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Adquisicin de la imagen

Imagen
Deteccin de movimiento

Mscara
Deteccin de objetos

Informacin de imgenes anteriores

Lista de objetos
Seguimiento

Otros sistemas similares (visin estereo, conjunto de cmaras)

Objetos de inters

Estimacin de distancias, mosaicos

Objetos de inters Control videocmaras

Control videocmara
Clasificacin y reconocimiento

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= @AJA??E @A LE EA J IKA A IAH K = @A =I BK ?E AI BK @= A J= AI @A ?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= O IA IEJ = A =I AJ=F=I I JA FH= =I @A J @ A ? K J @A FH ?AI=@ @A E =CA @A J= B H = GKA A CA AH= = A JH=@= = AIJA IEIJA = I =I E CA AI HECE = AI ?=FJ=@=I F H = ? =H= @A L @A A ?=IE AI ? = C FHAFH ?AI=@ FHALE = EIE BK @= A J= @A AIJA > GKA AI = ANJH=??E @AI@A = E =CA ? F AJ= @A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = ?=H=?JAHE =@ I F H D=>AH HACEIJH=@ = C JEF @A LE EA J GKA IAH FH >=> A A JA I I E JAHAI= JAI F=H= IAH FH ?AI=@ I F IJAHE H A JA F H =I IECKEA JAI AJ=F=I @A IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= +K= @ A = AI?A = LECE =@= ANEIJA > AJ I @A E JAH I IA FKA@A ? IE@AH=H GKA = E =CA ?=FJ=@= F H = ? =H= FHAIA J= K =I @AJAH E =@=I FH FEA@=@AI O ?K= @ I >HA @E?D= AI?A = =F=HA?A = C > AJ @A E JAH I AI= = @A = E =CA @A = @A FHAIA J=H AI=I FH FEA@=@AI 2 @A I AIJ=> A?AH F H J= J GKA A A?= EI BK @= A J= @A I = C HEJ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J AI = ? F=H=?E @A = E =CA =?JK= >EA ?K= GKEAH JH JEF @A IA = >JA E@= = F=HJEH @A IJ= ? K = HABAHA ?E= FHALE= A JA >JA E@= I = C HEJ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J IKA A IAH ? IE@AH=@ I CA AH= A JA ? K = @ELEIE AH HGKE?= @A L=HE I ELA AI ?K= B=?E EJ= IK = EIEI O @EIA 7 = @AI? F IE?E ? IE?= ? IE@AH= = @ELEIE A JHAI ELA AI F=H= K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= @A FH F IEJ CA AH= J= O ? FKA@A LAHIA A = CKH=  = BK ?E FHE ?EF= @A FHE AH ELA A @A E =@ ELA @A F NA AI = ? =IE ?=?E @A ?=@= K @A I F NA AI GKA ? F A = E =CA @A =?KAH@ = @ I F IE> AI L= HAI GKA I B @ FHE AH F = - > AJEL @A AIJ= ? =IE ?=?E AI A D=?AH K = FHE AH= AIJE =?E @A ?K= AI I =I =I @A = E =CA = =I GKA D=>H GKA FHAIJ=H K =O H E JAH I 2=H= K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= =I =I @A E JAH I I I > AJ I ANJH= I A = AI?A = O A AIJ I ?=I I = IAF=H=?E IKA A HA= E =HIA CA AH= A JA A@E= JA BK ?E AI @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J 5E A >=HC AI A?AI=HE E @E?=H =GK GKA AIJ= FHE AH= ? =IE ?=?E L= = IAH A CA AH= IK ?EA JA A JA FHA?EI= O A HA = EA J @A = I?=H= @A > AJ I @A E JAH I L= = IAH HA= E =@ F H =I BK ?E AI @A ELA IKFAHE H >IJ= JA ANEIJA =F E?=?E AI @A LECE = ?E= > IE?=I ? FKA@A IAH = EJ HE =?E @A

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Objetos segmentados

Nivel de procesado de marco

Problemas globales Filtrado de objetos (tamao, forma, etc)

Mscara refinada

Nivel de procesado de regin

Operadores morfolgicos Operaciones locales

Clasificacin pxels fondo/objeto

Nivel de procesado de pixel

Clasificacin de pixels (fondo, objeto) Filtrado del ruido

Secuencia de imgenes

.ECKH=

 -IJHK?JKH= AH HGKE?= @A K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= @A FH F IEJ CA AH=

K = = ? F AJ= A JA AIJ JE?= J FE?= A JA A E JAHE HAI @A A@E ?E I ? A > AJEL @A @EIF=H=H K = = =H = ?K= @ ?K= GKEAH > AJ AI @AJA?J=@ A = E =CA O =I =LEI=H = ? HHAIF @EA JA FAH=@ H DK = F=H= = AL= K=?E @A = IA?KA ?E= =?JK= -IJA JEF @A IEIJA =I J= IA ?E I E?= A JA A F A= BK ?E AI @A FH ?AI=@ = ELA @A F NA =K GKA ?K= GKEAH JH= =F E?=?E ECAH= A JA I =L= =@= L= = A?AIEJ=H @A = =OK@= @A BK ?E AI @A ELA AI IKFAHE HAI F=H= A H=H A = A@E@= @A F IE> A = I= E@= @A =I BK ?E AI @A ELA @A F NA + IKA A ?KHHEH A = =O H = @A I IEIJA =I @A LEIE =HJE ?E= A BK ?E = EA J @A =I FHE AH=I AJ=F=I ? @E?E = A CH= A@E@= A BK ?E = EA J @A J @ A IEIJA = - A ?=I @A K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J O I ? ?HAJ= A JA A ELA @A FH ?AI=@ @A F NA IAH A GKA ? @E?E A BK @= A J= A JA A HA @E EA J C >= @A IEIJA = - FH ?AI=@ = ELA @A F NA IKA A AIJ=H >=IJ= JA E KA ?E=@ F H A HKE@ K JH=I IEJK=?E AI E ? JH => AI @A J= B H = GKA = EIE FHE ?EF= @A I IECKEA JAI ELA AI AI ? HHACEH A = A@E@= @A F IE> A AIJ I E ? LA EA JAI - IACK @ ELA A ? IE@AH=@ ? ELA @A HACE AI K > GKA F?E = O IK EIE FHE ?EF= AI A HA = EA J @A = I?=H= @A I= E@= FH F H?E =@= F H A ELA @A F NA + IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA A ELA @A F NA ? IE@AH= ?=@= F NA @A

! B H = E @AFA @EA JA IE JA AH A ?KA J= = E B H =?E >IAHL=@= A I F NA AI LA?E I - ELA @A HACE ? IE@AH= @E?D= E B H =?E D=?EA @ KI @A BK ?E AI @A FH ?AI=@ @A E =CA ?= AI GKA JEA A A ?KA J= = E B H =?E @A I LA?E I F=H= HA =H A HAIK J=@ = )I EI J= >E FKA@A D=?AH KI @A FAH=@ HAI HB CE? I ? I = @E =J=?E = AH IE = =FAHJKH= A ?EAHHA F=H= A H=H A =IFA?J @A I ? J H I @A I > AJ I @AJA?J=@ I 6= >E FKA@A E ? HF H=HIA = AIJA ELA =I BK ?E AI @A @AJA??E O A E E =?E @A I >H=I - JHA =I BK ?E AI @A ELA @A FH ?AI=@ @A =H? AIJ = A E E =?E @A F NA AI HKE@ I I =I ? K EH > AJ I BH=?JKH=@ I IAF=H=H > AJ I GKA GKA@=H K E@ I = BK ?E BK @= A J= @A AIJA > GKA IAH = A ? ?K @A =I ? F A JAI ? A?J=@=I F=H= =I JA AH ? IJ= ?E= @A I > AJ I FHAIA JAI A = AI?A = O F @AH =@A I HA= E =H K JH=@ @A > AJ I = F=HJEH @A IK J= = B H = AJ? - A @K @A FH ?AI=@ = ELA @A =H? J= >E IA E JA J= A E E =H =GKA I FH > A =I GKA =BA?J= = = E =CA A JAH= 7 ?=I J FE? F @H = IAH K ?= >E @A E K E =?E A = AI?A = ) JA K ?= >E @A E K E =?E A L= H @A J @ I I F NA AI @A = E =CA ?= >E= @A =?KAH@ = ?= >E @A E K E =?E ? GKA A ELA @A FH ?AI=@ @A F NA =H?=H FH ?JE?= A JA J @ I I F NA AI @A = E =CA ? > AJ I @A E JAH I GKA AI ? =H= A JA AHH A - ELA @A FH ?AI=@ @A =H? @A>A IAH ?=F= @A @AJA?J=H AIJ=I IEJK=?E AI O ALEJ=H A BK ?E = EA J AHH A @A IEIJA = JH I FH > A =I J FE? I = I K?E =H A AIJA ELA IAH = A I=> J= A GKA ? IEIJA A = @E ?=?E L K J=HE= @A IEIJA = @A IA I HAI O= IA= @AIA B ?= @ = E =CA ? KOA @ = = @A LEIE @AIJHK OA @ = ? =H= )K GKA A AIJ= IEJK=?E A IEIJA = @A LECE = ?E= F ? F @H = D=?AH IE = A I FKA@A @EIF=H=H = = =H = F=H= =LEI=H @A GKA = C = H = AIJ ?KHHEA @ A AI= = = I= E@= @A IEIJA = @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J IAH B H = A FHE AH F = AI @A?EH = EIJ= @A > AJ I A =F E?=?E ? IE@AH=@= AIJ= I= E@= FKA@A IAH = I= E@= @A ? LAHJEHIA A = A JH=@= = JH=I AJ=F=I @A IEIJA = ? A @A HA? ?E EA J @A > AJ I K EIJ=@ @A I > AJ I GKA LE EA J ,AFA @EA @ @A = J @ A IEIJA = >EA FKA@A FKA@A IAH A @A IACKE EA J

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? F=H= @

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IA HA= E =

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) JAI @A ? A =H ? = @AI?HEF?E @A I @EIJE J I = C HEJ I ANEIJA JAI @A>A I D=?AH J=H =GK GKA A CA AH= I = C HEJ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J AIJ @EIA =@ I F=H= JH=>= =H J= J ? E CA AI A > = ? O ACH ? ? E CA AI A ? H )K GKA A =I IA??E AI IECKEA JAI =I @AI?HEF?E AI @A I = C HEJ I IA D=?A BK @= A J= A JA F=H= E CA AI A ELA AI @A CHEIAI = ANJA IE @A I = C HEJ I = E CA AI A ? H IA HA@K?A A = =O H = @A I ?=I I = IKIJEJKEH A AI?= =H ? HHAIF @EA JA = ELA @A CHEI @A F NA F H K LA?J H @A JHAI @E A IE AI +K= @ =I IA= O = ANJA IE = E CA AI A ? H IA= I ? F A = IAH E @E?=@ A A ?=I ? ?HAJ - ?K= J = = ? LA EA ?E= @A A F A=H E CA AI A ELA AI @A CHEIAI A ? H >LE= A JA =I E CA AI A ? H L= = A?AIEJ=H =O H JEA F @A ? FKJ O =O HAI ?=F=?E@=@AI @A = =?A = EA J =K GKA A CA AH= I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I ? E CA AI A ? H IAH A HAI 2 H JH =@ ANEIJA @EIJE J I AIF=?E I @A ? H J= AI ? A 4/* 051 ;78 AJ? CA AH= O I= L ?EAHJ=I AN?AF?E AI A AIF=?E @A ? H AI E @EBAHA JA A F A @ IA =GKA GKA HAIK JA I? @

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,A A JHA =I FHE ?EF= AI LA J= =I GKA FHAIA J= AIJ I = C HEJ I I A ? JH= I I >HA J @ IK IA ?E A ?K= IA LA HA A =@ A K JEA F @A ? FKJ F H E =CA FAGKA )@A I ? = E =CA =?JK= IA ? F=H= E?= A JA ? = E =CA = JAHE H FHAIA J= CH= H >KIJA BHA JA = ?= >E I @A E K E =?E CH=@K= AI O= GKA = HABAHA ?E= GKA AI = E =CA = JAHE H L= @E ? @ IA = A@E@= GKA = E K E =?E L=HE= = =HC @A JEA F +K= @ IA FHAIA J= K ?= >E @A E K E =?E >HKI? @E?D ?= >E I =BA?J=H = I =H? I F IJAHE HAI = ?= >E 5E A >=HC AIJ I = C HEJ I JH=A ? IEC >=IJ= JAI E ? LA EA JAI 2 H A A F AIJ I = C HEJ I I O KO IA IE> AI = FH > A = @A E =@ = JAHE H A JA ? =FAHJKH= @A FHE AH F = O= GKA = D=?AH = ? F=H=?E A JHA = E =CA =?JK= O =I = JAHE HAI J @ I =GKA I F NA AI GKA A J @=I =I E CA AI ? HHAIF @= = K > AJ @A ? H K EB H A =F=HA?AH =H?=@ I ? F NA AI @A B @ -IJA FH > A = JEA A K = AIJHA?D= HA =?E ? = LA ?E@=@ @A I > AJ I )I = @AJA??E IA LKA LA I F >HA = A@E@= GKA = LA ?E@=@ @EI E KOA )@A I ? I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I K > AJ FKA@A IAH @AJA?J=@ ?K= @ ?AI= IK LE EA J ,A ECK= B H = IE A A B @ ANEIJA > AJ I ? LE EA J ? JE K ? FKA@A IAH I H> AI A IEIJA = AIJ=H = ? JE K= A JA =H?= @ = =H =I A @E?D= = FH L ?= @ = ? IECKEA JA I=JKH=?E @A IEIJA = - CA AH= I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I IKA A IAH A F A=@ I A =F E?=?E AI ? F A =I @ @A IA= A?AI=HE = E F A A J=?E @A BK ?E AI @A ELA IKFAHE H ? IACKE EA J ? =IE ?=?E @A ALA J I HA?KHHE @ IA = = C HEJ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J I A => H=@ I ? IA LAH A IECKEA JAI IA??E AI = KJE E@=@ FHE ?EF= @A I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I AI A =F E?=?E AI @ @A E? GKA IA HAGKEAHA AI K A?= EI ?=F= @A @EIF=H=H K = = =H = ?K= @ = C = H = AIJ ?KHHEA @ A = AI?A = ,E?D= = =H = FKA@A IAHLEH F H A A F F=H= = AHJ=H = K FAH=@ H DK = GKEA IAH A GKA = A JA AL= A GKA AIJ ?KHHEA @ A = AI?A = -NEIJA ?EAHJ=I =F E?=?E AI @A LECE = ?E= A =I GKA IA HA= E = = EJ HE =?E A JEA F HA= F H F=HJA @A FAHI = DK = @A GKA AIJ IK?A@EA @ A = AI?A = IE GKA J @= = IA?KA ?E= AI = =?A =@= F=H= IAH F IJAHE H A JA = = E =@= IE BKAH= FHA?EI - AIJA ?=I I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I IA A F A= F=H= ? A =H = CH=>=?E ?K= @ ANEIJA LE EA J O = E =H = ?K= @ @A = @A D=>AH O =I =D HH=H AIF=?E A A AGKEF @A CH=>=?E ALEJ= @ CH=>=H E CA AI @A K = AI?A = AIJ JE?= ,A JH @A I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I I A ? JH= I @ I CHKF I I @A IE F A @E BAHA ?E= GKA JH=>= = E?= A JA ? = E =CA =?JK= O = E =CA = JAHE H O I @A @ > A @EBAHA ?E= GKA JH=>= = ? I @A K = E =CA = JAHE H  D=>EJK= I = E =CA =?JK= O =I @ I E CA AI = JAHE HAI



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Mt = Mt,t1 AND Mt,t2

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Mt = U

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) C HEJ

I @A B

7 = F?E I A => H=@= O GKA IKA A FHAIA J=H A HAI HAIK J=@ I ?K= @ A IEIJA = JH=>= = A ? @E?E AI =@LAHI=I ? FKA@A IAH E CA AI ? HKE@ ? LE EA J @A > AJ I @A B @ ? IEIJA A CA AH=H K = AIJE =?E @A B @ = F=HJEH @A =I E CA AI = JAHE HAI ,A AIJ= B H = A IEIJA = FKA@A =FHA @AH A ? F HJ= EA J @A = AI?A = A ? @E?E AI H = AI O @AJAH E =H = FHAIA ?E= @A > AJ I @A E JAH I A@E= JA @A?EIE AI I ? F A =I GKA =I GKA IA F @H = HA= E =H ? I @AHEL=JEL I ) AIJ=I J ? E?=I IA =I @A E = ? = C HEJ I @A B @ ,A JH @A I = C HEJ I @A B @ AI F IE> A AIJ=> A?AH K = KAL= ? =IE ?=?E = F=HJEH @A GK AI GKA ? IJEJKOA A B @ GKA IA KJE E =H ? HABAHA ?E= F=H= HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A LE EA J - ?=I I IA ?E AI GKA A B @ ? IJEJKO= K = E =CA CA AH=@= = F=HJEH @A =I E CA AI = JAHE HAI KJE E = @ = C J @ @A JH=@ JA F H= ?K= GKEAH JH JEF @A FH ?AI=@ @A IA = AI E A= E A= = HABAHA ?E= AI F H J= J K = E?= E =CA @A =I EI =I @E A IE AI GKA = E =CA HECE = O GKA IA =IA A = A CH= A@E@= = B @ ?=FJ=@ F H = ? =H= ?K= @ I >HA @E?D B @ ANEIJA > AJ I @A FHE AH F = = =HA I = AIJ I IEIJA =I ? IEIJA =I @A @K @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= 5E A >=HC O= GKA @EIF A I @A K DEIJ HE? @A L= H GKA D= J =@ ?=@= K @A I F NA AI @A = E =CA A K @AJAH E =@ E JAHL= @A JEA F AI F IE> A >JA AH K = IAHEA @A AIJ=@ IJE? I K JH= E B H =?E =?AH?= @A ? F HJ= EA J @A ?=@= F NA AIJA ?=I = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ AI K = E =CA A I IE ?EAHJ= E B H =?E I >HA A ? F HJ= EA J @A ?=@= K @A I F NA AI GKA B H = = E =CA -IJ I IEIJA =I IKA A @A E =HIA ? IEIJA =I @A @K AIJ=@ IJE? 1 @AFA @EA JA A JA @A GK ? IJEJKOA A B @ GKA IA KJE E =H ? HABAHA ?E= AIJ I = C HEJ I L= = AIJ=H A?AI=HE= A JA ? FKAIJ I F H @ I @K I -I A A ?=HC=@ @A CA AH=H = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ A F A= @ =I E CA AI E E?E= AI O @A =?JK= E =H ? IJ= JA A JA @E?D= HABAHA ?E= = F=HJEH @A =I KAL=I E CA AI GKA L= AC= @ = IEIJA = /H=?E=I = AIJ= =?JK= E =?E A IEIJA = AI ?=F= @A EH =@=FJ @ IA = I ?= >E I @E E? I

@K

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,A JH @A I JH=>= I FHALE I >=I=@ I A I = C HEJ I @A B @ =GKA I GKA E JACH= J @ I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= FH >=> A A JA IA= I I IA ?E I @A E F A A J=H - AIJA ?=I = @AJA??E @A LE EA J IA >=I= A = ? F=H=?E @A = E =CA =?JK= ? = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= )I FKAI = ?KAIJE FHE ?EF= GKA F = JA= AIJA JEF @A = C HEJ I AI = CA AH=?E O = JA E EA J @A K = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ =@A?K=@= GKA IA= ?=F= @A IACKEH =I L=HE=?E AI CH=@K= AI @A = E K E =?E @A = AI?A = O GKA ALEJA = E ? HF H=?E @A > AJ I @A FHE AH F = A = HABAHA ?E=

@K

@A

= JA E EA J @A B

@K @A = JA E EA J @A B @ IAH A A ?=HC=@ @A CA AH=H O =?JK= E =H = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ @A B H = =@A?K=@= F=H= GKA A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J FKA@= =@=FJ=HIA = I F IE> AI ?= >E I @E E? I A = AI?A = - CA AH= = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= AI ? IJHKE@= = F=HJEH @A K = ? >E =?E O= IA= E A= @A I JE I =H? I FH ?AI=@ I F H A IEIJA = @ @A A AH @A =H? I ? IE@AH=@ I L= = IAH K F=H AJH @A IEIJA = - /=  IA AIJ=> A?A @ I =FH NE =?E AI @EIJE J=I F=H= = JA AH O =?JK= E =H = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ I @A E =@ I FH ?AI= EA J K JE KAIJH= O FH ?AI= EA J F H =H?

