabi%i?in# t$e re%i#ious situation in t$e e'(ire*[11B] -t 'ade .kbar 4er, (o!er)u% due to t$e co'(%ete su(re'ac, accorded to t$e &hali'a b, -s%a' and a%so $e%(ed $i' e%i'inate t$e re%i#ious and (o%itica% in)%uence o) t$e Otto'an &hali'a o4er $is sub8ects t$us ensurin# t$eir co'(%ete %o,a%t, to $i'*[122] 5$rou#$out $is rei#n t$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar !as a (atron o) in)%uentia% "us%i' sc$o%ars suc$ as "ir .$'ed Easra%%a$ 5$att4i and5a$ir "u$a''ad 5$att4i*

I$ene4er t$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar !ou%d attend con#re#ations at a "os6ue t$e )o%%o!in# (roc%a'ation !as 'ade:[12F] / )he *ord to me the &ingdom gave "e made me wise strong and brave "e guides me through right and truth +illing m( mind with the love o' truth ,o praise o' man could sum his state Allah "u Akbar -od is -reat#

,in+i+Ilahi Main article: $in%i%Ilahi .kbar $o%ds a re%i#ious asse'b%, o) di))erent )ait$s in t$e -badat 0$ana in <ate$(ur 2ikri* .kbar !as dee(%, interested in re%i#ious and ($i%oso($ica% 'atters* .n ort$odo1 "us%i' at t$e outset $e %ater ca'e to be in)%uenced b, 2u)i ',sticis' t$at !as bein# (reac$ed in t$e countr, at t$at ti'e and 'o4ed a!a, )ro' ort$odo1, a((ointin# to $is court se4era% ta%ented (eo(%e !it$ %ibera% ideas inc%udin# .bu% <a?% <ai?i and /irba%* -n 1575 $e bui%t a $a%% ca%%ed t$e -badat 0$ana (."ouse o' /orship.) at <ate$(ur 2ikri to !$ic$ $e in4ited t$eo%o#ians ',stics and se%ected courtiers reno!ned )or t$eir inte%%ectua% ac$ie4e'ents and discussed 'atters o)s(iritua%it, !it$ t$e'*[112] 5$ese discussions initia%%, restricted to "us%i's !ere acri'onious and resu%ted in t$e (artici(ants s$outin# at and abusin# eac$ ot$er* C(set b, t$is .kbar o(ened t$e -badat 0$ana to (eo(%e o) a%% re%i#ions as !e%% as at$eists resu%tin# in t$e sco(e o) t$e discussions broadenin# and e1tendin# e4en into areas suc$ as t$e 4a%idit, o) t$e Juran and t$e nature o) 3od* 5$is s$ocked t$e ort$odo1 t$eo%o#ians !$o sou#$t to discredit .kbar b, circu%atin# ru'ours o) $is desire to )orsake -s%a'*[11B] .kbar;s c$oices decisions decrees discussions and re#u%ations on re%i#ious 'atters e4en caused so'e o) $is bri%%iant courtiers %ike Jutb7ud7din 0$an 0oka and 2$a$ba? 0$an 0a'bo$ to critici?e t$e e'(eror in t$e court* .kbar;s e))ort to e4o%4e a 'eetin# (oint a'on# t$e re(resentati4es o) 4arious re%i#ions !as not 4er, success)u% as eac$ o) t$e' atte'(ted to assert t$e su(eriorit, o) t$eir res(ecti4e re%i#ions b, denouncin# ot$er re%i#ions* "ean!$i%e t$e debates at t$e -badat 0$ana #re! 