Prof. univ. dr.

ION NEGRE-DOBRIDOR

DOCUMENTAR
pentru MICROPROIECTAREA PEDAGOGIC EFICIENT

Documentarul Nr. 1 DESIGN INSTRUCIONAL

Definitions of Instructional Design

(Adapted from "Training and Instructional Design", Applie Researc! La"orator#, Penn State University)

Instructional Design as a $rocess%

Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. &. Instructional Design as a Discipline% Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.

Instructional Design as a Science% Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.

Instructional Design as Realit#% Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. ften a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. !y the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. #hen the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.

Instructional S#stem% $n instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan.

Instructional Tec!nolog#%

Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organi%ed knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. Instructional #echnology & Instructional Design ' Instructional Development

Instructional De'elopment% #he process of implementing the design plans.

(from )ikipedia* +

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD) ) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student only, teacher led or community based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the !""I# model $ith the five phases% &) analysis, ') design, () development, )) implementation, and *) evaluation. !s a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.

(istor# ,uch of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in )orl )ar II, when the -... military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field/stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber0see " Training )it!in In ustr# (#)I+". Drawing on the research and theories of *.+. S,inner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. #asks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. #raining was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. ,astery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. $fter the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. #he approach is still common in the -... military. -1. In 1234, a committee led by *en/amin *loom published an influential ta0onom# of what he termed the three domains of learning* Cogniti'e (what one knows or thinks+, 5sychomotor (what one does, physically+ and Affecti'e (what one feels, or what attitu es one has+. #hese taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.-1.

During the latter half of the 67th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers. In the 1287s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information/ processing/based approach to the design of instruction. David ,errill for instance developed Component Displa# T!eor# 2CDT3, which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques+. -4. 9ater in the 12:7s and throughout the 1227s cogniti'e loa find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques. -5. Cogniti'e loa t!eor# an t!e esign of instruction Cogniti'e loa t!eor# developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials. -6. S7eller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memor# load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.-&.-8.-9. )hile the media debates of the 1227s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. ;ather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. ,ayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important* learning. -:. !y the mid/ to late/1227s, .weller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the 7or,e ;e0ample effect+. 9ater, other researchers like ;ichard ,ayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load. -:. ,ayer and his associates soon developed a <ognitive #heory of ,ultimedia 9earning.-1<.-11.-11. In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted-14. and begun to revolutioni%e how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. ;ecently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field. -15. =inally <lark, >guyen and .weller-16. published a te0t"oo, describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence/based guidelines of cognitive load theory. Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. =or example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 137 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks. #he designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner. Learning esign theory began to

#he concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 6777s -1&. with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses" -18.. !ut the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. 9earning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching/learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event+" -19.. $s summari%ed by !ritain-1:., learning design may be associated with*

#he concept of learning design #he implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like 5$9 , I=S Learning Design-1<., 9D9, SLD 1.<, etc... #he technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like #?9 ., ;?9 $D 9D/$uthor, etc...

Instructional esign mo els ADDIE process 5erhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE $rocess. #his acronym stands for the 3 phases contained in the model*

Anal#>e @ analy%e learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.

Identify Instructional Aoals, <onduct Instructional $nalysis, $nalye 9earners and <ontexts

Design @ develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach bjectives, Develop $ssessment Instruments, Develop

)rite 5erformance Instructional .trategy

De'elop @ create instructional or training materials

Design and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and <onduct =ormative ?valuation 2. Implement @ deliver or distribute the instructional materials 17. E'aluate @ make sure the materials achieved the desired goals Design an Con uct Summati'e E'aluation ,ost of the current instructional design models are variations of the $DDI? process.-11. Dick,). ,.<arey, 9.,B<arey, C. .(677D+$nd =EI, .usan .chminke fails as an instructorF.ystematic Design of Instruction.!oston,,$*$llynB!acon. apid prototyping
"

$ sometimes utili%ed adaptation to the $DDI? model is in a practice known as rapi protot#ping. 5roponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. #his approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design/related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc. -11.-11.-14. In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front. -15. In other words, up/front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. =or this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter/productive.
-16.

Gowever, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. $s this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. $fter you thoroughly conduct the analysis0you can then choose a model based on your findings. #hat is the area where most people get snagged0they simply do not do a thorough/enough analysis. (5art of $rticle !y <hris !ressi on 9inkedIn+ Dic! and "arey $nother well/known instructional design model is T!e Dic, an Care# S#stems Approac! =o el.-1&. #he model was originally published in 128: by )alter Dick and 9ou <arey in their book entitled T#e Systematic Design of Instruction. Dick and <arey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. #he model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. $ccording to Dick and <arey, "<omponents such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".-1&. #he components of the .ystems $pproach ,odel, also known as the Dick and <arey ,odel, are as follows*

Identify Instructional Aoal(s+* goal statment describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(.H$+ that a learner will be expected to acquire <onduct Instructional $nalysis* Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task $naly%e 9earners and <ontexts* Aeneral characteristic of the target audience, <haracteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, $nalysis of 5erformance .etting, $nalysis of 9earning .etting

)rite 5erformance bjectives* bjectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. #he component of an objective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learnerIs performance. Develop $ssessment Instruments* 5urpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of pottesting, purpose of practive itemsJpractive problems Develop Instructional .trategy* 5reinstructional activities, content presentation, 9earner participation, assessment Develop and .elect Instructional ,aterials Design and <onduct =ormative ?valuation of Instruction* Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement. ;evise Instruction* #o identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction Design and <onduct .ummative ?valuation

)ith this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.-1&. !ttp%??777.sli es!are.net?a,teac!er? ic,;car#;instructional; esign; mo el Instructional Development $earning System (ID$S) $nother instructional design model is the Instructional De'elopment Learning S#stem 2IDLS3.-18. #he model was originally published in 1287 by 5eter C. ?sseff, 5hD and ,ary .ullivan ?sseff, 5hD in their book entitled IDLSPro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials .-19. 5eter (124:+ B ,ary (1286+ ?sseff both received their doctorates in ?ducational #echnology from the <atholic -niversity of $merica under the mentorship of Dr. Aabriel fiesh, a =ounding =ather of the ,ilitary ,odel mentioned above. ?sseff and ?sseff contributed synthesi%ed existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development 9earning .ystem" (ID9.+. #he components of the ID9. ,odel are*

Design a #ask $nalysis Develop <riterion #ests and 5erformance ,easures Develop Interactive Instructional ,aterials Kalidate the Interactive Instructional ,aterials %t#er models

.ome other useful models of instructional design include* the .mithJ;agan ,odel, the ,orrisonJ;ossJHemp ,odel and the OAR mo el, as well as, )iggins theory of "ac,7ar esign.
$

9earning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. #heories such as "e!a'iorism, constructi'ism, social learning and cogniti'ism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials. Influential researc!ers an t!eorists Alp a!etic !" last na#e

*loom@ *en/amin @ #axonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains @ 1233 !onk, <urtis @ *len e learning @ 6777s *ransfor @ Ao!n D. @ Gow 5eople 9earn* !ridging ;esearch and 5ractice @ 1222 *runer@ Aerome @ Constructi'ism <arr/<hellman, $lison @ Instructional Design for #eachers IDD# /6717 <arey, 9. @ "#he .ystematic Design of Instruction" <lark, ;ichard @ <lark/Hosma ",edia vs ,ethods debate", BGui anceB e"ate. <lark, ;uth @ $%%icienc" in Learning: $vidence&'ased (uidelines to Manage )ognitive Load J Auided Instruction J <ognitive 9oad #heory Dick, ). @ "#he .ystematic Design of Instruction" GagnC@ Ro"ert =. @ Nine E'ents of Instruction (AagnL and ,errill Kideo .eminar+ Geinich, ;obert @ Instructional ,edia and the new technologies of instruction *rd ed+ @ ?ducational #echnology @ 12:2 Conassen, David @ problem/solving strategies @ 1227s 9angdon, Danny A / #he Instructional Designs 9ibrary* D7 Instructional Designs, ?ducational #ech. 5ublications ,ager, ;obert =. @ $!<D model for instructional objectives @ 1246 ,errill, ,. David / <omponent Display #heory J Hnowledge $apert@ Se#mour @ <onstructionism, 9 A @ 1287s bjects

$iaget@ Aean @ <ognitive development @ 1247s 5iskurich, Aeorge @ ;apid Instructional Design @ 6774 .imonson, ,ichael @ Instructional .ystems and Design via Distance ?ducation @ 12:7s Sc!an,@ Roger @ <onstructivist simulations @ 1227s
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.weller, Cohn / Cogniti'e loa , )or,e ;e0ample effect, Split;attention effect ;eigeluth, <harles @ ?laboration #heory, "Areen !ooks" I, II, and III / 1222/ 6717 S,inner@ *.+. @ ;adical !ehaviorism, 5rogramed Instruction D#gots,#@ Le' @ 9earning as a social activity @ 12M7s )ile#@ Da'i @ 9earning bjects, pen 9earning @ 6777s

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=ormat of Instruction". )ognition and Instruction 9 (D+* 62M@MM6. oi*1<.11<8?s1641&:<0ci<9<5H1.

$. E .weller, C., B <ooper, A.$. (12:3+. "#he use of worked examples as

a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". )ognition and Instruction 1 (1+* 32@:2. oi*1<.11<8?s1641&:<0ci<1<1H4.
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rule automation on mathematical problem/solving transfer". ,ournal o% $ducational Ps"c olog" 8: (D+* MD8@M46. oi*1<.1<48?<<11; <&&4.8:.5.458. 2. N a & ,ayer, ;.?. (1228+. ",ultimedia 9earning* $re )e $sking the ;ight OuestionsP". $ducational Ps"c ologist 41 (D1+* 1@12. oi*1<.11<8?s1641&:96ep41<1H1.
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-niversity 5ress. IS*N <;611;8914:;1.

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")hen 9ess Is ,ore* ,eaningful 9earning =rom Kisual and Kerbal .ummaries of .cience #extbook 9essons". ,ournal o% $ducational Ps"c olog" 99 (1+* 4D@8M. oi*1<.1<48?<<11;<&&4.99.1.&5.
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generative theory of textbook design* -sing annotated illustrations to

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foster meaningful learning of science text". $ducational Tec nolog" -esearc and Develop#ent 54 (1+* M1@D1. oi*1<.1<<8?*+<14<<59<.
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Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information .tructures and <ognitive $rchitecture". Instructional Science 41* 1@:. oi*1<.1<14?*%TRUC.<<<<<119<&.1861&. < .
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Instruction: Proven (uidelines %or )onsu#ers and Designers o% Multi#edia Learning. .an =rancisco* 5feiffer. IS*N <;898:;&<61;:.
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Learning: $vidence&'ased (uidelines to Manage )ognitive Load . .an =rancisco* 5feiffer. IS*N <;898:;8819;5.
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pedagogically effective learning activitiesR. Cournal of Interactive ,edia in ?ducation, 6773 (7:+.
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#echnology B .ociety, 2 (1+, 1M/66, 6774.

1'. E !ritain .., Q$ ;eview of 9earning Design* <oncept, .pecifications and

#oolsR $ report for the CI.< ?/learning 5edagogy 5rogramme, ,ay 677D.
2&. E I=S Learning Design 7e"page

61. N a & 5iskurich, A.,. (6774+. ;apid Instructional Design* 9earning ID fast and right.
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(1227+. T e evolution o% A#erican educational Hand!oo. o% u#an

tec nolog".
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strategies for beating the devilIs advocate B driving creativity throughout your organi%ation. >ew Eork* Doubleday.
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Gokanson, !., B ,iller, <. (6772+. ;ole/based design* $ contemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. ?ducational #echnology, D2(6+, 61@6:.

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?sseff, 5eter C. and ?sseff, ,ary .ullivan (122:+ S1287T. Instructional Development $earning System (ID$S) (:th ed.+. ?.= 5ress. pp. 1@16. IS*N 169194<481. !ttp%??esf; protrainer.com?=aterials.!tml.

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Documentarul Nr. 1 O istorie a esignului instrucional A *rief (istor# of Instructional Design *# Douglas Leig! $s a formal discipline, Instructional .ystems Design has been a long time in the making. #he early contributions of thinkers such as $ristotle, .ocrates and 5lato regarding the cognitive basis of learning and memory was later expanded by the 1Mth century philosopher .t. #homas $quinas who discussed the perception of teachings in terms of free will. =our hundred years later, Cohn 9ocke advanced $ristotleIs notion of humanIs initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience. #hen, at the turn of the 67th century Cohn Dewey presented several tenets of the philosophy of education which promoted the idea that learning occurs best when married with doing, rather than rote regurgitation of facts. $s the 1267Is approached, a behaviorist approach to educational psychology became increasingly predominant. #horndikeIs theory of connectionism represents the original stimulus/response (./;+ model of behavioral psychology, and was expanded on some twenty years later by Gull in his exposition of drive reduction @ a motivational model of behavior which emphasi%es learnerIs wants, attention, and activities. )ith the Industrial ;evolution came an increased attention to productivity, and educational behaviorists during the 1267Is such as .idney 5ressey applied mechani%ed technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process. #hough their initial incarnation did not see much use after the Depression, many of the lessons learned research into these teaching machines regarding the delivery of standardi%ed instruction contributed to the instructional media research B development movement of )orld )ar II.

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#he advent of the .econd )orld )ar presented a tremendous instructional dilemma* the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel. ;alph #ylerIs work a decade before ))II indicated that objectives were most useful to instructional developers if written in terms of desired learner behaviors. $rmed with this knowledge and the experience of creating standardi%e methods of instructional delivery using teaching machines, military researchers developed a bevy of training films and other mediated materials for instructional purposes. In part, the -nited .tatesI heavy investment in training and ;BD was credited with the countryIs victory in the war. )ith the economic boom that followed, federal dollars followed researcherIs desire to better flesh out the underpinnings of learning, cognition, and instruction. #he 1237Is are characteri%ed by a shift away from the uninformed application of instructional technology to the formulation of theoretical models of learning. #he publication of !. =. .kinnerIs T e Science o% Learning and t e Art o% Teac ing in 123D canoni%ed the basic behaviorist principles of ./;, feedback, and reinforcement. $s the key element of his theory of operant conditioning, the reinforcement of desired learner responses was also incorporated into .kinnerIs implementations of programmed instruction. <onsidered by many the progenitor of contemporary instructional design, programmed instruction emphasi%es the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. $nother substantial instructional theorist of the 1237Is was !enjamin !loom. Gis 1234 taxonomy of intellectual behaviors provided instructors a means by which to decide how to impart instructional content to learners most effectively. $dvocating a mastery approach to learning, !loom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. )hile this approach provided instructional developers a means by which to match subject matter and instructional methods, !loomIs taxonomy was not in and of itself capable of satisfying the desire of large organi%ations to relate resources and processes to the performances of individuals. #o achieve this researchers in the militaryIs $ir ;esearch and Development <ommand borrowed from 9udwig von !ertalanffyIs Aeneral .ystems #heory of biological interactions to integrate the operations of a wide range of departments, such as training, intelligence, and staffing. <ombined with the !loomIs #axonomy, the systems approach to instructional and organi%ational development allowed planners and policy/makers to match the content and delivery of instruction in a fashion which considered both super/ and sub/systems (the organi%ation as a whole, as well as groups and individuals within the organi%ation+. #hese advances of .kinner, !loom and von !ertalanffy were usually employed to develop instruction in what was only assu#ed to be an effective an efficient manner. #he formali%ation of a standardi%ed design process still had yet to be devised. $gain it was a crisis that spurred the next evolution of instructional technology @ a shift away from an emphasis in the development of instructional programs to one which focused on the design of entire curriculum. $gain the crisis was a war, but this time the war was a political one. In 1238 the .oviet -nion launched the .putnik satellite and began the "space race". $merica was taken by surprise and the government was forced to reevaluate the education system and its shortcomings.
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.cience and math programs were the first to be targeted, and the government employed experts in these fields to bring the content up to date. In 1246 ;obert Alaser synthesi%ed the work of previous researchers and introduced the concept of "instructional design", submitting a model which links learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. Interestingly, AlaserIs contribution to the current field of instructional systems is not so much in the advancement of his model, but in work concerning Individually 5rescribed Instruction (I5I+, an approach whereby the results of a learnerIs placement test are used to plan learner/specific instruction. $t the same time Alaser was developing his theories of instructional design and I5I, ;obert ,ager published his treatise on the construction of performance objectives. ,ager suggested that an objective should describe in measurable terms who an objective targets, the behavior they will have exhibited, the conditions or limitations under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria against which their behavior will be gauged. $s early as 1246 when he published ",ilitary #raining and 5rinciples of 9earning" ;obert AagnL demonstrated a concern for the different levels of learning. Gis differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to !loomIs six cognitive domains of learning. 9ater, AagnL extended his thinking to include nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. #hese events have long since been used for the basis for the design of instruction and the selection of appropriate media. #he mediation of instruction entered the computer age in the 1247Is when 5atrick .uppes conducted his initial investigations into computer/assisted instruction (<$I+ at .tanford -niversity. Developed through a systematic analysis of curriculum, .uppesI <$I provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking @ aspects were later incorporated into the 59$# system in the 1287Is and continue guide the development of todayIs instructional software. !y the late 1247Is $merica was again in crisis. >ot only was the country involved in another war, but the nationIs schools were unable to elicit the achievement from learners it anticipated. Arant Kenn argued that since only 12U of first graders complete a bachelor or arts degree, that the current educational system is only serving the advantaged minority of schoolchildren. #o counter this trend ;obert ,organ proposed to conduct an experiment with an "organic curriculum" which would to incorporate into the educational system the best instructional practices identified through research. $ccepted in 1248 the proposal by the -. ffice of ?ducation, the project was dubbed "?ducational .ystems for the 1287Is", or ?.I87. ,organ engaged an array of experts in the field of learning, cognition, and instructional design to contribute to the project and carried out multiple experiments in a variety of settings. f these was 9eslie !riggs, who had demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could yield up to 6*1 increase over conventionally designed courses in terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and reduction of time/to/completion @ this effect was four times that of the control group which received no training. In 1287, ,organ partnered with the =lorida ;esearch and
1

Development $dvisory !oard to conduct a nation/wide educational reform project in .outh Horea. =aced with the task of increasing the achievement of learners while at the same time reducing the cost of schooling from VD1.68 per student per year ,organ applied some of the same techniques as had been piloted in the ?.I87 project and achieved striking results* an increase in student achievement, a more efficient organi%ation of instructors and course content, an increased teacher to student ratio, a reduction in salary cost, and a reduction in yearly per student cost by V2.:7. $round this time ;oger Haufman developed a problem/solving framework for educational strategic planning which provided practitioners a means by which to demonstrate value/added not only for the learner, but the school system and society as a whole. #his framework provided the basis for the rgani%ational ?lements ,odel ( ?,+, a needs assessment model which specifies results to be achieved at societal, organi%ational, and individual performance levels. !y rigorously defining needs as gaps in results Haufman emphasi%ed that performance improvement interventions can not demonstrate return/on/investment unless those interventions were derived from the requirements of these three primary clients and beneficiaries of organi%ational action. #his approach to needs assessment and strategic planning has since been used across the world as the foundation for planning, evaluation, and continuous improvement in military, business, and educational settings. $ variety of models for instructional system design proliferated the late 1287Is and early :7Is* AagnL and !riggs, !ranson, Dick and <arey, and $tkins, to name a few. ne possible reason for this phenomenon deals with the establishment of formal education and training departments within both public and private organi%ations. =aced with the computeri%ed technologies of the times, these organi%ations require a means by which to quickly develop appropriate methods by which to educate internal employees in the new business practices ushered into existence by the Information $ge. $nother explanation is that businesses, especially consulting organi%ations, are becoming increasingly required to demonstrate value/added not only to their organi%ation, but to the clients they serve. #he evaluation and continuous improvement components of contemporary models of I.D make far strides from the early develop/and/implement models of the middle of the century in this aspect. In the 1227Is a dual focus on technology and performance improvement has developed. =or example, in his 12:: essay ")hy the .chools <anIt Improve* #he -pper 9imit Gypothesis" ;obert !ranson offers an argument for systemic school reform, suggesting that schools are operating at near peak efficiency and must be redesigned from the top down using technological interventions. 9ater in that year !ranson was contracted by the =lorida Department of ?ducation (D ?+ to analy%e itIs various programs and plan a system/wide technology/based educational reform initiative for =lorida called .choolyear 6777. ver the next several years !ransonIs team developed and piloted multiple computeri%ed instructional technologies, as well as models of the interaction between the internal operations of the school system and the experiences and knowledge of students, parents, and teachers. Developments in performance improvement outside I.D during the 1227Is such as Ouality ,anagement (O,+, rgani%ational ?ngineering, and <hange ,anagement have required that instructional designers look outside their profession
1!