+=F JK

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@A

LE EA J

- A FHE AH ?=I ?=@= LA GKA IA= A?AI=HE =?JK= E =H A L= H @A K F NA @A = HABAHA ?E= AIA KAL L= H IA ?= ?K = = F=HJEH @A =I JE =I N KAIJH=I @AI?=HJ= @ A L= H = JAHE H @A = HABAHA ?E= ,A JH @A I = C HEJ I @A FH ?AI=@ E A= K JE KAIJH= A I ANJA @E@ AI A JH=@ JA F H= =I J ? E?=I @A =?JK= E =?E @A = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= @A>A ? IACKEH HA A =H =I L=HE=?E AI IK=LAI @A = E =CA FHE ?EF= A JA I ?= >E I @A E K E =?E CH=@K= AI O ALEJ=H A = A@E@= @A F IE> A = E ? HF H=?E @A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = = = HABAHA ?E= ) = E = @ =I L=HE=?E AI JA F H= AI GKA IKBHA ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA =I L=HE=?E AI CH=@K= AI @A E K E =?E IA JH=@K?A A K = IA = @A >= = BHA?KA ?E= EA JH=I GKA = =F=HE?E @A K > AJ @A FHE AH F = E F E?= = =F=HE?E @A = J=I BHA?KA ?E=I A A AIFA?JH @A @E?D= IA = 2 H J= J K JH F=I >= IAH = ?=F= @A IACKEH I ?= >E I CH=@K= AI @A E K E =?E EA JH=I GKA F @H = HA?D= =H I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = IEA FHA O ?K= @ AIJ I FAH = A ?= @KH= JA K?D JEA F A = EI = F IE?E O= GKA @A JH= B H = AIJ I = A JA IAH = E ? HF H=@ I = @A @A B @ I J @ I I IA ?E I >=I=@ I A = JA H = @A JH=@ GKA F @A I A ? JH=H I =GKA I GKA ?= ?K = = A@E= F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA ? IE@AH= @ =I N JE =I KAIJH=I F=H= ?=@= F NA

Ft =

1 N

Iti
i=1

 "

5E A KC=H @A F @AH=H F H A EI L= H 1/N  J @=I =I KAIJH=I @A F NA F @AH= I F H L= HAI @EIJE J I ?=@= KAIJH= JA @H = I K JH .14 CA HE? GKA FKA@A IAH @EIA =@ ? K = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @AJAH E =@=
N

Ft =
i=1

i Iti

 #

@ @A i I =I KAIJH=I @A = HAIFKAIJ= = E FK I @A JH .14 ? IE@AH=@ - F A= @ =I J ? E?=I ? LA ?E = AI @A @EIA @A JH I .14 F @HA I @EIA =H =GKA GKA IA =@=FJA = =I A?AIE@=@AI JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA A CA AH= A JH @A>A JA AH K = HAIFKAIJ= F=I >= F=H= ?K F EH I > AJEL I ? A J=@ I = JAHE H A JA - ?K= GKEAH= @A =I @ I =FH NE =?E AI = JAHE HAI AI A?AI=HE >IAHL=H GKA IEA FHA IAH A?AI=HE GKA A IEIJA = = JA C= = =?A =@=I A J @ A J =I JE =I N E CA AI ?K= HA@K @=H A K =K A J @A = ?= JE@=@ J J= @A A HE= A?AI=HE= F=H= A IEIJA = 2 H AIJA JEL AIJ= I K?E D= IE@ = F E= A JA =@ FJ=@= 5EA @ IJ= = I K?E I =JKH= = I K?E I? A JA E F A A J=@= AI = @A = =?JK= E =?E A@E= JA FH ?AI=@ F H =H? - AIJA @A F=H= A EI ?=I GKA =HHE>= = =?JK= E =?E @A K F NA @AJAH E =@ IA HA= E =H = @A =?KAH@ = AH'" 4E@@AH'#

Ft = (1 ) Ft1 + It

 $

) C HEJ

I @A B

2KA@A >IAHL=HIA A AIJA ?=I GKA O= AI A?AI=HE = =?A =H E CK = E =CA = JA HE H FKAI =I E?=I KAIJH=I GKA A JH= A KAC I = @A = E =CA =?JK= O = HABAHA ?E= @A B @ )@A I J= >E FKA@A ? FH >=HIA GKA A AH @A FAH=?E AI AI K?D A H -IJ=I @ I LA J= =I AI @A?EH A H A?AIE@=@ @A = =?A = EA J O A H ? IJA ? FKJ=?E = D=?A GKA = =?JK= E =?E A@E= JA FH ?AI=@ F H =H? IA= = F?E I? A JA E F A A J=@= - = FH ?JE?= = CA AH=?E O =?JK= E =?E @A = HABAHA ?E= L= = @AFA @AH @A ?=@= = C HEJ F=HJE?K =H FAH ? ?AFJK= A JA F @A I @EIJE CKEH @ I J @ I @A =?JK= E =?E IAC @AI?HE>A ,E5JAB= 

)?JK= E =?E

IA JEA A A ?KA J= = I= E@= @A @K @A @A JA??E @A LE EA J AI @A?EH = ? =IE ?=?E @A I F NA AI A B @ K > AJ -IJ E F E?= GKA J @ I I F NA AI I =?JK= E =@ I @A = EI = B H = O ANEIJA F H J= J HA= E A J=?E @AI@A A @K @A @AJA??E = @K @A =?JK= E =?E @A B @ - FHE ?EF= E ? LA EA JA @A AIJA J @ AI GKA I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = GKA IA @AIF = = A J= A JA F H = E =CA FKA@A AC=H = IAH E ? KE@ I AHH A= A JA @A JH @A @A @A B @ -IJ L= = @AFA @AH CE?= A JA @A = LA ?E@=@ ? = GKA A > AJ IA @AIF = = = =HC @A = E =CA O @A = H=FE@A ? = GKA A @K @A =?JK= E =?E IA =@=FJA = I ?= >E I @A = AI?A = @AI@A A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J = @K @A =?JK= E =?E @A B @ @A J= = AH= GKA = =@=FJ=?E I IA HA= E = A I F NA AI GKA BKAH ? =IE ?=@ I ? F NA AI @A B @ EA JH=I GKA I F NA AI FAHJA A?EA JAI = FHE AH F = I =?JK= E =@ I - FHE ?EF= FH > A = @A AIJA J @ AI GKA K = @A?EIE E ? HHA?J= FHE ?EF= A JA A I B= I I F IEJEL I F NA AI @A B @ ? =IE ?=@ I ? FHE AH F =  FKA@A @AIA ?=@A =H A K = @A?EIE E ? HHA?J= FAH = A JA @A E =@= =>H= HJ= @A=@ ?  -I @A?EH IE A K = @AJAH E =@= = @A = E =CA = AIJE =?E @A B @ AI E ? HHA?J= IJ= IAH E ? HHA?J= IEA FHA O= GKA A B @ FKA@A IAH =?JK= E =@ A E CK = ?=IE O F H J= J IAH IEA FHA AHH A 7 = I K?E E JAH A@E= A JHA = > I ANJHA I IAH = = E F A A J=?E @A K IEIJA = @A =?JK= E =?E @A @ I FAI I 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA A L= H @A FAI L= = E @E?=H = LA ?E@=@ ? = GKA K F NA IA =@=FJ= = I ?= >E I @A = AI?A = IA = FAI I @A L= H = J AI @A?EH LA ?E@=@ @A =@=FJ=?E = J= F=H= I F NA AI @A B @ O FAI I @A L= H >= AI @A?EH LA ?E@=@ @A =@=FJ=?E >= = F=H= I F NA AI @A FHE AH F = 2 H A A F IE = =?JK= E =?E @A B @ IA D=?A A@E= JA FH ?AI=@ F H =H? ? A  $ A L= H @A AI K AH A JHA  O  O L= = AIJ=> A?AH = E KA ?E= HA =JEL= @A =H? =?JK= O @A B @ = JECK A = @AJAH E =?E @A = KAL= HABAHA ?E= @A B @ 5E IA =FH NE = =  O F H J= J (1 ) IA =FH NE = =  = E KA ?E= @A = E =CA =?JK= L= = IAH K?D =O H GKA = @A = HABAHA ?E= O F H J= J = KAL= HABAHA ?E= @A B @ IA L= = =IA A =H I = = KAL= E =CA GKA = = HABAHA ?E= = JECK= -IJ E F E?= GKA =

?EAC= - AIJA ?=I

)?JK= E =?E

IA A?JEL= -IJ >=I=@ A K = HA= E A J=?E

"

+=F JK

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@A

LE EA J

LA ?E@=@ @A =@=FJ=?E = I ?= >E I @A = AI?A = AI H FE@= 2 H ? JH= IE JEA @A =  ?KHHEH A ?=I ? JH=HE AI @A?EH = E KA ?E= @A = E =CA =?JK= AI KO FAGKA = O = KAL= HABAHA ?E= IA =IA A =H I = = HABAHA ?E= = JECK= GKA = = E =CA =?JK= 2 H J= J F=H= ALEJ=H I FH > A =I GKA IA FHAIA J= ? = =?JK= E =?E ?EAC= ? = =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= F @A I AIJ=> A?AH L= HAI @EIJE J I @A F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA @A =?KAH@ = = ? =IE ?=?E B @ > AJ HA= E =@ F H A @K @A @AJA??E

(x, y ) =

1 IE M (x, y ) . @ 2 IE M (x, y ) > AJ

 %

+ = LA ?E@=@ @A =?JK= E =?E L= = IAH =O H ?K= J =O H IA= A L= H @A AIJ ? =H GKA 1 > 2 F=H= ? IACKEH =I GKA I F NA AI @A B @ IEC= =I L=HE=?E AI @A = AI?A = EA JH=I GKA I F NA AI @A FHE AH F = ACKA = E ? HF H=HIA = @A @A B @ >IJ= JA E @AFA @EA JA @A L= H @A 2 IE K > AJ @A FHE AH F = IA @AJEA A ? F AJ= A JA O FAH = A?A @AJA E@ @KH= JA K FAHE @ IK ?EA JA @A JEA F IJA IAH = A JA E ? HF H=@ = @A @A B @ ?K= FKA@A IAH K E ? LA EA JA @AFA @EA @ @A JEF @A =F E?=?E A ?KAIJE - FH ?AI @A =?JK= E =?E @A @ I FAI I @AI?HEJ D=IJ= =GK IAH = A ? HHAIF @EA JA = =GKA I = C HEJ I GKA E F A A J= = =?JK= E =?E ? FH ?AI= EA J F H =H? 2=H= =GKA I = C HEJ I ? FH ?AI= EA J K JE KAIJH= A FH ?AI IAH = ECAH= A JA @EIJE J - AIJ I = C HEJ I A L= H @A K F NA @AJAH E =@ AI ?= ?K =@ JA EA @ A ?KA J= K ?EAHJ AH @A KAIJH=I F=I=@=I +K= J A H IA= AIJA AH @A KAIJH=I =O H IAH A E F=?J @A = KAL= KAIJH= A I F=H AJH I ?= ?K =@ I O F H J= J =O H = LA ?E@=@ @A FH ?AI @A =?JK= E =?E )I FKAI = LA ?E@=@ @A =?JK= E =?E LEA A @A E@= F H A AH @A KAIJH=I = JAHE HAI KJE E =@=I F=H= =?JK= E =H A B @ 2 H J= J F=H= A ?=I @A =?JK= E =?E ?EAC= IEA FHA IA KJE E =H A EI AH @A KAIJH=I @A ?=@= F NA F=H= =?JK= E =H I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A @E?D F NA + = =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= = @EBAHA ?E= IAH GKA E?= A JA IA =?JK= E =H I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A I F NA AI ? =IE ?=@ I ? B @ F HA @K @A @AJA??E ) >=I AIJH=JACE=I IKBHEH I EI I E ? LA EA JAI GKA F=H= I = C HEJ I ? FH ?AI= EA J F H =H? )I FKAI F=H= ALEJ=H I E ? LA EA JAI = JAHE HAI K = AIJH=JACE= IE E =H = = =?JK= E =?E ? @ I FAI I FKA@A IAH E F A A J=@= 2 H J= J IE A F NA A ?KAIJE D= IE@ ? =IE ?=@ ? B @ A AH @A KAIJH=I A F A=@=I F=H= HA?= ?K =H I AIJ=@ IJE ? I IAH FAGKA = F=H= GKA =I I KAL I L= HAI >JA E@ I AIJ KO E KA ?E=@ I F H = KAL= KAIJH= AI @A?EH F=H= ? IACKEH K = =?JK= E =?E H FE@= @A = HABAHA ?E= 5E A >=HC IE A F NA FAHJA A?A = FHE AH F = A AH @A KAIJH=I @A>AH IAH CH= @A F=H= GKA = E KA ?E= @A = KAL= KAIJH= IA= KO CH= @A O =I ALEJ=H GKA A > AJ @A FHE AH F = IA= E ? HF H=@ = @A @A B @ H FE@= A JA 7 = AIJH=JACE= ECAH= A JA @EIJE J= FKA@A IAH IACKE@= F=H= E JA J=H ALEJ=H I FH > A =I = JAHE HAI 5ECKEA @ A J @ @A =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= F=H= J @ I I F NA AI @A = E =CA IA AIJ=> A?A K ? J=@ H E @ELE@K= GKA IA KJE E = F=H= ? J=H =I LA?AI GKA K F NA @AJAH E =@ D= IE@ =H?=@ ? > AJ @A FHE AH F = 2=H= ALEJ=H =I IEJK=

) C HEJ

I @A B

# I F NA AI AHH A I @A FHE AH F = ?K= @ K F NA D= IE@ K AH @AJAH E =@ @A LA?AI IJA F=I=H O= = B H =H @ F=H= IK =?JK= E =?E @A =?KAH@ ? ?=@= = C HEJ @A =CA @A HABAHA ?E= J= >E FKA@A IAH HA= E =@= A@E= JA K 0 MA'$ = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= IA >JEA A @A =?KAH@ = =

AI @A =>H= HJ= A =H?=@ ? FHE AH F = F=HJA @A = HABAHA ?E= @A B =?JK= E =?E ? ?HAJ = =?JK= E =?E @A = E IEIJA = E A= - ,=MI IECKEA JA ANFHAIE ?E

I0 Ft = I t Ft1

t2 It = Ft O It It1 It2 HAIJ

 &

-I @A?EH = =HH= ?=H = =F E?=?E t 2 A B @ ? IJEJKOA = FHE AH= E =CA I0  O K F NA @AJAH E =@ AI =?JK= E =@ ? A L= H A = E =CA =?JK= IE IJA FAHJA A?A = FHE AH F = It = Ft  O D= J =@ K L= H IE E =H A I @ I JE I =H? I It It1 It2  - ?K= GKEAH JH ?=I A L= H @A @E?D F NA IA =?JK= E = 7 @A I JH I E A= AI I ? ?E@ I AI A JH @A A@E= = O IA KJE E = F H A A F A 4 IE '# F=H= >JA AH = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= I JH I @A A@E= = FKA@A IAH I H >KIJ I BHA JA = HKE@ C=KIIE= - KAIJH ?=I IE ? IE@AH= I K > AJ @A FHE AH F = GKA ?K J= >HALA A JA A B @ = KAIJH= ? HHAIF @EA JA = > AJ @A FHE AH F = CA AH= A JA IA ? HHAIF @AH ? = KAIJH= ?A JH= @A = IA?KA ?E= H@A =@= AI @A?EH = A@E= = IE I >EA ? =I KAIJH=I @A I ANJHA I ,A AIJ= B H = IE A AH @A LA?AI GKA A F NA A ?KAIJE J = I L= HAI @A > AJ @A FHE AH F= I K?D=I @E?D > AJ K ?= IAH = =@E@ = @A @A B @ ,A AIJ= B H = ? AIJA JEF @A JH I AI A?AI=HE E F A A J=H A J @ @A =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= IE GKA IAH = IK ?EA JA ? A J @ @A =?JK= E =?E ?EAC= >IJ= JA IE A > AJ @A FHE AH F = =F=HA?A K AH IK ?EA JA @A LA?AI ? IA?KJEL=I A = EI = = @A = E =CA >EA AC= = @AJA AHIA F H ? F AJ = A JA A > AJ IAH = E ? HF H=@ = @A @A B @ - FHE ?EF= FH > A = @A AIJA J @ AI GKA F=H= F @AH ?= ?K =H = A@E= = @A K ? K J @A KAIJH=I AI A?AI=HE @EIF AH @A J @=I AI=I KAIJH=I -IJ IA JH=@K?A A KAIJH ?=I A GKA AI A?AI=HE = JA AH = =?A =@=I =I JE =I E CA AI FHALE=I @A =?KAH@ = @ @A BK ?E = EA J K JE KAIJH= @A E@ = JAHE H A JA

@K

@A @AJA??E

- CA AH= = ? F A E@=@ FHE ?EF= @A I = C HEJ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J GKA A F A= = C HEJ I @A B @ IKA A HAIE@EH A A @K @A = JA E EA J @A B @ IEA @ A @K @A @AJA??E KO IE E =H F=H= J @ I I = C HEJ I O =@A I J= >E KO IE E =H = A F A=@ ? I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I 5E A I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I @A IE F A @EBAHA ?E= = @AJA??E @A LE EA J IA HA= E =>= K >H= E = @ A L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA = E =CA =?JK= O = E =CA = JAHE H A I = C HEJ I @A B @ ? @K @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= A FH ?AI AI

+=F JK

,AJA??E

@A

LE EA J

AN=?J= A JA A EI = E?= @EBAHA ?E= AI F H J= J GKA EA JH=I A I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I = HABAHA ?E= = ? IJEJK = = E =CA = JAHE H A I = C HEJ I @A B @ ? E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= = HABAHA ?E= AI K = E =CA AIJE =@= = F=HJEH @A =I E CA AI FHALE=I 6= J A I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I ? A I = C HEJ I ? E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= = A A??E @A K >H= AI K @A I FK J I ? =LAI @A IEIJA = )K GKA = =O H = @A I IEIJA =I A F A= K K >H= @AJAH E =@ = FHE HE F H A KIK=HE A BK ?E @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A IEIJA = O = HA =?E @AIA=@= A JHA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A B= I I F IEJEL I O B= I I AC=JEL I = CK I IEIJA =I @EIF A @A K K >H= @E E? GKA IA =?JK= E = ? JE K= A JA - 4 IE '# IA FH F A A ? ?K @A K K >H= C >= F=H= ?=@= KAL= E =CA @A =?KAH@ = =I IECKEA JAI ANFHAIE AI

M EDt = med Dt

 '

M ADt = med |Dt M EDt |

@ @A

 

Dt = |It Ft |

 

O = BK ?E A@ E @E?= A ? ?K @A = A@E= = @A J @ I I ? A ?EA JAI @A = =JHE 5KF EA @ GKA A K = AI?A = H = A I @A = EJ=@ @A I F NA AI AIJ=H A LE EA J A J ?AI A L= H @A = A@E= = @A>AH ? HHAIF @AHIA ? I L= HAI J FE? I @A>E@ I = HKE@ E JH @K?E@ F H A IA I H ) F=HJEH @A =GK A K >H= AI ?= ?K =@ @A =?KAH@ =

U = M ED + 3 1,4826 M AD

  

@ @A A L= H 1,4826 AI K B=?J H @A H = E =?E F=H= K = @EIJHE>K?E C=KIIE= = ,A AIJ= B H = A K >H= IA = KIJ= =KJ JE?= A JA = =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A ?=@= IEIJA = FHE ?EF= A JA A HKE@ C=KIIE= E JH @K?E@ F H = ? =H= @A L @A O GKA E ? KI FKA@A L=HE=H = =HC @A JEA F IAC L=H = A JHA JH=I ? I=I = E K E =?E @A IEIJA = )K GKA = K >H= E =?E @A L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA = E =CA =?JK= O = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= O= IA= = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= = E =CA = JAHE H >EA K = E =CA >JA E@= = F=HJEH @A K = ? >E =?E @A =I JE =I E CA AI AI = J ? E?= I? A JA A F A=@= ? I = C HEJ I @AHEL=JEL I IJ= AI = E?= I K?E FH FKAIJ= F=H= I = C HEJ I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= +K= @ I ?= >E I @A E K E =?E ?= AI FKA@A AC=H = IAH K CH=LA FH > A = F=H= = @AJA??E AI F IE> A >=I=HIA A = @AJA??E @A ?= >E I @A JANJKH=I @A =I @A = E =CA F=H= HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A LE EA J ,E5JAB= '' ,=MI 0 MA'$ = K >H= E =?E IA HA= E = I >HA A L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= IE A@E= JA = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= H = E =@=  ++.