'ore acri'onious and contrar, to t$eir (ur(ose o) %eadin# to a better understandin# a'on# re%i#ions instead %ed to #reater bitterness a'on# t$e' resu%tin# to t$e discontinuance o) t$e debates b, .kbar in 15D2*[124] Ho!e4er $is interaction !it$ 4arious re%i#ious t$eo%o#ians $ad con4inced $i' t$at des(ite t$eir di))erences a%% re%i#ions $ad se4era% #ood (ractices !$ic$ $e sou#$t to co'bine into a ne! re%i#ious 'o4e'ent kno!n as +in7i7-%a$i*[125][126] Ho!e4er so'e 'odern sc$o%ars c%ai' t$at .kbar did not initiate a ne! re%i#ion and did not use t$e !ord $in%i%Ilahi*[127].ccordin# to t$e conte'(orar, e4ents in t$e "u#$a% court .kbar !as indeed an#ered b, t$e acts o) e'be??%e'ent o) !ea%t$ b, 'an, $i#$ %e4e% "us%i' c%erics*[12D] 5$e (ur(orted +in7i7-%a$i !as 'ore o) an et$ica% s,ste' and is said to $a4e (ro$ibited %ust sensua%it, s%ander and (ride considerin# t$e' sins* 9iet, (rudence abstinence and kindness are t$e core 4irtues* 5$e sou% is encoura#ed to (uri), itse%) t$rou#$ ,earnin# o) 3od*[12B] >e%ibac, !as res(ected c$astit, en)orced t$e s%au#$ter o) ani'a%s !as )orbidden and t$ere !ere no sacred scri(tures or a (riest%, $ierarc$,*[1F0] Ho!e4er a %eadin# Eob%e o) .kbar;s court .?i? 0oka !rote a %etter to $i' )ro' "ecca in 15B4 ar#uin# t$at t$e disci(%es$i( (ro'oted b, .kbar a'ounted to not$in# 'ore t$an a desire on .kbar;s (art to (ortra, $is su(eriorit, re#ardin# re%i#ious 'atters*[1F1] 5o co''e'orate +in7e7-%a$i $e c$an#ed t$e na'e o) 9ra,a# to .%%a$abad ((ronounced as ilahabad) in 15DF*[1F2][1FF] 2i%4er s6uare ru(ee o) .kbar :a$ore 'int struck in .ban 'ont$ o) -%a$i -t $as been ar#ued t$at t$e t$eor, o) +in7i7-%a$i bein# a ne! re%i#ion !as a 'isconce(tion !$ic$ arose due to erroneous trans%ations o) .bu% <a?%;s !ork b, %ater /ritis$ $istorians*[1F4]Ho!e4er it is a%so acce(ted t$at t$e (o%ic, o) sulh%e%kul !$ic$ )or'ed t$e essence o) +in7i7-%a$i !as ado(ted b, .kbar not 'ere%, )or re%i#ious (ur(oses but as a (art o) #enera% i'(eria% ad'inistrati4e (o%ic,* 5$is a%so )or'ed t$e basis )or .kbar;s (o%ic, o) re%i#ious to%eration*[1F5] .t t$e ti'e o) .kbar;s deat$ in 1605 t$ere !ere no si#ns o) discontent a'on#st $is "us%i' sub8ects and t$e i'(ression o) e4en a t$eo%o#ian %ike .bdu;% Ha6 !as t$at c%ose ties re'ained*[1F6] elation -ith 1indus .kbar decreed t$at Hindus !$o $ad been )orced to con4ert to -s%a' cou%d reco4ert to Hinduis' !it$out )acin# t$e deat$ (ena%t,*[1F7] .kbar in $is da,s o) to%erance !as so !e%% %iked b, Hindus t$at in son#s and (oetr, $e !as co'(ared to Hindu $ero7#od Aa'a*[1FD] .kbar (racticed se4era% Hindu custo's* He ce%ebrated +i4a%i* He a%%o!ed /ra$'an (riests to tie 8e!e%ed strin#s round $is !rists b, !a, o) b%essin# and )o%%o!in# $is %ead 'an, o) t$e nob%es took to !earin# rakhi ((rotection c$ar's)*[1FB] He $ad renounced bee) and )orbade t$e sa%e o) a%% 'eats on certain da,s*[1FB] &4en $is son @a$an#ir and #randson 2$a$8a$an 'aintain 'an, o) .kbar;s concessions suc$ as t$e ban on co! s%au#$ter $a4in# on%, 4e#etarian dis$es on certain da,s o) t$e !eek and drink on%, 3an#es !ater*