to demonstrate the utility of their practice. Introduced earlier by Deming, O, has swept public and private organi%ations alike in the 27Is. )hereas initially thought of in terms of "quality control" or "%ero defects", quality practices have evolved into tools for organi%ational continuous improvement. .imilarly, instructional designers in the 27Is often work alongside authorities in the field of organi%ational engineering. <haracteri%ed by a concern for an organi%ationIs culture and interaction between groups, organi%ational engineering seeks to improve organi%ations through the identification of relationships between an organi%ationIs vision, mission, goals, methods and personnel. .imilarly, change management has become a business in and of itself, with leaders such as Darly <onner and Coel !arker pioneering methods for and models of organi%ational change. #he advent of new media, such as the Internet and hypermedia, has brought about not only technological innovations, but also coupled these with new ways of approaching learning and instruction. $s opposed to the behavioralist perspective that emphasi%es learning objectives, the constructivist approach holds that learners construct their understanding of reality from interpretations of their experiences. #heorists such as #homas Duffy and .eymour 5apert suggest that constructivism provides a model whereby socio/cultural and cognitive issues regarding the design of learning environments can be supported by computer tools. #his philosophy has been applied to such computeri%ed technologies as online help systems and programming language 9 A . In the future, instructional designers are likely to choose one of two paths* specialist or generalist. In the prior path, designers will focus on one aspect of learning or instruction and act as consultants or subject matter experts, whether internal or external to the organi%ation. #he other approach is one more aligned with managerial activities. .ince the field is becoming too broad for most designers to work with authority in all matters, this option allows practitioners to oversee the development of instructional projects, rather than narrow their efforts exclusively on assessment, analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation or continuous improvement. ;eferences !oling, ?. (1224+. Instructional Tec nolog" /oundations I: Historical Ti#elines Pro0ect Page S nlineT. $vailable* http*JJeducation.indiana.eduJWistcoreJr311Jdatelist.html S122:, Cune 8T. Hearsley, A. (122D+. Learning 1 Instruction: T e TIP Data!ase S nlineT. $vailable* http*JJwww.lincoln.ac.n%JeducJtipJ1.htm S122:, Cune 8T. ;eiser, ;. $. (12:8+. Instructional #echnology* $ Gistory. In ;. ,. AagnL (ed.+, Instructional #echnology* =oundations (pp. 11 / D7+. Gillsdale, >C* 9awrence ?rlbaum $ssociates. .hrock, .. $. (>o date+. A 'rie% Histor" o% Instructional Develop#ent S nlineT.$vailable* http*JJuttc/med.utb.eduJ4M67JchaptersJsummaryXch6.html S122:, Cune 8T.
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Documentarul Nr. 4 Con iiile Pn'QQrii eficiente upQ R% =.GagnC ( AagneYs <onditions of 9earning #heory+ A) Description $lthough AagneYs theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Hearsley, 122Da+. AagneYs theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training (Aagne 1246, as cited in Hearsley, 122Da+. In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified*

verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategies motor skills attitudes

#he importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Hearsley 122Da+ i.e., each learning level requires different types of instruction. Hearsley provides the following example* for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Aagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organi%ed in a !ierarc!# according to complexity*

stimulus recognition response generation procedure following use of terminology discriminations concept formation rule application problem solving
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#he primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level" (Hearsley 122Da+. #his learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Aagne outlines the following nine instructional e'ents and corresponding cognitive processes (as cited in Hearsley 122Da+*

gaining attention (reception+ informing learners of t!e o"/ecti'e (expectancy+ stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval+ presenting t!e stimulus (selective perception+ pro'i ing learning gui ance (semantic encoding+ eliciting performance (responding+ pro'i ing fee "ac, (reinforcement+ assessing performance (retrieval+ en!ancing retention an transfer (generali%ation+

') Practical Application AagneYs nine instructional e'ents an correspon ing cogniti'e processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Aagne, !riggs B )ager, 1226, as cited in Hearsley 122Da+. In applying these instructional events, Hearsley (122Da+ suggests keeping the following principles in mind* 17. 9earning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction. 11. 9earning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned. 16. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. ERA=$LE #he following example applies AagneIs nine instructional events*

Instructional O"/ecti'e% ;ecogni%e an equilateral triangle (example from Hearsley 122Da+. =et!o olog#%
o o o o o

Gain attention / show a variety of computer generated triangles I entif# o"/ecti'e / pose question* ")hat is an equilateral triangleP" Recall prior learning / review definitions of triangles $resent stimulus / give definition of equilateral triangle Gui e learning / show example of how to create equilateral
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o o o o

Elicit performance / ask students to create 3 different examples $ro'i e fee "ac, / check all examples as correctJincorrect Assess performance / provide scores and remediation En!ance retention?transfer / show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilateral triangles.

") elated T#eories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical (e&)Design Strategies

$ro'i e a 'ariet# of learning acti'ities. Instructional designers should anticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematically varying teaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (.ternberg 122D, as cited in ;oss/Aordon 122:, 668+. #hey should also provide alternate offline materials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view and interpretations" (=ahy 1222, 6M8+ so that the learner is free to "Scriss/crossT the intellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multiple perspectives or through multiple themes" (Conassen et al., 1228, 166+. Use *loomSs BTa0onom# of E ucational O"/ecti'es for t!e Cogniti'e DomainB to increase retention. !loomYs #axonomy of ?ducational bjectives for the <ognitive Domain (1234, as cited in =ahy 1222, D6/DM+ is similar to AagneYs !ierarc!# of intellectual s,ills. !loom outlines the following cognitive activities organi%ed from least to greater complexity* / knowledge / comprehension / application / analysis / synthesis / evaluation (making judgements+ In the following example, !loomYs taxonomy is used to illustrate different objectives related to learning objectives for studying nails (=ahy 1222, DM+* Fno7le ge T Hnow enough about nails to be able to explain what they are and what they are used for. !e able to recogni%e a nail as a fastening device from a non/fastening devices. Compre!ension T !e able to identify a nail and distinguish it from other fastening devices. Application T !e able to use a nail to fasten something competently, and actually do so. Anal#sis T !e able to determine what kind of nail and nailing technique would be required for most effective use of the device for a specific purpose.
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S#nt!esis T !e able to compare nails to other fastening devices, and to compare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specific qualities and characteristics in specific situations. E'aluation T !e able to assess examples of the use of nails for fastening, and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as to which were more effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful, more workman like, etc. Documentarul Nr. 5 5. Teoria minimalistQ a lui Ao!n *. Carroll ( <arrollYs ,inimalist #heory + A) Description #he ,inimalist theory of C.,. <arroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., >owac%yk B Cames, 122M, van der ,eij, B <arroll, 1223, as cited in Hearsley 122Dd+. It is based upon studies of people learning a wide range of computer applications including word processors and databases. $s Hearsley (122Dd+ explains, this theory suggests that*

$ll learning activities should be meaningful and self/contained. $ctivities should exploit the learnerIs prior experience and knowledge. 9earners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible. Instruction should permit self/directed reasoning and improvising. #raining materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use errors as learning opportunities. #here should be a close linkage between training and the actual system because "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (<arroll 1227, as cited in Hearsley 122Dd+.

#he critical idea behind <arrollIs ,inimalist theory is that course designers must "minimi%e the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner/directed activity and accomplishment" (Hearsley 122Dd+. ') Practical Application In applying <arrollYs ,inimalist theory, Hearsley (122Dd+ recommends the following*

$llow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.

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,inimi%e the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to fill in the gaps themselves Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction ,ake all learning activities self/contained and independent of sequence.

ERA=$LE 1 #he following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use a word processor (<arroll 1227, chapter 3, as cited in Hearsley 122Dd+. $pplying the principles of <arrollIs ,inimalist theory, a 2D/page training manual is replaced by 63 cards. ?ach card is self contained and includes a meaningful task and error recognition information. #he cards do not provide complete step/by/step specifications but only ,e# i eas or hints about what to do. Hearsley reports that "in an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards." ERA=$LE 1 #he following example illustrates the redesign of a )eb page using <arrollYs ,inimalist theory and other related web design strategies*

$ro"lem% !elow is a screen shot of T e 2I3De4 Searc $ngine located at !ttp%??7in e0. aci.net. #his site allows software developers to submit shareware and freeware to be stored in their database. #his page however has four serious design flaws* 2a3 the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screen; 2"3 "#he )index Index" image banner runs a la.e ripple Cava applet which is highly distracting; 2c3 the la.e ripple Cava applet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; 2 3 the white text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text* red, blue, white and black

Solution% 2a3 <arroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away on meaningful tas,s. Cones and =arquhar (1228+ advise that in web/design, important information should be kept on the top of t!e page. <onsidering this advice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy less space and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users donIt have to scroll as much. 2"3 2c3 2 3 <arroll advises that web/design should minimi%e the extent to which instructional materials o"struct learning. Aillani B ;elan (1228+ advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cogniti'e o'erloa . .imilarly, Auay (1223, as cited in =ahy 1222+ advises that )eb pages should reduce clutter and download in 4< secon s or less with a 1D.D modem. <onsidering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, the Cava applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability. =urthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is just plain "annoying." <ontent that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in si%e. =urthermore, the
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range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve rea a"ilit#. ") elated T#eories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical (e&)Design Strategies

Feep important information at t!e top of t!e page. )hen learners come to a page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Aood web/design demands that you give your learners the information they want right away and in a hurry. 9arge graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to be considered instructionally useful (Cones and =arquhar 1228+. Feep frames simple an "e consistent in esign of te0t@ grap!ics an soun to limit cogniti'e o'erloa . Auay advises that "cognitive bandwidth should be minimi%ed to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" (as cited in =ahy 1222, 121+. Ge also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 121+. Cones and =arquhar (1228+ advise that background to a display should not compete with or obscure the text. .imiarly Aillani B ;elan 1228, 6M4 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." #hus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning." Feep pages s!ort so learners onSt !a'e to scroll. ;esearch on the )eb suggests that "users do not like to scroll" (>ielsen 1224, as cited in Cones B =arquhar 1228, 6DM+. Auay (1223, as cited in =ahy 1222, 121+ agrees with this and advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." )est (122:, as cited in =ahy 1222, 126+ similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in )eb/based documents should be kept to a minimum, as many users will not scroll more than M times before abandoning a site." )est also estimates that readers give only between 8 and 13 seconds to assess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. #his Sproblem can be solvedT by combining all of the pages into a single document that is labeled as such" (Cones and =arquar, 1228, 6DM+. $ print button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off/screen reading. Feep pages uncluttere "# e0tracting unnecessar# elements. !roadbentsY theory of single/channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is not possible to process two channels simultaneously"(Gsia 124:, as cited in .%abo 122:, M6+. If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and lead to poorer retention of material (!roadbent 123:, as cited in .%abo 122:, M6+. Auay (1223 as cited in =ahy 1222, 126+ recommends that "each page should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced." $ages s!oul o7nloa in 4< secon s or less 7it! 15.5 mo em. Auay advises that "physical bandwidth should be minimi%ed to ensure acceptable
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access and response times" (1223 as cited in =ahy 1222, 121+. .pecial consideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video to make sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Auay also suggests that tagging graphics (in G#,9+ with vertical and hori%ontal si%e can speed download. <ommercial graphics tools such as $dobe Image;eady 6.7 can also reduce graphics si%e by among other things reducing the color pallet.

Screen e0cess information. Aood design, as <arroll recommends, must re uce e0cess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1224, 1M+ maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low/ level information" and as a result, "teachers SmustT frantically race through required material, helping students memori%e factual data to be regurgitated on mandated, standardi%ed tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for todayYs workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incoming information." Ge adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 4+. Structure materials as topical mo ules. #his "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (!utler 1228, D66+. Stri'e for Nualit# not Nuantit#. ;ockley (1228, as cited in =ahy 1222, 124/ 128+ gives the following advice for the planning and management of )eb/ based resources* Design small. ,ake what you have effective, then add to it. DonYt attempt to do everything at once. Feep effects simple. $ssure effects $DD to the messageJcontent. =ap out t!e 7!ole site. !oth for development and maintenance. $lan for gro7t!. $nticipate and direct it. Get fee "ac, from users. $nd pay attention to it. Test an# outsi e lin,s regularl#. DonYtY link to sites which do not appear to be will maintained or stable. Gi'e onl# one person e it pri'ileges. maintenance responsibilities. nly one person should have site

DonSt post an# part of a site 7!ile it is still under construction. ?verything on your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features. Documentarul Nr. 6 Ta0onomia omeniilor Pn'QQrii a lui *.S.*loom ( !loomIs #axonomy of 9earning Domains +
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#he #hree #ypes of 9earning #here is more than one type of learning. $ committee of colleges, led by !enjamin !loom (1234+, identified three domains of educational activities* M. Cogniti'e* mental skills (5nowledge+ D. Affecti'e* growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude+ 3. $s#c!omotor* manual or physical skills (S.ills+ .ince the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. #rainers often refer to these three categories as H.$ (Hnowledge, .kills, and $ttitude+. #his taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as Qthe goals of the learning process.R #hat is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, andJor attitudes. #he committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. #heir explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama departments+. #his compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. #he divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. Gowever, !loomIs taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today. Cogniti'e Domain #he cognitive domain (!loom, 1234+ involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. #his includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. #here are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. #he categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. #hat is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

"ategory Fno7le ge* ;ecall data or information.

E*ample and +ey (ords (ver&s) E0amples* ;ecite a policy. Ouote prices from memory to a customer. Hnows the safety rules. Fe# )or s* defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names,
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outlines, recalls, recogni%es, reproduces, selects, states. E0amples* ;ewrites the principles of test writing. ?xplain in oneIs own words the steps for performing a complex task. #ranslates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Fe# )or s* comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generali%es, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summari%es, translates. E0amples* -se a manual to calculate an employeeIs vacation time. $pply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Fe# )or s* applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. E0amples* #roubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. ;ecogni%e logical fallacies in reasoning. Aathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Fe# )or s* analy%es, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. E0amples* )rite a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. ;evises and process to improve the outcome. Fe# )or s* categori%es, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises,
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Compre!ension* -nderstand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. .tate a problem in oneIs own words.

Application* -se a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. $pplies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Anal#sis* .eparates material or concepts into component parts so that its organi%ational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

S#nt!esis* !uilds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. 5ut parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

designs, explains, generates, modifies, organi%es, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorgani%es, revises, rewrites, summari%es, tells, writes. E0amples* .elect the most effective solution. Gire the most qualified candidate. ?xplain and justify a new budget. Fe# )or s* appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, critici%es, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summari%es, supports.

E'aluation* ,ake judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Affecti'e Domain #he affective domain (Hrathwohl, !loom, ,asia, 128M+ includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. #he five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex*

"ategory

E*ample and +ey (ords (ver&s) E0amples* 9isten to others with respect. 9isten for and remember the name of newly introduced people. Fe# )or s* asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses. E0amples* 5articipates in class discussions. Aives a presentation. Ouestions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Hnow the safety rules and practices them. Fe# )or s* answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
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Recei'ing $!enomena* $wareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Respon ing to $!enomena* $ctive participation on the part of the learners. $ttends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. 9earning outcomes may emphasi%e compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation+.

Daluing* #he worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. #his ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Kaluing is based on the internali%ation of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learnerIs overt behavior and are often identifiable.

E0amples* Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity+. .hows the ability to solve problems. 5roposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. Fe# )or s* completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works. E0amples* ;ecogni%es the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. $ccepts responsibility for oneIs behavior. ?xplains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. $ccepts professional ethical standards. <reates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. 5rioriti%es time effectively to meet the needs of the organi%ation, family, and self. Fe# )or s* adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generali%es, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organi%es, prepares, relates, synthesi%es. E0amples* .hows self/reliance when working independently. <ooperates in group activities (displays teamwork+. -ses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. ;evises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Kalues people for what they are, not how they look. Fe# )or s* acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves,
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Organi>ation* rgani%es values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. #he emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesi%ing values.

Internali>ing 'alues (characteri%ation+* Gas a value system that controls their behavior. #he behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the studentIs general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional+.

verifies. $s#c!omotor Domain #he psychomotor domain (.impson, 1286+ includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor/skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. #he seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex*

"ategory

E*ample and +ey (ords (ver&s) E0amples* Detects non/verbal communication cues. ?stimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. $djusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. $djusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Fe# )or s* chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects. E0amples* Hnows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. ;ecogni%e oneIs abilities and limitations. .hows desire to learn a new process (motivation+. > #?* #his subdivision of 5sychomotor is closely related with the Q;esponding to phenomenaR subdivision of the $ffective domain. Fe# )or s* begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

$erception* #he ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. #his ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

Set* ;eadiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. #hese three sets are dispositions that predetermine a personIs response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets+.

Gui e Response* #he early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. $dequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

E0amples* 5erforms a mathematical equation as demonstrated. =ollows instructions to build a model. ;esponds hand/signals of instructor
2$

while learning to operate a forklift. Fe# )or s* copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds =ec!anism* #his is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. 9earned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. E0amples* -se a personal computer. ;epair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. Fe# )or s* assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organi%es, sketches.

E0amples* ,aneuvers a car into a Comple0 O'ert Response* #he tight parallel parking spot. perates a skillful performance of motor acts computer quickly and accurately. that involve complex movement Displays competence while playing the patterns. 5roficiency is indicated by piano. a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring Fe# )or s* assembles, builds, a minimum of energy. #his category calibrates, constructs, dismantles, includes performing without displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, hesitation, and automatic manipulates, measures, mends, performance. =or example, players mixes, organi%es, sketches. are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a > #?* #he Hey )ords are the same tennis ball or throw a football, as ,echanism, but will have adverbs because they can tell by the feel of or adjectives that indicate that the the act what the result will produce. performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. E0amples* ;esponds effectively to unexpected experiences. ,odifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. 5erform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task+. Fe# )or s* adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorgani%es, revises, varies. Origination* <reating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. E0amples* <onstructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. <reates a new
2%

A aptation* .kills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

gymnastic routine. 9earning outcomes emphasi%e creativity based upon highly developed skills. Fe# )or s* arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

*loomSs Cogniti'eDomain

Documentarul Nr.& Armoni>area teoriilor Pn'QQrii prin esign instrucional ( Instructional Design B 9earning #heory+ *ren a =ergel ?ducational <ommunications and #echnology -niversity of .askatchewan ,ay, 122:

Intro uction% #o students of instructional design the introduction and subsequent "sorting out" of the various learning theories and associated instructional design strategies can be somewhat confusing. It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site was born. )hy does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basic theories of learningP )hy do the names of theorists appear connected to more than one theoryP )hy do the terms and strategies of each theory overlapP
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#he need for answers to these questions sparked my investigation into the available literature on learning theories and their implications for instructional design. I found many articles and internet sites that dealt with learning theory and ID, in fact, it was difficult to know when and where to draw the line. )hen I stopped finding new information, and the articles were reaffirming what I had already read, I began to write. #he writing process was a learning experience for me and now that I have finished, I want to start over and make it even better, because I know more now than I did when I began. ?very time I reread an article, there were ideas and lists that I would wish to add to my writing. 5erhaps in further development of this site I will change and refine my presentation. ;eading about the development of learning theories and their connection to instructional design evoked, for me, many parallels with the development of other theories in sciences. I have included some of those thoughts as asides within the main body of text. !esides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as connoisseurship, semiotics, and contextualism, but I decided that a clear understanding of the basic learning theories would be best. #he main sections of this site are as follows*

)!at are T!eories an =o elsI

)hat is a theoryP 1. $ theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time. 6. $ theory explains and predicts behavior. M. $ theory can never be established beyond all doubt. D. $ theory may be modified. 3. #heories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved. (Dorin, Demmin B Aabel, 1227+

)hat is a modelP o $ model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot see or experience directly. (Dorin, Demmin B Aabel, 1227+

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*e!a'iorism@ Cogniti'ism an Constructi'ism ; T!e *asics *e!a'iorism% !ased on observable changes in behavior. !ehaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. Cogniti'ism% !ased on the thought process behind the behavior. <hanges in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learnerIs mind. Constructi'ism% !ased on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. <onstructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations. (.chuman, 1224+ T!e *asics of *e!a'iorism !ehaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to $ristotle, whose essay ",emory" focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. ther philosophers that followed $ristotleIs thoughts are Gobbs (1437+, Gume (18D7+, !rown (1:67+, !ain (1:33+ and ?bbinghause (1::3+ (!lack, 1223+. #he theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Aood B !rophy, 1227+. It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. .ome key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were 5avlov, )atson, #horndike and .kinner.