) C HEJ

I @A B

N CCF =

x,y

(It (x, y ) Ft (x, y ))

 !
x,y

x,y

It2 (x, y )

Ft2 (x, y )

@ @A I IK =J HE I A x A y IA ANJEA @A A K = LA J= = ?K=@H=@= @A J= = N ?A JH=@= A ?=@= K @A I F NA @A = E =CA + FKA@A LAHIA A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H ?K= J =O H IA= A L= H @A N =O H IAH A AH @A FAH=?E AI = HA= E =H O F H J= J =O H A JEA F @A ? FKJ = LA J= = FHE ?EF= @A = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= HAIFA?J = L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= AI GKA A HAIK J=@ AI I H >KIJ = JA I ?= >E I @A E K E =?E 5E ? IE@AH= I J @ I I F NA AI E ? KE@ I A = LA J= = @A J= = N ? K LA?J H A K DEFAHAIF=?E @A @E A IE N 2 F @A I ? FH >=H GKA A L= H @A = ++. JA @AH =  ?K= @ A CK A JHA = > I LA?J HAI IA= FAGKA O JA @AH =  ?K= @ A CK IA= A AL=@ 5KF EA @ GKA K ?= >E @A E K E =?E A K = = @A = E =CA IKF A K ?= >E A A @K @A LA?J H = JAHE H FAH A IK CK GKA@= ? =H GKA = JA K ?= >E @A E K E =?E IE LE EA J A L= H @A = ++. IAH FH NE =  O F H J= J IA D=>H @AJA?J=@ LE EA J 5E A >=HC A K = = @A = E =CA @ @A I ANEIJ= LE EA J @A J= B H = GKA K > AJ @A FHE AH F = ?K JA A B @ A CK A JHA = > I LA?J HAI A @A = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= O A @A = E =CA =?JK=  IAH A CA AH= KO @EIJE J F H GKA A L= H @A = ++. A @E?D= = IAH FH NE =  O F H J= J IA D=>H @AJA?J=@ LE EA J )K GKA = IKF IE?E = JAHE H AI ? F AJ= A JA ? HHA?J= = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= H = E =@= IA ? F HJ= A CA AH= @A = AH= I H >KIJ= = JA ?= >E I @A E K E =?E -I @A?EH F @A I IKF AH GKA @E?D= BK ?E AI IA IE> A = ?= >E I @A JANJKH= A KC=H @A ?= >E I @A ELA AI @A E JA IE@=@ @A I F NA AI 5E A >=HC IE A > AJ @A FHE AH F = JKLEAH= = EI = JANJKH= GKA A B @ GKA ?K J= J FE?= A JA ?K= @ = > I JEA A E B H =?E @A JANJKH= AI @A?EH ?K= @ = > I I ? F AJ= A JA EI I = @AJA??E @A ?= >E @A = JANJKH= IAH = F IE> A O A AIJA ?=I = @EBAHA ?E= =>I KJ= BK ?E =H = A H GKA = ++. 2=H= ALEJ=H AIJA FH > A = A = A@E@= @A F IE> A IAH = BK @= A J= GKA A J= = @A = LA J= = N  IA= IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A 5E >EA = ANFHAIE = JAHE H FKA@A IAH =F E?=@= = ?=@= K @A I F NA AI @A = E =CA AIJ F @H = IKF AH K JEA F @A ? FKJ >=IJ= JA = J = HA@K??E @A JEA F @A ? FKJ FKA@A ? IACKEHIA @ELE@EA @ = E =CA A > GKAI O =F E?= @ = ANFHAIE @A = ++. = ?=@= K @A I > GKAI O = ? =IE ?=?E A B @ FHE AH F = IA HA= E = F=H= ?=@= > GKA O F=H= ?=@= F NA )I F @A I @ELE@EH AIJ= J ? E?= @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J A @ I CHKF I

++. = ELA @A F NA - AIJA ?=I

B H = GKA = LA J= = @A ? HHA =?E J= O ? FH F A ,E5JAB= ''

= ++. IA ?= ?K = F=H= ?=@= F NA @A J= IA L= @AIF = = @ = =HC @A J @= = E =CA

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@A

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GKAI O = ++. IA ?= ?K = F=H= ?=@= K ,=MI 0 MA'$

++. = ELA @A > GKA - AIJA ?=I

= E =CA IA @ELE@A A FAGKA I > @A AI I > GKAI E F A A J=@ F H

+ =H= A JA A = C HEJ = ELA @A F NA ? @K?A = K = HAI K?E K?D =O H A = @AJA??E @A HACE AI @A FHE AH F = GKA A = C HEJ = ELA @A > GKA 5E A >=HC A FHE AH IAH >=IJ= JA I ? IJ I ? FKJ=?E = A JA GKA A IACK @ 7 = JE = = JAH =JEL= F=H= HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A LE EA J A@E= JA = C HEJ I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= O IEA FHA O ?K= @ A IA I H @A ?=FJ=?E @A E CA AI @ALKA L= E CA AI A ? H IAH = A A F A=H @EIJ= ?E=I @A ? H - *E C A K @A L @A A ? H IA FHAIA J= A A AIF=?E @A ? H ;78 O K F NA @A = E =CA =?JK= IA ? IE@AH=H GKA FAHJA A?A = FHE AH F = IE IA ?K F A =I IECKEA JAI ? @E?E AI

|Y I Y F | > T Y (UI UF )2 + (VI VF )2 > TUV

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@ @A A IK> @E?A 1 E @E?= A L= H ? HHAIF @EA JA A = E =CA =?JK= O A IK> @E?A . A L= H A = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= A ; 7 O 8 HAFHAIA J= = K E = ?E= O =I @ I ? F A JAI @A ?H E = ?E= @A AIF=?E @A ? H Y U V 2 H JE TY ? HHAIF @A = K >H= C >= F=H= = K E = ?E= O TUV A K >H= C >= F=H= = ?H E = ?E= + FKA@A @A@K?EHIA @A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H K F NA @A = E =CA IAH ? =IE ?=@ ? F NA @A FHE AH F = IE A ?= >E A IK ELA @A CHEI AI IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A > TY  O J= >E AI IK ?= >E A IK E B H =?E @A ? H > TUV  -IJ D=?A A IEIJA = I H >KIJ = JA ?= >E I @A E K E =?E O= GKA =K GKA = JA @E?D I ?= >E I A ELA @A K E = ?E= FKA@A ?= >E=H J=> A A JA JA HE?= A JA I L= HAI @A =I ? F A JAI @A ?H E = ?E= L= = LAHIA =BA?J=@=I -IJ JE D=H GKA = JA K ?= >E @A E K E =?E >EA = JA I >H=I FH OA?J=@=I F H I > AJ I I F NA AI =BA?J=@ I IA= =H?=@ I ? > AJ I @A FHE AH F =

J @ I AIJ=@ IJE? I
5E >EA J @ I I J @ I @AI?HEJ I D=IJ= A A J J= J I @A E =@ I @AHEL=JE L I ? I @A B @ ? E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= D= IE@ = F E= A JA KJE E =@ I J @ I A I FHAIA J= A EI FH > A = ) = D H= @A HA= E =H = K >H= E =?E O= IA= @A L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= @A ?K= GKEAH JH= A@E@= @A E@= = JAHE H A JA A JHA = E =CA =?JK= O = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= A K >H= A F A=@ IAH IEA FHA C >= O= IA= IJA >EA ?= ?K =@ @E E?= A JA 5E A >=HC A K = IA?KA ?E= @A L @A A HKE@ FHAIA JA A ?=@= F=HJA @A = E =CA FKA@A IAH @EIJE J - CA AH= =GKA =I F=HJAI @A = E =CA GKA FAHJA A ?= = > AJ I I ? FKA@A IAH K = F=HA@ =I L=HE=?E AI @A ELA @A CHEI @A I F NA AI A AI= = @A = E =CA > IE?= A JA I @A>E@=I = HKE@ E JH @K?E@ F H A IA I H 5E A >=HC A =I @ @A ANEIJ= > AJ I LE AI ?

) C HEJ

I @A B

'

FKA@A IAH H> AI =I @A =CK= =I L=HE=?E AI IAH FHE ?EF= A JA @A>E@=I = AIJA LE EA J O IAH A CA AH= K?D =O HAI GKA =I E JH @K?E@=I F H A IA I H -IJA H= = EA J I IKCEAHA GKA A K >H= A F A=@ A = @AJA??E @A LE EA J @A >AH = IAH ? IJ= JA A J @= = E =CA IE I >EA @AFA @EA JA @A ELA @A L=HE=?E @A ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA - CA AH= F @A I @A?EH GKA K IEIJA = ? @K AIJ=@ IJE? @EIF A @A =O H ?= JE@=@ @A E B H =?E @A B @ GKA I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= GKA I @EIF A @A = E =CA AIJE =@= @A B @ -IJ FAH EJA @EIA =H A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J I ? F A GKA A GKA IA F @H = IE I IA @EIF A @A K = E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= 2 @A I @A?EH A J ?AI GKA I IEIJA =I ? @K AIJ=@ IJE? L= = BK ?E =H A CA AH= A H GKA I IEIJA =I ? E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= O I IEIJA =I @AHEL=JEL I - E ? LA EA JA FHE ?EF= @A AIJ I IEIJA =I AI GKA L= = A?AIEJ=H K =O H JEA F @A ? FKJ F=H= >JA AH J @ I I AIJ=@ IJE? I A?AI=HE I GKA IE I DK>EAH= GKA AIJE =H = E =CA @A B @ )@A I ? J= >E AI A?AI=HE = =?A =H @E?D I AIJ=@ IJE? I =I A?AIE@=@AI @A = =?A = EA J IAH =O HAI GKA =I A?AI=HE=I F=H= I IEIJA =I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= I @AHEL=JEL I 2 H JH =@ F=H= F @AH ?= ?K =H I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A B H = FHA?EI= IAH = A?AI=HE GKA = AI?A = AIJKLEAH= E>HA @A > AJ I @A FHE AH F = = A I @KH= JA I FHE AH I E IJ= JAI @A BK ?E = EA J @A IEIJA = 5E AIJ BKAH= F IE> A FHE ?EF= A JA A =I F > E?=I @ @A AI ?=IE E ALEJ=> A GKA ANEIJ= A J @ A J > AJ I @A FHE AH F = A LE EA J A @EIA @A IEIJA = @A>A JA AH AIJ A ?KA J= +K= GKEAH IEIJA = ? @K @A @AJA??E AIJ=@ IJE? L= = @A =H A B @ ? K FH ?AI @A K ? K J @A L=HE=> AI = A=J HE=I ? K = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ =I ?E=@= ) = D H= @A HAFHAIA J=H @E?D= BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ JA A I @ I F IE>E E@=@AI

4AFHAIA J=?E

AIJ=@ I JE?= AIFA? ?= GKA =IK E I IA =FH NE = = = @EIJHE>K?E HA= 5KF EA @ AIJ GKA D=>H GKA AIJE =H I I F=H AJH I @A @E?D= @EIJHE>K?E = F=HJEH @A =I KAIJH=I @A = IA?KA ?E= @A E CA AI

F=H=

JHE?= - AIJA ?=I IA A F A= K = @EIJHE>K?E

4AFHAIA J=?E

I = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ @EHA?J= A JA = F=HJEH @A =I KAIJH=I @A = IA?KA ?E= @A A JH=@= IE D=?AH E CK = IKF IE?E I >HA = @EIJHE>K?E IK>O=?A JA -IJA J @ ALEJ= JA AH GKA A ACEH K @A O ?= ?K =H IKI F=H AJH I ?=H=?JAH IJE? I ,A JH @A I ?K= J=I @EIJHE>K?E @H = I J @ I AIJ=@ IJE? I F=H= JHE? I J= >E AI F IE> A A @AJAH E =H AI IA =IK A F=H= @A =H A ? F HJ= EA J @A K F NA )I JA

F=H=

JHE?= - AIJA ?=I AIJE =

,EIJHE>K?E

AI K E

@= AI 5

F NA 5 I FH FA I=I = ?HA=H F NA L=H = IEC E ?=JEL= A JA

=GKA =I GKA =IK A K = E?= @EIJHE>K?E F H =I @A >= = IA IE>E E@=@ ?K= @ A ELA @A K

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@A

LE EA J

IA =IK A GKA = @EIJHE>K?E @A FH >=>E E@=@ @A ?=@= F NA @A>A IAH @A =@= F H I @A K = @EIJHE>K?E -IJ=I @EIJHE>K?E AI I =? IA => AI ?K= @ A L= H @A K F NA FKA@A L=HE=H IEC E ?=JE L= A JA A A JEA F

,EIJHE>K?E

AI

K JE

@= AI - AIJA ?=I

J @ I F=H=

JHE? I K E

@= AI

,A JH @A =I @EIJHE>K?E AI K E @= AI = JA @A ?E= D=>EJK= AI A ACEH K = @EIJHE >K?E ?KO=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I E ? KO= K = A@E@= @A = JA @A ?E= ?A JH= ? FKA@A IAH = A@E= O K = A@E@= @A = @EIFAHIE F=H= ?=@= F NA )K GKA ANEIJA @EIJE J=I @EIJHE>K?E AI = @EIJHE>K?E FHABAHE@= AI = @EIJHE>K?E C=KIIE= = = ?K= IA >=I= A = IKF IE?E @A GKA =I L=HE=?E AI HKE@ I=I @A E JA IE@=@ A ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA IECKA K = @EIJHE>K?E C=KIIE= = @A A@E= ?AH .K EO IDE'& AI @A?EH = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA AIJ=H = @AI?HEJ= F H

(x, , ) =

1 2 2

(x)2 2 2

 $

IEA @ = A@E= O 2 = L=HE= = @A = @EIJHE>K?E 2 H J= J ? AIJA J @ ?= ?K = I F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA IK A@E= ? A@E@= @A = JA @A ?E= ?A JH= O = @AILE=?E J FE?= ? A@E@= @A @EIFAHIE 7 = LA AIJE =@ I I F=H AJH I @A = @EIJHE>K?E K F NA IAH ? =IE ?=@ ? FAHJA A?EA JA = FHE AH F = IE IK L= H ?=A BKAH= @A K E JAHL= ?A JH=@ A = A@E= O = ?DKH= FH F H?E = = = @AILE=?E J FE?= AIJE =@= F=H= @E?D F NA -I @A?EH = ? =IE ?=?E A JHA B @ > AJ IA HA= E = @A =?KAH@ = > IE I (x, y ) [ (x, y ) k (x, y ) ; (x, y ) + k (x, y )] . @ HAIJ

M (x, y ) =

 %

@ @A I @E?AI x, y D= IE@ = =@E@ I F=H= D=?AH J=H GKA = A@E= O = @AILE=?E J FE?= I AIJE =@ I F=H= ?=@= F NA E @AFA @EA JA A JA = AIJE =?E @A @E?D I F=H AJH I FKA@A IAH HA= E =@= @A @EIJE J=I B H =I = B H = E@A= IAH = = F=HJEH @A =I JE =I N KAIJH=I @A ?=@= F NA >JA AH @E?D I F=H AJH I @A =?KAH@ = =I ANFHAIE AI F=H= A ? ?K @A = A@E= O = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A K = IAHEA @A L= HAI

1 t = N t =
+ 2=H= A = AC=@= @A K KAL @AI?=HJ= I A JE

N 1

Iti
i=0

 &

1 N

N 1

(Iti t )2
i=0

 ' AJH I = JAHE HAI I = ?= ?K =H I

=H? D=>H GKA =?JK= E =H I F=H =H? = =@E I A KAL O L LA

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I @A B

! GKA J= J A AL=@ I JA IACKE@= HA?KHIEL= =?KAH@ =  

F=H AJH I 5EA @ AIJA J @ A I E JKEJEL O I FHA?EI GKA@= ? =H A JEA F @A ? FKJ ? = A?AIE@=@ @A = =?A = EA J @A A HE= IAH F H GKA AIJ= AIJH=JACE= IKA A IAH = A ACE@= = AIJH=JACE= I? A AI = =?JK= E =?E @A I F=H AJH I A@E= JA = @A E =@= =?JK= E =?E A@E= JA AIJA J @ = A@E= @A = @EIJHE>K?E C=KIIE= = IA =?JK= E = @A

t = (1 ) t1 + It

@ @A t AI = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= A A E IJ= JA =?JK= t1 = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= A A E IJ= JA = JAHE H A It = KAIJH= =?JK= - L= H @A @AJAH E = = LA ?E@=@ ? = GKA A IEIJA = LE@= I L= HAI = JAHE HAI O IA ?A JH= A I L= HAI =?JK= AI + FKA@A LAHIA = ANFHAIE = JAHE H AI IE E =H = = B H = @A =?JK= E =H A @A @A B @ A I = C HEJ I @A E =CA @A HABAHA ?E= GKA A F A= JH=@ @A = = JH I 114 2 H JH =@ ANEIJA @EIJE J=I AIJH=JACE=I F=H= HA= E =H = =?JK= E =?E @A = L=HE= = - 5J=K AH'' F H A A F = ANFHAIE A ACE@= AI = IECKEA JA
2 2 2 t = (1 ) t 1 + (It t )



@ @A t AI = @AILE=?E J FE?= A A E IJ= JA =?JK= O t1 = @AILE=?E E IJ= JA = JAHE H = =@A'& IE A >=HC = =?JK= E =?E @A = L=HE= = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

J FE?= A A = HAIF @A =

t = (1 ) t1 + |It t |
2 H JE A ? A = = L=HE= = IA =?JK= E = IAC

2 2 2 t = (1 ) t + (It t )2 1 + (t t1 )

!

= FHE ?EF= LA J= = @A = =?JK= E =?E HA?KHIEL= AI GKA AI A?AI=HE A = =?A = EA J @A E CK = E =CA = JAHE H O= GKA I E JAHLEA A A A ? ?K = E =CA =?JK= O I F=H AJH I AIJE =@ I A A E IJ= JA = JAHE H = FHE ?EF= @AILA J= = AI GKA @A AIJ= B H = I F=H AJH I AIJE =@ I I I E AN=?J I GKA IE IA ?= ?K =H= A F A= @ =I N JE =I KAIJH=I >IJ= JA @=@ GKA = FHA?EIE ? IACKE@= ? AIJA J @ AI IK ?EA JA AIJ AIJH=JACE= @A =?JK= E =?E IKA A IAH = IACKE@= F H J @ I I IEIJA =I GKA A F A= K = @EIJHE>K?E K E @= C=KIIE= = ) = D H= @A =?JK= E =H I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A ?=@= K @A I F NA AI @A = E =CA J= >E AI F IE> A IACKEH I @ I JEF I @EIJE J I @A =?JK= E =?E AI @A E@=I = JAHE H A JA F=H= I = C HEJ I @A E =CA @A B @ @A HABAHA ?E= -I @A?EH = =?JK= E =?E ?EAC= =?JK= E = I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A J @ I I F NA AI @A = E =CA @A =?KAH@ =   O      ! IE JA AH A ?KA J= = ? =IE ?=?E A B @ FHE AH F = HA= E =@ F H A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J

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CA AI A ? H = AIJE =?E @A I F=H AJH I FKA@A = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ C=KIIE= = IA

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(x, , ) =

3/2

1/2

A 2 (x)

1 (x)

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O = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ IA JH= IB H = A
(xi i )2
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*= AIJ= IKF IE?E GKA FKA@A IAH =IK E@= IE ? AJAH K AHH H AN?AIEL A ? ?K @A I F=H AJH I @A = @EIJHE>K?E IA HA@K?A = ? ?K @A I F=H AJH I @A = AH= E @AFA @EA JA F=H= ?=@= K @A I ?= = AI - FHE ?EF= E ? LA EA JA GKA FHAIA J= = @EIJHE>K?E K E @= ? BK ?E @A @EI JHE>K?E C=KIIE= = AI = >= = IA IE>E E@=@ GKA FHAIA J= A =I @A = E =CA @ @A = =?JELE@=@ AI A AL=@= FK@EA @ AC=H = FH @K?EH =I @A ?ACKAH= J J= AI @A?EH AI F IE> A @AJA?J=H =>I KJ= A JA =@= A @E?D= = IE = L=HE= = A @E?D= = AI A AL= @= +K= @ AIJ ?KHHA JH I = C HEJ I GKA =IK A JH=I @EIJHE>K?E AI FKA@A JA AH A HAI ? F HJ= EA J I GKA A @A C=KIIE=

J @ I F=H=

JHE? I >E

@= AI

- JHA JH I = C HEJ I A = C HEJ 94 9D 9DA 9DAHA 9D=J  FH FKAIJ F H 0=HEJ= C K'& AIJ=> A?A K = K >H= E =?E A I IA A?JEL= >=I=@= A = DEF JAIEI @A K =

) C HEJ

I @A B

!! = C HEJ ? FKJ= JHAI F=H AJH I AIJ=@ IJE? I JHA = EA J O IAH F IJAHE H A JA =?JK= E =@ I AJH I ?=H=?JAHE = >EA = L=HE=>E E@=@ @A F NA IA= HA =JEL= A JA IE E =HAI = =I @A A JHA = EA F=H= ?=@= F NA

@EIJHE>K?E >E @= F=H= A HKE@ F=H= ?=@= F NA @KH= JA A FAHE @ @A A JH=I ?=@= KAL =H? -IJ I JHAI F=H EA JH=I GKA =I ? @E?E AI @A JH=>= J - ? ?HAJ AIJA = C HEJ ?= ?K = = = = NE = E JA IE@=@ N  E = E JA IE@=@ M 

NE = @EBAHA ?E= =>I KJ= A JHA

=H? I ?

IA?KJEL I D FAH

2=H= = ? =IE ?=?E A JHA B @ O FHE AH F = K F NA IAH ? IE@AH=@ ? JA A?EA JA = FHE AH F = IE IA ?K F A K = @A AIJ=I @ I ? @E?E AI

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@ @A B AI K F=H AJH C >= GKA @A>A IAH = KIJ=@ F H A KIK=HE 6H=I = AC=@= @A ?=@= KAL =H? A =H? =?JK= IKIJEJKOA = =H? I = JECK O I JHAI F=H AJH I = JAHE HAI I =?JK= E =@ I ? A L= H @A = KAL= KAIJH= KAL= A JA @EIF A I @A I @ I JEF I @A =?JK= E =?E ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA AI @A?EH =?JK= E =?E ?EAC= IA A?JEL= 5E A >=HC A AIJA ?=I = =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= JH=A ? IEC A FH > A = @A E@ = JAHE H A JA ? =>H= HJ= - AIJA ?=I ANEIJA @ I FAI I @EIJE J I K H FE@ F=H= IACKEH =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ O JH A J F=H= GKA I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = IA= E ? HF H=@ I H FE@= A JA = B @ 2=H= ? HHACEH AIJA FH > A = = I K?E E ? HF H=@= = IEIJA = AI AIJ=> A?AH F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA K ? J=@ H O ? J=H ?K= J=I LA?AI A F NA D= IE@ ? =IE ?=@ ? FHE AH F = 5E = ?KA J= = ?= = K K >H= @AJAH E =@ =I IK?AIEL=I KAIJH=I @A AIA F NA I KJE E =@ I O= F=H= HA= E =H = =?JK= E =?E @A I JHAI F=H AJH I @A = C HEJ 94

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K

P ( xt ) =
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@ @A K AI A AH @A C=KIIE= =I ? IE@AH=I J= O ? BKA @EI?KJE@ = JAHE H A JA wi,t AI A FAI AIJE =@ GKA F H?E @A I @=J I I JA E@ I A ?KA J= F H AIJ= C=KIIE= = @A = E IE = C=KIIE= = A A E IJ= JA t i,t O i,t I = A@E= O = L=HE= = HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A = E IE = C=KIIE= = A A E IJ= JA t O AI = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ @A = C=KIIE= = @A E@= ?
(xt i ) 1 2 (x, i , i ) = A 2i 2i
2

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) JA = AC=@= @A K KAL =H? F=H= ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA @A>A @AJAH E =HIA IE FAHJA A?A = B @ = FHE AH F = 2=H= A IA ? FHKA>= IE A L= H @A @E?D F NA ?=A @A JH @A I HCA AI AIJ=> A?E@ I F H = CK = @A =I K C=KIIE= =I GKA B H = A @A AIJ=@ IJE? 5E ANEIJA = CK = C=KIIE= = A JHA ?KO I HCA AI AIJ ? FHA @E@ A L= H @A KAL F NA O =@A I @E?D= C=KIIE= = AI K = @A =I N FHE AH=I AI @A?EH =I GKA B H = F=HJA @A @A @A B @ A F NA IAH ? =IE ?=@ ? B @ 5E @E?D= C=KIIE= = IA ? HHAIF @A ? =I K N JE =I @EIJHE>K?E AI A F NA AI ? =IE ?=@ ? FHE AH F= 5E IA D= A ? JH=@ E CK = C=KIIE= = GKA =IK = A L= H @A @E?D F NA A F NA J= >E AI ? =IE ?=@ ? FHE AH F = - ?K= GKEAH ?=I K = LA HA= E = = @AJA??E @A LE EA J =I @EIJHE>K?E AI F=H= ?=@= F NA @A>A IAH =?JK= E =@=I 2=H= A ? IE@AH= I @ I IEJK=?E AI @EIJE J=I 5E D= IE@ A ? JH=@= = CK = C=KIIE= = GKA =IK = A L= H @A KAL F NA I F=H AJH I @A AIJ= C=KIIE= = I =?JK= E =@ I @A =?KAH@ =