[140]

&4en as $e !as in t$e 9un8ab 200 'i%es a!a, )ro' t$e 3an#es t$e !ater !as sea%ed in %ar#e 8ars and trans(orted to $i'* He re)erred to t$e 3an#es !ater as t$e G!ater o) i''orta%it,*G[140] -t !as ru'ored t$at eac$ ni#$t a /ra$'an (riest sus(ended on a strin# cot (u%%ed u( to t$e !indo! o) .kbar;s bedc$a'ber !ou%d ca(ti4ate t$e e'(eror !it$ ta%es o) Hindu #ods*[1FB] elation -ith *ains 5$e "u#$a% &'(eror .kbar triu'($ant%, enters 2urat* .kbar re#u%ar%, $e%d discussions !it$ @ain sc$o%ars and !as a%so #reat%, i'(acted b, so'e o) t$eir teac$in#s* His )irst encounter !it$ @ain ritua%s !as !$en $e sa! a @ain s$ra4ikana'ed >$a'(a;s (rocession a)ter a si17 'ont$ %on# )ast* -'(ressed b, $er (o!er and de4otion $e in4ited $er #uru or s(iritua% teac$er .c$ar,a Hira4i8a,a 2uri to <ate$(ur 2ikri* .c$ar,a acce(ted t$e in4itation and be#an $is 'arc$ to!ards t$e "u#$a% ca(ita% )ro'3u8arat*[141] .kbar !as i'(ressed b, t$e sc$o%astic 6ua%ities and c$aracter o) t$e .c$ar,a* He $e%d se4era% debates and discussions on re%i#ion and ($i%oso($, in $is courts* .r#uin# !it$ @ains .kbar re'ained sce(tica% o) t$eir at$eistic 4ie!s on 3od and creation and ,et beca'e con4inced b, t$eir ($i%oso($, o) non74io%ence and 4e#etarianis' and ended u( de(%orin# t$e eatin# o) a%% )%es$*[142][clari'ication needed] .kbar a%so issued 'an, i'(eria% orders t$at !ere )a4orab%e )or @ain interests suc$ as bannin# ani'a% s%au#$ter*[14F] @ain aut$ors a%so !rote about t$eir e1(erience at t$e "u#$a% court in 2anskrit te1ts t$at are sti%% %ar#e%, unkno!n to "u#$a% $istorians*[144] 5$e -ndian 2u(re'e >ourt $as cited e1a'(%es o) co7e1istence o) @ain and "u#$a% arc$itecture ca%%in# .kbar Gt$e arc$itect o) 'odern -ndiaG and t$at G$e $ad #reat res(ectG )or@ainis'* -n 15B2 15D4 and 15BD .kbar $ad dec%ared G.'ari 3$osanaG !$ic$ (ro$ibited ani'a% s%au#$ter durin# 9ar,us$an and "a$a4ir @a,anti* He re'o4ed t$e @a?ia ta1 )ro' @ain (i%#ri' (%aces %ike 9a%itana*[145] 2antic$andra disci(%e o) 2uri !as sent to t$e &'(eror !$o in turn %e)t $is disci(%es /$anuc$andra and 2idd$ic$andra in t$e court* .kbar a#ain in4ited Hira4i8a,a 2uriNs successor Hi8a,asena 2uri in $is court !$o 4isited $i' bet!een 15BF to 15B5*[citation needed] .kbar;s re%i#ious to%erance !as not )o%%o!ed b, $is son @a$an#ir !