T!orn i,e 21985 ; 1:5:3 ?dward #horndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. Ge set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasi%ing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "$nything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Cohcich, as cited in ;i%o, 1221+. Gis theory, <onnectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.

#he "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. #horndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment+ did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. #he "law of exercise" held that the more an ./; (stimulus response+ bond is practiced the stronger it will become. $s with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when #horndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
1

#he "law of readiness" * because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.

#horndikeIs laws were based on the stimulus/response hypothesis. Ge believed that a neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. 9earning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (.aettler, 1227+. )atson 21989 ; 1:693 Cohn !. )atson was the first $merican psychologist to use 5avlovIs ideas. 9ike #horndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior. )atson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. $ll other behavior is established through stimulus/ response associations through conditioning. )atsonGs E0periment )atson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child ($lbert+ and a white rat. riginally, $lbert was unafraid of the rat; but )atson created a sudden loud noise whenever $lbert touched the rat. !ecause $lbert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. #he fear was generali%ed to other small animals. )atson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. .ome accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was. (Garris, 1282; .amelson, 12:7, in !rophy, 1227+ <ertainly )atsonIs research methods would be questioned today; however, his work did demonstrate the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. #his may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop. ((atson is credited ,it# coining t#e term "&e#aviorism") S,inner 21:<5 ; 1::<3 9ike 5avlov, )atson and #horndike, .kinner believed in the stimulus/response pattern of conditioned behavior. Gis theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. .kinnerIs 12D: book, 2alden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. Ge also wrote,Science and Hu#an 'e avior, (123M+ in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 122D+. .kinnerIs work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning+, in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment+.
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Difference "et7een Classical an Operant Con itioning

S,innerGs Operant Con itioning =ec!anisms

5ositive ;einforcement or reward* ;esponses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Aood grades reinforce careful study.+ >egative ;einforcement* ;esponses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (!eing excused from writing a final because of good term work.+ ?xtinction or >on/;einforcement * ;esponses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.+ 5unishment* ;esponses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (5enali%ing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.+ (Aood B !rophy, 1227+

S,inner an *e!a'ioral S!aping If placed in a cage an animal may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. #o accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. #o begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pawing the lever. !ehavioral chaining occurs when a succession of steps need to be learned. #he animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. Reinforcement Sc!e ules nce the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 177U; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what .kinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. 5artial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. 4. =ixed Interval .chedules* the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. 8. Kariable Interval .chedules* similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. :. =ixed ;atio .chedules* a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.

2. Kariable ;atio .chedules* the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Kariable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed.

T!e *asics of Cogniti'ism $s early as the 1267Is people began to find limitations in the behaviorist approach to understanding learning. ?dward #olman found that rats used in an experiment appeared to have a mental map of the ma%e he was using. )hen he closed off a certain portion of the ma%e, the rats did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to the blocked path. Kisually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure, yet they chose to take a longer route that they knew would be successful ( perant <onditioning S n/lineT+. !ehaviorists were unable to explain certain social behaviors. =or example, children do not imitate all behavior that has been reinforced. =urthermore, they may model new behavior days or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced for the behavior. !ecause of these observations, !andura and )alters departed from the traditional operant conditioning explanation that the child must perform and receive reinforcement before being able to learn. #hey stated in their 124M book, Social Learning and Personalit" Develop#ent, that an individual could model behavior by observing the behavior of another person. #his theory lead to !anduraIs .ocial <ognitive #heory (Dembo, 122D+. )!at is Cogniti'ismI "<ognitive theorists recogni%e that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. #hey also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. Gowever, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorgani%ation of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information." (Aood and !rophy, 1227, pp. 1:8+. $s with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Areeks, 5lato and $ristotle. #he cognitive revolution became evident in $merican psychology during the 1237Is (.aettler, 1227+. ne of the major players in the development of cognitivism is Cean 5iaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as the 1267Is. 5iagetIs ideas did not impact >orth $merica until the 1247Is after ,iller and !runer founded the Garvard <enter for <ognitive studies. Fe# Concepts of Cogniti'e T!eor#

6. .chema / $n internal knowledge structure. >ew information is compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema". .chema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information. M. #hree/.tage Information 5rocessing ,odel / input first enters a sensory register, then is processed in short/term memory, and then is transferred to long/term memory for storage and retrieval. 1. .ensory ;egister / receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. ,uch of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary. 6. .hort/#erm ,emory (.#,+ / sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from the sensory register to the .#,. ,emory can be retained here for up to 67 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. .hort/term memory can hold up to 8 plus or minus 6 items. .#, capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts. M. 9ong/#erm ,emory and .torage (9#,+ / stores information from .#, for long term use. 9ong/term memory has unlimited capacity. .ome materials are "forced" into 9#, by rote memori%ation and over learning. Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material. D. ,eaningful ?ffects / ,eaningful information is easier to learn and remember. (<ofer, 1281, in Aood and !rophy, 1227+ If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain. ()ittrock, ,arks, B Doctorow, 1283, in Aood and !rophy, 1227+ 3. .erial 5osition ?ffects / It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different. 4. 5ractice ?ffects / 5racticing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed practice. !y distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice. 8. #ransfer ?ffects/ #he effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material. :. Interference ?ffects / new material. 2. ccurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of

rgani%ation ?ffects / )hen a learner categori%es input such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember.

17. 9evels of 5rocessing ?ffects / )ords may be processed at a low/level sensory analysis of their physical characteristics to high/level semantic analysis of their
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meaning. (<raik and 9ockhart, 1286, in Aood and !rophy, 1227+ #he more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to remember. 11. .tate Dependent ?ffects / If learning takes place within a certain context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context. 16. ,nemonic ?ffects / ,nemonics are strategies used by learners to organi%e relatively meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. =or example, the notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme* ?very Aood !oy Deserves =ruit. 1M. .chema ?ffects / If information does not fit a personIs schema it may be more difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it may also be affected by their prior schema. 1D. $dvance rgani%ers / $usebels advance organi%ers prepare the learner for the material they are about to learn. #hey are not simply outlines of the material, but are material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.

T!e *asics of Constructi'ism !artlett (12M6+ pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Aood B !rophy, 1227+. <onstructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individualIs knowledge is a function of oneIs prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." ")hat someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Conasson, 1221+. If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate andJor coexistP Conassen, addressing this issue in his article T in.ing Tec nolog": Toward a )onstructivist Design Model, makes the following comments* 1. "5erhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy." 6. "$ reasonable response to that criticism is the Aibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way." M. "<onstructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation..." If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as !runer, -lrick, >eiser, Aoodman, Hant, Huhn, Dewey and Gabermas. #he most
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profound influence was Cean 5iagetIs work which was interpreted and extended by von Alasserfield (.morgansbord, 1228+. Realistic 's. Ra ical Construction ;ealistic constructivism / cognition is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment. ;adical constructivism / cognition serves to organi%e the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality (<obb, 1224, in .morgansbord, 1228+. T!e Assumptions of Constructi'ism ; =errill

knowledge is constructed from experience learning is a personal interpretation of the world learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity (,errill, 1221, in .morgansbord, 1228+ It *oggles t!e =in U

If you are reading about learning theories, you may notice that it is difficult to pin down what theory a certain theorist belongs to. #his can confuse you, since, just as you think you have it cased, a name you originally thought was in the behavioral category shows up in a constructivism article. #his problem is often the result of theorists and their ideas evolving over time and changes they make to their original ideas. Davidson includes the following example in an article she wrote* "<onsidered by most to be representative of SaT behaviourist learning paradigm, AagneIs theory of learning and events of instruction have evolved progressively to approach a more cognitive theory. Gis discussion of relating present information and past knowledge (event ZM+ and the inclusion of learning transfer (eventZ2+ are indicative of this shift toward constructivism." (Davidson, 122:+

kayP

kay. */+

Comparing T!e De'elopment of Learning T!eories to t!e De'elopment of t!e Atomic T!eor# Atomic T!eor# .ince the beginning of history, people have theori%ed about the nature of matter. #he ancient Areeks thought that matter was composed of fire, water, earth and air. $nother view, the continuous theory, was that matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller and smaller pieces without change. #he Areek philosophers, Democritis and 9ucippus, came up with the idea that matter made up of particles so small that they cannot be divided into anything smaller. #hey called their particles "atomos", which is the Areek word for "indivisible". It wasnIt until the 1:th century that anyone could prove one theory was better than another. Cohn Dalton in 1:7M, with his law of multiple proportions, proposed a theory of matter based on the existence of atoms. #he rest is history*

1:7M DaltonIs $tomic #heory. 1:87 <rookes finds the first evidence of electrons. 1:27Is C.C. #hompson reali%ed cathode rays are negative particles (electrons+. 1272 ;utherford discovered alpha particles and said that atoms consist of small positively charged particles surrounded by mostly empty space where electrons moved around. 121M >iels !ohr develops a new model of the atom with electron energy levels or orbits. 12M7Is and 12D7Is #he atom had a positive nucleus with an electron charge cloud. #his theory was referred to as the orbital model and the quantum/ mechanical model. (Dorin, Demmin B Aabel, 1227+

Learning T!eor# Aiven that we will most likely never "see" an atom, we will never "see" learning either. #herefore our learning models are mental pictures that enable us to understand that which we will never see. Does the development of learning theory follow a similar pattern as the atomic theoryP
%

It seems that learning theories, like the study of matter can be traced back to the ancient Areeks. In the 1:th century, with the onset of scientific inquiry, people began in ernest to study and develop models of learning. #he behaviorist learning theory centered around that which was observable, not considering that there was anything occurring inside the mind. !ehaviorism can be compared to DaltonIs atom, which was simply a particle. -sing overt behavior as a starting point, people began to reali%e that there is something happening inside the organism that should be considered, since it seemed to affect the overt behavior. .imilarly, in physical science, people such as <rookes, #hompson, ;utherford and !ohr reali%ed that there was something occurring within the atom causing its behavior. #hus the cognitive model of learning was born. .oon, however, theorists reali%ed that the "atom" is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried". ?nter the constructivist learning theory which tells us that each organism is constantly in flux, and although the old models work to a certain degree, other factors most also be considered. <ould the constructivist approach be considered to be the quantum theory of learningP #he quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. <onstructivism builds upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple perspectives and maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world. I believe that behavioral strategies can be part of a constructivist learning situation, if that learner choses and finds that type of learning suitable to their experiences and learning style. <ognitive approaches have a place in constructivism also, since constructivism recognises the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience. 5erhaps the greatest difference is that of evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation is much more subjective. f course, what if I, as a learner, negotiate my evaluation and wish to include objective evaluationP #hen isnIt behavioral and cognitive strategy a part of constructivismP 5erhaps the learning theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the atomic theory used, depends upon the learning situation. #he bohr atom is often used to introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to grade school students. 5erhaps behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum" constructivism is better suited to advanced learning situations. A *iological Analog# to Learning T!eor# Classification #he classification of learning theories is somewhat analogous to the classification system designed by biologists to sort out living organisms. 9ike any attempt to define categories, to establish criteria, the world does not fit the scheme in all cases. riginally there was a plant kingdom and an animal kingdom, but eventually organisms that contained cholophyll and were mobile needed to be classified. #he protist kingdom was established. #he exact criteria for protists are still not established, but it is a classification that gives us a place for all of the organisms that donIt fit neatly into either the plant or animal kingdoms. #o extend the analogy, biologists continued to modify the classification system as know knowledge and insights into existing knowledge were discovered. #he advent of new technology such as the electron microscope enabled the addition of the monera kingdom. ;ecently, the distinctive features of fungi have brought about a
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proposal for a fifth kingdom, fungi. #his development and adjustment of the taxonomy remins one of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, postmodernism, contextualism, semiotics...

Documentarul Nr.8 O perspecti'Q nouQ asupra inegrQrii marilor teorii ale Pn'Q Qrii Pn instruirea colarQ (#he Gistory of *e!a'iorism , Cogniti'ism and Constructi'ism in Instructional Design+ $aul Saettler *e!a'iorism an Instructional Design S#his section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from 5aul .aettlerIs book, T e Histor" o% A#erican $ducational Tec nolog" , (1227+T. In 5aul .aettlerIs book T e Histor" o% A#erican $ducational Tec nolog", he states that behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1247s, which was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in $merican psychology. .aettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on ?ducational #echnology in $merica* the "e!a'ioral o"/ecti'es movement; the teac!ing mac!ine phase; the programme instruction movement; in i'i uali>e instructional approaches, computer;assiste learning and the s#stems approac! to instruction. *e!a'ioral O"/ecti'es =o'ement% $ behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors" (.aettler, pp. 6::, 1227+. !ehavioral objectives can be summed up using the mnemonic device $!<D (.chwier, 122:+.
!&

?xample* $fter having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly 27U of the questions on the posttest. 1. $ / $udience / the student 6. ! / !ehavior / answer correctly M. < / <ondition / after having completed the unit, on a post test D. D / Degree / 27U correct #o develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. #he learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective. #he advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the ?lder .ophists of ancient Areece, <icero, Gerbart and .pencer, but =ranklin !obbitt developed the modern concept of behavioral objectives in the early 1277s (.aettler, 1227+. Ta0onomic Anal#sis of Learning *e!a'iors

*loomGs Ta0onom# of Learning / In 1234 !loom and his colleagues began development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective+ and psychomotor domains. ,any people are familiar with *loomGs Cogniti'e ta0onom#* o knowledge
o o o o o

comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation

GagneGs Ta0onom# of Learning / ;obert Aagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1286. AagneIs taxonomy was comprised of five categories* o verbal information
o o o o

intellectual skill cognitive strategy attitude motor skill

=aster# Learning ,astery learning was originally developed by ,orrison in the 12M7s. Gis formula for mastery was "5retest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (,orrison, 12M1, in .aettler, 1227+. ,astery
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learning assumes that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. !loom further developed ,orrisonIs plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of learning on !loomIs taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (.aettler, 1227+. =ilitar# an In ustrial Approac! =or military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable behavior." (.aettler, 1227+ ;obert ,ager wrote Preparing Instructional 6!0ectives, in 1246 which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Aagne and !riggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of instructions for writing objectives that is based on ,agerIs work.

GagneGs an *riggGs =o el o $ction

o o o o

bject .ituation #ools and <onstraints <apability to be 9earned

!y the late 1247Is most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. #here were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (.aettler, 1227+. Accounta"ilit# =o'ement $ movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1277s in response to political and economic factors of that time. =ranklin !obbitt proposed utili%ation of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer / society. !obbittIs ideas exemplified the idea of accountability, competency/based education and performance/based education, which because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in $merica during the late 1247s and 1287s (.aettler, 1227+. Teac!ing =ac!ines an $rogramme Instruction =o'ement $lthough the elder .ophists, <omenius, Gerbart and ,ontessori used the concept of programmed instruction in their repertoire, !.=. .kinner is the most current and probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning. <ontributors to this movement include the following* 1. 5ressey / introduced a multiple/choice machine at the 1263 $merican 5sychological $ssociation meeting.
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6. 5eterson / a former student of 5resseyIs who developed "chemosheets" in which the learner checked their answers with a chemical/dipped swab. M. ).).II / devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 12D7s and 1237s, taught and tested such skills and dissassembly/assembly of equipment. D. <rowder / designed a branched style of programming for the -. $ir force in the 1237s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment. 3. .kinner / based on operant conditioning .kinnerIs teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. .kinner demonstrated his machine in 123D. (.aettler, 1227+ Earl# Use of $rogramme Instruction $fter experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1267s and 12M7s, !. =. .kinner and C.A. Golland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at Garvard in the late 1237s. -se of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and secondary schools around the same time. ,uch of the programmed instruction in $merican schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (.aettler, 1227+. ?arly use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of hardware rather than course content. <oncerned developers moved away from hardware development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the 1247s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (.aettler, 1227+. In i'i uali>e Approac!es to Instruction .imilar to programmed learning and teaching machines individuali%ed instruction began in the early 1277s, and was revived in the 1247s. #he Heller 5lan, Individually 5rescribed Instruction, 5rogram for 9earning in $ccordance with >eeds, and Individually Auided ?ducation are all examples of individuali%ed instruction in the -... (.aettler, 1227+. Feller $lan 21:&43 3. Developed by =... Heller, a colleague of .kinner, the Heller plan was used for university college classes. 4. ,ain features of Heller 5lan 1. individually paced. 6. mastery learning. M. lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
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D. use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal/social aspect of educational process. (.aettler, 1227+ In i'i uall# $rescri"e Instruction 2I$I3 21:&53

Developed by 9earning ;esearch and Development <enter of the -niversity of 5itsburgh. 9asted into the 1287s when it lost funding and its use dwindled ,ain features of I5I* 1. prepared units. 6. behavioral objectives. M. planned instructional sequences. D. used for reading, math and science. 3. included pretest and posttest for each unit. 4. materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives. (.aettler, 1227+

$rogram for Learning in Accor ance 7it! Nee s 2$LAN3 21:&83

Geaded by Con <. =lanagan, 59$> was developed under sponsorship of $merican Institutes for ;esearch ($I;+, )estinghouse 9earning <orporation and fourteen -... .chool districts. $bandoned in late 1287s because of upgrading costs ,ain features of 59$> 1. schools selected items from about 4,777 behavioral objectives. 6. each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately. five objectives. M. mastery learning. D. remedial learning plus retesting. (.aettler, 1227+

Computer;Assiste Instruction 2CAI3 <omputer/assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1237s. ?arly work was done by I!, and such people as Aordon 5ask, and .,. ,oore, but <$I grew rapidly in the 1247s when federal funding for research and
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development in education and industrial laboratories was implemented. #he -... government wanted to determine the possible effectiveness of computer/assisted instruction, so they developed two competing companies, (<ontrol Data <orporation and ,itre <orporation+ who came up with the 59$# and #I<<I# projects. Despite money and research, by the mid seventies it was apparent that <$I was not going to be the success that people had believed. .ome of the reasons are*

<$I had been oversold and could not deliver. lack of support from certain sectors. technical problems in implementation. lack of quality software. high cost.