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EA JH=I GKA A HAIJ @A C=KIIE= =I I @E ?=@=I 5E ANEIJA E CK = C=KIIE= = GKA =IK = A L= H @A KAL F NA = JE = C=KIIE= = AI IKIJEJKE@= F H K = KAL= ? A L= H @A KAL F NA ? A@E= ? K = L=HE= = E E?E= HA =JEL= A JA A AL=@= O K FAI FHE HEJ=HE wi,t FAGKA - ?K= GKEAH ?=I D=O= D=>E@ ? E ?E@A ?E= A FAI @A ?=@= K = @A =I C=KIIE= =I wi IA =?JK= E = @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

wi,t = (1 ) wi,t1 + Mi,t

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@ @A AI A B=?J H @A =FHA @E = A O Mi,t IAH  F=H= = @EIJHE>K?E C=KIIE= = GKA =IK = A L= H @A KAL F NA O  F=H= A HAIJ @A @EIJHE>K?E AI ,AIFK I @A = =?JK= E =?E IA LKA LA = H = E =H F=H= GKA = ANFHAIE  ' IA ? HHAIF @= ? K = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ @A FH >=>E E@=@ L E@= 5E ? IE@AH= I E CA AI A ? H O =IK EA @ GKA =I >= @=I @A ? H I E @AFA @EA JAI A JHA I = ANJA IE @A AIJA = C HEJ F=H= E CA AI A ? H AI IE E =H = = HA= E =@= F=H= I = C HEJ I K E @= AI C=KIIE= I @EI?KJE@ = JAHE H A JA F H GKA IA L LAH = JH=J=H =GK 7 = @A =I LA J= =I I IEC E ?=JEL=I @A AIJA J @ AI GKA ?K= @ = = C GKA AI KAL A = AI?A = IA A FAH EJA A FA =H = B H =H F=HJA @A @A AIJ= =??E @AIJHKOA A @A @A B @ ANEIJA JA ,A DA?D =K GKA = KAL= @EIJHE>K?E AI E ? HF H=@= = @A AIJ=@ IJE? A FAI @A AIJ= KAL= C=KIIE= = IAH KO FAGKA @A J= B H = GKA AIJ=H ? FHA @E@= A JHA =I N FHE AH=I GKA I =I GKA HA= A JA ? B H = A @A @A B @ 2=H= GKA K > AJ KAL A = AI?A = ? EA ?A = B H =H F=HJA @A B @ AI A?AI=HE GKA FAH = A ?= AIJ=?E =HE A AH @A LA?AI IK ?EA JA F=H= GKA A FAI @A IK @EIJHE>K?E IKFAHA = = IE = @EIJHE>K?E )@A I =K GKA K > AJ @A FHE AH F = D=O= IE@ E ? HF H=@ = @A @A B @ ?K= @ AIJA @AI=F=HA?A = @EIJHE>K?E GKA HA A =>= A B @ = JAHE H J @=L = FAH = A?A ? I EI I L= HAI @A A@E= O L=HE= = =K GKA ? K L= H @A w A H FAH GKA IAH H FE@= A JA =?JK= E =@ I F=H= HA? >H=H IKI L= HAI HECE = AI JE ?HEJAHE = ? IE@AH=H IAH = A J @ = IACKEH F=H= H@A =H =I C=KIIE= =I @A J= B H = GKA IA= =I N FHE AH=I =I GKA @A A A B @ )K GKA ?=>H = FA I=H A H@A =H =I C=KIIE= =I = F=HJEH @A IKI FAI I wi = F?E IACKE@= F H 5J=K AH'' AI H@A =H =I A BK ?E @A L= H wi /i 2=H= A JA @AH AIJ= A A??E ? IE@AHA I A FHE AH KC=H =I @EIJHE>K?E AI ? HHAIF @EA JAI = B @ + I L= HAI ? HHAIF @EA JAI = AIJ=I @EIJHE>K?E AI I =I GKA I =F=HA?AH IKI FAI I IAH A AL=@ I ,A EI

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b

N = arg m n
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J @ I

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( x) = f
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6 FE?= A JA = BK ?E

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(t) =

A 22

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1 Pr (x) = N

N j i=1 j =4 / *

(xj xij )

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m 0,68 2

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JH I

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@E?D= ANFHAIE @A>A IAH HALEI=@= I @AJA E@= A JA ?K= @ = AI?A = = = = E =H JA C= CH= ?= JE@=@ @A LE EA J @A B @ - = ANFHAIE = JAHE H A F=H AJH GKA J = L= HAI A JHA  O  @AJAH E = = LA ?E@=@ ? = GKA IA =?JK= E = A B @ 7 L= H @A A AL=@ D=H GKA A B @ IA =?JK= E?A H FE@= A JA O IEC= =I L=HE=?E AI @A = AI?A = -IJ AI JE ?K= @ = E =CA @A B @ JEA A L=HE=?E AI ? JE K=I ? FKA@A IAH ?= >E I @A E K E =?E I A I >HKI? I @E ?=?E AI A I F=H AJH I @A = ? =H= AJ? 5E A >=HC AIJ= ?=H=?JAH IJE?= D=H GKA I > AJ I A LE EA J IA E ? HF HA H FE@= A JA = B @ ?K= AI @AIA=> A 7 L= H @A @A =IE=@ >= D=H GKA = AIJE =?E @A B @ IEC= FAHBA?J= A JA =I L=HE=?E AI @A IJA >JA EA @ F H J= J K = AIJE =?E GKA L= = IAH @A KJE E@=@ F=H= A IEIJA = ) JAI @A ANF AH A J @ A F A=@ A AIJ= JAIEI L= I = = = E =H A JHA GK H= C @A L= HAI FKA@A L=HE=H A L= H @A )OK@ @ I @A = CKH=  F @A I >JA AH K = AIJE =?E @A AIJA H= C ,E?D= CKH= IE K = = AL K?E @A B @ AIJE =@ = JA K = L=HE=?E >HKI?= @A ELA @A F NA @AI@A  D=IJ=  = ?= =@ A A JH= I?KHI @A K = E?= E =CA )K GKA = CKH= KAIJH= GKA E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A L= H @A = AIJE =?E @A B @ = ?= = A L= H = @A F NA @AFA @EA @ @A L= H @A IJA IA = ?= =H = JAI @AIFK I 2 H A A F F=H= K L= H @A ECK= = 0,05 LA I GKA IA = ?= = K L= H FH NE = L= H = A =FH NE =@= A JA  E CA AI 5E ? IE@AH= I K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= J FE? JH=>= = @ = E CA AI F I IACK @ JA A I GKA A JEA F @A AIJ=>E E =?E

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

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AI @A K I  IACK @ I GKA = J @ I I ABA?J I FKA@A ? IE@AH=HIA ? IK ?EA JA A JA H FE@ 5E A >=HC IE >= = I D=IJ= 0,005 AIJA FAHE @ O= AC= = IAH @A K =I " E CA AI GKA AGKEL= A = I @A JHAI E KJ I GKA AI A CA AH= E =?AFJ=> A F=H= K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= 2=H= L= HAI E BAHE HAI A FAHE @ AI J= CH= @A GKA A K IEIJA = HA= IAH = E F IE> A IACKEH =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ - AI?A =I AIJ JE?=I @ @A = E?= @E ?=?E BKAH= = L=HE=?E CH=@K= @A = E K E =?E K L= H @A = 0,005 F @H = IAH I GKA IK ?EA JA O= GKA A HEJ @A L=HE=?E @A B @ IAH = IK ?EA JA A JA A J ? F=H= GKA A IEIJA = FK@EAH= IACKEH IKI L=HE=?E AI 5E A >=HC A AI?A =I HA= AI ? =I GKA = = E =HA I A AIJA JH=>= =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ IA @A>A I = = L=HE=?E CH=@K= @A = E K E =?E IE GKA J= >E FKA@A ANEIJEH L=HE=?E AI I >HKI?=I @A IJ= @A>E@ F H A A F = =I K>AI = JAH=?E @A I F=H AJH I @A = ? =H= I >H=I AJ? F H GKA L= HAI I FH NE I = 0,05 IAH = I @AIA=> AI = EI = CKH= F @A I LAH GKA F=H= K L= H ECK= = 0,2 A IEIJA = J=H@= E?= A JA K =I  E CA AI A =FH NE =HIA = L= H = 6= >E AI E F HJ= JA JA AH A ?KA J= A AH @A E CA AI GKA FH ?AI= A IEIJA = - = AIJE =?E = JAHE H ? IE@AH= I GKA A IEIJA = JH=>= =>= = E CA AI F H IACK @ 5E A >=HC J= >E IA FKA@A ? IE@AH=H IEIJA =I JH=>= = @ = A H LA ?E@=@ E ? KO = LA ?E@=@AI =O HAI 2 H A A F K IEIJA = J FE? FKA@A FH ?AI=H # E CA AI F H IACK @ - AIJA ?=I F=H= K L= H @A = 0,005 A JEA F @A AIJ=>E E =?E F=I=H = = IAH @A $ IACK @ I ?K= F @H = A FA =H = IAH =?AFJ=> A - ?K= GKEAH ?=I = ? ? KIE AI GKA A JEA F @A AIJ=>E E =?E @A B @ @AFA @A J= J @A L= H @A F=H AJH ? @A AH @A E CA AI GKA FH ?AI= A IEIJA = F H IACK @ - AIJ= JAIEI L= I = ? IE@AH=H IEA FHA K IEIJA = JH=>= = @ = @ I E CA AI F H IACK @ =I GKA I L E@=I =I ? IE@AH=?E AI I >HA A L= H @A ? A J=@=I A A F HH=B = JAHE H - = CKH=I  ! = O " = F @A I ? FH >=H = FHA?EIE A A IACKE EA J @A =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ A K = IA?KA ?E= HA= A ? ?HAJ A = IA?KA ?E= 11 ?KO= FHE AH= E =CA FKA@A LAHIA A = CKH=  F=H= @EIJE J I L= HAI @A F=H AJH = CKH=  ? HHAIF @A = K F NA AIJ JE? GKA =FA =I L=H = IK L= H = =HC @A = IA?KA ?E= - AIJA ?=I FKA@A ? FH >=HIA GKA ?K= GKEAH L= H @A F @H = IACKEH =I ECAH=I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ IE E C FH > A = 5E A >=HC = CKH= ! = ? HHAIF @A = K F NA E FK IEL @ @A ?=@= K @A I E FK I I GKA IA FKA@A LAH A = CKH= ? HHAIF @A = F=I @A K LAD ?K - AIJA ?=I LA I GKA J= J = AIJE =?E ? = 0,2 = 0,05 E ? HF H= H FE@= A JA A KAL > AJ = B @ ?K= @ IAH = @AIA=> A GKA AIJ ?KHHEAH= 6= >E F @A I LAH ? = AIJE =?E ? = 0,005 AI E ?=F= @A IACKEH =I ECAH=I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ 2 H JE A = CKH= " = ? HHAIF @A = K F NA GKA IA ? F HJ= @A = AH= AIJ JE?= @KH= JA K = >KA = F=HJA @A = IA?KA ?E= FAH GKA = F=HJEH @A = E =CA ' =FH NE =@= A JA ?= >E= IK L= H F=H= FAH = A?AH A AIJA KAL L= H E @A E@= A JA - AIJA ?=I LA I ? E?= A JA = AIJE =?E @A B @ ? K L= H @A CH= @A A AIJA ?=I 0,2 AI ?=F= @A IACKEH AIJA L=HE=?E O F H JH =@ LA I ? = AIJE =?E A F A= @ = 0,005 AI E ?=F= @A IACKEH A E C A J =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @

#

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F H GKA A AIJA FK J F @H = I @AJAH E =H O= GKA L= HAI @A = 0,005 A HAI K ?= IAH HA? A @=> AI = A I A AIJA JEF @A AI?A =I 2=H= B=?E EJ=H = LEIK= E =?E @A AIJA ABA?J A = CKH= # = IA KAIJH= A EI ? K J @A IA = AI = JAHE HAI = F E=@= ) F=HJEH @A I HAIK J=@ I = JAHE HAI F @A I ? ? KEH GKA A FHE ?EF= FH > A = = = D H= @A AIJE =H O = JA AH A B @ @A = AI?A = L= I = A ? JH=H ? IAH = @A AIFAH=H A =I =I @ @A ANEIJA LE EA J @A B @ JH= ? ? KIE GKA I IAHLEH F=H= @AI=HH =H A J @ @A AIJE =?E @A B @ FH FKAIJ AI = AIJE =?E @A L= H @A F=H AJH E@A= )K GKA AIJ L= = @AFA @AH @A =I ? @E?E AI F=HJE?K =HAI @A = =F E?=?E ? A JEF @A AI?A = JEF @A ? =H= AJ? A K =I ? @E?E AI CA HE?=I ? FKA@A IAH =I = = E =@=I A = AI?A = = JAHE H F @A I LAH GKA A L= H E@A= IA A ?KA JH= A J H = 0,05 IEA FHA O ?K= @ A =F HJA I K = =OK@= ANJH= F=H= F @AH IACKEH = B @ A ?=I I AN?AF?E = AI ? E FK I I ?= >E I >HKI? I @A B @ AJ? -I @A?EH IE JA A I A ?KA J= GKA A = AI?A = L= = =F=HA?AH > AJ I FAHJA A?EA JAI = B @ A LE EA J AIFA?E= A JA A I F NA AI E FK IEL I K L= H @A @A =IE=@ = J D=H GKA I > AJ I @A B @ IA E ? HF HA H FE@= A JA = = AIJE =?E ? FKA@A LAHIA F H A A F A = CKH= ! = )K GKA = I K?E I F FK =H F=H= AIJA FH > A =

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

#

250

200

150
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100

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? JE K= @A B @ F=H= @EIJE J I L= HAI @A =H?= < A = CKH=  

AI = = =@= =?JK= E =?E IA A?JEL= GKA E F E?= = =?JK= E =?E @A B @ E?= A JA ?K= @ IA D= @AJA?J=@ LE EA J A = AI?A = >EA = =?JK= E =?E ? @EIJE J I L= HAI @A @AFA @EA @ @A IE IA @AJA?J LE EA J A AIJ= JAIEI L= I = FH F AH K J @ =C I A => H=@ GKA I = HAF HJ=@ A HAI HAIK J=@ I AIFA?E= A JA A =I @A = E =CA FAHJA A?EA JAI = B @ E FK IEL O ?= >E= JA 2=H= A =F=HJA @A = AIJE =?E @A B @ FHE ?EF= GKA IA ?= ?K = ? K L= H @A ECK= FH NE = 0,05 L= I = AIJE =H JH B @ GKA IA =?JK= E?A K?D I H FE@ ? K L= H @A = 0,2 -IJA KAL B @ GKA L= I = @A E =H = F=HJEH @A =D H= ? B @ H FE@ L= = ? IJEJKEH K KAL AIJ=@ IJE? F=H= A IEIJA = E?= A JA IAHLEH F=H= ? JH =H = B H = A GKA IA =?JK= E = A B @ FHE ?EF= 6= O ? F @A I LAH A = CKH= ! O "  # F=H= K = LAHIE = F E=@= @A = = JAHE H CKH= IAH = E JAHAI= JA GKA = AIJE =?E IA= ?=F= @A IACKEH =I L=HE=?E AI @A B @ ?K= @ IJ=I I CH=@K= AI O =?JK= E =HIA =?JK= E =HIA A J= A JA ?K= @ =I L=HE=?E AI I >HKI?=I 5E A >=HC D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA ANEIJEH L=HE=?E AI >HKI?=I GKA J= >E @A>A IAH IACKE@=I ? F HAA F =I L=HE=?E AI @A ? H A A ?EA A CA AH= @A I F NA AI GKA DA I @A E@ ? ?= >E= JAI ,A AIJ= B H = = FH FKAIJ= AI ?= ?K =H = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA = E =CA =?JK= O A B @ H FE@ O IE IJ= AI IKFAHE H = K @AJAH E =@ K >H= GKA FKA@A IAH A EI A F A=@ F=H= = @AJA??E @A LE EA J A B @ IA =?JK= E = J= O ? IA HA? CA A = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

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250
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200
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150

100

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##

Ft2 =

Ft2 si 1 2 (1 2 ) Ft1 + 2 It resto

It Ft4 > t

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@ @A F 2 AI A B @ FHE ?EF= EA JH=I GKA F 4 AI A B @ H FE@ )I EI ? =D H= ANEIJA @ I L= HAI F=H= = ? IJ= JA @A =?JK= E =?E IA D= E@A JE ?=@ = @A =?JK= E =?E @A B @ FHE ?EF= ? = J=?E 2 2 H JE t IA ? HHAIF @A ? = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A F NA A = E =CA =?JK= - ? ?K @A IK L= H IAH @AJ= =@ A A IECKEA JA =F=HJ=@ + = ANFHAIE = JAHE H JA @H = I HAIKA J A FH > A = @A = JA E EA J @A B @ A FHAIA ?E= @A LE EA J 5E A >=HC HAI LAH = A FH > A = @A I F NA AI ?= >E= JAI 2=H= A IA FH F A = IECKEA JA @E ?=?E @A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H IE Ft2 1 2 Ft = (1 4 ) Ft1 + 4 It IE 2 (1 2 ) Ft1 + 2 It HAIJ
2

Nv It Ft4 > t < n n Nv It Ft4 > t

 "#

= ANFHAIE Nv () AI K = BK ?E GKA ?KA J= A AH @A LA?AI ? IA?KJEL=I GKA = ANFHAIE E JAHE H AI ?EAHJ= ,A AIJ= B H = = ANFHAIE Nv It Ft4 > t L= = ? J=H A AH @A LA?AI ? IA?KJEL=I GKA A B @ H FE@ IA @AIL = J=> A A JA @A = E =CA =?JK= + ? K L= H @A = 0,2 A B @ J=H@= A JHA # O  =H? I A = ?= =H =I L=HE=?E AI >HKI?=I @A B @ ?K= @ AIJ= L=HE=?E D= IE@ @A>E@= = K E FK I K > AJ @A FHE AH F = A LE EA J = BK ?E Nv () K ?= AC=H = IAH =O H @A K @AJAH E =@ L= H 5E A ACE I F=H= n K L= H ECAH= A JA IKFAHE H = BK ?E = JAHE H K ?= IA =?JEL=H A FHAIA ?E= @A LE EA J O F H J= J A B @ FHE ?EF= IA LAH =BA?J=@ F H A LE EA J @A @E?D > AJ 2 H JH =@ IE A B @ ?= >E= @A ELA F=H= FAH = A?AH A AIJA KAL ELA F H K JEA F E @A E@ A B @ H FE@ J=H@=H A JHA # O  =H? I A = ?= =H AIJA KAL L= H D=?EA @ GKA A B @ FHE ?EF= J= >E IA =?JK= E?A H FE@= A JA = ?= = @ K L= H FH NE = @A B @ A A I @A  =H? I = ? IJ= JA n A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H I FAH EJEH @EI?HE E =H A JHA = > I BA A I AI @A?EH K > AJ @A FHE AH F = K ?= >E A A B @ 5A D= A ACE@ F=H= A JEF @A AI?A =I ? =I GKA AIJ= I ANFAHE A J= @ K L= H ECK= = # + A B @ H FE@ = ?= =H = JAI GKA A B @ FHE ?EF= A KAL L= H @A B @ = BK ?E Nv () @A =H @A AIJ=H =?JEL= A AIA A J O @A KAL A B @ FHE ?EF= L LAH = =?JK= E =HIA ? IK L= H @A 2 ? HHAIF @EA JA - =I CKH=I ! > O "  # > IA KAIJH= A HAIK J=@ @A = AIJE =?E @A B @ @A I EI I F NA AI = = E =@ I A =I CKH=I ! = O " = A AIJA ?=I A F A= @ =I L=HE=?E AI A A = C HEJ @A = JA E EA J @A B @ LEIJ=I = JAHE H A JA 2 @A I LAH ? F H K =@ A = CKH= " > A B @ FHE ?EF= IA =@=FJ= ? K?D= =O H H=FE@A = = L=HE=?E >HKI?= @A B @ J=H@= @ E?= A JA $ =H? I AN=?J= A JA @AI@A A =H? ' D=IJ= A '$ A = ?= =H A KAL L= H = @A B @

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,A ECK= B H = A = CKH= ! > IA FKA@A ? FH >=H ? A B @ FHE ?EF= E ? HF H= A E CK = ?=IE E CK @A I > AJ I A LE EA J GKA =F=HA?A A = AI?A = = EI JEA F GKA AI ?=F= @A IACKEH =I L=HE=?E AI CH=@K= AI @A B @ = A H= FH @K?E@= F H A KAL = C HEJ FH FKAIJ FKA@A LAHIA ? =O H ? =HE@=@ IE ? F=H= I =I CKH=I # = O >

+ ?K

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6= O ? IA LE A = HALEIE @A AIJ=@ @A =HJA I >HA I @EIJE J I J @ I AIJ= @ IJE? I @AI?HEJ I A = EJAH=JKH= F=H= = @AJA??E @A LE EA J F C ! K = @A =I ANFHAIE AI I ? A JA A F A=@=I F=H= A ? ?K O =?JK= E =?E ? JE K= @A = L=HE= = AI = FH FKAIJ= F H 5J=K AH''
2 2 t = (1 ) t t )2 1 + (It