$o e4en t$reatened .kbar;s )or'er )riend /$anuc$andra*[146] Historica% accounts (ersonality .kbar $untin# !it$ c$eeta$s c* 1602 .kbar;s rei#n !as c$ronic%ed e1tensi4e%, b, $is court $istorian .bu% <a?a% in t$e books Akbarnamaand Ain%i% akbari* Ot$er conte'(orar, sources o) .kbar;s rei#n inc%ude t$e !orks o) /ada,uni 2$aik$?ada Aas$idi and 2$aik$ .$'ed 2ir$indi* .kbar !as an artisan !arrior artist ar'ourer b%acks'it$ car(enter e'(eror #enera% in4entor ani'a% trainer (re(uted%, kee(in# t$ousands o) $untin# c$eeta$s durin# $is rei#n and trainin# 'an, $i'se%)) %ace'aker tec$no%o#ist and t$eo%o#ian*[147] .kbar !as said to $a4e been a !ise e'(eror and a sound 8ud#e o) c$aracter* His son and $eir @a$an#ir !rote e))usi4e (raise o) .kbar;s c$aracter in $is 'e'oirs and do?ens o) anecdotes to i%%ustrate $is 4irtues* [14D] .ccordin# to @a$an#ir .kbar !as Go) t$e $ue o) !$eat; $is e,es and e,ebro!s !ere b%ack and $is co'(%e1ion rat$er dark t$an )airG* .ntoni de "ontserrat t$e >ata%an@esuit !$o 4isited $is court described $i' as )o%%o!s: GOne cou%d easi%, reco#ni?e e4en at )irst #%ance t$at $e is 0in#* He $as broad s$ou%ders so'e!$at band, %e#s !e%%7suited )or $orse'ans$i( and a %i#$t bro!n co'(%e1ion* He carries $is $ead bent to!ards t$e ri#$t s$ou%der* His )ore$ead is broad and o(en $is e,es so bri#$t and )%as$in# t$at t$e, see' %ike a sea s$i''erin# in t$e sun%i#$t* His e,e%as$es are 4er, %on#* His e,ebro!s are not stron#%, 'arked* His nose is strai#$t and s'a%% t$ou#$ not insi#ni)icant* His nostri%s are !ide%, o(en as t$ou#$ in derision* /et!een t$e %e)t nostri% and t$e u((er %i( t$ere is a 'o%e* He s$a4es $is beard but !ears a 'oustac$e* He %i'(s in $is %e)t %e# t$ou#$ $e $as ne4er recei4ed an in8ur, t$ere*G[14B] .kbar !as not ta%% but (o!er)u%%, bui%t and 4er, a#i%e* He !as a%so noted )or 4arious acts o) coura#e* One suc$ incident occurred on $is !a, back )ro' "a%!a to .#ra !$en .kbar !as 1B ,ears o) a#e* .kbar rode a%one in ad4ance o) $is escort and !as con)ronted b, a ti#ress !$o a%on# !it$ $er cubs ca'e out )ro' t$e s$rubber, across $is (at$* I$en t$e ti#ress c$ar#ed t$e e'(eror $e !as a%%e#ed to $a4e dis(atc$ed t$e ani'a% !it$ $is s!ord in a so%itar, b%o!* His a((roac$in# attendants )ound t$e e'(eror standin# 6uiet%, b, t$e side o) t$e dead ani'a%*[150] .bu% <a?a% and e4en t$e $osti%e critic /ada,uni described $i' as $a4in# a co''andin# (ersona%it,* He !as notab%e )or $is co''and in batt%e and G%ike .%e1ander o) "acedon !as a%!a,s read, to risk $is %i)e re#ard%ess o) (o%itica% conse6uencesG* He o)ten (%un#ed on $is $orse into t$e )%ooded ri4er durin# t$e rain, seasons and sa)e%, crossed it* He rare%, indu%#ed in crue%t, and is said to $a4e been a))ectionate to!ards $is re%ati4es* He (ardoned $is brot$er Haki' !$o !as a re(ented rebe%* /ut on rare occasions $e dea%t crue%%, !it$ o))enders suc$ as $is 'aterna% unc%e "ua??a' and $is )oster7brot$er .d$a' 0$an !$o !as t!ice de)enestrated )or dra!in# .kbar;s !rat$*[citation needed]