<omputer/assisted instruction was very much drill/and/practice / controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. 9ittle branching of instruction was implemented although #I<<I# did allow the learner to determine the sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics. (.aettler, 1227+

S#stems Approac! to Instruction #he systems approach developed out of the 1237s and 1247s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. ,ost systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. ;ooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved setting goals and objectives, analy%ing resources, devising a plan of action and continuous evaluationJmodification of the program. (.aettler, 1227+ Cogniti'ism an Instructional Design $lthough cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1237s and began to take over as the dominant theory of learning, it wasnIt until the late 1287s that cognitive science began to have its influence on instructional design. <ognitive science began a shift from behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utili%ed in promoting effective learning. #he design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts of the models were embellished. #he new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information (.aettler, 1227+. !ecause <ognitivism and !ehaviorism are both governed by an objective view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition from behavioral instructional design
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principles to those of a cognitive style was not entirely difficult. #he goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (!ednar et al., in $nglin, 1223+. =or example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a learnerIs behavior. #he cognitive scientist would analy%e a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex building on prior schema. #he influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of advance organi%ers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and the careful organi%ation of instructional materials from simple to complex. Cogniti'ism an Computer;*ase Instruction <omputers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information* receive, store and retrieve. #his analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial intelligence. $rtificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computerIs data base. $ trouble/shooting programs is one example of these programs. !elow is a list of some programs and their intended use*

.<G 9$; / teaches facts about .outh $merican geography in a .ocratic method 5-== / diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders ,E<I> / diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment D?>D;$9 / enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular structure of an unknown compound ,?#$/D?>D;$9 / makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an attempt to explain sets of basic data A-IDI > / a derivative of the ,E<I> program that gave a student information about a case and compared their diagnosis with what ,E<I> would suggest . 5I? / helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems !-AAE / allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors 9 A / designed to help children learn to program a computer system / to encourage mathematical

DavisI math programs for the 59$# development through discovery (.aettler, 1227+

Constructi'ism an Instructional Design

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#he shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both objective in nature. !ehaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analy%ing a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring performance based on those objectives. <onstructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more open/ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. )hile behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. $n example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer. <onsider the following statement by 5erkins* "...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind as an information processor. <onstructivism has added that this information processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during learning // making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on." (5erkins, 1221, p.61 in .chwier, 122: +.

ther examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are*

schema theory (.piro, et al, 1221, in .chwier, 122:+ connectionism (!ereiter, 1221, in .chwier, 122:+ hypermedia (#olhurst, 1226, in .chwier, 122:+ multimedia (Dede, 1226, in .chwier, 122:+

Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of instructional design. <onstructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design, as Conassen points out * "#he conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however, is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we have been taught to doP" (Conasson, S n/lineT+ In the same article, Conassen (Conasson, S n/lineT+ lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design* "...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which*

5rovide multiple representations of reality / avoid oversimplification of instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the world 5resent authentic tasks / contextuali%e
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5rovide real/world, case/based learning environments, rather than pre/ determined instructional sequences =oster reflective practice ?nable context/ and content/dependent knowledge construction .upport collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition "$lthough we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"

Conassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive+, instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a pre/ determined concept of reality into the learnerIs mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. )ith this in mind, Conassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments. "...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."

Is !ased on Internal >egotiation o a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain, predict, and infer, and reflecting on their utility (5iagetIs accommodation, >orman and ;umelhartIs tuning and restructuring.+ Is !ased on .ocial >egotiation
o

a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar processes to those used in internal negotiation

Is =acilitated by ?xploration of ;eal )orld ?nvironments and Intervention of >ew ?nvironments

o

processes that are regulated by each individualIs intentions, needs, andJor expectations

;esults in ,ental ,odels and provides ,eaningful, $uthentic <ontexts for 9earning and -sing the <onstructed Hnowledge
o

should be supported by case/based problems which have been derived from and situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity and based on authentic realife practice wn #hinking 5rocess and 5roblem .olving
!%

;equires an -nderstanding of its ,ethods

problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts

,odeled for 9earners by .killed 5erformers but >ot >ecessarily ?xpert 5erformers ;equires <ollaboration $mong 9earners and )ith the #eacher
o

the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge

5rovides an Intellectual #oolkit to =acilitate an Internal >egotiation >ecessary for !uilding ,ental ,odels (Conasson, S n/lineT+

#he technological advances of the 12:7s and 1227s have enabled designers to move toward a more constructivist approach to design of instruction. ne of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction. Gyperlinks allow for learner control which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. #o address this concern, Conassen and ,c$lleese (Connassen B ,c$lleese, S n/lineT+ note that each phase of knowledge acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes, sequenced instructional interaction and criterion/referenced evaluation while the more advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist environment. If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. ;eigeluth and <hung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 122:+ ,ost literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive+ instructionJlearning design be implemented. DavidsonIs (122:+ article, suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant learning theories", is an example of this method. Gaving noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. !ednar, <unningham, Duffy and 5erry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." #hey question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist approach. (!ednar, <unningham, Duffy B 5erry, 1223+
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Learning T!eories an t!e $ractice of Instructional Design )hat is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional designP Is one approach more easily achieved than anotherP #o address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utili%ed by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. =or example, behaviorists assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning (?rtmer B >ewby, 122M+. )ith this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behavioristJcognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach. )hen designing from a behavioristJcognitivist stance, the designer analy%es the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. ?valuation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. #he learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designerIs "world". #o design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. #he content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self/evaluation of the learner. #he standard pencil/and/paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals. ($ssessment S n/lineT+ !ecause of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. #hat is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. 5erhaps there is some truth in the statement that "<onstructivism is a Ilearning theoryI, more than a Iteaching approachI." ()ilkinson, 1223+ Learning T!eories ; Some Strengt!s an )ea,nesses )hat are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional designP *e!a'iorism )eakness /the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. / $ worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.

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.trength / the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. / ).).II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic. Cogniti'ism )eakness / the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. =or example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer. .trength / the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. / 9ogging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems. Constructi'ism )eakness / in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun ;evenue <anada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way / although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have. .trength / because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation. (.chuman, 1224+

Is T!ere One *est Learning T!eor# for Instructional DesignI )!# "ot!er 7it! T!eor# at allI $ solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of I.D professionals because it permeates all dimensions of I.D (.hiffman, 1223+. Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. #he instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimi%e their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. ;ecipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers ()ilson, 1228+, who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers. #heories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. )hether we reali%e it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories. An Eclectic Approac! to T!eor# in Instructional Design #he function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. #rying to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. )hat we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in
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practice, (the real world+. =rom a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it. )!at )or,s an (o7 Can )e Use ItI !ehaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism / what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional designP =irst of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. )e must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to reali%e that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (.chwier, 1223+ Connassen in Mani%esto %or a )onstructive Approac to Tec nolog" in Hig er $ducation (S n/lineT+ identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches. 1. Introductory 9earning / learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a skill or content area. #hey are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. $t this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion/referenced. #he learner can develop some anchors for further exploration. 6. $dvanced Hnowledge $cquisition / follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert knowledge. $t this point constructivist approaches may be introduced. M. ?xpertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning environment. $ constructivist approach would work well in this case. Gaving pointed out the different levels of learning, Conassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology. ;eigeluthIs $la!oration T eor" which organi%es instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is meaningful to them and their particular context. $fter having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, ?rtmer and >ewby (122M+ feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. #hey do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners. .imilar to Conassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned* ... a "e!a'ioral approac! can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
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profession (knowing what+; cogniti'e strategies are useful in teaching problem /solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations (knowing how+; and constructi'ist strategies are especially suited to dealing with ill/defined problems through reflection/in/action. (?rtmer 5. B >ewby, #., 122M+ *e!a'ioral ... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memori%ation+ seem to be facilitated by strategies most frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus/response, contiguity of feedbackJreinforcement+. Cogniti'e #asks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or procedural executions+ are primarily associated with strategies having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organi%ation, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem solving+. Constructi'e #asks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies+ are frequently est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g., situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation. (?rtmer 5. B >ewby, #., 122M+

?rtmer and >ewby (122M+ believe that the strategies promoted by different learning theories overlap (the same strategy for a different reason+ and that learning theory strategies are concentrated along different points of a continuum depending of the focus of the learning theory / the level of cognitive processing required. ?rtmer and >ewbyIs suggestion that theoretical strategies can complement the learnerIs level of task knowledge, allows the designer to make the best use of all available practical applications of the different learning theories. )ith this approach the designer is able to draw from a large number of strategies to meet a variety of learning situations. Conclusion

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-pon completion of this site on learning theories and instructional design, I have not only accomplished my objective, but gained insight and appreciation for the different learning theories and their possible application to instructional design. It was interesting for me to find that I am not alone in my perspective regarding learning theories and instructional design. #here is a place for each theory within the practice of instructional design, depending upon the situation and environment. I especially favor the idea of using an objective approach to provide the learner with an "anchor" before they set sail on the open seas of knowledge. $ basic understanding of the material in question provides the learner with a guiding compass for further travel. $nother consideration is the distinction between "training" and "education". In todayIs competitive business world, the instructional designer may be required to establish and meet the objectives of that business. n the other hand, in a school setting, the designer may be challenged to provide material that fosters an individual to find divergent approaches to problem solving. )hichever situation the instructional designer finds themselves in, they will require a thorough understanding of learning theories to enable them to provide the appropriate learning environment. =inally, though Instructional Design may have a behaviorist tradition, new insights to the learning process continue to replace, change and alter the process. $dvancements in technology make branched constructivist approaches to learning possible. )hether designing for training or education, the instructional designerIs toolbox contains an ever changing and increasing number of theoretical applications and physical possibilities. )ith intelligent application of learning theory strategies and technology, the modern designer will find solutions to the learning requirements of the 61st century. Documentarul Nr. 9 =aster# Learning ,astery 9earning is an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they are provided with the appropriate learning conditions. .pecifically, mastery learning is a method whereby students are not advanced to a subsequent learning objective until they demonstrate proficiency with the current one. ,astery learning curricula generally consist of discrete topics which all students begin together. .tudents who do not satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until they succeed. .tudents who master the topic early engage in enrichment activities until the entire class can progress together. ,astery learning includes many elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high/end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group/based instructional techniques, with frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formati'e tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path. #eachers evaluate students with criterion;reference tests rather than norm; reference tests.
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,astery learning has nothing to do with content, merely on the process of mastering it, and is based on *en/amin *loomIs ,astery for 9earning model, with refinements made by !lock. ,astery learning may be implemented as teacher/paced group instruction, one/to/one tutoring, or self/paced learning with programmed materials. It may involve direct teacher instruction, cooperation with classmates, or independent learning. It requires well/defined learning objectives organi%ed into smaller, sequentially organi%ed units. Individuali%ed instruction has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more able or more motivated students to progress ahead of others and maximi%ing teacher interaction with those students who need the most assistance.

Most e7peri#ents t at co#pared #aster" learning to conventional instruction ave s own t at #aster" learning is #ore e%%ective+ In one #eta&anal"sis 85uli., 5uli. 1 'angert&Drowns, 199:;, t e #ean e%%ect si<e 8)o en=s d; o% 1:* studies was :+>? standard deviation units, w ic is considered a #oderatel" large e%%ect si<e+ #he concept of mastery learning can be attributed to the behaviorism principles of operant conditioning. $ccording to operant conditioning theory, learning occurs when an association is formed between a stimulus and response (.kinner, 12:D+. In line with the behavior theory, mastery learning focuses on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (!aum, 6773+. #he material that will be taught to mastery is broken down into small discrete lessons that follow a logical progression. In order to demonstrate mastery over each lesson, students must be able to overtly show evidence of understanding of the material before moving to the next lesson ($nderson, 6777+.In general, mastery learning programs have been shown to lead to higher achievement in all students as compared to more traditional forms of teaching ($nderson, 6777; Ausky B Aates, 12:4+. Despite the empirical evidence, many mastery programs in schools have been replaced by more traditional forms of instruction due to the level of commitment required by the teacher and the difficulty in managing the classroom when each student is following an individual course of learning ($nderson, 6777; Arittner, 1283+. References $nderson, C. ;. (6777+. 9earning and memory* $n integrated approach (6nd ed.+. >ew Eork* Cohn )iley and .ons, Inc. !aum, ). ,. (6773+. -nderstanding !ehaviorism* !ehavior, <ulture and ?volution. ,alden, ,$* !lackwell 5ublishing. !lock, Sc ools, Societ" and Master" Learning+ IS*N :89;<<4<995<89 Hulik, <., Hulik, C., B !angert/Drowns, ;. (1227+. ?ffectiveness of mastery learning programs* $ meta/analysis. -eview o% $ducational -esearc , @:(6+, 643/M74. Arittner, =. ,. (1283+. Individuali%ed instruction* $n historical perspective. #he ,odern 9anguage Cournal, M6M MMM.
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Ausky, #. ;., B Aates, .. (12:4+. .ynthesis of research on the effects of mastery learning in elementary and secondary classrooms. ?ducational 9eadership, DM, 8M/ :7.

Documentarul nr. : Cele 9 competene;c!eie recoman ate e $arlamentul European 2 Hey competences for lifelong learning + Hey competences in the shape of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to each context are fundamental for each individual in a knowledge/based society. #hey provide added value for the labour market, social cohesion and active citi%enship by offering flexibility and adaptability, satisfaction and motivation. !ecause they should be acquired by everyone, this recommendation proposes a reference tool for ?uropean -nion (?-+ countries to ensure that these key competences are fully integrated into their strategies and infrastructures, particularly in the context of lifelong learning. ACT Recommen ation 1<<&?:&1?EC of t!e European $arliament an of t!e Council of 19 Decem"er 1<<& on ,e# competences for lifelong learning -Official Aournal L 4:5 of 4<.11.1<<&.. SU==ARK Hey competences for lifelong learning are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the context. #hey are particularly necessary for personal fulfilment and development, social inclusion, active citi%enship and employment. Hey competences are essential in a knowledge society and guarantee more flexibility in the labour force, allowing it to adapt more quickly to constant changes in an increasingly interconnected world. #hey are also a major factor in innovation, productivity and competitiveness, and they contribute to the motivation and satisfaction of workers and the quality of work. Hey competences should be acquired by*

young people at the end of their compulsory education and training, equipping them for adult life, particularly for working life, whilst forming a basis for further learning; adults throughout their lives, through a process of developing and updating skills.
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#he acquisition of key competences fits in with the principles of equality and access for all. #his reference framework also applies in particular to disadvantaged groups whose educational potential requires support. ?xamples of such groups include people with low basic skills, early school leavers, the long/term unemployed, people with disabilities, migrants, etc. Eig!t ,e# competences #his framework defines eight key competences and describes the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to each of these. #hese key competences are* III. communication in t!e mot!er tongue, which is the ability to express and interpret concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing+ and to interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative way in a full range of societal and cultural contexts; communication in foreign languages, which involves, in addition to the main skill dimensions of communication in the mother tongue, mediation and intercultural understanding. #he level of proficiency depends on several factors and the capacity for listening, speaking, reading and writing; mat!ematical competence an "asic competences in science an tec!nolog#. ,athematical competence is the ability to develop and apply mathematical thinking in order to solve a range of problems in everyday situations, with the emphasis being placed on process, activity and knowledge. !asic competences in science and technology refer to the mastery, use and application of knowledge and methodologies that explain the natural world. #hese involve an understanding of the changes caused by human activity and the responsibility of each individual as a citi%en; igital competence involves the confident and critical use of information society technology (I.#+ and thus basic skills in information and communication technology (I<#+; learning to learn is related to learning, the ability to pursue and organise oneIs own learning, either individually or in groups, in accordance with oneIs own needs, and awareness of methods and opportunities; social an ci'ic competences. .ocial competence refers to personal, interpersonal and intercultural competence and all forms of behaviour that equip individuals to participate in an effective and constructive way in social and working life. It is linked to personal and social well/being. $n understanding of codes of conduct and customs in the different environments in which individuals operate is essential. <ivic competence, and particularly knowledge of social and political concepts and structures (democracy, justice, equality, citi%enship and civil rights+, equips individuals to engage in active and democratic participation; sense of initiati'e an entrepreneurs!ip is the ability to turn ideas into action. It involves creativity, innovation and risk/taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. #he individual is
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aware of the context of hisJher work and is able to sei%e opportunities that arise. It is the foundation for acquiring more specific skills and knowledge needed by those establishing or contributing to social or commercial activity. #his should include awareness of ethical values and promote good governance; [. cultural a7areness an e0pression, which involves appreciation of the importance of the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of media (music, performing arts, literature and the visual arts+.

#hese key competences are all interdependent, and the emphasis in each case is on critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive management of feelings. A European reference frame7or, for European Union 2EU3 countries an t!e Commission #hese key competences provide a reference framework to support national and ?uropean efforts to achieve the objectives they define. #his framework is mainly intended for policy makers, education and training providers, employers and learners. It is a reference tool for ?- countries and their education and training policies. ?countries should try to ensure*

that initial education and training offer all young people the means to develop the key competences to a level that equips them for adult and working life, thus also providing a basis for future learning; that appropriate provision is made for young people who are disadvantaged in their training so that they can fulfil their educational potential; that adults can develop and update key competences throughout their lives, particularly priority target groups such as persons who need to update their competences; that appropriate infrastructure is in place for continuing education and training of adults, that there are measures to ensure access to education and training and the labour market and that there is support for learners depending on their specific needs and competences; the coherence of adult education and training provision through close links between the policies concerned.

It forms the basis for action at <ommunity level, particularly within the E ucation an Training 1<1< work programme and, more generally, within the <ommunity education and training programmes. In this respect, the <ommission should make a special effort to*

help ?- countries to develop their education and training systems, apply the reference framework so as to facilitate peer learning and the exchange of good practices and follow up developments and report on progress through the progress reports on the ?ducation and #raining 6717 work programme;
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use the reference framework for the implementation of the <ommunity education and training programmes whilst ensuring that these programmes promote the acquisition of key competences; use the reference framework to implement related <ommunity policies (employment, youth, cultural and social policies+ and to strengthen links with social partners and other organisations active in those fields; assess, by December 6717, the impact of the reference framework within the context of the ?ducation and #raining 6717 work programme as well as the experience gained and the implications for the future.

*ac,groun #he transversal nature of key competences makes them essential. #hey provide added value for employment, social cohesion or young people ( European Kout! $act+, which explains the importance of lifelong learning in terms of adapting to change and integration. #he reference criteria, which make it possible to judge improvements in ?uropean performances, featured in a 6773 report with contrasting results. In response to the concerns expressed at the 9isbon ?uropean <ouncil on 6M and 6D ,arch 6777, which were repeated in the re'ise Lis"on strateg# in 6773, the key competences form part of the objectives of the ?ducation and #raining 6717 work programme, the <ommission communication of 6771 on making a European area of lifelong learning a reality and the subsequent <ouncil resolution adopted in 6776. #hese last two put forward specific proposals on making key competences a priority for all age groups. =or its part, the 1<<5 /oint interim report on the progress of the ?ducation and #raining 6717 work programme made the case for drawing up common ?uropean references and principles.

Documentarul Nr. 1<

Diferenierea instruirii Pn clasa e ele'i Differentiated instruction

Differentiate instruction (sometimes referred to as ifferentiate learning+ involves providing stu ents with different avenues to acquiring content; to processing, constructing, or making sense of i eas; and to developing teac!ing materials so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in ability.-1.
"ifferentiated instruction, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson (as cited by #llis, +able, +reg, , -ock, '../, p. ('), is the process of 0ensuring that $hat a student learns, ho$ he1she learns it, and "'

ho$ the student demonstrates $hat he1she has learned is a match for that student2s readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning3. "ifferentiation stems from beliefs about differences among learners, ho$ they learn, learning preferences and individual interests (!nderson, '..4). "-esearch indicates that many of the emotional or social difficulties gifted students experience disappear $hen their educational climates are adapted to their level and pace of learning." [2] "ifferentiation in education can also include ho$ a student sho$s that they have mastery of a concept. This could be through a research paper, role play, podcast, diagram, poster, etc. The key is finding ho$ your students learn and displays their learning that meets their specific needs.