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6= >E LE I GKA IA D= FH FKAIJ @EIJE J=I L=HE= JAI @A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H ? F H A A F =I A?K=?E AI   = =@A'&  ! ? A = =K GKA = I B= @A BK ?E = EA J @A J @=I A =I AI KO IE E =H )K GKA I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I ? ?K= GKEAH= @A A =I I A CA AH= KO =?AFJ=> AI A A ?=I @A JH=>= =H ? IA?KA ?E=I @A L @A ? CH= ? F A JA @A LE EA J @A B @ L=HE=?E AI E F HJ= JAI @A = E K E =?E AI @A?EH @A JEF @A IA?KA ?E=I ? =I GKA AIJ= I JH=>= = @ A AIJ= JAIEI =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI IKA A FHAIA J=H FH > A =I E F HJ= JAI 2=H= ? FHA @AH AIJA FH > A = >=IJ= ? = = E =H = AIFAH= = @A AIJE =@ H = JAHE H - FHAIA ?E= @A IA = AI IE L=HE=?E @A = E K E =?E = A I =GKA =I ?KO= E K E =?E L=H A J= A J= A JA GKA = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= IA =?AHGKA ? >=IJ= JA FHA?EIE = L= H @A = A@E= HA= E { t } =  = AIFAH= = @A = ANFHAIE  "$ IAH = - t

= (1 ) - t1 + - (It t )2
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2 - t

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(1 ) - t1 + 2 = 2

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t = t
2 H IE F E?E@=@ IKF C= I GKA A L= H @A t AI ? ?=I = AIFAH= = @A IACK @ J H E @A = ANFHAIE

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2

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3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500
s = (1 - a )s
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Media estimada m = (1 - a ) m + a I t t -1 t Media real

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2

Varianza real

+a

(I t - I t -1 )
2

600

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900

1000

.ECKH= % -IJE =?E CKH= $

@A =

A@E= O = L=HE=

= @A = IA = = A=J HE=

IJH=@= A

@EIJE J I - FHE AH @A A I HAFHAIA J=@ A ACH IAH = = AIJE =?E IECKEA @ = ANFHAIE FH FKAIJ= F H 5J=K AH'' O ? A J=@= = JAHE H A JA A = A?K=?E  "$ >LE= @ A JH= IEJ HE E E?E= GKA AI @A>E@ = = A JEJK@ F H F=HJA @A = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= A = ?= =H IK L= H = O GKA JAH E = ?K= @ = A@E= AIJE =@= IA =FH NE = = IK L= H JA HE? F @A I ? FH >=H ? = L=HE= = AIJE =@= IA =FH NE = FAHBA?J= A JA = IK L= H AIFAH=@ - AIJA FK J @A>A I E @E?=H GKA IA D= A ACE@ @A E>AH=@= A JA L= HAI F=H= A F=H AJH KO FAGKA I AL K?E A J= @A =I IA = AI AIJE =@=I ? A E? FH F IEJ @A D=?AH I ? =H= AIJ= @A IJH=?E I HAIK J=@ I GKA >JA @H = I ? L= HAI @A I H = AI AI @A?EH I CH= @AI IAH = I EI I FAH = = LA IAH = I @EB ?E AI @A F @AH IAH LEIK= E =@ I A K = CH ?= ? = HAFHAIA J=@= A = CKH= = JAHE H 5E A >=HC ?K= @ = E K E =?E @A = AI?A = AI = IE GKA IKBHA L=HE=?E AI I A I E F HJ= JAI O = K = LA ?E@=@ J= GKA = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= FKA@A IACKEH ? F AJ= A JA @E?D=I L=HE=?E AI J= O ? IA D= @A IJH=@ = JAHE H A JA = AIJE =?E @A = L=HE= = FKA@A @AL LAH HAIK J= @ I F ? FHA?EI I 2=H= LEIK= E =H AIJA FH > A = L= I = IE K =H @A KAL K = IA = = A=J HE= @A L=HE= =  O ?KO= A@E= J A A L= H  @KH= JA =I FHE AH=I KAIJH=I O GKA ?= >EA >H I?= A JA = L= AH = F=HJEH @A = KAIJH=  - = CKH= & F @A I LAH @E?D= IA = -IJ= IA = ? IJEJKOA K @A =FH NE =@ @A ?= >E @A E K E =?E J FE? @A ?EAHJ I AI?A =HE I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= - AIJA ?=I IE A F A= I =I EI =I ANFHAIE AI F=H= A ? ?K @A = A@E= O = L=HE= = >JA @H = I =I HAIFKAIJ=I IJH=@=I A = CKH= ' 5E I = I A A

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

8

#'

-2

-4 0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

.ECKH=

& 5A =

AIJ=?E

=HE= @A L=HE=

=

L= FH @A L=

H @A = L=HE= = AIJE =@=  A= ACH= F @A I ? FH >=H ? EA JH=I IA @K?A E C ?= >E A = E K E =?E IJ= AI >= J= JA FHA?EI= 5E A >=HC = F=HJEH E IJ= JA @A ?= >E @A E K E =?E = L=HE= = AIJE =@= @E AHA A ?=IE K   @A IK H HECE = O AIJ= @EI?HAF= ?E= IA = JEA A @KH= JA K FAHE @ @A JEA F ? IE@AH=> A - ? ? KIE A AIJK@E = JAHE H I D= IAHLE@ F=H= ? FH >=H GKA IE >EA =I AN FHAIE AI @A AIJE =?E ? JE K= @A = L=HE= = @A K = IA = I? A JA A F A=@=I A JH=>= I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= ? FKA@A IAH =I FH FKAIJ=I F H 5J=K AH'' AG  = =@A'& AG  ? A = AG ! BHA?A HAIK J=@ I >=IJ= JA =?AFJ=> AI ?K= @ = AI?A = AI AIJ=> A ?K= @ IJ= @A = @A IAH @A>E@ = K?JK=?E AI A = E K E =?E I >H=I AJ? =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI BHA?A HAIK J=@ I F ? FHA?EI I + = E@A= @A E JA J=H A H=H = FHA?EIE A = AIJE =?E @A = L=HE= = @A ?=@= K @A I F NA AI A AIJ= JAIEI FH F @HA I A ? ?K @A @E?D= L=HE= = A@E= JA K = ANFHAIE = JAH =JEL= = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= FHE ?EF= @A AIJ= ANFHAIE AI GKA @A>A ALEJ=H A KI @A = A@E= AIJE =@= O= GKA ? LE I A = IA??E = JAHE H AIJ= AIJE =?E FKA@A @AILE=HIA @A L= H HA= ?K= @ L=H = = K = LA ?E@=@ IK ?EA JA A JA H FE@= 2 H J= J A KC=H @A ? F=H=H = E =CA =?JK= ? = A@E= AIJE =@= FH F A I = ? F=H=?E ? = E =CA = JAHE H @A =?KAH@ =
2 2 t = (1 ) t 1 +

(It It1 )2 2

 # 

>LE= @ F H A A J = ? IJ= JA 1/2 GKA K JEF E?= = A A IACK @ J H E @A = A?K=?E F @A I ? FH >=H = L= E@A @A AIJ= ANFHAIE ?= ?K = @ = AIFAH= = @A @E?D AIJE =@ H ECK= GKA DE?E I ? = ANFHAIE = JAHE H

$
3 2.5 2

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Media estimada mt = (1 - a ) mt -1 + a I t

s t2 = (1 - a )s t2-1 + a (I t - mt -1 )

Media real
1.5

Varianza real
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 0

s t2 = (1 - a )s t2-1 + a
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

(I t - I t -1 )
2
1800

1600

2000

.ECKH= ' -IJE =?E CKH= &

@A =

A@E= O = L=HE=

= @A = IA = = A=J HE=

IJH=@= A

E (It It1 )2 = E It2 + E It21 2E {It It1 }

2=H= A I JA @H = JE I EA >H @A = A?K=?E ?K= @ =I KAIJH=I AIJ

 #! E ? HHA =@=I A JHA

E It2 It21 = E {It } E {It1 } = 2

F H GKA = AIFAH= = @A AIJE =@ H = JAHE H IAH =

 #"

E (It It1 )2 = 2 m2 2 = 2 2

 ##

?K= @A KAIJH= GKA A FHAIA ?E= @A IA = AI ? HKE@ > = ? = ANFHAIE  #  FAH EJA AIJE =H = L=HE= = @A = IA = + =F=HA?A = A@E= AIJE =@= t GKA@= ? =H GKA F=H= A JEF @A IA?KA ?E=I @A L @A GKA AIJ= I = = E = @ A AIJ= JAIEI = ANFHAIE  #  I L= = HAF HJ=H A CA AH= HAIK J=@ I I FHA?EI I GKA = ANFHAIE  "$ - =I CKH=I % O ' F @A I ? FH >=H I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I ? A J @ FH FKAIJ O ? F=H=H I ? I >JA E@ I ? A J @ = JAHE H +K= @ A B @ FHAIA J= L=HE=?E AI @A = E K E =?E E F HJ= JAI ? ?KHH = A = CKH= % F @A I LAH ? J= J A J @ GKA A F A= = ANFHAIE  "$ ? A GKA A F A= = ANFHAIE  #  ? LAHCA = L= H HA= @A = L=HE= = @A = IA = 5E A >=HC A = CKH= ' LA I GKA ?K= @ = E K E =?E IKBHA K ?= >E @A E K E =?E >HKI? = L=HE= = AIJE =@= ? A J @ FH FKAIJ IA ? F HJ= @A B H = I AIJ=> A

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

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=

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.ECKH=  = 1 =CA @A = IA?KA ?E= @A L @A A F A=@= F=H= E KIJH=H A ? ?K L=HE= = > A@E= AIJE =@=

@A =

6= >E AI F IE> A ? FH >=H = L= E@A @A I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I @A J @ = JAHE H =F E?=@ = A J H I HA= AI @A LE@A LECE = ?E= - = CKH=  = IA KAIJH= K = E =CA @A K = IA?KA ?E= @A LE@A LECE = ?E= ? HHAIF @EA JA = K = ?=HHAJAH= 5 >HA AIJ= IA?KA ?E= F @A I HA= E =H = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= A F A= @ = ANFHAIE   = CKH=  > KAIJH= @E?D= AIJE =?E F=H= K E IJ= JA @AJAH E =@ .E = A JA IE HA= E = I = AIJE =?E @A = L=HE= = A@E= JA =I ANFHAIE AI  "$ O  #  > JA A I I HAIK J=@ I IJH=@ I A =I CKH=I  = O > HAIFA?JEL= A JA ) > I HAIK J=@ I ? HHAIF @A = K E IJ= JA F IJAHE H = K ?= >E @A E K E =?E GKA ?KHHA A A AI?A =HE @A>E@ = F=I @A K = K>A 5E >IAHL= I @AJA E@= A JA = >=I CKH=I IA FKA@A =FHA?E=H EC H= A JA ? A = F=HJA ? HHAIF @EA JA = = = =H> =@= FHE ?EF= A JA = = = = @AHA?D= @A = ?=HHAJAH= = L=HE= = A AIJ= = AI =O H ?K= @ IJ= D= IE@ AIJE =@= A@E= JA = ANFHAIE  "$ 2=H= F @AH =FHA?E=H ? =O H FHA?EIE @E?D @AJ= A =I CKH=I  ? O @ KAIJH= =I @EBAHA ?E=I A JHA = >=I CKH=I - ? ?HAJ A ? IA KAIJH= = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA =I CKH=I = A I > ?K= @ @E?D= @EBAHA ?E= AI F IEJEL= O J = A L= H  ? H ACH  ?K= @ = @EBAHA ?E= AI AC=JEL= - @ IA KAIJH= = FAH=?E ? JH=HE= AI @A?EH > A I = ?K= @ AI F IEJEL= O ?AH ?K= @ HAIK J= AC=JEL= )GK IA FKA@A =FHA?E=H ? =O H ? =HE@=@ ? F=H= = = =H> =@= @AI?HEJ= = JAHE H A JA = L=HE= = AI IEA FHA =O H ?K= @ IJ= AI ?= ?K =@= A@E= JA  "$ 2=H= A HAIJ @A = AI?A = AI @A?EH =GKA =I F=HJAI GKA JEA A K ? F HJ= EA J AIJ JE? F=HJA IKFAHE H @A = E =CA ? HHAIF @EA JA = ?EA  E FK IEL F=HJA ? HHAIF @EA JA = = ?=HHAJAH= I HAIK J=@ I = AI I J= E F HJ= JAI O= GKA F=H= KAIJH FH F IEJ @A ? =IE ?=?E @A B @ I AHH HAI A = AIJE =?E @A = L=HE= = I J= E F HJ= JAI ) JAI @A ? ? KEH AIJ= IA??E @A>AH = I J= >E A ACEH A L= H @A F=H AJH @A =?JK= E =?E = A F A=H F=H= = AIJE =?E O = JA E EA J @A = L=HE= = )K GKA F @H = I FJ=H F H A ACEH = CK @A I L= HAI A F A=@ I A A ? ?K @A = A@E=

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@

.ECKH=  = > 8=HE= = AIJE =@= @A = IA?KA ?E= @A = CKH=  KJE E = @ = ANFHAIE = -NFHAIE  "$ > -NFHAIE  #  - = >=I LEIK= E=?E AI A ? H ACH ? HHAIF @A = K = L=HE= = @A L= H  EA JH=I GKA A ? H > = ? =  ? ,EBAHA ?E= A JHA =I CKH=I = A I > ?K= @ = @EBAHA ?E= AI F IEJEL=  IE AC=JEL= @ ,EBAHA ?E= A JHA =I CKH=I > A I = ?K= @ = @EBAHA ?E= AI F IEJEL=  IE AC=JEL=

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

$!

AIJ I IAH = I I HA? A @=> AI @A>E@ = = IECKEA JA H= + IA @A@K A = IA??E = JAHE H A L= H @A @A>A IAH IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A ? F=H= GKA FKA@= IACKEH A ?EAHJ @ =I L=HE=?E AI H FE@=I @A B @ O= GKA = LA ?E@=@ @A L=HE=?E @A B @ A CA AH= IAH J= GKA D=C= AIJ A?AI=HE 5E A >=HC =K GKA A B @ L=H A I A I H FE@ AI @A AIFAH=H GKA = L=HE= = D=C= =I -I @A?EH IE A K = F=HJA @A = AI?A = A ELA @A HKE@ AI A AL=@ F H A A F F H GKA D=O K H> A LE EA J  A HKE@ IAH A AL=@ IEA FHA = A I D=IJ= GKA A H> @A A @A LAHIA O LE?ALAHI= F H GKA K L= H @A F=H AJH @A =?JK= E =?E H FE@ F=H= = L=HE= = AI A?AI=HE + J @ AIJ A L= H A ACE@ F=H= @E?D F=H AJH BKA = 0,005

2AHE @ @A A JHA = EA J
- =I CKH=I % O ' F @A I ? FH >=H GKA E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A J @ A ACE@ F=H= = AIJE =?E @A I AIJ=@ IJE? I ANEIJA K FAHE @ JH= IEJ HE @AI@A GKA A IEIJA = A JH= A BK ?E = EA J D=IJ= GKA IJA IA AIJ=>E E = 2 H A A F A = CKH= % F @A I LAH GKA AIJA FAHE @ @KH= K =I # KAIJH=I D=O GKA LE@=H GKA A AIJA A A F A F=H AJH @A =?JK= E =?E IA A ECE @A E>AH=@= A JA A J F=H= = A H LEIK= E =?E @A ABA?J = = E =@ - CA AH= A I IEIJA =I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= = LA ?E@=@ @A =?JK= E =?E AI K?D I H FE@= FAH E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A AIJ AIJA FAHE @ JH= IEJ HE IEA FHA ANEIJEH - K AH I=I =F E?=?E AI AIJA FAHE @ AI =?AFJ=> A O IA A?AIEJ= GKA A IEIJA = = ?= ?A IK HACE A AIJ=> A = JAI F IE> A 2=H= I K?E =H AIJA FH > A = = I K?E =@ FJ=@= ? IEIJA A AIJ=> A?AH K FAHE @ @A A JHA = EA J = ? EA @A = A A?K?E @A = C HEJ A A GKA IA ?= ?K A I AIJ=@ IJE? I ? A J @ K JE KAIJH= GKA I IAHLEH F=H= AIJ=> A?AH K L= H E E?E= F=H= I F=H AJH I = AIJE =H 5E AIJA FAHE @ AI IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A I AIJ=@ IJE? I AIJE =@ I AIJ=H I ?AH?= @A IKI L= HAI HA= AI F H GKA IA J=H@=H >=IJ= JA A I A = ?= =H = AIJ=>E E@=@ @A IEIJA = 2 H A A F A = CKH= IA KAIJH= K = ? F=H=?E A JHA = AIJE =?E @A = A@E= O = L=HE= = @A K = IA = @A A@E= O L=HE= =  F H K =@ IE A JHA = EA J F=HJEA @ @A K L= H E E?E= ECK= =  O F H A JH =@ ? A JHA = EA J KJE E = @ K FAHE @ @A # KAIJH=I 2 @A I LAH ? F=H= = AIJE =?E ? A JHA = EA J =K = FAI=H @A A FA =H = AIJE =?E A = KAIJH= # O= GKA @KH= JA =I = JAHE HAI IA D= AIJ=@ ?= ?K = @ I AIJ=@ IJE? I = ?= = A H CE A AIJ=> A K?D = JAI - FH > A = FHE ?EF= ? IEIJA A AIJ=> A?AH = @KH=?E @A AIA FAHE @ @A A JHA = EA J 7 = CEJK@ AN?AIEL= A JA =HC= JH=A ? ? IA?KA ?E= @ I FH > A =I - FHE AH @A A I AI >=IJ= JA ALE@A JA 5E D=?A I A FAHE @ @A A JHA = EA J I =HC GKA A FH FE FAHE @ GKA J=H@= K IEIJA = IE A JHA = EA J A = ?= =H = AIJ=>E E@=@ DA I CA AH=@ K IEIJA = I A J A KC=H @A IAH I H FE@ 2 H JH =@ = E AIJ=>E E@=@ @A B @ FKA@A D=?AH GKA K ? ?K C >= I >HA K AH A AL=@ @A KAIJH=I IA= I E AN=?J GKA A ? ?K ?= I >HA K AH HA@K?E@ @A KAIJH=I 2 H A GKA@= ? =H GKA A FAHE @ @A A JHA = EA J @A>A IAH KO HA@K?E@ 1 ? KI F=H= A ? ?K @A =

$"
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5
Fin entrenamiento Varianza estimada (con entrenamiento) Media real Media estimada (sin entrenamiento)

+=F JK

,AJA??E

@A

LE EA J

Media estimada (con entrenamiento)

Varianza estimada (sin entrenamiento)

Varianza real

-1 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

.ECKH= 4A@K??E @A FAHE @ JH= IEJ HE @A A JHA = EA J @A # KAIJH=I

A@E= JA A AIJ=> A?E EA J @A K FAHE @

A@E= IA F @H = ALEJ=H A ? ?K @A = A@E= O J =H ? FHE AH= AIJE =?E A L= H @A = FHE AH= KAIJH= >IJ= JA F @A I ? FH >=H @A = AH= ANFAHE A J= GKA K AH IKFAHE H @A =FH NE =@= A JA # E CA AI AI A?AI=HE F=H= >JA AH K I L= HAI I =@A?K=@ I

+ =IE ?=?E

@A B

7 = LA AIJ=>E E =@ I I AIJ=@ IJE? I @A = IA?KA ?E= @A L @A AC= A JKH @A = ? = IE ?=?E @A ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA A K @A I ?K=JH CHKF I @A E@ I = JAHE H A JA 5AC = @AI?HEF?E @A @E?D I CHKF I = @EIJE ?E A JHA I @EIJE J I CHKF I = L= I = HA= E =H ? IECKA = @EIJE ?E A JHA F NA AI FAHJA A?EA JAI = B @ @E E? O = B @ AIJ JE? F @H HA= E =HIA = F=HJEH @A = K >H= E =?E @A = L=HE= = 8= HAI F H A ?E = @A K @AJAH E =@ K >H= ? HHAIF @AH = B @ @E E? EA JH=I GKA =GKA I GKA AIJ F H @A>= ? HHAIF @AH = B @ AIJ JE? - AIJA FK J @A>AH = I JA AH A ?KA J= I F NA AI E FK IEL I O= GKA A CA AH= = L=HE= = IA L= = A ? JH=H ?AH?= @A K >H= = JAHE H -BA?JEL= A JA A A ? ?K @A = L=HE= = @A AIJ I F NA AI = =O H ? JHE>K?E L= = IAH = @A>E@= = B @ AIJ JE? GKA IA LEIK= E = ?K= @ D=O E C > AJ =JH=LAI= @ @E?D= = FAH = FAGKA = ? JHE>K?E @A>E@= = I > AJ I GKA =JH=LEAI= @E?D= = D=H GKA = L=HE= = IA A ALA A ?=IE AI F H A ?E = @A K >H= 2=H= ALEJ=H AHH HAI A AIJ=I =I IAH A?AI=HE @EI?HE E =H A FHE AH KC=H I F NA AI E FK IEL I @A I AIJ JE? I O @E E? I 2=H= A GKA D=HA I IAH ? J=H A AH @A LA?AI GKA K F NA D= IKFAH=@ K F H?A J= A @AJAH E =@ @A IK L=HE= = F C= I