He is said to $a4e been e1tre'e%, 'oderate in $is diet* Ain%e%Akbari 'entions t$at durin# $is tra4e%s and a%so !$i%e at $o'e .kbar drank !ater )ro' t$e 3an#es ri4er !$ic$ $e ca%%ed Ot$e !ater o) i''orta%it,N* 2(ecia% (eo(%e !ere stationed at 2orun and %ater Harid!arto dis(atc$ !ater in sea%ed 8ars to !$ere4er $e !as stationed*[151][better source needed] .ccordin# to @a$an#ir;s 'e'oirs $e !as )ond o) )ruits and $ad %itt%e %ikin# )or 'eat !$ic$ $e sto((ed eatin# in $is %ater ,ears* .kbar a%so once 4isited Hrinda4an t$e birt$(%ace o) :ord 0ris$na in t$e ,ear 1570 and #a4e (er'ission )or )our te'(%es to be bui%t b, t$e 3audi,a Haisna4as !$ic$ !ere "adana7'o$ana 3o4inda8i 3o(inat$a and @u#a% 0isore* 5o de)end $is stance t$at s(eec$ arose )ro' $earin# $e carried out a %an#ua#e de(ri4ation e1(eri'ent and $ad c$i%dren raised in iso%ation not a%%o!ed to be s(oken to and (ointed out t$at as t$e, #re! o%der t$e, re'ained 'ute*[152] .kbar is a%so said to $a4e t$ro!n a 'an out o) a !indo! t$en #rab $is bod, and (roceed to t$ro! $i' out a#ain to 'ake sure $e !as dead*[15F] 1agiography +urin# .kbar;s rei#n t$e on#oin# (rocess o) inter7re%i#ious discourse and s,ncretis' resu%ted in a series o) re%i#ious attributions to $i' in ter's o) (ositions o) assi'i%ation doubt or uncertaint, !$ic$ $e eit$er assisted $i'se%) or %e)t unc$a%%en#ed*[154] 2uc$$a#io#ra($ica% accounts o) .kbar tra4ersed a !ide ran#e o) deno'inationa% and sectarian s(aces inc%udin# se4era% accounts b, 9arsis @ains and @esuit 'issionaries a(art )ro' conte'(orar, accounts b, /ra$'inica% and "us%i' ort$odo1,*[155] &1istin# sects and deno'inations as !e%% as 4arious re%i#ious )i#ures !$o re(resented (o(u%ar !ors$i( )e%t t$e, $ad a c%ai' to $i'* 5$e di4ersit, o) t$ese accounts is attributed to t$e )act t$at $is rei#n resu%ted in t$e )or'ation o) a )%e1ib%e centra%ised state acco'(anied b, (ersona% aut$orit, and cu%tura% $etero#eneit,*[154] Akbarn2#a3 the Book of Akbar Main article: Akbarnama .bu;%7<a?% ibn "ubarak (resentin#Akbarnama to .kbar "u#$a% 'iniature 5$e .kbarnP'a (9ersian: UVWX QRST) !$ic$ %itera%%, 'eans 0ook o' Akbar is an o))icia% bio#ra($ica% account o) .kbar t$e t$ird "u#$a% &'(eror (r* 15421605) !ritten in 9ersian* -t inc%udes 4i4id and detai%ed descri(tions o) $is %i)e and ti'es*[156] 5$e !ork !as co''issioned b, .kbar and !ritten b, .bu% <a?