A"out In differentiated instruction stu ents are place at t!e center of teac!ing an learning-1.. Hathy !igo defines differentiation as "the right of each pupil to be taught in a way specifically tailored to their individual learning needs." -4. !ecause each learner comes to school with a different set of learning needs, examples of which include differing educational, personal, and communal contexts -5. and varying degrees of academic skill development,-6. differentiated instruction advocates that the educator proactively plans a variety of instruction methods so as to best facilitate effective learning experiences which are suited to the various learning needs within the classroom.-1. In its pursuit of this foundational goal, differentiated instructional methods attempt to qualitatively, as opposed to quantitatively, match learnersI abilities with appropriate material; include a blend of whole/class, group, and individual instruction; use numerous approaches to facilitating input, processing, and output; and constantly adapt to learnersI needs based upon the teacherIs constant assessment of all students.-1. ften referred to as an e ucational p!ilosop!#, differentiated instruction is viewed as a proactive approach to instruction and an idea that has as many faces as practitioners. #he model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to tailor their instruction and adjust the curriculum to studentsY needs rather than expecting students to modify themselves to fit the curriculum. #eachers who are committed to this approach believe that who they teach shapes how they teach because who the students are shapes how they learn. Differentiated instruction requires the teacher to have "sufficient appropriate knowledge of the pupils, 59-. the ability to plan and deliver suitable lessons effectively, so as to help all pupils individually to maximise their learning, whatever their individual situation". -&. Differentiation is not teaching at a slow pace so that everyone can keep up, allowing pupils and groups work through tasks at their own pace, or expecting some students to do better than others and calling it Idifferentiation by outcomeI.-8. !igio also cautions that differentiation is not IGumiliating the slow learners by drawing attention to their limitations". -9. #he perfect model of differentiated instruction rests upon an active, student centered, meaning/making approach to teaching and learning. #he theoretical and philosophical influences embedded in differentiated instruction support the three key elements of differentiated instruction itself* readiness, interest, and learning profile ($llan B #omlinson, 6777+. 9ev Kygotsky, a ;ussian psychologist, proved that individuals learn best in accordance with their readiness to do so ($llan B #omlinson, 677:+. #his theoretical
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influence provides a concrete foundation for differentiated instruction. #he readiness of the individual should match what a student learns, how they learn it and how the student demonstrates what they learned when using differentiated instruction. #he philosophical idea that interest based options sei%e on intrinsic motivation, supports the second key element of differentiated instruction, student interest. $ccording to Cerome !runer (as cited by $llan B #omlinson, 6777+, when interest is tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding and the student becomes a more autonomous learner. $n $merican psychologist, Goward Aardner, developed the t!eor# of multiple intelligences. Gis theory states that people have different intelligences and learn in many different ways. AardnerYs theory suggests that schools should offer individual/ centered education, having curriculum tailored to a childYs intelligence preference ($llan B #omlinson, 6777+. ?ssentially, Aardner supports the third key element of differentiated instruction, which accounts for different student learning profiles. Differentiated instruction integrates constructivist learning theories, learning styles, and brain development with research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest and intelligence preferences toward studentsY motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools ($nderson, 6778+. $ccording to educational psychologist Hathie >unley, differentiated instruction became an essential part of -. educatorIs repertoire as the make/up of the general classroom moved from homogeneous groupings of students prior to the 1287s to the ever increasing variety of learners seen in the heterogeneous classroom make/up in the last D7 years-:. (>unley, 6774+. !y using differentiated instruction, educators can meet all individual student needs and help every student meet and exceed established standards (9evy, 677:+. $ccording to #omlinson (as cited by ;ebora, 677:+, the perceived need for differentiated instruction lies in the fact that students vary in so many ways and student populations are becoming more academically diverse. <hances are pretty good that the trend of diverse student populations will continue throughout our lifetimes. $re;assessment =or some teachers, the first and most important step in differentiated instruction is determining what students already know so as not to cover material students have mastered, or use methods that would be ineffective for students. $ preassessment can be a qui%, game, discussion, or other activity that asks students to answer some of the questions that would be used to evaluate their performance at the end of an upcoming unit or lesson. It may also be in the form of a learning inventory, such as a =ultiple Intelligences inventory (still regarded with skepticism by many researchers+,-1<. so the teacher will be able to determine how students within the class prefer to learn. .ome models of differentiation do not require a pre/assessment, but rather have students self/assess daily through oral defense, such as in 9ayered <urriculum. ( -11. >unley, 677D, 6774+
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#he goals of differentiated instruction are to develop challenging and engaging tasks for each learner (from low/end learner to high/end learner+. Instructional activities are flexible and based and evaluated on content, process and product. #his instructional approach and choice of content are driven by the data from studentsY assessment results and from the outcomes of other screening tools. ,eaningful pre/ and post/assessment leads to successful differentiation by producing the results that communicate the studentsY needs. Content #he content of lessons may be differentiated based on what students already know. #he most basic content of a lesson should cover the standards of learning set by the district or state. .ome students in a class may be completely unfamiliar with the concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery of the content / or display mistaken ideas about the content, and some students may show mastery of the content before the lesson begins. #he teacher may differentiate the content by designing activities for groups of students that cover different areas of *loomGs Ta0onom#. =or example, students who are unfamiliar with the concepts may be required to complete tasks on the lower levels of !loomIs #axonomy* knowledge, comprehension, and application. .tudents with partial mastery may be asked to complete tasks in the application, analysis and evaluation areas, and students who have high levels of mastery may be asked to complete tasks in evaluation and synthesis. )hen a teacher differentiates content they may adapt what they want the students to learn or how the students will gain access to the knowledge, understanding and skills ($nderson, 6778+. ?ducators are not varying student objectives or lowering performance standards for students. #hey use different texts, novels or short stories at a reading level appropriate for each individual student. #eachers can use flexible groups and have students assigned to alike groups listening to books on tape or specific internet sources. .tudents could have a choice to work in pairs, groups or individually, but all students are working towards the same standards and objectives. $rocess #he process of how the material in a lesson is learned may be differentiated for students based on their learning styles, taking into account what standards of performance are required for the age level. #his stage of differentiation allows students to learn based either on what method is easiest for them to acquire knowledge, or what may challenge them most* some students may prefer to read about a topic (or may require practice in reading+, and others may prefer to listen (or require practice in listening+, or acquire knowledge by manipulating objects associated with the content. Information may be presented in multiple ways by the teacher, and may be based on any available methods or materials. ,any teachers use areas of ,ultiple Intelligences to provide learning opportunities. <ommonalities in the assessment results lead to grouping practices that are planned designed to meet the studentsY needs. "Gow" a teacher plans to deliver the instruction is based on assessment results that show the needs, learning styles,
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interests, and levels of prior knowledge. #he grouping practices must be flexible, as groups will change with regard to the need that will be addressed. ;egardless of whether the differentiation of instruction is based upon student readiness, interests, or needs, the dynamic flow of grouping and regrouping is one of the foundations of differentiated instruction. It is important for a differentiated classroom to allow some students to work alone, if this is their best modality for a particular task. (>unley, 677D+ Differentiating by process refers to how a student comes to understand and assimilate facts, concepts and skills ($nderson, 6778+. $fter teaching a lesson, a teacher might break students into small QabilityR groups based on their readiness. #he teacher would then give each group a series of questions, based on each groupIs appropriate level of readiness/skills, related to the objectives of the lesson. $nother way to group the students could be based on the studentsY learning styles. #he main idea behind this is that students are at different levels and learn in different ways, so a teacher canYt teach them all the same way. $nother model of differentiation, 9ayered <urriculum, simply offers student a choice of assignments but requires demonstration of learning in order to pass of the assignment. #his eliminates the need for pre/assessment and is useful for teachers with large class loads, such as in high school. (>unley, 677D+. $ro uct #he product is essentially what the student produces at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the content* tests, evaluations, projects, reports, or other activities. !ased on studentsI skill levels and educational standards, teachers may assign students to complete activities that demonstrate mastery of an educational concept (writing a report+, or in a method the student prefers (composing an original song about the content, or building a M/dimensional object that explains mastery of concepts in the lesson or unit+. #he product is an integral component of the differentiated model, as the preparation of the assessments will primarily determine both the \whatY and \howY instruction will be delivered. )hen an educator differentiates by product or performance, they are affording students various ways of demonstrating what they have learned from the lesson or unit ($nderson, 6778; >unley, 6774+. It is done by using menu unit sheets, choice boards or open/ended lists of final product options. It is meant to allow students to show what they learned based on their learning preferences, interests and strengths. ?xamples of differentiated structures include 9ayered Curriculum, tiered instruction, tic;tac;toe extension menus, <urryJ.amara models, ;$=# 7riting activities, and similar designs. (see external links below+ In differentiated instruction, teachers respond to studentsY readiness, instructional needs, interests and learning preferences and provide opportunities for students to work in varied instructional formats. $ classroom that utili%es differentiated instruction is a learner/responsive, teacher/facilitated classroom where all students have the opportunity to meet curriculum foundation objectives. 9essons may be on inquiry based, problem based and project based instruction.
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References 1. N a & c d #omlinson, <arol (6771+. How to Di%%erentiate Instruction in Mi7ed&A!ilit" Di%%erentiated Instructions provides access %or all students to t e general education curriculu#+ T e #et od o% assess#ent #a" loo. di%%erent %or eac c ild, owever t e s.ill A concepts taug t will !e t e sa#e+ )lassroo#s (6 ed.+. $lexandria, K$* $ssociation for .upervision and <urriculum Development. IS*N <9811<6111. 2. E >eihart, ,aureen ed., with ;eis, .ally; ;obinson, >ancy; and ,oon, .idney, (6776+. T e Social and $#otional Develop#ent o% (i%ted ) ildren: 2 at Do 2e 5nowB >ational $ssociation of Aifted <hildren (5rufrock 5ress, Inc.+. p. 6:4
. E Hathy !igio IDifferentiation M/8I, 6717 !. E #aylor, 9orraine; <atharine )hittaker (677M+. 'ridging Multiple

2orlds: )ase Studies o% Diverse $ducational )o##unities . !oston* $llyn B !acon. IS*N <411<9&&:5.
". E 9evine, ,el (6776+. A Mind at a Ti#e. >ew Eork* .imon B .chuster.

IS*N <8541<1119.
#. E Hathy !igio IDifferentiation M/8I 6717 $. E Hathy !igio, IDifferentiation M/8I 6717 %. E Hathy !igio, IDifferentiation M/8I, 6717 '. E >unley, H. 6774. Differentiating the Gigh .chool <lassroom, <orwin

5ress. pg :
1&. E ,organ, G. (1224+. $n analysis of AardnerIs theory of multiple

intelligence. ;oeper ;eview 1:, 64M/687.

11. E >unley, H. (6774+. Differentiating the Gigh .chool <lassroom. <orwin

5ress +urt!er rea ing

$llan, .. D., B #omlinson, <. $. (6777+. 9eadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. $lexandria, K$* $ssociation for .upervision and <urriculum Development. $nderson, H. ,. (6778+. #ips for teaching* Differentiating instruction to include all students. 5reventing .chool =ailure, 31(M+, D2/3D. ?llis, ?., Aable, ;. $., Aregg, ,., ;ock, ,. 9. (677:+. ;?$<G* $ framework for differentiating classroom instruction. 5reventing .chool =ailure, 36(6+, M1/D8 9evy, G. ,. (677:+. ,eeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction* Gelping every child reach and exceed standards. #he <learing Gouse, :1(D+, 141/14D.
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;ebora, $. (677:+. ,aking a difference. #eacher ,aga%ine, 6(1+, 64, 6:/M1. >unley, H. (677D+. 9ayered <urriculum. 6nd ed. !rains.org* $mherst, >G >unley, H. (6774+. Differentiating the Gigh .chool <lassroom* .olution .trategies for 1: <ommon bstacles. <orwin 5ress* #housand aks, <$.

Stu iile Rea ing Roc,ets cu pri'ire la iferenierea instruirii ( eading oc!ets is a national multimedia project offering information and resources on how young kids learn to read, why so many struggle, and how caring adults can help. #he ;eading ;ockets project is comprised of 5!. television programs, available on videotape and DKD; online services, including the websites ;eading;ockets.org and <olorin<olorado.org; and professional development opportunities. ;eading ;ockets is an educational initiative of (ETA, the flagship public television and radio station in the nationIs capital, and is funded by a major grant from the U.S. Department of E ucation, ffice of .pecial ?ducation 5rograms.+

Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UD$ Implementation !y #racey Gall, >icole .trangman, and $nne ,eyer -ote. Cpdated on 11A?A?::9D 1A1EA?:11 Introduction >ot all students are alike. !ased on this knowledge, differentiated instruction applies an approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. Differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms (#omlinson, 6771+. #he model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and adjust the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum. ,any teachers and teacher educators have recently identified differentiated instruction as a method of helping more students in diverse classroom settings experience success. #his report examines information on the theory and research behind differentiated instruction and the intersection with -niversal Design for 9earning (-D9+, a curriculum designed approach to increase flexibility in teaching and decrease the barriers that frequently limit student access to materials and learning in classrooms (;ose B ,eyer, 6776+. )e begin with an introduction to
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differentiated instruction by defining the construct, then identifying components and features; additionally, we provide a sampling of applications. >ext, we introduce -D9 and the linkages with differentiated instruction both in theory and with specific lesson examples. #he report concludes with a listing of web resources for further information and explicit examples. #his report on differentiated instruction and -D9 begins with an introduction to differentiated instruction in which we provide the definition, a sampling of considerations and curriculum applications, and research evidence for effectiveness. #he second part of the paper, the discussion moves to -D9 applications of differentiated instruction. -D9 is a theoretical approach that is based on research from the neurosciences and effective teaching practices. #his portion develops an understanding of -D9 and proceeds to identify the theoretical and teacher practice levels. ur document concludes with general guidelines for the implementation of -D9 and a list of web resources that provide further information about differentiated instruction. #he literature review in this paper is also available as a stand alone document, with annotated references. 9ook for it on the ?ffective <lassrooms 5ractices page of the >ational <enter for $ccessing the Aeneral <urriculumIs web site !ttp%??777.cast.org?pu"lications?ncac?ncacH iffinstruc.!tml . Definition #o differentiate instruction is to recogni%e studentsI varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning and interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. #he intent of differentiating instruction is to maximi%e each studentIs growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is and assisting in the learning process. /igure 1+ Learning )"cle and Decision /actors Csed in Planning and I#ple#enting Di%%erentiated Instruction Image description* #his graphic organi%er is entitled "9earning <ycle and Decision =actors -sed in 5lanning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction" and is made up of a series of seven labeled boxes connected by arrows. #wo boxes, one on top of the other, are joined together at the center of the graphic organi%er within a blue background. #he box at the top is labeled "<ontent* what teacher plans to teach." #he box at the bottom is labeled "5rocess* Gow teacher* 5lans instruction; )hole class; AroupsJ5airs; Individually." #o the left of these two boxes are two smaller boxes, also one on top of the other. #he box at the top is labeled "<urriculum* .tate and 9ocal .tandards and !enchmarks." #he box at the bottom is labeled ".tudent* ;eadinessJ$bility; InterestsJ#alents; 9earning profile; 5rior knowledge." $ black line connects these two boxes to each other and a black arrow points from the center of this line to the two boxes in the center of the graphic organi%er. $ small box at the bottom left is labeled "5re/$ssessment" and a black arrow points from it to the box labeled ".tudent."
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#o the right of the two center boxes with the blue background is a box labeled "$ssessment of content* 5roduct." $ black, double/sided arrow points to it and to the two center boxes. n the far right, a box labeled ".ummative evaluation" is connected to the box labeled "5roduct" with a black line. !lack arrows point from the bottom of the boxes labeled "5roduct" and ".ummative evaluation" to the bottom of the graphic organi%er. $ hori%ontal black line goes across the bottom of the graphic organi%er. #wo arrows point from it to the two center boxes and to the two boxes on the left.

Identifying "omponents/0eatures $ccording to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in the education environment. #omlinson (6771+ identifies three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated* <ontent, 5rocess, and 5roducts (=igure 1+. #hese are described in the following three sections, which are followed by several additional guidelines for forming an understanding of and developing ideas around differentiated instruction. "ontent

Several ele#ents and #aterials are used to support instructional content+ #hese include acts, concepts, generali%ations or principles, attitudes, and skills. #he variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to important learning. $ccess to the content is seen as key. Align tas.s and o!0ectives to learning goals+ Designers of differentiated instruction view the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Aoals are most frequently assessed by many state/level, high/ stakes tests and frequently administered standardi%ed measures. bjectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skills/ building tasks. $n objectives/driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels. Instruction is concept&%ocused and principle&driven+ #he instructional concepts should be broad/based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. #eachers must focus on the concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. #he content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should be adjusted to suit diverse learners. Process

/le7i!le grouping is consistentl" used+ .trategies for flexible grouping are essential. 9earners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. #eachers may conduct whole/class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or paired work. .tudent groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Arouping of students is not fixed. $s one of the foundations of
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differentiated instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process, changing with the content, project, and on/going evaluations. )lassroo# #anage#ent !ene%its students and teac ers+ #o effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organi%ation and instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Di%%erentiate Instruction in Mi7ed&A!ilit" )lassroo#s (<hapter 8+, <arol #omlinson (6771+, identifies 18 key strategies for teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated instruction. Products

3. Initial and on&going assess#ent o% student readiness and growt are essential+ ,eaningful pre/assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating pre and on/going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students. $ssessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures. 4. Students are active and responsi!le e7plorers+ #eachers respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. ?ach child should feel challenged most of the time. 8. Var" e7pectations and reFuire#ents %or student responses+ Items to which students respond may be differentiated so that different students can demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding in different ways. $ well/designed student product allows varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring. Additional 1uidelines T#at 2a!e Differentiation Possi&le for Teac#ers to Attain

)lari%" .e" concepts and generali<ations+ ?nsure that all learners gain powerful understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. #eachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners comprehend. Cse assess#ent as a teac ing tool to e7tend rat er t an #erel" #easure instruction+ $ssessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and it should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning. $#p asi<e critical and creative t in.ing as a goal in lesson design+ #he tasks, activities, and procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning. Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom. $ngaging all learners is essential+ #eachers are encouraged to strive for the development of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Kary tasks within instruction as well as across students. In other
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words, an entire session for students should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity.

Provide a !alance !etween teac er&assigned and student&selected tas.s+ $ balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. !ased on pre/assessment information, the balance will vary from class/to/class as well as lesson/to/lesson. #eachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning. Evidence of Effectiveness as a "lassroom Practice