" 5EIJA = E F A A J=@

$#

F H A A F A   5E IJA AI IKFAH=@ I K = LA A K JEA F @AJAH E =@ I IACKH AI GKA D=O= IE@ @A>E@ I >EA = K > AJ @A FHE AH F = @AIF = @ IA F H K = = E FK IEL= 5E A >=HC IE AIA AH AI A AL=@ AIJ=H = E @E?= @ GKA AIA F NA ? HHAIF @A = K = = E FK IEL= 1CK= GKA ?KHHA ? = AIJE =?E @A AIJ=@ IJE? I J= AI ? = A@E= = L=HE= = IE A?AIEJ= I AIJ=> A?AH K ? J=@ H L LA I = JA AH @ I F?E AI AI @A?EH A FH ?AI= @ K JE KAIJH= O A FH ?AI=@ F H =H? F=C  5ECKEA @ A AIGKA = @A FH ?AI=@ K JE KAIJH= IA F = JA= A EI FH > A = @A A?AIE@=@AI @A = =?A = EA J 2 H A A F IE GKEIE H= I = JA AH A HA?KA J @A ?K= J I E FK I I D= ?KHHE@ A A JH= I?KHI @A =I JE =I N E CA AI A?AIEJ=H = I @EIF AH @A K =HH=O @A N =JHE?AI @ @A = =?A =H = I A ?=@= K = @A A =I I ALA J I ?KHHE@ I E FK I E FK I A AIJA ?=I  F=H= ?=@= F NA @A =I JE =I N E CA AI ) = AC=@= @A K = KAL= E =CA A = =@EH = I A ALA J =?JK= +1 IE D=O E FK I 0 IE  A HAIJ=H = I A ALA J N 1 IE DK> E FK I 0 IE  O @AIF = = I J @=I =I =JHE?AI K = K E@=@ A E E =@ = =JHE N F=H= @A =H DKA? = = =JHE =?JK= +K= @ N AI IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A O A CA AH= L= = IAH F HGKA A?AIEJ= I JA AH K HACEIJH @A I E FK I I ?KHHE@ I A K E JAHL= CH= @A @A JEA F F=H= F @AH @EI?HE E =H A JHA LE EA J I =EI =@ I O =I ? LE EA J ? JE K = A?AIE@=@ @A = =?A = EA J IAH FH DE>EJEL= A JA CH= @A 2 H J= J = I K?E = ECK= GKA ?KHH = ? A ? ?K O = JA E EA J @A I AIJ=@ IJE? I FHE ?EF= AI @A = AI?A = AI HA?KHHEH = FH ?AI=@ F H =H? JA EA @ A ?KA J= A AIJA ?=I GKA A J @ IAH ECAH= A JA @EIJE J 5E F=H= K F NA @AJAH E =@ @A = E =CA ? IJHKE I K = IA = zt GKA J = A L= H  ?K= @ A @E?D F NA ?KHHE K E FK I O  IE = ANFHAIE GKA FAH EJEH = HA= E =H = ?KA J= @A AH @A E FK I I ?KHHE@ I A K @AJAH E =@ E JAHL= @A JEA F IAH =

1 Ct = N

tN +1

z
=t

 #$

,AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= @A FH ?AI=@ @A IA = = BK ?E = JAHE H IA ? HHAIF @A ? K JH .14 @ @A = HAIFKAIJ= = E FK I IAH = K = IA = ? IJ= JA @A L= H 1/N O CEJK@ N 5E GKAHA I =FH NE =H = BK ?E = JAHE H A@E= JA = J ? E?= @A FH ?AI=@ F H =H? @A =?KAH@ = = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

Ct =

zt = 1 E FK I ) (1 ) Ct1 + k IE IE zt = 0  E FK I  (1 ) Ct1

 #%

GKA FKA@A ANFHAI=HIA @A B H = I ? F=?J= ? Ct = (1 ) Ct1 + kzt - L= H @A k IA ? HHAIF @A ? A L= H = GKA JA @AH = = IA = Ct IE J @=I =I KAIJH=I @A zt BKAIA  + KAIJH E JAH I IA ?A JH= A =FH NE =H AIJ= BK ?E = ? J=@ H @A E FK I I LEIJ = JAHE H A JA k @A>A L= AH  O= GKA Ct J= >E JEA @A =  ?K= @ J @=I =I KAIJH=I @A zt JEA @A = IAH  - F=H AJH GKA ? O= DA I LEIJ D=IJ= =D H= JEA A GKA LAH ? = LA ?E@=@ @A L=HE=?E @A = IA = A AIJ= ?=IE L= I = A ? JH=H GKA J= >E JEA A HA =?E ? A L= H @A N @A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H

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2=H= F @AH A ? JH=H = HA =?E A JHA O A E JAHL= @A JEA F GKA ? IE@AH= I F=H= A HA?KA J @A E FK I I F @A I LAH I IEIJA =I = JAHE HAI ? IA @ I JH I E A= AI @A I ?K= AI L= I = = = E =H IK HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= 2=H= A FHE AH @A A I  #$ F @A I ? FH >=H GKA IA JH=J= @A K JH .14 ? K = HAIFKAIJ= = E FK I @A N KAIJH=I J @=I @A J= = 1/N = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A AIJA JH IAH = @A JEF

|H1 ()| =

sin N 2 N sin 2

 #&

JA EA @ IK FHE AH F=I F H ?AH = = FK I=?E JH  #% IK A?K=?E A @EBAHA ?E=I IAH =

@EI?HAJ= 0 = 2/N 2=H= A IACK @

y [n] = (1 ) y [n 1] + x [n]
IEA @ x [n] = A JH=@= A y [n] IK I= E@= 5K BK ?E

 #'

@A JH= IBAHA ?E= FKA@A ANFHAI=HIA ?  $

H2 () =

1 (1 ) A

,A = EIEI @A = >=I BK ?E AI @A JH= IBAHA ?E= IA FKA@A ? FH >=H GKA = > I ? I JEJKOA JH I F=I >= - = CKH= ! F @A I LAH = HAFHAIA J=?E @A @K @A = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A = > I JH I F=H= K L= H ? ?HAJ @A N O )K GKA = HAI FKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A = > I JH I AI >EA @EIJE J= F=H= KAIJH FH F IEJ @A IKIJEJKEH A J @ @A ? FKJ @A E FK I I @A = A?K=?E  #$ F H K I IA ?E IAC = A?K=?E  #% AI I GKA IK ?EA JA 2=H= AIJ=> A?AH K = HA =?E A JHA O N L= I = @EIA =H = > I JH I @A J= B H = GKA ? E ?E@= = BHA?KA ?E= = = GKA IA FH @K?A A FHE AH ?HK?A F H ?AH @A FHE AH 0 = 2 ? = BHA?KA ?E= @A ? HJA @A IACK @ ? J = @ N ? BHA?KA ?E= @A ? HJA =GKA = = = ?K= A @K @A = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= IA D=?A 1/5 @A IK L= H NE - FHE AH KC=H L= I = AIJ=> A?AH = HA =?E A JHA A F=H AJH O = BHA?KA ?E= @A ? HJA @A IACK @ JH ?

|H2 (? )| =
@A @ @A >JA A

1 = ? |1 (1 ) A | 5
@A = BHA?KA ?E= @A ? HJA @A

 $ JH IAH =  $ 

I GKA A L= H @A A BK ?E

= cos ? 1 +
IEA @ "F F @A H

49 50 cos ? + cos2 ?

2 A = CKH= = 0,041667 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA F=H= A FHE AH JH N = 0 @A I LAH = HA =?E ANEIJA JA A JHA O N ) F=HJEH @A =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI I ? FH >=H GKA F=H= L= HAI @A N F H A ?E = @A # GKA F H JH =@ IAH = A KAIJH IEIJA = @A HA?KA J @A E FK I I A L= H @A =FH NE =@= A JA

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$%

1
N sin W 2 H1 (W ) = W N sin 2

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H 2 (W ) = a 1 - (1 - a )e jW

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0.5p

.ECKH= ! 4AIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A 10 O #%  = 0,118

JH I @AI?HEJ I F H =I A?K=?E

AI

#$ N =

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I AIJ=> A?AH K =

1,28123 N

 $!

2 H JE ? ? FH >=?E @A @AI=HH JA HE? ANFKAIJ A = CKH= #F @A I LAH K A A F FH ?JE? 2=H= A IA D= CA AH=@ K = IA = = A=J HE= zt J= O ? BKA @A E@= = JAHE H A JA GKA IE K = = AC=@= @A E FK I I = IEIJA = ? K = FH >=>E E@=@ @A K   - = CKH= IA KAIJH= = I= E@= @A = > I ? J=@ HAI JA EA @ ? F=H AJH I N = 10 F=H= A FHE AH ? J=@ H O @A =?KAH@ ?  $  O= GKA N 50 A AIJA A A F = 0,118 F=H= A IACK @ ? J=@ H ) = LEIJ= @A AIJ= CH ?= F @A I LAH ? = HAIFKAIJ= @A = > I IEIJA =I AI KO IE E =H O F H J= J = F?E FH FKAIJ= F=H= A ? ?K @A E FK I I HA?E>E@ I A@E= JA =?JK= E =?E ? JE K= AI I GKA IK ?EA JA F=H= KAIJH FH F IEJ @A @AJA??E @A =I E FK IEL=I @A = E =CA 2 H J= J @A = EIEI = JAHE H F @A I @AJAH E =H GKA = ANFHAIE  #% I FAH EJA = JA AH K = AIJE =?E @A AH @A E FK I I FH @K?E@ I A ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA .E = A JA F=H= F @AH @AJAH E =H IE K F NA FAHJA A?A = CHKF E FK IEL AI A?AI=HE K >H= E =H = BK ?E = JAHE H )K GKA AIJA K >H= @A>A IAH F=H= AJHE => A IK L= H @A>AH = = KIJ=HIA @A =?KAH@ = IECKEA JA H= = EA J 7 L= H @A Ct ?AH?= =  E @E?= GKA IA D= FH @K?E@ FH ?JE?= A JA E C E FK I A AIA F NA 7 L= H @A 0,5 E @E?=H = GKA = EJ=@ @A =I LA?AI IA D= @AJA?J=@ E FK I I ?K= IAH = KO CE? GKA ?KHHEAH= FAH FKA@A @=H I K = E@A= @A F H @ @A @A>A IEJK=HIA A K >H=

$&

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Ct =

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

1 t + N -1 zt N t =t

Ct = (1 - a )Ct -1 + a zt

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.ECKH=  #$ ?

# + F=H=?E A JHA ? J=@ HAI @A E FK I I E F A A J=@ I IAC = ANFHAIE N ECK= =   E A= = K  O = ANFHAIE  #% ? = 0,118  E A= H =

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%

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0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

Sin histresis Con histresis

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.ECKH=

$ +

F=H=?E

A JHA K >H= E =?E

IE DEIJ HAIEI O ?

DEIJ HAIEI

AI F IE> A GKA = ? =IE ?=?E @A @E?D= = IA A ?KA JHA ? B @ @E E? O @EC= I F H A A F B @ AIJ JE?

JE K= A JA = JAH = @ A JHA

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+ O= DA I ? ? KE@ = JAHE H A JA =GKA =I =I @A = E =CA ?KO I F NA AI FHAIA J= K = L=HE=?E A IKI ELA AI AN?AIEL= I FH FE?E=I F=H= =F E?=H AI I EI I J @ I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J GKA F=H= =GKA =I =I I AIJ JE?=I IJA AI K @A I AI?A =HE I @ @A I @EB ?E AI HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A LE EA J O= GKA @A>AHA I IAH ?=F=?AI @A @EIJE CKEH A JHA A LE EA J H = @A B @ O A LE EA J @A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = - AIJA ?=I IA FKA@A HA= E =H K = @ > A @AJA??E @A LE EA J @A B H = ? F A A J=HE= - FHE AH IAH = ? FH >=H A ELA @A L=HE=?E @A @E?D I F NA AI = =HC @A JEA F O IE A = C A J IJ= @AI?A @EAH= FKA@A GKAHAH E @E?=H GKA = C > AJ KAL IA D= @AJA E@ D= IE@ @AF IEJ=@ A @E?D= = ?K= FKA@A IAH @A E JAH I F=H= A IEIJA = 2 H JH =@ J= >E L= I = AL= K=H = L=HE=?E @A I F NA AI LA?E I O IE A = C A J IJ= IA A AL=IA E @E?=H K ?= >E A A ? F HJ= EA J @A @E?D= = ?K= FKA@A L LAH = IAH @A E JAH I F=H= A IEIJA =

E?

. @ E FK IEL ;= GKA AIJA JEF @A B @ IA ? HHAIF @A ?

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. @ ?= >E= JA - AIJA ?=I @=@ GKA = =O H F=HJA @A JEA F

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= EI = B H = GKA F=H= I F NA AI AIJ JE? I = E B H =?E @A GKA AIJ I F NA AI FAHJA A?A = B @ ?= >E= JA FKA@A IAH KJE E =@= F H A IEIJA = F=H= ALEJ=H B= I=I = =H =I ?K= @ IA FH @K?A ?= >E I >HKI? I A A ? H @A AI= = @A B @ ,A AIJ= B H = ? IACKE I I K?E =H @ I @A I FH > A =I I J FE? I GKA IKA A FHAIA J=HIA A I IEIJA =I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J 2 H K =@ = =F=HE?E @A B= I=I = =H =I ? JE K=I A =I =I @A = E =CA @ @A ANEIJA LE EA J FAH = A JA @A I > AJ I @A B @ > IE?= A JA =GKA =I =I @A = E =CA GKA IA ? HHAIF @A ? A B @ @E E? O @A B= I=I = =H =I AIF H @E?=I A A B @ ?= >E= JA - IACK @ KC=H J= >E IKA A IAH K FH > A = >=IJ= JA ? = =F=HE?E @A B= I=I = =H =I E JAH EJA JAI A =I @A = E =CA @ @A ANEIJA K JH IEJ AIF H @E? @A > AJ I ? LAD ?K I FAHI =I AJ? AI @A?EH A =GKA =I =I GKA A AIJ= JAIEI DA I @A E@ ? E FK IEL=I )@A I @A>E@ = = B H = @A HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A LE EA J A =I @A = E =CA GKA ? HHAIF @A = B @ E FK IEL JA A I J= >E = F?E @A HA= E =H = @AJA??E @A > AJ I GKA IA @AJEA A A =I @ @A AIJ FH DE>E@ IJA AI K ?=I KO ? A =F E?=?E AI @A LECE = ?E= @A ?=HHAJAH=I @ @A K LAD ?K @AJA E@ FKA@A IKF AH K FA ECH F=H= A HAIJ @A KIK=HE I @A = ?=HHAJAH=

""

-IGKA = @A > GKAI @A IEIJA = E F A A J=@

2=H= = E =H = @AI?HEF?E @A IEIJA = K = LA @A E@ ?=@= K @A I = C HEJ I E @ELE@K= AI GKA B H = IA @AI?HE>EH A AIJ= IA??E = E F A A J=?E C >= @A EI F=H= F @AH >JA AH =I K = E@A= CA AH= @A IK BK ?E = EA J - = CKH= ! IA KAIJH= A AIGKA = @A > GKAI ? F AJ @A IEIJA = - FHE AH KC=H FKA@A LAHIA GKA D= IE@ @ELE@E@ A @ I > GKAI CA AH= AI - FHE AH @A A I IAH = A GKA IA A A?KJ=H = =@= I =HH= ?=H = =F E?=?E O IA A ?=HC= @A A ? JH=H A L= H E E?E= F=H= = A@E= A F A= @ = ANFHAIE

t 0 =

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Ft4 = Ft2 = t 0 0 0
- A EI > GKA J= >E IA ?= ?K = = L=HE= = @A =?KAH@ =

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? A FHE ?EF=

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O = L=HE=

= = F=HJEH @A
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@ @A p IA A ?KA JH= =FH NE =@= A JA A JHA O " 2=H= J @ I =GKA J=@ I IA =?JK= E = IK ? J=@ H @A E FK I I @A =?KAH@ =  % I E FK I I @AJA?

Ct =

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%%

Entrenamiento
Clculo media y varianza

Siguiente imagen Media y varianza inicial

Mantenimiento fondos

Fondos (principal y rpido) y varianza actualizados

Actualizacin umbral

Clculo umbral inicial

Umbral Fin entrenamiento

Deteccin de impulsos Act. contador impulsos

Mscara de impulsos Mscara de clasificacin completa

Umbralizacin fondo dinmico fondo estattico

Fondo cambiente
Det. fondo cambiante

Mscara fondo dinmico, esttico e impulsos

Deteccin de movimiento

Lista de objetos
.ECKH= ! -IGKA = @A > GKAI @A IEIJA = E F A A J=@ ,A JH @A ?=@= > GKA IA AIFA?E ?= = BK ?E GKA HA= E = @E?D > GKA .KAH= @A I > GKAI =I AJEGKAJ=I E @E?= = E B H =?E @A = GKA IA @EIF A A A FK J @ @A IA IEJ = = AJEGKAJ=

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M1 =

1 IE Ct > th+ 0 IE Ct th+

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@ @A M1 AI = I?=H= @A F NA AI E FK IEL I O J = A L= H  F=H= I F NA AI FAHJA A ?EA JAI = B @ E FK IEL O  F=H= A HAIJ - A IECKEA JA > GKA IA HA= E = = ? =IE ?=?E @A HAIJ @A F NA AI A @E E? I AIJ JE? I A@E= JA = K >H= E =?E @A = L=HE= = @A AIJ I F NA AI 2=H= AIJ= ? =IE ?=?E IA A F A= A K >H= th/ ?= ?K =@ @KH= JA A FAHE @ @A A JHA = EA J O =?JK= E =@ ?=@= ?EAHJ JEA F = F=HJEH @A = F IE?E @A NE @A DEIJ CH= = @A = L=HE= = - HAIK A = I?=H= @A ? =IE ?=?E @A B @ M. IA >JEA A @A =?KAH@ =

1 FK IEL M. = ,E E? -IJ JE?

IE M1 = 1 IE M1 = 0 O It > th/ IE M1 = 0 O It th/

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= I?=H= =GK >JA E@= IAH = A F A=@= F H A @K @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J F=H= ANJH=AH I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = ) EI JEA F = I?=H= @A LE EA J IAH J= >E = A F A=@= F=H= @AJA?J=H =I =I @A B @ AIJ JE? GKA FAHJA A?A = @A E =@ B @ ?= >E= JA = I= E@= @A AIJA JE > GKA K J ? = ? =IE ?=?E = JAHE H @A = AI?A = A B @ @E E? AIJ JE? A E FK IEL B H = = I?=H= ? F AJ= @A = ? =IE ?=?E @A = AI?A = -IJ= I?=H= IAH KJE E =@= ? HA= E A J=?E F H A > GKA @A = JA E EA J @A B @ AIFA?E= A JA ? = E B H =?E @A F NA AI E FK IEL I O ?= >E= JAI F=H= =?JK= E =H ? HHA?J= A JA I KAL I L= HAI @A B @

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+ IA D= LEIJ A =I IA??E AI = JAHE HAI ANEIJA = C HEJ I GKA @ALKA LA K =F= @A @EIF=HE@=@AI @A I F H GKA IA D=?A A?AI=HE K FH ?AI=@ F IJAHE H GKA I FAH EJ= HA =H A H=H A HAIK J=@ IJA AI A > AJEL @A =I J ? E?=I @A HA = =?E = E@A= > IE?= @A BK ?E = EA J @A =I J ? E?=I @A HA = =?E AI GKA = F=HJEH @A K = DEF JAIEI E E?E= F=H= =I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I FAH EJE I GKA IJ=I IA HA HC= E?A FH F=C= @ = CK = HAIJHE??E ? = @A ? JE KE@=@ = @A H@A = @A K E?E@=@ = HAIJHE??E @A K E?E@=@ AIJ=> A?A GKA K F NA A K = E =CA I JEA A K F NA ? HHAIF @EA JA A = JH= 5E >IAHL= I = CKH= !  O ? IE@AH= I A F NA F IE AIA F NA BKAIA K = ? HHAIF @A ?E= ? HHA?J= E CK @A I F NA AI IEJK=@ I A = EI = A= D HE J= LAHJE?= F @H = IAH K = ? HHAIF @A ?E= L E@= O= GKA D=H = GKA K EI F NA A K = E =CA JKLEAH= @ I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A = JH= E =CA = = B H =@= F H = A= D HE J= O LAHJE?= IKA A @A E =HIA = : @A>E@ = IK B H = 5=H= = HAIJHE??E @A H@A AIJ=> A?A GKA I FK J I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =F=HA?A A = >=I E CA AI A A EI H@A = @AIF = =H I @A K =@ = JH @A = A= AFEF =H -IJ IEA FHA AI ?EAHJ O= GKA A FHAIA ?E= @A > AJ I AIJHA?D I A H@A @A =F=HE?E @A I > AJ I FKA@A ?= >E=H 2 H J= J F=H= = HAIJHE??E @A H@A FKA@A IAH A?AI=HE= IK =F E?=?E 5E ? IE@AH= I @A KAL A FK J F @A = CKH= !  I FK J I GKA ?K F EH = = HAIJHE??E @A H@A IAH = J @ I I IEJK=@ I A A ?K=@H= JA E BAHE H @AHA?D O I IEJK=@ I A A ?K=@H= JA IKFAHE H E GKEAH@ @A = = : -IJ= = IKA A IAH @A E =@= ? = . @A . H>E@@A  2 H JE = HAIJHE??E @A ? JE KE@=@ AIJ=> A?A GKA FK J I =@O=?A JAI @A>AH FHAIA J=H K = @EIF=HE@=@ IE E =H 5E ? IE@AH= I KAL= A JA A FK J F @A = CKH= !  I FK J I GKA ?K F EH = = HAIJHE??E @A ? JE KE@=@ IAH = I FK J I I ?AH?= I = FK J F IEJK=@ I A A ?K=@H= JA IKFAHE H @AHA?D O A A ?K=@H= JA E BAHE H E GKEAH@ -IJ= = IKA A @A E =HIA ? HA= @A I F HJA 2 H A A F I FK J I GKA AIJ A = EI = @E=C = GKA A FK J F IAH = FK J I ? = EI = @EIF=HE@=@ GKA AIJ = = EI = @EIJ= ?E= GKA A FK J F

!  8EIE

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'

Lnea epipolar derecha Pxel actual Zona de inhibicin Zona de excitacin

Lnea epipolar izquierda

.ECKH= ! 