% one o) t$e ,ine 1ewels (Hindi:Ea4aratnas) o) .kbarNs ro,a% court* -t is stated t$at t$e book took se4en ,ears to be co'(%eted and t$e ori#ina% 'anuscri(ts contained a nu'ber o) (aintin#s su((ortin# t$e te1ts and a%% t$e (aintin#s re(resented t$e "u#$a% sc$oo% o) (aintin# and !ork o) 'asters o) t$e i'(eria% !orks$o( inc%udin# /asa!an !$ose use o) (ortraiture in its i%%ustrations !as an inno4ation in-ndian art*[156] +eat$ 3ate o) .kbar;s 'auso%eu' at 2ikandra .#ra 17B5 On F October 1605 .kbar )e%% i%% !it$ an attack o)d,senter, )ro' !$ic$ $e ne4er reco4ered* He is be%ie4ed to $a4e died on or about 27 October 1605 a)ter !$ic$ $is bod, !as buried at a 'auso%eu' in2ikandra .#ra*[157] 2e4ent,7si1 ,ears %ater in 16B1 a #rou( o) austereHindu rebe%s kno!n as t$e @ats rebe%%in# a#ainst t$e"u#$a% &'(ire robbed t$e #o%d si%4er and )inecar(ets !it$in t$e to'b desecrated .kbar;s 'auso%eu'*[15D]
[15B]

:e#ac, .kbar %e)t be$ind a ric$ %e#ac, bot$ )or t$e "u#$a% &'(ire as !e%% as t$e -ndian subcontinent in #enera%* He )ir'%, entrenc$ed t$e aut$orit, o) t$e "u#$a% e'(ire in -ndia and be,ond a)ter it $ad been t$reatened b, t$e .)#$ans durin# $is )at$er;s rei#n [160] estab%is$in# its 'i%itar, and di(%o'atic su(eriorit,*[161] +urin# $is rei#n t$e nature o) t$e state c$an#ed to a secu%ar and %ibera% one !it$ e'($asis on cu%tura% inte#ration* He a%so introduced se4era% )ar7si#$ted socia% re)or's inc%udin# (ro$ibitin# sati %e#a%isin# !ido! re'arria#e and raisin# t$e a#e o) 'arria#e* <o%k ta%es re4o%4in# around $i' and /irba% one o) $is navratnas are (o(u%ar in -ndia* -n 0havish(a 2urana a 'inor 2urana t$at de(icts t$e 4arious Hindu $o%, da,s inc%udes a section de4oted to t$e 4arious d,nasties !$ic$ ru%ed -ndia $a4in# its o%dest (ortion dated to 500 >& and ne!est to t$e 1Dt$ centur, contains a s(ecia% stor, )ocusin# on .kbar co'(ared to t$e ot$er "u#$a% ru%ers* 5$e section ca%%ed G.kbar /a$s$a$a HarnanG !ritten in 2anskrit describes $is birt$ as a GreincarnationG o) a sa#e !$o se%) i''o%ated $i'se%) on seein# t$e )irst "u#$a% ru%er /abur described as t$e Gcrue% kin# o) "%ecc$as ("us%i's)G and a%so t$at .kbar G!as a 'iracu%ous c$i%dG and !ou%d not )o%%o! t$e (re4ious G4io%ent !a,sG o) t$e "u#$a%s*
[162][16F]

>itin# .kbar;s 'e%din# o) t$e dis(arate ;)ie)do's; o) -ndia into t$e "u#$a% &'(ire as !e%% as t$e %astin# %e#ac, o) G(%ura%is' and to%eranceG t$at Gunder%ies t$e 4a%ues o) t$e 'odern re(ub%ic o) -ndiaG 5i'e 'a#a?ine inc%uded $is na'e in its %ist o) to( 25 !or%d %eaders*[164] -n (o(u%ar cu%ture Musi&