Differentiation is recogni%ed to be a compilation of many theories and practices. !ased on this review of the literature of differentiated instruction, the "package" itself is lacking empirical validation. #here is an acknowledged and decided gap in the literature in this area and future research is warranted. $ccording to the proponents of differentiation, the principles and guidelines are rooted in years of educational theory and research. =or example, differentiated instruction adopts the concept of "readiness." #hat is, the difficulty of skills taught should be slightly in advance of the childIs current level of mastery. #his is grounded in the work of 9ev Kygotsky (128:+, and the %one of proximal development (]5D+, the range at which learning takes place. #he classroom research by =isher et al., (12:7+, strongly supports the ]5D concept. #he researchers found that in classrooms where individuals were performing at a level of about :7U accuracy, students learned more and felt better about themselves and the subject area under study (=isher, 12:7 in #omlinson, 6777+. ther practices noted as central to differentiation have been validated in the effective teaching research conduced from the mid 12:7Is to the present. #hese practices include effective management procedures, grouping students for instruction, and engaging learners (?llis and )orthington, 122D+. )hile no empirical validation of differentiated instruction as a package was found for this review, there are a generous number of testimonials and classroom examples that authors of several publications and web sites provide. #omlinson reports individual cases of settings in which the full model of differentiation was very promising and teachers using differentiation have written about improvements in their classrooms. (.ee the links to learn more about differentiated instruction+. Applications to 1eneral Education "lassroom Settings #he design and development of differentiated instruction as a model began in the general education classroom. #he initial application came to practice for students considered gifted but whom perhaps were not sufficiently challenged by the content provided in the general classroom setting. $s classrooms have become more diverse, differentiated instruction has been applied at all levels for students of all abilities. ,any authors of publications about differentiated instruction, strongly recommend that teachers adapt the practices slowly, perhaps one content area at a
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time. $dditionally, these experts agree that teachers should share the creative load by working together to develop ideas and menus of options for students. $ number of web sites have been created in that include lessons to illustrate what teachers have created for instruction using the model of differentiated instruction. .everal web sites are listed in a later section of this report. Differentiated instruction is an instructional process that has excellent potential to positively impact learning by offering teachers a means to provide instruction to a range of students in todayIs classroom situations. #he next section of this report introduces the reader to the theory and research behind -niversal Design for 9earning (-D9+. )e then investigate the links and connections between -D9 and differentiated instruction. $dditionally, we identify methods and materials that may be implemented to support the implementation of differentiated instruction in concert with the principles of -D9. =inally, a set of guidelines for -D9 implementation are provided including a listing of web resources to provide further information on the concepts presented in this report. An Introduction to Universal Design for $earning Applications -niversal Design for 9earning is a theoretical framework developed by <$.# to guide the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Dolan B Gall, 6771; ,eyer B ;ose, 122:; 5isha B <oyne, 6771; ;ose, 6771; ;ose B Dolan, 6777; ;ose B ,eyer, 6777a, 6777b, 6776; ;ose, .ethuraman, B ,eo, 6777+. #he concept of -D9 was inspired by the universal design movement in architecture. #his movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset. -niversally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in addition they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. <urb cuts, for example, serve their intended use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing strollers, young children, and even the average walker. $nd so, the process of designing for individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone. .imilarly, but uniquely, -D9 calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind, so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. #raditional curricula present a host of barriers that limit studentsI access to information and learning. f these, printed text is particularly notorious. In a traditional curriculum, a student without a well/developed ability to see, decode, attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can. In contrast, a -D9 curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. $ -D9 curriculum takes on the burden of adaptation so that the student doesnIt have to, minimi%ing barriers and maximi%ing access to both information and learning. #he -D9 framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of M principles (=igure 6+. #hese M principles parallel M fundamentally important learning components and M distinct learning networks in the brain* recognition, strategy, and affect (;ose B ,eyer, 6776+. #he common recommendation of these M principles is to select goals, methods, assessment and materials in a way that will minimi%e
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barriers and maximi%e flexibility. In this manner, the -D9 framework structures the development of curricula that fully support every studentIs access, participation, and progress in all M essential facets of learning. $rinciples of t!e Uni'ersal Design for Learning +rame7or, $rinciple 1% #o support recognition learning, provide multiple, fle0i"le met!o s of presentation $rinciple 1% #o support strategic learning, provide multiple, fle0i"le met!o s of expression and apprenticeship. $rinciple 4% #o support affective learning, provide multiple, fle0i"le options for engagement. =igure 6. #he three -D9 principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one orchestrated by a distinct set of networks in the brain. <ritical to successfully implementing -D9 theory is the use of digital materials. Digital materials, unlike the conventional pedagogical mainstays, speech, printed text, and printed images, have an inherent flexibility. #hey can be modified in a host of ways, depending on the needs of the student. #his flexibility makes it feasible to customi%e learning materials and methods to each individual. =or teachers wondering ow to customi%e the curriculum, <$.# has devised three sets of broad teaching methods that support each of the M -D9 principles (=igure M, ;ose B ,eyer, 6776+. #hese teaching methods draw on knowledge of the qualities of digital media and how recognition, strategic, and affective networks operate. =or example, the first #eaching ,ethod to support recognition learning is to provide #ultiple e7a#ples+ #his teaching method takes advantage of the fact that recognition networks can extract the defining features of a pattern and differentiate it from similar patterns simply by viewing multiple examples. $lthough presentation of multiple examples might be challenging in a classroom limited to printed text and hard copy images, digital materials enable the assembly, storage, and maintenance of a large collection of examples in the form of digital text, images, sound, or video0 all in the modest space of a classroom. #his is one example of how digital materials and -D9 #eaching ,ethods can facilitate the successful implementation of -D9. #he -D9 #eaching ,ethods will anchor the upcoming discussion where we will highlight the ways in which computer simulations align with each of the M -D9 principles. )ithin the context of these teaching methods, weIll show how computer simulations can support individuali%ed instruction of recognition, strategic, and affective learning. Net7or,;Appropriate Teac!ing =et!o s To support i'erse recognition net7or,s%
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5rovide multiple examples Gighlight critical features 5rovide multiple media and formats .upport background context

To support i'erse strategic net7or,s%

5rovide flexible models of skilled performance 5rovide opportunities to practice with supports 5rovide ongoing, relevant feedback ffer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill

To support i'erse affecti'e net7or,s%

ffer choices of context and tools ffer adjustable levels of challenge ffer choices of learning context ffer choices of rewards

=igure M. #o help teachers support learnersI diverse recognition, strategic, and affective networks, <$.# has developed three sets of -D9 teaching methods. #hese teaching methods can be used to make the curriculum more flexible and broadly supportive. Top Differentiated Instruction and t#e T#ree Universal Design for $earning Principles Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the three principles of -D9. #he following section looks at the three network appropriate teaching methods, recognition, strategic and affective, in order to address the ways in which differentiated instruction coordinates with -D9 theory. <ertain instructional techniques have been found to be very effective in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode. -ecognition learning+ #he first -D9 principle focuses on pattern recognition and the importance of providing multiple, flexible methods of presentation when teaching patterns0no single teaching methodology for pattern recognition will be satisfactory for every learner. #he theory of differentiated instruction incorporates some guidelines that can help teachers to support critical elements of recognition learning in a flexible way and promote every studentIs success. ?ach of the three key elements of differentiated
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instruction, content, process, and product, supports an important -D9 #eaching ,ethod for individuali%ed instruction of pattern recognition. #he content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the first -D9 #eaching ,ethod for recognition networks, provide #ultiple e7a#ples, in that they encourage the use of several elements and materials to support instructional content. $ teacher following this guideline might help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. $lso, while preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. =or students with physical or cognitive disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital in order for them to access the pattern being taught. ther students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help to ensure that each studentIs recognition networks are able to identify the fundamental elements identifying a pattern. #his same use of varied content examples supports a second recommended practice in -D9 methodology, provide #ultiple #edia and %or#ats+ $ wide range of tools for presenting instructional content are available digitally, thus teachers may manipulate si%e, color contrasts, and other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. #hese can be saved for future use and flexibly accessed by different students, depending on their needs and preferences. #he content guidelines of differentiated instruction also recommend that content elements of instruction be kept concept/focused and principle/driven. #his practice is consistent with a third -D9 #eaching ,ethod for recognition, ig lig t critical %eatures+ !y avoiding any focus on extensive facts or seductive details and reiterating the broad concepts, a goal of differentiated instruction, teachers are highlighting essential components, better supporting recognition. #he fourth -D9 #eaching ,ethod for recognition is to support !ac.ground .nowledge, and in this respect, the assessment step of the differentiated instruction learning cycle is instrumental. !y evaluating student knowledge about a construct before designing instruction teachers can better support studentsI knowledge base, scaffolding instruction in a very important way. Strategic learning+ 5eople find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching methodologies need to be varied. #his kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the D -D9 #eaching ,ethods. Differentiated instruction can support these teaching methods in valuable ways. Differentiated instruction recogni%es the need for students to receive %le7i!le #odels o% s.illed per%or#ance, one of the four -D9 #eaching ,ethods for strategic learning. $s noted above, teachers implementing differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and at varying
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levels. $s a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches, knowledge, and strategies for learning. )hen students are engaged in initial learning on novel tasks or skills, supported practice should be used to ensure success and eventual independence. .upported practice enables students to split up a complex skill into manageable components and fully master these components. Differentiated instruction promotes thi teaching method by encouraging students to be active and responsible learners, and by asking teachers to respect individual differences and scaffold students as they move from initial learning to practiced, less supported skills mastery. In order to successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need %le7i!le opportunities %or de#onstrating s.ill+ Differentiated instruction directly supports this -D9 #eaching ,ethod by reminding teachers to vary requirements and expectations for learning and expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring. A%%ective learning+ Differentiated instruction and -D9 #eaching ,ethods bear another important point of convergence* recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. .upporting affective learning through flexible instruction is the third principle of -D9 and an objective that differentiated instruction supports very effectively. Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organi%ational and instructional practices. ?ngagement is a vital component of effective classroom management, organi%ation, and instruction. #herefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention during the instructional episode. #hese practices bear much in common with -D9 #eaching ,ethods for affective learning* o%%er c oices o% content and tools, provide ad0usta!le levels o% c allenge, and o%%er a c oice o% learning conte7t+ !y providing varying levels of scaffolding when differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices about their learning environment. E*amples of UD$ and Differentiated Instruction #he focus of the previous sections was to describe ways in which differentiated instruction supports the three principles of -D9 and aligns with -D9 teaching practices. Gere, we present actual lesson plans employing differentiated instruction. #he first is a product of a school that is working with <$.#, and the second is from work outside of <$.#. ?ach exemplifies applications of -D9 in differentiated instruction. In the example from <$.#, we highlight the ways that differentiated instruction is used to implement -D9 teaching methods. In the second, we identified -D9 features implemented in a well designed differentiated instruction lesson in mathematics and recommend ways in which -D9 could be applied to make an even more accessible, more flexible lesson.
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)AST gat ering evidence: T#e $ife "ycle of Plants %ro# t e Planning for All $earners (PA$) tool!it+ #his lesson is a two/day instructional plan that is a part of a larger unit designed by a first grade teacher for a diverse class of students. !efore teaching the lessons presented on this web site, the teacher introduced students to science concepts around the growth of seeds through oral presentation and in/class experiments. #his lesson enabled the teacher to discuss, display and increase student understanding of the science content and concepts. #he lesson plan addresses ,c;el, ,assachusetts .tate and local District standards in .cience and ?nglish 9anguage $rts, by teaching students the necessary environmental variables about growth in plants, and the tools, skills and strategies required to do so. .tudent choice and access flexibility in the lesson exemplify applications of -D9. #able 1 contains a listing of -D9 features made possible by elements of differentiated instruction employed in this lesson. 5TA*LE 1T UDL +eatures of t!e CAST $AL Tool,it =o el Gat!ering E'i ence% Life C#cle of $lants UDL Teac!ing Supporti'e Differentiate Instruction +eature2s3 =et!o In preparation for this lesson, the teacher created multiple examples of finding and identifying seeds. $dditionally, the teacher provided several examples of finding appropriate texts to complete the assignment. .tudents have multiple examples of texts from which to find information about the life cycle of seeds. $s another example, fast growing seeds were planted in the classroom, giving students the opportunity to observe the seed life cycle. #eacher provides critical information for the lesson through oral presentation and highlights critical features in written form, then monitors students to check their focus on important features of the lesson. $dditionally, by having texts available in digital format, the teacher or students may literally highlight critical features of the text in preparation of lesson assignments.

5rovide multiple examples.

Gighlight critical features.

#he teacher located several (D@3+ resources, in this case books of 5rovide different reading difficulty, containing the same science constructs on multiple media seed life cycles. #he books were then made available digitally as well and formats. as in audio format for flexible accessibility. #hus, materials were available in a variety of media and formats. .upport background .everal levels of preparation were designed to support background
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context*

context.

!efore this assignment the teacher and students found seeds in a variety of vegetables and fruits. In this way, the concept of seeds was brought out of the abstract; students had experiences seeing and finding seeds from a range of plants. <areful instruction was organi%ed to teach students the concept of finding a book that is "just right," helping students to find a book that is challenging, yet not too difficult. #his, helped keep students work and learn in their "%one of proximal development" when obtaining background information for the lesson. .tudents had the option to work in selected pairs as they search for answers to the science questions. During guided practice and independent practice portions of each lesson, the teacher provides supports by checking and prompting.

5rovide opportunities to practice with support.

ffer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill.

#he design of this lesson allows students varied approaches throughout the lesson. .tudents may select their best or preferred type of working situation and means for responding.

#he teacher organi%ed the lesson at multiple points for choice of tools* ffer choices of content and tools.

choice of resource materials, choice of access (text, digital, audio+, and choice of response style.

ffer adjustable levels of challenge.

#he teacher offers multiple texts, representing a range of difficulty levels, and different means to access these texts. #his helps to ensure that researching the answers to science questions is appropriately challenging for each student. =or example, if decoding were challenging, the student could use a simpler text andJor access the information via audio or digital read/aloud. #hroughout the lesson the teacher has organi%ed several choices that help diversify the available learning contexts*

ffer choices of learning contexts.

students can select from a variety of methods to respond to the science questions (written, scribed, recorded+, students can opt to work independently or with a partner during

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the assignment completion portion of the lesson, and

students can select the "right book" based on difficulty andJor interest.

Association for Supervision and "urriculum Development di%%erentiating instruction we! site Differentiated Instruction $esson E*ample, grade @ #at e#atics+ #his web site hosted by the $ssociation for .upervision and <urriculum Development ($.<D+ contains a number of lessons that illustrate different teachersI examples of how to use the principles of differentiated instruction. )e have selected a mathematics lesson for 4th grade focusing on the concept of patterns. #his instructional approach to teaching mathematics patterns has several exciting -D9 features (see #able 6+. #hrough the use of clearly stated goals and the implementation of flexible working groups with varying levels of challenge, this lesson helps to break down instructional barriers. )e have identified additional ways to reduce barriers in this lesson even further by employing the principles of -D9 teaching methods and differentiated instruction. )e provide #able M with recommendations of employing teaching methods of -D9 to support this lesson. 5lease note that we are not making generali%ed recommendations for making this lesson more -D9, but instead are focusing on ways that differentiated instruction, specifically, can help achieve this goal. 5TA*LE 1T UDL Elements in a Differentiate Instruction =at!ematics Lesson UDL Teac!ing =et!o 5rovide multiple examples. Differentiate Instruction +eatures #he teacher provides multiple examples through the story of T e 5ing=s ) ess!oard and other math problems. #he teacher highlights critical features of the mathematics in the story by stopping and calculating the amount of rice accumulating and using a t/table to do so. #he teacher reads the story aloud and students have the story to read. #he numbers are represented in the story and on the t /table. #eachers analy%e or pretest students for key preskills and background knowledge. In cooperative groups, students may receive feedback from
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Gighlight critical features.

5rovide multiple media and formats. .upport background context. 5rovide ongoing,

relevant feedback. ffer choices of content and tools. ffer adjustable levels of challenge.

the teacher and from peers. .tudents are assigned to one of three groups tiered by difficulty; all students are working on the same task but with varying supports. Karied supports in the working groups alter the level of independence and difficulty in solving the task.

5TA*LE 4T UDL Strategies to +urt!er =inimi>e Lesson *arriers in a Differentiate Instruction Lesson $lan for =at!ematics *arrier DeductingJconstructing numeric functions. UDL Strateg# 5rovide different demonstrations or models of how to use the tools employed in the lesson. .caffold how to use the t/table and visuali%e the chessboard. 5rovide alternative formats for students to express their interpretation of the story and the mathematical implications. =or example, speaking, creating a diagram, numerical representations. <onsider background knowledge for students entering this mathematical problem. )hat range of supports could be made available to provide the informational knowledge so that students can focus on the problem solving componentP

.tudents write an exit card to explain the mathematical story.

#he 9ocker 5roblem.

ecommendations for Implementation at t#e "lassroom $evel $lthough -D9 applications of differentiated instruction already exist, they are admittedly hard to come by. ?ven with such models available, teachers face challenges in implementing them* the challenges of shifting away from traditional views of intelligence and traditional reliance on print media, the challenge of acquiring and mastering new technology, and the challenge of garnering support from the school system. #he following sections offer recommendations that can help teachers overcome each one of these challenges. Learn a!out Cniversal Design %or Learning+
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#he first and most basic step toward successfully implementing -D9 is self/ education. $lthough -D9 has been more than a decade in the making, it is an approach that challenges many traditional educational perspectives and practices. !efore teachers can implement -D9 effectively, they may need to learn a different way of looking at their students and the materials that they use in the classroom. <$.# has been working to disseminate -D9 widely, and, consistent with the framework itself, have developed multiple avenues (direct and indirect, self/driven and trainer/taught, through text, speech, and interactive activities+ through which individuals can learn about -D9 and develop the skills necessary to put it into practice.

Visit t e )AST we! site+ #he <$.# web site devotes a large section to Uni'ersal Design for Learning. Gere visitors will find an articulation of -D9, discussions of its core concepts, descriptions of -D9 research projects, a listing of tools and resources that support -D9, and ideas and examples for implementing -D9. -ead )AST pu!lications+ <$.# has a range of pu"lications highlighting -D9 and -D9 practice, including Teac ing $ver" Student in t e Digital Age (;ose B ,eyer, 6776+. #he companion 7e" site to the book provides an evolving set of resources and classroom examples, including interactive activities and an online community where visitors can ask questions and engage in discussion about -D9. $nroll in an institute+ $rofessional e'elopment institutes by <$.# teach professionals about the challenges of improving access to and progress participation in the general education curriculum and how to make the curriculum accessible for all learners. Tal. to ot ers+ #he #eaching ?very .tudent section of the <$.# web site includes an online communit# where teachers can communicate, collaborate and obtain support from other educators who are exploring and teaching with -D9. =ind more information and to engage in discussion about universal design and increasing access for students with disabilities at the web site for the $ccess <enter (777.,9accesscenter.org+ a national technical assistance center that is funded by the -... Department of ?ducation, ffice of .pecial ?ducation 5rograms to make elementary and middle school curriculum more accessible to students with disabilities.