6 ? E?=I @A HA = =?E

=I @A E DE>E?E

O @A AN?EJ=?E



+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

) F=HJEH @A J @ = JAHE H F @A I ?HA=H K = = @A E DE>E?E B H =@= F H = =: O = =. OK = = @A AN?EJ=?E B H =@= F H A HA= @A I F HJA -IJ=I =I =I @A E@=I FKA@A IAH KJE E =@=I F=H= A @AI=HH @A = C HEJ I A CA AH= EJAH=JEL I GKA A H= HA = A =F= @A @EIF=HE@=@ E E?E= 2 H A A F A /D=IA K = J=> = @A @EIF=HE@=@AI AI =?JK= E =@= @A = IECKEA JA B H =

Cx,y,d =
x ,y ,d E (n)

(n+1)

Cx ,y ,d

(n)

x ,y ,d I

Cx ,y ,d

(n)

+ Cx,y,d

(n)

@ @A Cx,y,d HAFHAIA J= A AIJ=@ @A = ? HHAIF @A ?E= @A F NA (x, y ) ? A F NA (x + d, y ) A = EJAH=?E n E IA ? HHAIF @A ? = = @A AN?EJ=?E F=H= A FK J F @A = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I ? IE@AH=@ A 1 = = @A E DE>E?E AI K = BK ?E @A K >H= E =?E GKA J = I L= HAI   O AI = ? IJ= JA @A E DE>E?E - AIJ=@ E E?E= @A = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I J = I L= HAI   - ? ?HAJ Cx,y,d = 1 IE L(x, y ) = R(x + d, y ) AI @A?EH IE A L= H @A = E JA IE@=@ @A =I E CA AI ? E ?E@A O  IE ? E ?E@A -IJA = C HEJ BK ?E = ? HHA?J= A JA ? E CA AI =JKH= AI @ @A ANEIJ= CH= ?= JE@=@ @A @EIF=HE@=@AI FAH DEIJ HE?= A JA BKA K = @A =I FHE AH=I FH FKAIJ=I @A AIJA JEF @A = C HEJ O IKA A IAH ? IE@AH=@ ? ? IE? EJ E? '' IA FH F A K KAL = C HEJ EJAH=JEL GKA A H= A BK ?E = EA J @A = JAHE H ? E CA AI HA= AI - ? ?HAJ A FH ?AI @A =?JK= E =?E IECKEA @ = A ? =JKH= KJE E =@= = JAI IAH =

(n+1) (0) Cx,y,d = Cx,y,d

Sn (x, y, d) Sn (x , y , d )
x ,y ,d I

! "

@A

Sn (x, y, d) =
x ,y,d E

Cx ,y ,d

(n)

! #

E @E?= = ?= JE@=@ @A AN?EJ=?E F=H= A FK J (x, y, d) - @A E =@ H @A = ANFHAIE = JAHE H E @E?= = ?= JE@=@ @A E DE>E?E F=H= @E?D FK J 2 H J= J F=H= K FK J @AJAH E =@ IE = ?= JE@=@ @A AN?EJ=?E AI = J= EA JH=I GKA = ?= JE@=@ @A E DE>E?E AI >= = A L= H @A = ? HHA =?E F=H= @E?D FK J Cx,y,d =K A J=H HAIFA?J = IK AIJE =?E (0) E E?E= Cx,y,d LE?ALAHI= - F=H AJH ? JH = = ?= JE@=@ @A E DE>E?E A ?=@= EJAH=?E 2=H= C=H= JE =H GKA A ? ?K = JAHE H ? LAH = =  @A>A IAH =O H @A  (0) - 5=H= = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I Cx,y,d IA >JEA A A@E= JA A ? ?K @A = ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= H = E =@= A F A= @ K = LA J= = @A 5 5 F NA AI 7 = C HEJ EJAH=JEL L= A E E = @ I FK J I @A = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A I FH >=> AI O = =@EA @ = JH= J=> = =I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I => AI A F A= @ E?= A JA = = @A E DE>E?E - = C HEJ JAH E = ?K= @ ?=@= FK J D= IE@ A E E =@ >EA D= IE@

!  8EIE

AIJAHA I? FE?=



= =@E@ = = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I => AI -IJA = C HEJ @ALKA LA K =F= @A @EIF=HE@=@ @A I IE GKA IK > AJEL AI A ? JH=H A NE AH @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I = >ECK=I => AI JH= J ? E?= A F A=@= A = EJAH=JKH= AI A KI @A = FH CH= =?E @E E?= 5KF C= I GKA I >HA K = A= AFEF =H IA D= >JA E@ IK J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I J= O ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= ! ! - =F= @A @EIF=HE@=@AI FKA@A >JA AHIA = F=HJEH @A = > IGKA@= @A ?= E I ? HJ A JHA I @ I ANJHA I @A = A= AFEF =H LAH ? A ?EA JAI =H?=@ I A ACH A = CKH= = JAHE H ,E?D= > IGKA@= AIJ E KIJH=@= A = CKH= ! " - = J=> = HECE = AIJ HAFHAIA J=@ A ? IJA GKA IKF A F=I=H F H ?=@= @ - > AJE L AI >KI?=H A ?= E @A A H ? IJA F=H= EH @AI@A = F=HJA >= = @A = J=> = D=IJ= AC=H = = F=HJA = J= @A = J=> = JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA I F @A I @AIF = =H I A IA JE@ LAHJE?= D=?E= =HHE>= A IA JE@ @E=C = D=?E= =HHE>= = = @AHA?D= D=?E= =HHE>= = = E GKEAH@= 2=H= A IA ? IJHKOA = J=> = @A ? IJAI J J= AI @A = @AHA?D= @ @A A L= H HAFHAIA J=@ A ?=@= ?A @= ? FHA @A A ? IJA @A @E?D= ?A @= I A ? IJA E F=H= AC=H @AI@A @E?D= ?A @= D=IJ= = F=HJA >= = @A = J=> = =I J ? E?=I @A FH CH= =?E @E E?= FAH EJA I >JA AH @E?D ?= E IE >JA AH @A K = B H = ? FK J=?E = A JA A ?EA JA ,AJ= AI I >HA = E F A A J=?E FKA@A >JA AHIA F H A A F A 9=C AH'# - + N'$ IA FH F A KJE E =H = FH CH= =?E @E E?= F=H= >JA AH F=H= ?=@= A= AFEF =H A ?= E @A A H ? IJA = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I AI ?= ?K =@= = F=HJEH @A E?= A JA A ELA @A E JA IE@=@ @A ?=@= F NA A KC=H @A A F A=H = LA J= = @A ? HHA =?E LEIJ= D=IJ= =D H= - FHE ?EF= FH > A = @A AIJA = C HEJ AI GKA I > H@AI D HE J= AI GKA@= FAHBA?J= A JA @A E@ I - 5K  = J=> = @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I IA ?= ?K = = F=HJEH @A = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= H = E =@= ++ 2 IJAHE H A JA = =F E?=?E @A = C HEJ @A FH CH= =?E @E E?= =F E?=@ A FHE AH KC=H A IA JE@ LAHJE?= O F IJAHE H A JA A IA JE@ D HE J= FAH EJA >JA AH = IKFAH ?EA @A A H ? IJA -IJA = C HEJ FHAIA J= A HAI HAIK J=@ I A I > H@AI D HE J= AI GKA A = C HEJ = JAHE H D= $ = FH CH= =?E @E E?= IA A F A= F=H= A H=H A =F= @A @EIF=HE@=@AI A I > H@AI @A I > AJ I AIFA?E= A JA A =GKA I FK J I @ @A ANEIJ= ? KIE AI

!%

5EIJA = E F A A J=@

+ O= IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA ANEIJA @ I J @ I BK @= A J= AI F=H= = >JA ?E @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A JHA E CA AI AIJ HA =I >=I=@=I A HA= O =I >=I=@=I A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I - AIJ= JAIEI L= I = ?A JH=H I E?= A JA A = > IGKA@= @A ? HHAI F @A ?E=I >=I=@=I A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I O= GKA AI B ?E A JA ? FH >=> A GKA FHAIA J= K = =O H FHA?EIE O H >KIJA BHA JA = I J @ I >=I=@ I A HA= 5E >EA A FHE ?EF= E ? LA EA JA @A I = C HEJ I >=I=@ I A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I AI FHA?EI= A JA = > IGKA@= @A @E?D=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I A KAIJH ?=I =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I L= = IAH I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = @AJA?J=@ I F H GKA IE = @AJA??E D= IE@ ? HHA?J= L= I = JA AH E C FH > A = @A B= J= @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I ,A DA?D IE ANEIJA ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I IEC E ?= GKA



+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

Lnea epipolar derecha

Lnea epipolar izquierda

.ECKH= ! ! 5KFAH ?EA !, @A

H ? IJA >JA E@=

A@E= JA FH CH= =?E

@E

E?=

Sentido de avance 6 7 3 2 7 7 6 5 6 3 7 1 7 7 5 4 1 8 0 6 8 4 2 2 1 20 16 11 8 12 15 14 9 8 10 8 5 7 3 5 4 9 6 7 3 3 1

9 10 1

Tabla original
.ECKH= ! " * IGKA@= @A ?= E @A A

Tabla de costes total

H ? IJA A@E= JA FH CH= =?E @E E?=

!  8EIE

AIJAHA I? FE?=

!

D=O > AJ I @A FHE AH F = O F H J= J IAH = A?AI=HE HA= E =H E CK = AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I ,A AIJ= B H = KAIJH = C HEJ L= = HA= E =H = > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I E?= A JA F=H= I > AJ I @AJA?J=@ I EC H= @ F H J= J A HAIJ @A = E =CA = FHE ?EF= LA J= = @A AIJA J @ AI GKA F @A I ?A JH=H I E?= A JA A I F NA AI FAHJA A?EA JAI = I > AJ I F H GKA F H K =@ A JEA F @A FH ?AI=@ L= = IAH K?D A H O F H A JH ?EAHJ=I E FHA?EIE AI GKA FHAIA J= I = C HEJ I @A HA= L= = F @AH IAH ? HHACE@ I = AL= K=H E?= A JA I F NA AI @A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = 0=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA ? A I IEIJA =I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= A E JAH I FHE ?EF= IKA A HAIE@EH A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = L= = D=>AH E C FH > A = A GKA A = C HEJ @A LEIE AIJAHA I? FE?= @ALKA L= K =F= @A FH BK @E@=@AI @EIFAHI= O= GKA =GKA I FK J I @ @A D=O= E B H =?E @A FH BK @E@=@ ? HHAIF @AH = B @ - FHE ?EF= E ? LA EA JA @A I = C HEJ I @A > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I J= O ? IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA AI A HKE@ @A =I E CA AI GKA FKA@A FH L ?=H E FHA?EIE AI A = @EIJ= ?E= AIJE =@= E ? KI AHH HAI @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I 5E >EA A = CK =I @A =I =F E?=?E AI @A = LEIE AIJAHA I? FE?= ANEIJA JAI AIJ D= IE@ ? IE @AH=@ K FH > A = E F HJ= JA O= GKA @E?D I AHH HAI FKA@A IAH ? HHACE@ I A KAIJH ?=I K AHH H @A ? HHAIF @A ?E= F=H= K > AJ @AJAH E =@ FKA@A IAH B=J= 2 H AIJA JEL = = D H= @A @EIA =H A = C HEJ I @A > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I @A>A I =IA CKH=H I FHE ?EF= A JA @A GKA @EIF C= @A K = CH= H >KIJA =K = ? IJ= @A =K A J=H = ? F A E@=@ ? FKJ=?E = )I FKAI A IEIJA = = @EIA =H > IE?= A JA JH=J=H @A AIJ=> A?AH HA =?E AI A JHA > AJ I @AJA?J=@ I A = >=I E CA AI 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA A = C HEJ @A @AJA??E @A I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = J= >E FKA@A FHAIA J=H AHH HAI IA I FKA@A F = JA=H L=HE I F IE> AI ?=I I - > AJ D= IE@ @AJA?J=@ A = >=I E CA AI - AIJA ?=I IA F @H HA= E =H = > IGKA@= @EHA?J= A E LAHI= O = >=I E B H =?E AI F @H IAHLEH I F=H= HA =H = AIJE =?E @A = @EIJ= ?E= - > AJ D= IE@ @AJA?J=@ I A K = E =CA 5E A >=HC IAH @A AIFAH=H GKA A > AJ J= >E IA= LEIE> A A = JH= E =CA =K GKA D=O= IE@ @AJA?J=@ 5E AI =I I F @H HA= E =HIA = > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E= @EHA?J= - > AJ @AJA?J=@ I IA LA A K = E =CA 5E A > AJ IA LA A = JH= E =CA A J ?AI IA JH=J=H = @A K = ? KIE O IAH E F IE> A A ? JH=H = ? HHAIF @A ?E= A = JH= E =CA 5E AIJ ?KHHEAH= A IEIJA = F @H = @AJAH E =H = @EIJ= ?E= FAH = A I A > AJ I IAH = @AJA?J=@ - JA = @A =I ? KIE AI AI K FH > A = >=IJ= JA BHA?KA JA A I = C HEJ I CA HE? I @A LEIE AIJAHA I? FE?= @ @A IA JEA A E C ? ?E EA J O I >HA J @ E C ? JH I >HA = AI?A = >IAHL=@= - LE@A LECE = ?E= =K GKA IACKE I IE JA AH E C

"

+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

? JH I >HA = AI?A = GKA I AI F IE> A D=?AH AI ? ?=H =I ? =H=I A I FK J I GKA FAH EJ= ALEJ=H =I ? KIE AI + O= IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA A AIJ= JAIEI IJA AI K @A I F=I I I E F HJ= JAI A A @EIA @A IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= AI @A?EH A ? ?=H =I ? =H=I A =I F IE?E AI E@ A=I )@A I ? =I ? =H=I I =I O A B @ FKA@A IAH ? ?E@ = FHE HE A IEIJA = FKA@A JA AH ? IJ= ?E= A J @ A J @A ?K= AI I I F IE> AI FK J I @A ? KIE O AIJ FKA@A IAH E @E?=@ = K= A JA F H A FAH=@ H @KH= JA = ? CKH=?E @A IEIJA = )@A I AIJ= J=H = I @A>A IAH HA= E =@= K = E?= LA

* IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF

@A ?E=I

6= O ? IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA = > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I @A JH @A = AI?A = LECE =@= IA HA@K?A E?= A JA = =GKA I FK J I @ @A D= IE@ @AJA?J=@ =C > AJ )@A I @A HA@K?EH A JEA F @A ? ?K AIJ I FAH EJA ?K F EH ? = HAIJHE??E @A ? JE KE@=@ A K AH=@= = JAHE H A JA F C '$ O= GKA A AIJA ?=I I GKA F @A I =IACKH=H GKA =I @EIF=HE@=@AI L= = L=HE=H IK=LA A JA = =HC @A J @ A > AJ 2 H JH =@ ? K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= L= = JH=>= =H FHE ?EF= A JA A A J H I ANJAHE HAI @ @A = E K E =?E @A = AI?A = L= = AIJ=H ? F AJ= A JA ? JH =@= AI E F HJ= JA JA AH A ?KA J= =GK GKA K EI > AJ FKA@A LAHIA ? @EIJE J ELA @A CHEI ? H IE JH=>= = I ? AI?A =I A ? H F H ?=@= K = @A =I ? =H=I 2 H J= J A AIGKA = CA AH= @A > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I GKA JEA A A ?KA J= FHE ?E F= A JA = HAIJHE??E B J JHE?= F C '$ @AI?HEJ= = JAHE H A JA L= = IAH @A CH= KJE E@=@ =GK 7 = @A =I FHE ?EF= AI J ? E?=I @A FH ?AI=@ @A E CA AI GKA FAH EJA IAH IE K A = AIJ I ?= >E I A I ELA AI @A E K E =?E AI = AL= K=?E E?= A JA A I > H@AI @A I > AJ I A KC=H @A A J @ A > AJ )K GKA A > AJ IA LA= ? K ELA @EIJE J A K = O JH= E =CA GKA A CA AH= IKA A ?= >E=H I I > H@AI @A AIJ I )I FKAI KAIJH = C HEJ L= = HA= E =H = > IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I JA EA @ A ?KA J= E?= A JA I > H@AI @A I > AJ I @AJA?J=@ I - AIJA ?=I AI A?AI=HE HA= E =H K = @AJA??E @A > H@AI ? IA D=?E= A = C JH = C HEJ @AI?HEJ = JAHE H A JA O= GKA I > H@AI @A I > AJ I =GK IA ? HHAIF @AH ? I ? J H I @A =I I?=H=I @AJA?J=@=I F H A = C HEJ @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J )@A I F=H= ? IACKEH =O H H >KIJA BHA JA = F IE> AI @EBAHA ?E=I @A E JA IE@=@ A A ?=I @A GKA IA KJE E?A ? =H=I @EIJE J=I ? @EIJE J I F=H AJH I @A ? CKH=?E =I BK ?E AI @A IE E EJK@ E@A= AI I =GKA =I GKA H = E = HAIFA?J = = A@E= J= AI ? = BK ?E 55, - ? ?HAJ A AIJ= JAIEI L= I = KJE E =H = ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= H = E =@= ?A JH=@= A = A@E= ++ @A =?KAH@ =
x,y V

(I (x, y ) ) (I4 (x + d, y ) 4 (d)) 4 (d)

! $

ZNCC (d) =

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AIJAHA I? FE?=
Objeto detectado Ventana de bsqueda

#

Linea analizada

Lineas epipolares x Imagen izquierda x Imagen derecha

.ECKH= ! # * IGKA@= @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I ? A = C HEJ FH FKAIJ - AIJA ?=I A > AJ D= IE@ @AJA?J=@ A = >=I E CA AI - = E =CA IA KAIJH= A ? ?K @A ? HHAI F @A ?E=I F=H= A > AJ @A = E =CA E GKEAH@= 5 >HA = E =CA @AHA?D= = LA J= = @A > IGKA@= GKA JEA A = B H = @A ? J H @A > AJ @A = E =CA E GKEAH@= IA @AIF = = D HE J= A JA F=H= >KI?=H A FE? @A = BK ?E @A IE E EJK@ A F A=@=

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Mxima similitud para el objeto de la imagen derecha

Objeto detectado en la imagen izquierda Ejemplo de clculo de funcin de similitud

Lnea epipolar izquierda Objeto detectado en la imagen izquierda

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Posicin estimada de acuerdo a la proyeccin del objeto detectado en la imagen izquierda Lnea epipolar izquierda Objeto detectado en la imagen izquierda

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Disparidad fd3(y) O3 Objetos emparejados

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+ I = A JA ANEIJA K > AJ A ?=@= E =CA A ? ?K @A = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= I @A>AH A A?KJ=HIA K = LA F H ?=@= E =CA K = F=H= HA= E =H = > IGKA@= @A > AJ A = E =CA @AHA?D= I >HA = E =CA E GKEAH@= O JH= F=H= A > AJ A = E =CA E GKEAH@= I >HA = E =CA @AHA?D= = CKH= ! $ KAIJH= = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= F=H= = > I ?=I I @ @A F @A I ? FH >=H ? F=H= = > I ?=I I A NE @A = BK ?E @A ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= IA A ?KA JH= = K I $# F NA AI GKA AI K L= H KO FH NE = = @EIF=HE@=@ @A $ % F NA AI >JA E@= @A B H = = K=

 $

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! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

12 10 8 6 4 2

x 10

Mximo (y=616 pxeles)

Mximo (y=611 pxeles)

0 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

.ECKH= ! A = AI?A > AJ A > AJ A

$ + ?K @A = ? HHA =?E ?HK =@= = @A = E =CA ! " 4  + HHA =?E = E =CA @AHA?D= ) K  + HHA =?E = E =CA E GKEAH@=

H = E =@= F=H= I > AJ I IJH=@ I ?HK =@= H = E =@=  ++  F=H= A ?HK =@= H = E =@=  ++  F=H= A

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

 %

Plano imagen

Lente

rb q

a q

v0 v
.ECKH= ! % /A

u0 u
CA AI ,AIA B GKA @A = E =CA

AJH = @A IEIJA = @A ?=FJKH= @A E

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

,A J @ I I A?= EI I GKA A IEIJA = LEIK= DK = A F A= F=H= HA= E =H = HA? I JHK??E A JHAI @E A IE AI @A K = AI?A = A @AIA B GKA K J ? = LEIE AIJ HA I I @ I E? I J @ I GKA A?AIEJ= @A K ? ?E EA J FHALE @A = AI?A = O F H J= J E@ A F=H= F @AH HA= E =H = AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I A K IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= =I J ? E?=I @A HA? IJHK??E A JHAI @E A IE AI F H @AIA B GKA IA >=I= A A DA?D @A GKA A @AIA B GKA FH @K?E@ F H K = A JA HA= @AFA @A @A = @EIJ= ?E= = = GKA IA A ?KA JH= A > AJ - = CKH= ! % IA KAIJH= = CA AJH = @A K IEIJA = @A ?=FJKH= @A E CA AI GKA A F A= K = A JA HA= @A H=@E = 7 IEIJA = FJE? ? A HAFHAIA J=@ I AI ?=F= @A A B ?=H I FK J I IEJK=@ I A K F = = K = @EIJ= ?E= @AJAH E =@= 5KF C= I GKA = @EIJ= ?E= B ?= @EIJ= ?E= A JHA A A A @A = A JA O A F = E =CA F H A A F A ++, @A K = LE@A ? =H= AI v0 O GKA = CEJK@ B ?= @A = A JA AI f - AIJ=I ? @E?E AI I I > AJ I IEJK=@ I = = @EIJ= ?E= u0 @A A A @A = A JA AIJ=H = A B ?=@ I FAHBA?J= A JA 2=H= K = A JA @A C=@= = HA =?E A JHA =I JHAI =C EJK@AI = JAHE HAI LEA A @=@= F H = AO @A = A JA @A C=@=

1 1 1 + = u0 v 0 f

! %

7 > AJ IEJK=@ = ?K= GKEAH JH= @EIJ= ?E= IAH LEIK= E =@ A = E =CA @A B H = > HH I= O AIA A > HH = EA J IAH J= J =O H ?K= J I = A =@ IA A ?KA JHA A > AJ @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J u0 + FKA@A LAHIA A = CKH= ! % AIA A > HH= = EA J IA FH @K?A F H A DA?D @A GKA K FK J IEJK=@ = K = @EIJ= ?E= u @EIJE J= @A u0 AI LEIK= E =@ A K E? FK J @A F = E =CA IE GKA IA ANJEA @A = =HC @A K ? H?K @A H=@E rb

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@A @EIJ= ?E=I

) JAI @A ? JE K=H AI A?AI=HE >IAHL=H GKA @ I > AJ I IEJK=@ I = @ I @EIJ= ?E=I uB I A = = B=H  @A = A JA GKA A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J u0 O u I ?AH?= =  A=H  L= = FH L ?=H A EI H=@E rb A = E =CA @AIA B ?=@= ? IA FKA@A LAH A = CKH= ! & - CA AH= AIJA DA?D @A>A JA AHIA A ?KA J= O K?D I = C HEJ I @A ? ?K @A FH BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA A?AIEJ= GKA I > AJ I @A E JAH I AIJ J @ I IEJK=@ I >EA I A I GKA A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J >EA J @ I I ?AH?= @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J - ? ?K @A @E?D H=@E rb IAH =

a rb = ! & v |v 0 v | @ @A A ? ?K @A L= H =>I KJ @A = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA v0 O v FAH EJA ? JA F =H = > I ?=I I AI @A?EH A DA?D @A GKA A FK J IA A ?KA JHA I ?AH?= I A I @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J 2 H JH =@ F=H= K FK J IEJK=@ = K = @EIJ= ?E= @A = A JA u =H>EJH=HE= JA @H = I = F=HJEH @A = AO @A = A JA @A C=@= tan = 1 1 1 + = u v f AI = JAHE HAI AC= u=
I? A JA ! ' I= ! 