5$e 4io%in concerto nickna'ed G-% 3rosso "o#u%G !ritten b, .ntonio Hi4a%di in t$e 1720s and %isted in t$e standard cata%o#ue as AH 20D is considered to be indirect%, ins(ired b, .kbar;s rei#n* 4il#s and television -n 200D director .s$utos$ 3o!ariker re%eased a )i%' te%%in# t$e stor, o) .kbar and $is !i)e Hira 0un!ari (kno!n 'ore (o(u%ar%, as @od$a /ai) tit%ed 1odhaa Akbar* .kbar !as (%a,ed b, Hrit$ik Aos$an and @od$aa !as (%a,ed b, .is$!ar,a Aai* .kbar !as (ortra,ed in t$e a!ard7!innin# 1B60 Hindi 'o4ie Mughal%e%Azam (5$e #reat "u#$a%) in !$ic$ $is c$aracter !as (%a,ed b, 9rit$4ira8 0a(oor* .kbar and /irba% !ere (ortra,ed in t$e Hindi series Akbar%0irbal aired on =ee 5H in %ate 1BB0s !$ere .kbar;s ro%e !as essa,ed b,Hikra' 3ok$a%e* . te%e4ision series ca%%ed Akbar the -reat directed b, .kbar 0$an !as aired on ++ Eationa% in t$e 1BB0s* 4i&tion . )ictiona%i?ed .kbar (%a,s an i'(ortant su((ortin# ro%e in 0i' 2tan%e, Aobinson;s 2002 no4e% )he 3ears o' 4ice and Salt* .kbar is a%so a 'a8or c$aracter in 2a%'an Aus$die;s 200D no4e% )he Enchantress o' +lorence* .'art,a 2en uses .kbar as a (ri'e e1a'(%e in $is books )he Argumentative Indian and 5iolence and Identit(* /ertrice 2'a%% is kno!n )or incor(oratin# $istorica% )i#ures as (ri'ar, c$aracters in $er ro'ance no4e%s and .kbar is no e1ce(tion* He is a (ro'inent )i#ure in t!o o) $er no4e%s and 'entioned se4era% ti'es in a t$ird !$ic$ takes (%ace a)ter $is deat$* -n )his "eart o' Mine t$e $eroine beco'es .kbar;s )ortiet$ G!i)eG )or a ti'e !$i%e /ild 1asmine and $arling 1asmine centre around t$e %i)e o) $is $a%)7/ritis$ dau#$ter Kasa'an 0a'a /e#u' (a%ias @as'ine)* -n 0una% /asu;s )he Miniaturist t$e stor, re4o%4es around a ,oun# (ainter durin# .kbar;s ti'e !$o (aints $is o!n 4ersion o) t$eAkbarnamu .kbar is 'entioned as ;Aa8a /aads$a$; in t$e >$$attis#ar$i )o%kta%e o) G"o$na de #ori ka,inaG .kbar is t$e 'ain c$aracter in Empire o' the Moghul: 4uler o' the /orld b, .%e1 Aut$er)ord t$e t$ird book in a 6uintet based on t$e )i4e #reat "u#$a% &'(erors o) t$e "u#$a% +,nast,* .kbar is t$e (rota#onist in +irk >o%%ier;s $istorica% no4e% )he Emperor6s /ritings Memories o' Akbar the -reat (+e%$i 2011) a )ictiona% autobio#ra($, in !$ic$ .kbar s(eaks to $is son @a$an#ir 4ia a series o) (ost$u'ous %etters* .kbar )eatures (ro'inent%, in +a4id +a4idar;s 2007 no4e% )he Solitude o' Emperors* $ideo ga#es .kbar is )eatured in t$e 4ideo #a'e Sid Meier6s Civilization 7: 0e(ond the Sword as a G#reat #enera%G a4ai%ab%e in t$e #a'e* .kbar is a%so t$e .- 9ersona%it, o) -ndia in t$e reno!ned #a'e Age o' Empires III: )he Asian $(nasties*