Inventor" and !uild tec nolog" support+ #echnology, in particular digital media, makes -D9 implementation practical and achievable in a diverse classroom. Digital materials make it possible for the same material to be flexibly presented and accessed0even adapted on a student/to/ student basis. $lthough we recommend that teachers try to build a library of digital materials, it is important to point out that -D9 implementation can proceed successfully across a range of technology availability. #he amount of technology available to teachers varies extensively0limited by district and school resources, both monetary and
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otherwise. =ortunately, a fairly simple step such as digiti%ing print materials can greatly ease -D9 implementation. #he 1224 -nited .tates copyright additions (<hapter 1 of #itle 18 .ection 161 of the -nited .tates <ode+, the <hafee $mendment, gives authori%ed entities the freedom to digiti%e otherwise proprietary materials for individuals that have disabilities that impede access to the printed version. $n authori%ed entity is a nonprofit organi%ation or governmental agency that has a primary mission to provide speciali%ed services relating to training, education, or adaptive reading or information access needs of blind or other persons with disabilities. #his provision makes special education teachers eligible to digiti%e printed text materials, a step that can help to diversify the presentation of materials for students with disabilities. $nother inexpensive but instrumental option for supplying a classroom with digital materials is the )orld )ide )eb0a tremendous source of free digital material and much of this material is in a multimedia format, which can greatly improve access to students. Gaving more digital media unquestionably enables teachers to implement -D9 in a more extensive way. #eachers who have greater financial resources and district support can supplement their materials with innovative products such as multimedia composition tools (e.g., Gyper.tudio3, Hid 5ix Deluxe M[, 5ower5oint+, graphic organi%er software (e.g., Inspiration, Hidspiration+, text/to/speech and text/to/image programs (e.g., -niversal ;eader, ;eadB)rite A 9D, Hur%weil M777, C$)., Intellitalk II+, <D/; , storybooks (e.g., ;eader ;abbitIs ;eading Development 9ibrary+, and learning software (e.g., funbrain.com, ?dmarkIs various learning games+. )hether teachers are able to invest in the purchase of a lot of technology or not, -D9 can proceed effectively. !ut taking inventory is an important step toward setting a realistic course of action. !y inventorying the resources they have available to them, teachers can determine the level of -D9 implementation appropriate to their classroom. =or example, survey your classroom and your school media center for a clear idea of computer and projection systems and other technology hardware available to teachers and students. <heck into scheduling issues around shared equipment. $dditionally, test out web accessibility your school computer lab(s+ and media center(s+ as appropriate. If the web is a tool you may use and ask students to access, how available is itP $sk for or take an inventory of your school or district software, find out whatIs available and if there are available licenses for computers in your classroom. ?ffectively working with and managing technology can be a challenging process, so it is important as well to assess the available technology support. #his may come in the form of a school or district help desk, computer teacher, computer resource specialist, technology integration teacher, etc., or oneIs own technology training. =ind out what policies your school or district may have regarding the tools you may adopt for use in your planning and teaching. Installation of software and hardware on computers may be time consuming, plan for issues of timing in your implementation and installation of software and hardware. )hen you are ready to teach a lesson using some technologies new to you or your students, consider
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notifying your technology support person, to be at hand to help problem solve any unforeseen challenges with implementation. Image description* #his graphic organi%er is made up of two circles with two arrows each placed at different points and an outer circular line of arrows with text placed at different points along the line of arrows. In the center are two circles with two arrows each, one inside the other. #he smaller, inner circle touches the right side of the larger, outer circle. n the right, a curved line of arrows goes around the outside of the circles from the top of the graphic around to the left side. #ext at the top of the graphic reads ".et goals* ?stablish context. $lign to standards." =rom there, the line goes around to the right side of the graphic. $n arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the right that reads "$naly%e .tatus* Identify methods, materials, and assessment. Identify barriers." =rom there, the line goes around toward the bottom of the graphic. $n arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom right that reads "$pply -D9* Identify -D9 materials and methods. )rite -D9 plan. <ollect and organi%e materials." =rom there, the line goes around to the bottom left of the graphic. $n arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom left that reads "#each -D9 9esson* #each lesson. ?valuate success. ;evise lessonJunit." #he line continues around to the left side of the graphic, ending in an arrow pointing up. )urriculu# planning and deliver"+ $nother important step in implementation of -D9 in instruction is curriculum planning and delivery. #o begin, we recommend that teachers have a basic understanding of -D9 and a commitment to make the curriculum and learning accessible for all learners. )hile keeping in mind the three principles of -D9, based on the three networks recognition, strategic and affective, we have found the following process useful in designing lessons. #he process includes four steps, based upon the principles and concepts of -D9, proven professional development strategies, and effective teaching practices; (a+ .et Aoals, (b+ $naly%e .tatus, (c+ $pply -D9, and (d+ #each the -D9 9esson. In the Set (oals stage of curriculum planning, we recommend that teachers establish the context for instruction. <ontext is usually driven or based on state standards, followed by the design of goals for the instructional episode. )e recommend that all teachers closely evaluate these to assure alignment and assure that the means for attaining the goals are separated from the goals and standards. >ext, when designing a -D9 lesson, teachers should Anal"<e t e )urrent Status of the instructional episode. )hat are the current methodologies, assessments, and materials used to teach the lessonP $naly%e these teaching procedures in relation to potential barriers of learners in the classroom. Do all students have access to the materialsP $re students able to express themselves with the current methods and materialsP #here are a number of resources and tools available from <$.# to analy%e lessons in the $lanning for All Learners Tool,it located on the #?. web site.
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#he third recommended step of the planning process is to Appl" CDL to t e LessonACnit+ #his includes the goals, methods, assessments and materials used to implement the lesson. <reate the -D9 lesson plan, grounded in the learning goals, classroom profile, methods and assessment, and materials and tools. #hen, collect and organi%e materials that support the -D9 lesson. In the final step, Teac t e CDL LessonACnit, minimi%e barriers and reali%e the strengths and challenges each student brings to learning, rely on effective teaching practices, and apply challenges appropriate for each learner. In this way, instructors can engage more students and help all students progress. )hen teaching and evaluating students work, also evaluate and revise the lessonJunit to assure student access and success. Eou may obtain additional information about designing -D9 methods, assessments, and materials, in Teac!ing E'er# Stu ent in t!e Digital Age, <hapter D. Secure ad#inistrative support+ .chool districts and administrations can be powerful sources of support0 financial and otherwise. $dministrative commitment to -D9 can strengthen a teacherIs sense of mission and self/satisfaction and lead to important funding. $ case in point is the town of Aloucester, ,assachusetts. #he principal for the school system is so convinced of the importance of digiti%ed materials that he has set a mandate that teachers use only those textbooks that have a digiti%ed version. #eachers will use a text/to/speech reader to further improve the accessibility of the text. <learly, this kind of change would have happened much more slowly in the absence of such tremendous administrator/level support. $dministrator support can also help to facilitate funding, which although not a prerequisite for -D9, can create important opportunities. =unding might enable the purchase of equipment, professional development, and the launching of new -D9 teaching projects. Districts vary widely concerning the types and level of funding that they offer teachers, but teachers who can convince their administrators of the value of -D9 may be able to secure district/level grants, professional development awards, and sabbaticals. =or example, in a >orth .hore ,assachusetts school district, the #echnology 5rogram ,anager and .pecial ?ducation Director teamed with two teachers using -D9 were awarded a state/level technology grant to implement -D9. #his is just one example of how support at the administrative level can facilitate the acquisition of materials that support -D9 efforts in the classroom. Parent education and involve#ent+ 5arents are another valuable resource for teachers building a -D9 curriculum. #here are at least two important ways that parents can be a resource* as advocates and as volunteers. !y educating parents about the -D9 activities going on in the classroom, teachers can develop a support system of informed individuals who can assist with and advocate for -D9 instruction. #eachers should think about ways to inform parents about classroom activities. >otes sent home, parent night presentations, and I?5 meetings are all excellent opportunities to engage in this kind of communication.
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nce parents are educated about -D9 they may wish to become involved themselves. #here are many ways that parents can do this, including volunteering in the classroom and lending support at home. $ few possibilities are helping to prepare materials, monitoring kids during -D9 lessons, helping with technology, donating equipment, and supporting homework assignments. "onclusion Differentiated instruction, although somewhat still developing in educational settings, has received significant recognition. )hen combined with the practices and principles of -D9, differentiated instruction can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. $lthough educators are continually challenged by the ever/changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. $nd along with them grows the promise of differentiated instruction and -D9 in educational practices. 9inks to 9earn ,ore $bout Differentiated Instruction Guil @ $. *.@ an Garger@ S. 21::93. )!at Is Differentiate InstructionI =arc!ing to Different Drummers@ 1n E . 2ASCD@ p.13 !ttp%??777.asc .org?pu"lications?"oo,s?1:919&.asp0 Initially published in 12:3, Marc ing to Di%%erent Dru##ers was one of the first sources to pull together information on what was a newly/flourishing topic in education. 5art I defines style and looks at the history of style research; 5art II describes applications of style in seven areas; 5art III identifies common questions and discusses implementation and staff development. T!e Access Center !ttp%??777.,9accesscenter.org? #his web site belongs to the $ccess <enter, a national technical assistance center, funded by the -... Department of ?ducationIs ffice of .pecial ?ducation 5rograms. #he purpose of the H16 $ccess <enter is to make elementary and middle school curricula more accessible to students with disabilities. #he web site hosts chats and discussions and offers publications and presentations on topics related to accessing the general education curriculum, including -niversal Design for 9earning. Tomlinson@ C. A.@ 21::63. Differentiating instruction for a 'ance learners in t!e mi0e ;a"ilit# mi le sc!ool classroom. ERIC Digest ED554681. !ttp%??777.eric.e .go'?ERIC)e"$ortal?content eli'er#?ser'let?ERICSer'letI accnoJED554681 #o meet the needs of diverse student populations, many teachers differentiate instruction. #his digest describes differentiated instruction, discusses the reasons for differentiated instruction, what makes it successful, and suggests how teachers may begin implementation.
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Tomlinson@ C. A.@ 21::63. Differentiating instruction for a 'ance learners in t!e mi0e ;a"ilit# mi le sc!ool classroom. ERIC Digest E64&. !ttp%??777.eric.e .go'?ERIC)e"$ortal?content eli'er#?ser'let?ERICSer'letI accnoJED554681 #he ability to differentiate instruction for middle school aged learners is a challenge. ;esponding to the diverse students needs found in inclusive, mixed/ability classrooms is particularly difficult. #his digest provides an overview of some key principles for differentiating instruction, with an emphasis on the learning needs of academically advanced students. Tomlinson@ C. A.@ M Allan@ S. D.@ 21<<<3. Lea ers!ip for ifferentiating sc!ools an classrooms. Association for Super'ision an Curriculum De'elopment. !ttp%??777.asc .org?pu"lications?"oo,s?1<<11&.asp0 #his web site contains two chapters from #omlinsonIs recent publication* Leaders ip %or di%%erentiating sc ools and classroo#s, Association %or Supervision and )urriculu# Develop#ent+ #his book is designed for those in leadership positions to learn about differentiated instruction. )e" Article% =apping a route to7ar ifferentiate instruction. !ttp%??777.asc .org?pu"lications?e ucational; lea ers!ip?sept::?'ol68?num<1?=apping;a;Route;To7ar ;Differentiate ; Instruction.asp0 <arol $nn #omlinson, an $ssociate 5rofessor of ?ducational 9eadership, =oundations and 5olicy at the <urry .chool of ?ducation, -niversity of Kirginia, <harlottesville, K$ provides an article entitled* ,apping a route toward differentiated instruction. $ducational Leaders ip, >G(1+. )illis@ S. M =ann@ L.@ 21<<<3. Differentiating instruction% +in ing managea"le 7a#s to meet in i'i ual nee s 2E0cerpt3. Curriculum Up ate. !ttp%??777.asc .org?pu"lications?curriculum;up ate?7inter1<<<?Differentiating; Instruction.asp0 !ased on the concept that "one si%e does not fit all" the authors describe the teaching philosophy of differentiated instruction. ,ore teachers are determined to reach all learners, to challenge students who may be identified as gifted as well as students who lag behind grade level. #his article excerpt describes the essential components of differentiated instruction beginning with three aspects of curriculum* content, process, and products. T!e Association for Super'ision an Curriculum De'elopment 2ASCD3 )e" Site !ttp%??777.asc .org?researc!;a;topic? ifferentiate ;instruction;resources.asp0 $ site by $.<D (6777+ which discusses differentiated instruction. 5age links to other pages with examples from a high school and elementary school, key characteristics of a differentiated classroom, benefits, related readings, discussion, and related links to explore.
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$reparing Teac!ers for Differentiate Instruction !ttp%??777.asc .org?pu"lications?e ucational;lea ers!ip?sept<<?'ol69?num<1?; $reparing;Teac!ers;for;Differentiate ;Instruction.asp0 #his web site, provided by ?ducational 9eadership, links the reader to a brief summary of an article by Golloway. #he author has provided a bulleted summary regarding the principles and theories that drive differentiated instruction. (ollo7a#@ A. (.@ 21<<<3. $reparing Teac!ers for Differentiate Instruction. Educational $eaders#ip, 34213. !ttp%??7e".u'ic.ca?V/ ur,in?e 5<1?Differentiate .!tml #his site is from an education course by Dr. Cohn Durkin. It includes a diagram with suggestions for approaches to differentiated instruction. It also includes a listing of what differentiated instruction is and is not, rules of thumb on how to instruct, and management strategies. )e" Site% for Teac!ers@ A ministrators@ an (ig!er E ucation 777.teac!;nolog#.com?litine ? ifHinstruction? #his web site is designed for educators and uses technology to inform teachers about current practices, literature, the law in education, as well as professional development. $dditionally, links to articles including research on educational practices including links to information on differentiated instruction are included. <$.#. #eaching ?very .tudent.(n.d+. ;etrieved .eptember 13, 677M, from !ttp%??777.cast.org?teac!inge'er#stu ent?

eferences <$.#. -D9 #oolkits* 5lanning for $ll 9earners (5$9+. (n.d.+. ;etrieved $ugust 12, 677M, from !ttp%??777.cast.org?teac!inge'er#stu ent?tool,its?t,Hintro uction.cfmI t,Hi J11 Dolan, ;. 5., B Gall, #. ?., (6771+. -niversal Design for 9earning* Implications for large/scale assessment. IDA Perspectives, ?G(D+, 66/63. ?llis, ?. .. and )orthington, 9. $., (122D+. -esearc s"nt esis on e%%ective teac ing principles and t e design o% Fualit" tools %or educators+ -niversity of regon* #echnical ;eport >o. 3 >ational <enter to Improve the #ools of ?ducators. ,eyer, $., B ;ose, D. G., (122:+. Learning to read in t e co#puter age+ <ambridge, ,$* !rookline !ooks. aksford, 9. B Cones, 9., (6771+. Di%%erentiated instruction a!stract+ #allahassee, =9* 9eon <ounty .chools. 5ettig, H. 9., (6777+. n the road to differentiated. $ducation Leaders ip, H, 1, 1D/1:.
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5isha, !., B <oyne, 5., (6771+. .mart from the start* the promise of -niversal Design for 9earning. -e#edial and Special $ducation, ??(D+, 128/67M. ;eis. .. ,., Haplan, .. >, #omlinson, <. $., )estbert, H. 9, <allahan, <. ,., B <ooper, <. ;., (122:+. Gow the brain learns, $ response* ?qual does not mean identical. $ducational Leaders ip, >@, M. ;ose, D. (6771+. -niversal Design for 9earning* Deriving guiding principles from networks that learn. ,ournal o% Special $ducation Tec nolog", 1@ (6+, 44/48. ;ose, D., B Dolan, ;. 5., (6777+. -niversal Design for 9earning* $ssociate ?ditorIs <olumn. ,ournal o% Special $ducation Tec nolog", 1> (D+, D8/31. ;ose, D., B ,eyer, $., (6777a+. -niversal design for individual differences. $ducational Leaders ip, >H(M+, M2/DM. ;ose, D., B ,eyer, $., (6777b+. -niversal Design for 9earning* $ssociate ?ditor <olumn. ,ournal o% Special $ducation Tec nolog", 1> (1+, 48/87. ;ose, D., B ,eyer, $., (6776+. Teac ing $ver" Student in t e Digital Age: Cniversal Design %or Learning+ $lexandria, K$* $.<D. ;ose, D., .ethuraman, .., B ,eo, A., (6777+. -niversal Design for 9earning. ,ournal o% Special $ducation Tec nolog", 1>(6+, 64/47. .i%er, #. ;., (6771+. >o two are quite alike* 5ersonali%ed learning. $ducational Leaders ip >G(1+. #omlinson, <. $., (6771+. How to di%%erentiate instruction in #i7ed&a!ilit" classroo#s+ (6nd ?d.+ $lexandria, K$* $.<D. #omlinson, <. $., B $llan, .. D., (6777+. Leaders ip %or di%%erentiating sc ools and classroo#s+ $lexandria, K$* $.<D. #his content was developed pursuant to cooperative agreement ZGM6DG22777D under <=D$ :D.M6DG between <$.# and the ffice of .pecial ?ducation 5rograms, -... Department of ?ducation. Gowever, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the -... Department of ?ducation or the ffice of .pecial ?ducation 5rograms and no endorsement by that office should be inferred. "itation )ite t is paper as %ollows: Gall, #., .trangman, >., B ,eyer, $. (677M+. Di%%erentiated instruction and i#plications %or CDL i#ple#entation+ )akefield, ,$* >ational <enter on $ccessing the Aeneral <urriculum. ;etrieved Sinsert dateT from !ttp%??aim.cast.org?learn?!istor#arc!i'e?"ac,groun papers? ifferentiate ...
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Documentarul Nr. 11

Ar!itectonica sta ialQ piagetianQ a e>'oltQrii psi!ice Aean )illiam +rit> $iaget, (: aoWt 19:& ^ Neuc!Xtel / mort le 1& septem"re 1:9< ^ GenY'e+, est un ps#c!ologue, "iologiste, logicien et LpistLmologue suisse connu pour ses travaux en ps#c!ologie u C'eloppement et en CpistCmologie ^ travers ce quIil a appelL lICpistCmologie gCnCtiNue. _

T!Corie gCnCrale 5iaget reprend dans ses explications t!CoriNues des concepts "al 7iniens tels que lIa aptation par assimilationJaccommodation et la rCaction circulaire. Il sIappuie sur les travaux de *inet et les enrichit ^ la demande de T!Co ore Simon. .a t!Corie est inspirLe par la p!ilosop!ie C'olutionniste de Spencer et la philosophie de Fant. ?lle est aussi une t!Corie constructi'iste originale de la gen`se de lIintelligence et des connaissances !umaines qui permet ^ 5iaget dILtablir des liens Ltroits entre la problLmatique "iologiNue de lILvolution et de lIadaptation des esp`ces et la problLmatique ps#c!ologiNue du dLveloppement de lIintelligence. .elon 5iaget, lIorigine de la pensLe humaine ne naat pas de la simple sensation, elle nIest pas non plus un LlLment innL. ?lle se construit progressivement lorsque lIindividu, et en particulier lIenfant, entre en contact avec le monde. Arbce ^ ces contacts rLpLtLs lIenfant dLveloppe des unitLs LlLmentaires de lIactivitL intellectuelle, appelLs sch`mes. -n sch`me est une entitL abstraite qui est lIorganisation dIune action (ex. la succion+. 9es sch`mes se transforment en devenant plus gLnLraux (succion dIautres objets+, plus nombreux et donc deviennent plus c mobiles d. Ils se combinent dans une organisation de type moyen/but (ex. le rbteau pour prendre un objet+. .elon 5iaget, les sch`mes sont un ensemble organisL de mouvements (sucer, tirer, pousser...+ ou dIopLrations (sLrier, classer, mesurer...+ dont lIenfant dispose (dans le premier cas+, ou quIil acquiert et dLveloppe par son interaction avec le monde environnant.
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<es sch`mes sIancrent dans lIesprit, lorsque lIexpLrience les conforte, ou se modifient lorsquIils sont contredits par les faits (il nomme abstraction rLflLchissante, cette abstraction, si celle/ci sIappuie sur des sch`mes acquis prLcLdemment dans un contexte diffLrent-5.+. $ chaque fois que lIindividu pereoit un objet (qui peut ftre physique ou une idLe+, il essaie de lIassimiler. .i cette assimilation, cIest/^/dire lIintLgration de lIobjet ^ un schLme psychologique prLexistant Lchoue, alors commence un processus dIaccommodation. ?n dIautres termes lIassimilation est un mLcanisme consistant ^ intLgrer un nouvel objet ou une nouvelle situation ^ un ensemble dIobjets ou ^ une situation pour lesquels il existe dLj^ un sch`me, alors que lIaccommodation est un mLcanisme consistant ^ modifier un sch`me existant afin de pouvoir intLgrer un nouvel objet ou une nouvelle situation. $rincipau0 concepts Il est contre les concepts de lIinnCisme. 5iaget tente de modLliser le dLveloppement de lIintelligence sur la base de principes logiques. 9Ienfant est un logicien en herbe, qui donne un sens aux objets en faisant Lmerger leurs propriLtLs et fonctions. Il rLinvente le monde physique (constructivisme+. 5iaget parle dIactions extLriorisLes et intLriorisLes. #out cela sont des conceptions physiques. 9a logique et les mathLmatiques sont le raisonnement. 9e raisonnement est la forme optimale de lIadaptation biologique, donc du cerveau. Les iffCrents sta es e lGC'olution in i'i uelle 5iaget divise le dLveloppement psychologique de lIenfant en plusieurs stades, chacun lui/mfme divisL en sous/stades, conditionnant le suivant. 9es diffLrents moments du dLveloppement sont *

9e stade de lIintelligence sensori/motrice (de la naissance ^ 6 ans+ 9e stade de lIintelligence prL opLratoire (de 6 ^ 4 ans+ 9e stade des opLrations concr`tes ou de lIintelligence opLratoire (de 4 ^ 17 ans+ 9e stade des opLrations formelles (de 17 ^ 14 ans+

9es bges qui voient le passage dIun stade ^ lIautre sont indicatifs et basLs sur une moyenne. <ertains enfants peuvent commencer le passage du troisi`me au quatri`me stade d`s 17 ans alors que dIautres y parviendront vers 16 ans. $e stade de l5intelligence sensori)motrice $u dLbut lIintelligence est essentiellement pratique. ?lle se construit en fonction des sens et de la motricitL de lIenfant. ?lle lui permet dIorganiser le rLel selon un ensemble de structures spatio/temporelles et causales. $ ce stade, lIenfant ne possLdant ni langage ni fonction symbolique, ces constructions sIeffectuent en sIappuyant exclusivement sur des perceptions et des
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mouvements, autrement dit, par une coordination sensori/motrice des actions sans intervention de la reprLsentation ou de la pensLe. 9Iun des apprentissages essentiels au cours de cette pLriode concerne la comprLhension de la permanence de lIobjet. <e que 5iaget entend par per#anence cYest le fait quYune personne accorde une existence aux choses c extLrieures au moi, persLvLrant dans lYftre lorsquYelles nYaffectent pas directement la perception d (cf 5iaget, 12M8+. <omment le bLbL se reprLsente/t/il les objets quYil ne voit plus P 5our Cean 5iaget lYenfant se rend compte de la permanence des objets par stades successifs *

1er stade (de 7 ^ 1 mois+ * lIenfant dLveloppe lIexercise des rLflexes. 9Yenfant nYa aucune rLaction suite ^ la disparition dYun objet. 6e stade (de 1 ^ D mois+ * les premi`res adaptations acquises et les rLactions circulaires primaires, lIenfant est centrL sur son corps. 9Yenfant a une rLaction Lmotionnelle (pleurs, cris, etc.+ ^ la disparition de lYobjet mais nYentreprend aucune recherche. Me stade (de D ^ : mois+ * les rLactions circulaires secondaires et les procLdLs destinLs ^ faire durer les spectacles intLressants. Il acquiert la permanence pratique, il revient au jouet quYil a laissL. 5ar contre si on pose un linge dessus il ne le cherche pas sauf si cYest lui qui lYa mis dessous (ou sYil voit une partie de lYobjet, qui fait sens pour lui, dLpasser+ De stade (de : ^ 16 mois+ * coordination intentionnelle des rLactions circulaires secondaires et leur application aux situations nouvelles. 9Yenfant recherche systLmatiquement lYobjet. <ependant sa reprLsentation de lYobjet nYest pas encore parfaite, il commet lYerreur dite du c stade IK d (ou erreur $ non !+ * lors du dLplacement visible de lIobjet il le recherche l^ og il lYa prLcLdemment trouvL et non pas nLcessairement l^ og il a disparu. 3e stade (de 16 ^ 1: mois+ * rLactions circulaires tertiaires et la dLcouverte des moyens nouveaux par expLrimentation active. 9Yenfant rLsout le probl`me du stade prLcLdent tant que les dLplacements de lYobjet sont visibles. .Yils sont invisibles (par exemple on met lYobjet dans une main et on le met, sans que lYenfant ne le voie, sous un coussin+, lYenfant recherche lYobjet dans la main et ne cherche pas ailleurs. 4e stade (de 1: mois ^ 6D mois+ * lIinvention des moyens nouveaux par combinaison mentale des sch`mes. 9Yenfant est capable de retrouver lYobjet mfme si les dLplacements sont invisibles.

9Ienfant pereoit alors la conservation de lIobjet, cette conservation Ltant c solidaire de toute lIorganisation spatio/temporelle de lIunivers pratique, ainsi, naturellement, que sa structuration causale d. 9a fin de cette premi`re pLriode est marquLe par lIacc`s ^ la fonction symbolique. 9orsquIil acquiert la fonction s#m"oliNue, le bLbL est capable de se reprLsenter des objets et situations non directement perceptibles ^ lIaide de signes (mots+ ou de symboles (dessins+. 9a fonction s#m"oliNue est tenue pour acquise lorsquIon
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observe che% le bLbL cinq types de conduites * lIimitation iffCrCe, le /eu s#m"oliNue, le essin, lIimage mentale et le langage. $e stade de l5intelligence pr6op6ratoire 7)8 ans $u dLbut de cette pLriode, lIenfant assure sa maatrise des notions de lIespace et du temps, puis de la fonction symbolique. <es objets, gLnLralement acquis lors du stade prLcLdent, sont alors plus assurLs. 9a permanence de lIobjet est acquise car lIenfant peut se reprLsenter lIexistence dIun objet sans que celui/ci soit prLsent. <ette pLriode est surtout marquLe par diverses acquisitions. ?n premier lieu, lIenfant dLveloppe fortement ses capacitLs langagi`res. Il est capable peu ^ peu de dialoguer. 5ar ailleurs, cIest aussi durant cette pLriode que se forme la notion de quantitL. $u niveau psychologique ce stade est marquL par lILgocentrisme qui se marque par lIartificialisme, la causalitL morale, le finalisme. 9Iartificialisme est le fait de penser que tout est crLL par lIhomme, la causalitL morale revient ^ considLrer que les lois physiques sont semblables aux lois morales, le finalisme tend ^ expliquer le monde en donnant une raison ^ toute chose (ex. les arbres secouent leurs branches pour produire du vent+. 9ILgocentrisme enfantin traduit lIindiffLrenciation du sujet et de lIobjet, ainsi que la confusion du point de vue propre avec celui dIautrui. 9ILgocentrisme est lIincapacitL quIa lIenfant de se dLcentrer et de coordonner son point de vue avec celui dIautrui. 9ILgocentrisme constitue donc en quelque sorte lILquivalent, au niveau de la reprLsentation, de ce qui est "lI a ualisme" du premier stade sensori/moteur ; cYest/^/dire, lIindissociation entre le corps propre et le milieu extLrieur. <ette notion est liLe Lgalement ^ un dLsLquilibre de lIassimilation et de lIaccommodation. Il est aussi ^ noter que lIenfant ^ ce stade vit dans la contradiction, au sens og il peut affirmer une chose et son contraire immLdiatement apr`s sans que cela le gfne. Dans le cadre des opLrations logiques, lIenfant commence ^ ftre capable de classer ou de sLrier des objets mais sans notion de rLversibilitL ; il est encore incapable de faire une opLration et son inverse. $e stade des op6rations concr9tes ou de l5intelligence op6ratoire 5endant cette pLriode, cette intelligence, dite opLratoire, reste dLpendante de la prLsence dans le champ de la perception des LlLments sur lesquels porte la rLflexion, marquLe par la rLversibilitL de toute opLration. <e stade est marquL par lIacquisition de certaines notions (les bges sont donnLs ^ titre indicatifs+ *

9es conservations physiques * o <onservation de la quantitL de la mati`re (8/: ans+ * un morceau de pbte ^ modeler contient la mfme quantitL de pbte quIil soit prLsentL en boule ou en galette.
o

<onservation de la quantitL de poids (:/2 ans+ * un kilo de plume est aussi lourd quIil soit prLsentL dans un sac ou dans plusieurs.
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<onservation de la quantitL de volume (11/16 ans+ * le volume dIun litre dIeau reste inchangL, quIon le prLsente dans une bouteille, ou dans un rLcipient plus LvasL.

9es conservations spatiales *

o

<onservation des quantitLs numLriques (8 ans+ * quand on place une rangLe de jetons peu espacLs et quIon demande ^ lIenfant de prendre autant de jetons que lIexemple, il rLalisera correctement lIexercice. <lassification (: ans+ .Lriation (: ans+ Aroupements multiplicatifs * cIest la capacitL ^ combiner la classification et la sLriation.

o o o

$e stade des op6rations formelles <ette pLriode est celle de lIadolescence. h partir de 11 ans et jusquI^ 14 ans lIindividu va mettre en place les sch`mes dLfinitifs quIil utilisera tout au long de sa vie. $lors que lYenfant, jusquYalors, ne pouvait raisonner que sur du concret, lIadolescent peut maintenant Ltablir des hypoth`ses dLtachLes du monde sensible. Dans la thLorie piagLtienne, lYacc`s ^ la logique formelle est la derni`re Ltape dYun processus qui dLbute d`s la naissance. <omme toute Ltape elle est le fruit dYune succession dYadaptations au rLel. Kers lYbge de 11 ans lYenfant ne peut plus se contenter dYune logique concr`te, il commence ^ ressentir le besoin dYLtablir des hypoth`ses, des raisonnements hypothLtico/dLductifs (du type si...alors+ pour mieux apprLhender le monde. Durant les cinq ans que dure ce stade les sch`mes logiques vont se mettre en place et sYaffirmer jusquY^ ce quYils soient totalement opLrationnels vers lYbge de 14 ans. CusquI^ lIadolescence, le possible est une forme du rLel. $u stade de lIintelligence formelle, cIest le rLel qui est une forme du possible. <ela signifie que pour lIenfant la base est le rLel et quIil Lchafaude des hypoth`ses ^ partir de celui/ci, mais par la suite il est capable dIimaginer des thLories dLcontextualisLes pour ensuite les appliquer au monde sensible. A aptation-mo ifier. 5our 5iaget, lIintelligence nIest quIune forme plus LlaborLe de lI a aptation biologique. 9Iadaptation dIun individu ^ son environnement est le rLsultat dIun processus de transformation tendant vers lICNuili"re. 9ILtat dILquilibre permanent est impossible, lIenvironnement et lIindividu nILtant pas statiques. 9Iadaptation est donc continue au cours de lIontogenYse notamment par (rL+Lquilibrations successives des structures de lIintelligence (sch`mes et opLrations+. ZpistCmologie gCnCtiNue-mo ifier. $rticle dLtaillL * CpistCmologie gCnCtiNue.

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9ILpistLmologie gLnLtique est un courant de lI CpistCmologie qui se fonde sur lIanalyse du dLveloppement de la connaissance che% lIftre humain. ;endre compte de lILvolution de la connaissance ^ travers lILtude du dLveloppement de lIintelligence che% lIenfant implique une approche particuli`re de cet enfant * dIune part 5iaget ne voit pas lIenfant comme objet dILtude mais comme un moyen rapide dIapprLhender le dLveloppement et le fonctionnement de lIintelligence, dIautre part, le sujet individuel ne lIintLresse pas mais cIest le sujet LpistLmique conIu co##e l=ense#!le des #Jcanis#es co##uns K tous les su0ets du #L#e niveau (5iaget, 124:+ qui est lIobjet de son travail. Imitation 9Iimitation en psychologie du dLveloppement est une notion tr`s importante. DIabord, elle permet aux nouveau/nLs dILtablir une similitude et donc un code social commun avec lIadulte. ?lle constitue ensuite une prLmisse de la comprLhension des Ltats mentaux (perceptibles+ dIautrui. ?n effet, si son interaction avec le monde adulte est rLgulier et adLquat, le bLbL pourra attribuer tel faci`s ^ tel Ltat mental, lui permettant ensuite de les utiliser ^ bon escient. De plus, elle correspond ^ un des moyens quIa le jeune enfant pour apprendre et communiquer. i $pprendre, parce que cIest en imitant les plus grands que lIenfant gravera les diffLrentes conduites dans un contexte appropriL. <ette fonction est valable jusquI^ 1: mois environ. i <ommuniquer, parce que jusquI^ un certain bge (en moyenne jusquI^ 6 ans+ lIenfant ne parle pas et ne peut donc avoir recours quI^ lIimitation, et plus particuli`rement ^ lIimitation simultanLe, pour interagir avec ses pairs. ?stimations* 1J de 7 ^ 1 mois * pas dYimitation 6J de 1 ^ D;4 mois * dLbut dYune imitation sporadique et partielle (qui apparaat de temps ^ autre et ne reproduit pas forcLment tout le mod`le+. MJ de D;4 mois ^ :/2 mois * imitation systLmatique, limitLe aux mouvements que lYenfant est capable de percevoir (par ex., un mouvement des bras+. DJ de :/2 mois ^ 11/16 mois * imitation de mouvements invisibles pour lYenfant, nLanmoins dLj^ rLalisLs (par ex., tirer la langue ou ouvrir et fermer la bouche+. 3J de 11/16 mois ^ 1: mois * dLbut de lYimitation de nouveaux mod`les par expLrimentation active. 4J de 1: mois ^ 6 ans * imitation de mod`les plus complexes et surtout apparition de lYimitation diffLrLe (en lYabsence du mod`le+ Intelligence 9Iintelligence dLsigne une disposition ^ la reconstruction interne des acquisitions instables provoquLes par lYenvironnement. .elon 5iaget, lIintelligence est la capacitL
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de plus en plus diversifiLe et complexe ^ mettre en juvre des moyens et procLdures pour atteindre des buts.. =Ct!o e clinico;e0pCrimentale 9a mLthode clinique correspond ^ une interrogation guidLe, mais souple, pour mettre en Lvidence le niveau de raisonnement de lIenfant. ?lle est fondLe sur des "situation/ Lpreuves". D`s 12D8, 5iaget a appelL sa mLthode "mLthode critique" car lIentretien inter subjectif avec lIenfant a des visLes expLrimentales, ce qui nIa rien ^ voir avec la mLthode clinique ^ proprement parler. RCaction circulaire ?mpruntL ^ Aames =ar, *al 7in, ce concept dLsigne, che% le nourrisson, la rLpLtition dIun cycle moteur visant ^ *

maintenir une sensation agrLable * rLaction circulaire primaire, maintenir un spectacle intLressant impliquant des objets * rLaction circulaire secondaire, explorer les consLquences, sur les objets, des variations dans lIaction * rLaction circulaire tertiaire.

<e phLnom`ne apparait entre lIbge de 1 et D mois. $ ce moment, la rLaction circulaire correspond ^ lIacquisition des premi`res habitudes. ?nsuite, entre D et 2 mois, lIenfant commence ^ acquLrir la coordination entre la vision et la prLhension dIun objet, puis entre dou%e et dix/huit mois, la rLaction circulaire devient de plus en plus complexe.

$iagetGs T!eor# of Cogniti'e De'elopment

<itation* Guitt, )., B Gummel, C. (677M+. 5iagetIs theory of cognitive development. $ducational Ps"c olog" Interactive. Kaldosta, A$* Kaldosta .tate -niversity. ;etrieved SdateT from !ttp%??777.e ps#cinteracti'e.org?topics?cogs#s?piaget.!tml Aean $iaget (1:24/12:7+ was one of the most influential researc!ers in the area of developmental psychology during the 67th century. $iaget originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a " genetic epistemologist." Ge was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we come to know." Ge believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning." 5iagetIs views are often compared with those of Le' D#gots,# (1:24/12MD+, who looked more to social interaction as the primary source of cognition and behavior. #his is somewhat similar to the distinctions made
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between +reu and Eri,son in terms of the development of personality. #he writings of 5iaget (e.g., 1286, 1227; see 5iaget, Aruber, B Koneche+ and D#gots,# (e.g. Kygotsky, 12:4; Kygotsky B Kygotsky, 12:7+, along with the work of Ao!n De7e# (e.g., Dewey, 1228a, 1228b+, Aerome *runer (e.g., 1244, 128D+ and -lrick >eisser (1248+ form the basis of the constructi'ist theory of learning and instruction. )hile working in *inetGs IL test lab in 5aris, 5iaget became interested in how children think. Ge noticed that young childrenIs answers were qualitatively different than older children which suggested to him that the younger ones were not dumber (a quantitative position since as they got older and had more experiences they would get smarter+ but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought differently. #here are t7o ma/or aspects to !is t!eor#* the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability. $rocess of Cogniti'e De'elopment. $s a biologist, 5iaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (5iaget described as intelligence.+ !ehavior (adaptation to the environment+ is controlled through mental organi%ations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action. #his adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment (equilibration+. 5iaget hypothesi%ed that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. Gowever, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes. 5iaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt* assimilation and accomodation. !oth of these processes are used thoughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. $ssimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. $ccomodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. !oth processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. $n example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. $n example of accomodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. $s schemes become increasingly more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviors+ they are termed structures. $s oneIs structures become more complex, they are organi%ed in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to specific+. Stages of Cogniti'e De'elopment. 5iaget identified four stages in cogniti'e e'elopment* 1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy+. In this period (which has 4 stages+, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols.
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Hnowledge of the world is limited (but developing+ because its based on physical interactions J experiences. <hildren acquire object permanence at about 8 months of age (memory+. 5hysical development (mobility+ allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. .ome symbollic (language+ abilities are developed at the end of this stage. 6. $re;operational stage (#oddler and ?arly <hildhood+. In this period (which has two substages+, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. ?gocentric thinking predominates M. Concrete operational stage (?lementary and early adolescence+. In this stage (characteri%ed by 8 types of conservation* number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume+, intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. perational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible+. ?gocentric thought diminishes. D. +ormal operational stage ($dolescence and adulthood+. In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. ?arly in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. nly M3U of high school graduates in industriali%ed countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood. ,any pre/school and primary programs are modeled on 5iagetIs theory, which, as stated previously, provides part of the foundation for constructi'ist learning. Discovery learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques. It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the childIs abilities, but > # present material or information that is too far beyond the childIs level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from anotherIs perspective, field trips, etc+. 5iagetIs research methods were based primarily on case studies Sthey were descriptiveT. )hile some of his ideas have been supported through more correlational and experimental methodologies, others have not. =or example, 5iaget believed that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to the next. Data from cross/sectional studies of children in a variety of western cultures seem to support this assertion for the stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operations ( ;enner, .tafford, 9awson, ,cHinnon, =riot B Hellogg, 1284+. Gowever, data from similar cross/sectional studies of adolescents do not support the assertion that all individuals will automatically move to the next cognitive stage as they biologically mature. Data from adolescent populations indicates only M7 to M3U of high school seniors attain the cognitive development stage of formal operations (Huhn, 9anger, Hohlberg B Gaan, 1288+. =or formal operations, it appears that maturation establishes the basis, but a special environment is required for most adolescents and adults to attain this stage.
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#here are a number of specific e0amples of how to use 5iagetian theory in teachingJlearning process. References

!runer, C. (1244+. Studies in cognitive growt : A colla!oration at t e )enter %or )ognitive Studies. >ew Eork* )iley B .ons. !runer, C. (128D+. Toward a t eor" o% instruction. <ambridge* Garvard -niversity 5ress. Dewey, C. (1228a+. $7perience and education. >ew Eork* ,ac,illan 5ublishing <o. Dewey, C. (1228b+. How we t in.. >ew Eork* Dover 5ublications. Huhn, D., 9anger, C., Hohlberg, 9., B Gaan, >. .. (1288+. #he development of formal operations. in logical and moral judgment. (enetic Ps"c olog" Monograp s, 9>, 28/1::. >eisser, -. (1248+ )ognitive ps"c olog". >ew Eork* $ppleton/<entury <rofts. 5iaget, C. (1286+. T e ps"c olog" o% t e c ild. >ew Eork* !asic !ooks. 5iaget, C. (1227+. T e c ild=s conception o% t e world. >ew Eork* 9ittlefield $dams. 5iaget, C., Aruber, G. (?d.+, B Koneche, C. C. (?d.+. T e essential Piaget (177th $nniversary ?d.+. >ew Eork* Cason $ronson. Kygotsky, 9. (12:4+. T oug t and language. !oston* ,I# 5ress. Kygotsky, 9., B Kygotsky, .. (12:7+. Mind in societ" : T e develop#ent o% ig er ps"c ological processes. <ambridge* Garvard -niversity 5ress.

$iagetGs Stages of Cogniti'e De'elopment SENSORK =OTOR $ERIOD 2< ; 15 =ONT(S3 De'elopmental Stage M Appro0imate Age C!aracteristic *e!a'ior Refle0i'e Stage 2<;1 mont!s3
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.imple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking. $rimar# Circular Reactions21;5 mont!s3 ;eflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively. Secon ar# Circular Reactions 25;9 mont!s3 ;epetition of change actions to reproduce interesting consequences such as kicking oneIs feet to more a mobile suspended over the crib. Coor ination of Secon ar# Reactions 29;11 mont!s3 ;esponses become coordinated into more complex sequences. $ctions take on an "intentional" character such as the infant reaches behind a screen to obtain a hidden object. Tertiar# Circular Reactions 211;19 mont!s3 Discovery of new ways to produce the same consequence or obtain the same goal such as the infant may pull a pillow toward him in an attempt to get a toy resting on it. In'ention of Ne7 =eans T!roug! =ental Com"ination 219;15 mont!s3 ?vidence of an internal representational system. .ymboli%ing the problem/solving sequence before actually responding. Deferred imitation. T(E $REO$ERATIONAL $ERIOD 21;8 KEARS3 De'elopmental Stage M Appro0imate Age C!aracteristic *e!a'ior $reoperational $!ase 21;5 #ears3 Increased use of verbal representation but speech is egocentric. #he beginnings of symbolic rather than simple motor play. #ransductive reasoning. <an think about something without the object being present by use of language. Intuiti'e $!ase
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25;8 #ears3 .peech becomes more social, less egocentric. #he child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in some areas. Gowever, there is still a tendency to focus attention on one aspect of an object while ignoring others. <oncepts formed are crude and irreversible. ?asy to believe in magical increase, decrease, disappearance. ;eality not firm. 5erceptions dominate judgment. In moral/ethical realm, the child is not able to show principles underlying best behavior. ;ules of a game not develop, only uses simple doIs and donIts imposed by authority. $ERIOD O+ CONCRETE O$ERATIONS 28;11 KEARS3 C!aracteristic *e!a'ior% ?vidence for organi%ed, logical thought. #here is the ability to perform multiple classification tasks, order objects in a logical sequence, and comprehend the principle of conservation. thinking becomes less transductive and less egocentric. #he child is capable of concrete problem/solving. .ome reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as in arithmetic* M'D & 8 and 8/D & M, etc.+ <lass logic/finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color. <ategorical labels such as "number" or animal" now available. $ERIOD O+ +OR=AL O$ERATIONS 211 KEARS AND ON)ARDS3 C!aracteristic *e!a'ior% #hought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of formal logic. #he ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident. #hinking becomes less tied to concrete reality. =ormal logical systems can be acquired. <an handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a ' b & x then a & x / b. If maJca & IO & 1.77 then ,a & <$. 5repositional logic, as/if and if/then steps. <an use aids such as axioms to transcend human

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