>E = @

=I @ I ANFHAIE

f v0 a v0 a f (a rb )

F=H= > AJ I IEJK=@ I

I=

f v0 v0 f r b F @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J  CKH= ! &= O u= u=

! 

f v0 !   v0 f + rb F F=H= > AJ I IEJK=@ I I ?AH?= GKA A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J  CKH= ! &> - =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI F = f /a AI A @A E =@ AH . @A = A JA GKA @AFA @A AN? KIEL= A JA @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I CA JHE?=I O FJE?=I @A = A JA A F A=@= - =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI IA FKA@A ? FH >=H GKA = ?= JE@=@ @A A > HH = EA J F=H= K FK J @AIA B ?=@ GKA AI FH F H?E = = H=@E rb @AFA @A @A J= = @A = =FAHJKH= = -I @A?EH ?K= J I FAGKA = IA= = A JA @A = ? =H= A H IAH A A > HH = EA J F=H= I FK J I GKA IA A ?KA JHA FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@ I - A EJA ?K= @ A J= = @A = =FAHJKH= BKAIA E EJAIE = J @ I I FK J I AIJ=H = FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@ I E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A = @EIJ= ?E= = = GKA IA A ?KA JHA @A = ? =H= -IJA JEF @A ? =H=I @ @A J @= = AI?A = IA A ?KA JH= FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@= IA @A E = ? =H=I FE D A 7 = E =CA J =@= ? AIJA JEF @A ? =H= @ @A J @ I I FK J I AIJ FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@ I IKA A @A E =HIA ? = E =CA A B ?=@= - ABA?J GKA A @AIA B GKA FH @K?A I >HA = E =CA A B ?=@= FKA@A LAHIA ? K = ? L K?E >E@E A IE = @A @E?D= E =CA ? K = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE 25. 2 E J

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

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uf

un

u0
= > AJ A= >

u0
> AJ ?AH?=

.ECKH= ! & ,EIJ= ?E=I GKA FH @K?A A

EI

@AIA B GKA

5FHA=@ .K ?JE  )K GKA = B H = @A AIJ= BK ?E @AFA @A @A = A JA A F A=@= O @A>A IAH = = E =@= @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= @A =I AOAI FJE?=I GKA HECA IK BK ?E = EA J @EIJE J I =KJ HAI = D= =FH NE =@ F H BK ?E AI I IE F AI GKA FKA@A IAH = = E =@=I =JA JE?= A JA @A B H = I IA ?E = ) = D H= @A A ACEH = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA = K GKA =JH=LEAI= = A JA A E ?E@A I >HA A F = E =CA AI = EI = E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A ?K= IA= A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J 3KEAHA AIJ @A?EH GKA = A AHC = J J= @A = E =CA @A>AH = LAHIA =BA?J=@= F H K ?= >E A = F IE?E @A A B GKA @E?D @A JH= B H =

PSF (x, y ) dx dy =
x,y = r=0 =

PSF (r, ) dr d = 1

! !

- CA AH= A = @AI?HEF?E @A =I BK ?E AI @A @EIFAHIE AI FHABAHE> A A KI @A ? H@A =@=I F =HAI @A>E@ = = IE AJH = ?EH?K =H @A IEIJA = FJE? - JHA =I BK ?E AI @A @EIFAHIE I KJE E =@=I F @A I @AIJ=?=H = BK ?E C=KIIE= = >E@E A IE = ? IA FKA@A LAH A = CKH= ! ' A F A=@= A JHA JH I F H 2A J = @&% GKA BKA K @A I FHE AH I =KJ HAI A JH=>= =H A A ?= F @A = AIJE =?E @A FH BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA - AIJA ?=I IA JH=J= @A K = BK ?E C=KIIE= = >E@E A IE = @A A@E=  O @AILE=?E J FE?= ECK= = H=@E rb @A = CKH= ! % = BK ?E C=KIIE= = BKA = FHABAHE@= E E?E= A JA O= GKA IK JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH A ? H@A =@=I F =HAI IECKA IEA @ K = BK ?E C=KIIE= = = IACK @= BK ?E A F A=@= F H A A F F H 9=J= =>A'& AI = @A E =@= 2E > N 5A JH=J= @A K ?E E @H ?KO H=@E AI ECK= = F=H AJH rb A = CKH= ! % JH=I BK ?E AI J= >E D= IE@ @AI?HEJ=I O KJE E =@=I F H @EIJE J I =KJ HAI =K GKA AIJ=I @ I D= IE@ A CA AH= =I I A F A=@=I -I E F HJ= JA LAH GKA E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE A F A=@= = AI?= = @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE L=H = A BK ?E @A = F IE?E @A FK J >IAHL=@ HAIFA?J @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J - AIJA IA JE@ ?K= J I ?AH?= AIJ A FK J >IAHL=@ = FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J I IA F=HA?AH = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE = K = BK ?E @A J= >E@E A IE = J= O ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= ! ! - A EJA ?K= @

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.ECKH= ! ' .K ?E

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Mayor desenfoque

I?

K AI

Menor desenfoque

d(x,y)

.ECKH= ! ! .K ?E

@A @EIFAHIE

2E > N F=H= @EIJE J=I @EIJ= ?E=I @A FK J

>IAHL=@

A A B GKA AI FAHBA?J = BK ?E A > HH = EA J @A = E =CA

@A @EIFAHIE

AI K = @A J= O

IA FH @K?A

E C

I (x, y ) = IB (x, y ) (x, y ) = IB (x, y )

! "

- FHE ?EF= FH > A = GKA IA F = JA= AI GKA = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE L=H = A BK ?E @A = @EIJ= ?E= = = GKA IA A ?KA JH= ?=@= FK J @A = AI?A = @A = A JA 2 H J= J A A > HH = EA J GKA IA FH @K?A A = E =CA FKA@A LAHIA ? K = ? L K?E O= GKA = HAIFKAIJ= = E FK I @AFA @A @A = @EIJ= ?E= GKA AI KIJ= A JA GKA GKAHA I ?= ?K =H )F E?= @ = HAIJHE??E @A ? JE KE@=@ A K ?E=@= = JAHE H A JA A @AIA B GKA @A>AH AL= K=HIA F H J= J @A B H = ?= * IE?= A JA ANEIJA @ I J ? E?=I F=H= ?= ?K =H FH BK @E@=@AI = F=HJEH @A @AIA B GKA FH @K?E@ F H = A JA GKA I

2H BK @E@=@ F H A B GKA ,AFJD . H

@A A B GKA L=HE=> A J = K AH @A E CA AI A AL=@ = CK I =KJ HAI FH F A A KI @A K =I ! I E CA AI ?=@= K = @A A =I ? @EIJE J A B GKA 2=H= ?=@= FK J @A = E =CA IA AL= = = F IE?E @A A B GKA ? = GKA IA >JEA A K = E =CA I JE@= = FH BK @E@=@ IA >JEA A = F=HJEH @A =I ANFHAIE AI @AHEL=@=I @A = CKH= ! %

. ?KI ,.. - AIJA ?=I K IEIJA =

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

!

@ I E CA AI K = A B ?= @ = K FK J ?AH?= E =CA ?AH?= = A=H B ?KIA@ E =CA  O JH= A B ?= @ = K FK J A = E =CA A = = .=H B ?KIA@ E =CA  I IK ?EA JAI F=H= >JA AH = FH BK @E@=@ @A ?=@= FK J @A = E =CA = LA J= = FHE ?EF= @A AIJA J @ AI A A H AH @A E CA AI = J =H EA JH=I GKA A FHE ?EF= E ? LA EA JA AI GKA = ? F A E@=@ ? FKJ=?E = =K A J= - = > I ?=I I D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA J @ I I > AJ I @A = AI?A = @A>A AIJ=H ? FHA @E@ I A JHA = @EIJ= ?E= @A A B GKA I ?AH?= O A A B GKA I A=

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA ,AFJD . H

,AB ?KI ,., - AIJA ?=I I

6 ? E?=I @A ? ?K

@A FH BK @E@=@ F H A B GKA

=I J ? E?=I >=I=@=I A ,.. A?AIEJ= A ? JH=H F=H= ?=@= FK J @A = E =CA = F IE?E @A = A JA GKA D=?A GKA @E?D FK J IA LA= ? =O H EJE@A ,A A JHA I =KJ HAI GKA FH F A A KI @A =I J ? E?=I ,.. IA A ?KA JH= =HLEI&! - AIJA ?=I IA HA= E = = A@E@= ?= @A =I IECKEA JAI BK ?E AI - JH F =

E=
x

P (x) ln P (x)

8=HE=

1 V = N
5K = @A @K @A = @EBAHA ?E=

(xi x )2
i=1

SMD =
i=2

|xi xi1 |

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@A @EIJ= ?E=I

Divisor de haz Escena

Lente 1 Imagen 1

Espejo Lente 2
.ECKH= ! ! 5EIJA = @A ?=FJKH= @A E CA AI ?

Imagen 2

@ I A B GKAI @EIJE J I

GKA A?AIEJ= A IEIJA = FJE? F=H= >=HHAH J @ =K IEA @ = ? F A E@=@ ? FKJ=?E = FAGKA FH BK @E@=@ @A K = AI?A = IAH A AL=@ )@A =I @EIJE J=I E CA AI @A = AI?A = ? A B GKAI E LE

A H= C @A FH BK @E@=@AI AI A AL=@ = A JEA F A?AI=HE F=H= AL= K=H = I @KH= JA A JEA F @A CH=>=?E @A @EIJE J I = AI?A = @A>AH FAH = A?AH

6 ? E?=I @A ? ?K

@A FH BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

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

,., >=I=@ A CH=@EA JAI B ?= AI

-IJA = C HEJ FH FKAIJ A 2A J = @&% A '&% AI K @A I FHE AH I IEIJA =I @A ? ?K @A FH BK @E@=@AI F H @AIA B GKA FH FKAIJ I F H = ? K E@=@ ?EA J ?= - AIJA

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

!!

= C HEJ K = LA HA= E =@= = J = @A @ I E CA AI @A = EI = AI?A = ? @ I A B GKAI @EIJE J I A IECKEA JA F=I AI A ? ?K @A = ?= JE@=@ @A A > HH = EA J @A ?=@= F NA @A = E =CA 5E I I ?=F=?AI @A HA =?E =H @E?D A > HH = EA J ? A H=@E rb @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE LEIJ= = JAHE H A JA A ? ?K @A = FH BK @E@=@ IAH = E A@E=J = F=HJEH @A !   !  - FH > A = FHE ?EF= H=@E?= F H J= J A A ? ?K @A H=@E @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE F=H= ?=@= F NA )IK EA @ GKA = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE AI K = BK ?E C=KIIE= = IK @AILE=?E J FE?= IAH ECK= = H=@E rb E KIJH=@ A = CKH= ! % + IA >JEA A @ I E CA AI ? A B GKAI @EIJE J I @E?D H=@E O F H J= J = L=HE= = IAH A CA AH= @EIJE J=I A JHA I 5E IKF A I GKA = E =CA A B ?=@= AI IB (x, y ) O J = I K = HACE ?EH?K =H ?A JH=@= A A FK J (x0 , y0 ) @A JH @A AIJ= E =CA

fB (r, ) = IB (x0 + r cos , y0 + r sin )

=I E CA AI @AIA B ?=@=I FKA@A >JA AHIA ? ? = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE C=KIIE= = = HA =?E = ? L K?E @A @E?D= HACE A JHA = >=I E CA AI IAH =

! # ?EH?K =H

f1 (r, ) fB (r, ) g (r, 1 ) = f2 (r, ) fB (r, ) g (r, 2 )

@ @A g (r, ) AI = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE C=KIIE= = @A A@E=  O L=HE= =

! $

rb
! %

g (r, ) =

1 r2 exp 2 2 2 2

6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA F=H= = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE = JAHE H = JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH *AIIA = JAH =JEL= A JA JH= IB H =@= @A 0= A @A H@A ?AH LEA A @=@= F H / @ = '$

G (, ) = exp 2 ()2
= HA =?E = JAHE H IA ? LEAHJA A

! &

FB () G (, 1 ) G (, 1 ) F1 () 2 2 1 = = = exp 2 2 2 2 F2 () FB () G (, 2 ) G (, 2 )
+= ?K = @ A C=HEJ @A =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI >JA @HA I GKA

! '

2 2 = ln F1 () ln F2 () 1 2 2 2 2

! 

GKA AI K = HACHAIE E A= A 2 ? = 0=?EA @ 1 = 0 AI @A?EH IE = FHE AH= E FE D A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE O= AIJ=H = J= J A@E= JA !   !  F @H = I 7 = L=HE= JA @A AIJA = C HEJ AI A FH ?E A JHAI @E A IE AI @A E CA AI J

2 2 1 ?K= F @HA I >JA AH A L= H @A 2 =CA AI K = E =CA J =@= ? K = ? =H= ?= ?K =@= F=H= ?=@= FK J @A = AI?A = O F H >JA AH = FH BK @E@=@ @A ?=@= FK J FKAIJ A 9AE# F=H= HA= E =H = HA? IJHK? =@=I ? E?H I? FE 2=H= A IA >JEA A

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! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

@EIJE J=I IA = AI = F=HJEH @A = E =CA @AIA B ?=@= KJE E = @ FAH=@ HAI @A CH=@EA JA @A FHE AH O IACK @ H@A - A A ?E =@ JH=>= IA A F A= I FAH=@ HAI @A 4 >AH 2HAMEJJ 5 >A O A =F =?E= / = A '! - ? ?K @A @AIA B GKA IA >JEA A AN? K IEL= A JA A I > H@AI @A I > AJ I ? ?=@ I >= A E?H I? FE 7 = =FH NE =?E I IE F A FKA@A IAH = FHAIA J=@= A C% - AIJA ?=I O ? IE@AH= @ GKA = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE 25. AI K = BK ?E C=KIIE= = >E@E A IE = I =KJ HAI FH F A A KI @A K = HA@ AKH = ? BK ?E AI @A >=IA H=@E= 4*. F=H= = AIJE =?E @A = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE = FHA?EIE @A I = C HEJ I @A ? ?K @A FH BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA FKA@A A H=HIA A F A= @ J ? E?=I K JEHHAI K?E ? F H A A F A )IEB# A 3E= C - = > I ?=I I IA A F A= = JH= IB H =@= 9=LA AJ F=H= A H=H = FHA?EIE A I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I

,.,

A@E= JA

JH I H=?E

= AI
@A @EIFAHIE AI IE A >=HC AJH rb ?= ?K =@ @A =?KAH@

- AIJA = C HEJ FH FKAIJ A 9=J= =>A'& = BK ?E = BK ?E FE > N GKA ? IEIJA A K ?E E @H @A H=@E A F=H = = CKH= ! % O @A = JKH=

h=

1 2 rb

! 

F=H= ? IACKEH GKA A L K A @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE IA= ECK= =  ,A AIJ= B H = = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE FE > N IA E@A JE ?=H ? = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

h (r, ) = h (r) =

1 2 rb

r rb
JEA A IE AJH = ?EH?K =H

! = BK ?E

@ @A = ? H@A =@= @AI=F=HA?A O= GKA = BK ?E IA ? HHAIF @A ? = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

( u) =

1 u<1 0 u1

! !

AI @A?EH @A A K ? H?K @A H=@E rb )FH LA?D= @ = IE AJH = ?EH?K =H @A = BK ?E = JAHE H = JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH *AIIA A ? H@A =@=I F =HAI ? HHAIF @AH = ? = ANFHAIE / @ = '$

H (, ) = H () =

1 J1 (2rb ) rb

! "

@ @A O I =I ? H@A =@=I BHA?KA ?E= AI H=@E= O = CK =H HAIFA?JEL= A JA A F A= @ K IEIJA = @A ? H@A =@=I F =HAI O J1 = BK ?E @A *AIIA @A H@A K @A FHE AH= AIFA?EA )@A I ? = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE JEA A IE AJH = ?EH?K =H J= >E JA @H = EI = IE AJH = IK JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH F H GKA = ? H@A =@= @AI=F=HA?A - = CKH= ! ! IA KAIJH= = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A @ I BK ?E AI @A @EIFAHIE 2E > N ? @ I H=@E I rb @EIJE J I 2=H= IE F E ?=H = LEIK= E =?E O JA EA @ A ?KA J=

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

!#

H(rb1)

H(rb2)

fr

0.6098 rb

.ECKH= ! !

4AIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= @A = BK ?E

@A @EIFAHIE

2E > N

GKA = IA = >E@E A IE = JEA A IE AJH = ?EH?K =H I IA D= HAFHAIA J=@ = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= A BK ?E @A = ? F A JA H=@E= 0=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA = ECK= GKA ?KHHA ? IA = AI @A K = @E A IE ?K= J I = ?D= IA= = IA = A A JEA F I AIJHA?D= AI IK HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E=  = IA = JEA A I ? F A JAI @A >= = GKA @A = J= BHA?KA ?E= O = HAL I ,A DA?D ? IE@AH= @ GKA A FHE AH F=I F H ?AH @A = BK ?E @A *AIIA @A FHE AH= AIFA?EA @A H@A  IA FH @K?A =FH NE =@= A JA A 3,8317 A FHE AH F=I F H ?AH @A = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= IA FH @K?EH A

2rb = 3,8317 0,6098 = rb

! #

2 H J= J A = CKH= ! ! rb1 ? HHAIF @A = K H=@E I FAGKA GKA rb2 A EJA F=H= K FK J GKA IA A ?KA JH= FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@ F=H= A ?K= A H=@E rb IAH =  AI @A?EH = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE ? HHAIF @EAIA = K = @A J= A A HECA = HAIFKAIJ= A BHA?KA ?E= IAH = K = A= D HE J= = I B = @A BK ?E = EA J @A AIJA = C HEJ AI A A=I CA AH= AI = IECKEA JA + FKA@A ? FH >=HIA @A = CKH= ! % F=H= K > AJ IEJK=@ = = @EIJ= ?E= @A FK J @A A B GKA A = AIJA > AJ IA LEIK= E =H = FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@ A = E =CA A = = AI @A?EH = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE JA @H = K H=@E @A L= H  5E A >=HC = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE F=H= AIJA > AJ A = E =CA ?AH?= = JA @H = K H=@E @A L= H A AL=@ ) A@E@= GKA A > AJ IA @AIF = =H= @A FK J @A A B GKA A = D=?E= A FK J @A A B GKA ?AH?= A H=@E @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE A = E =CA A = = EH =K A J= @ EA JH=I GKA A = E =CA ?AH?= = JA @AH = ?AH -IJ JH=@K?E@ = = ? F A JA BHA?KA ?E= @A ?=@= E =CA J= O ? IA LE A = CKH= ! ! HAIK J=H = A GKA F=H= = E =CA A = = A FHE AH F=I F H ?AH IA EH = @AIF = = @ @AI@A D=IJ= 0,6098/r> @ @A r> IAH = A

!$

+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

H=@E NE ?KO L= H @AFA @AH @A I @EIJE J I F=H AJH I @A = CA AJH = FJE?= @A IEIJA = A ?KAIJE EA JH=I GKA F=H= = E =CA ?AH?= = A FH ?AI IAH = A E LAHI 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA =I E CA AI A = = O ?AH?= = ?= A JA FKA@A ? IE@AH=HIA ? = ? L K?E A A AIF=?E @A = E =CA FAHBA?J= A JA A B ?=@= ? = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE ? HHAIF @EA JA @A ECK= B H = = ? F A JA AIFA?JH= @A ?=@= K = @A =I E CA AI IAH = A FH @K?J @A = ? F A JA AIFA?JH= @A = E =CA HECE = ? = ? HHAIF @EA JA BK ?E @A *AIIA ,A E I = HA =?E M/P ?

M I. (, ) I (, ) H. () H () = = P I. (, ) + I (, ) H. () + H ()

! $

O= GKA A AIFA?JH @A = E =CA HECE = I (, ) IA ?= ?A = 5E HAFHAIA J= I = HA =?E M/P = JAHE H F=H= @EIJE J I L= HAI @A = BHA?KA ?E= H=@E= fH A BK ?E @A H=@E rb @A = E =CA A = = >JA @H = I =I CH ?=I HAFHAIA J=@=I A = CKH= ! !! - AIJ= CH ?= IA FKA@A ? FH >=H GKA F=H= K H= C @AJAH E =@ @A BHA?KA ?E=I H=@E= AI = BK ?E M/P AI J = ?HA?EA JA O F H J= J IA FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH @A B H = K L ?= K = HA =?E A JHA A L= H @A = BK ?E M/P O A H=@E rb O F H J= J @A =?KAH@ ? !  !   F @H = I >JA AH = FH BK @E@=@ @A @E?D FK J 2 H J= J A E? FH > A = GKA HAIJ=H = F=H= F @AH AIJ=> A?AH = FH BK @E@=@ @A I > AJ I IAH = A ?= ?K =H = HA =?E M/P = K = BHA?KA ?E= H=@E= @AJAH E =@= - FH > A = AIJHE>= A GKA = ? F A JA BHA?KA ?E= @AFA @A @A = AI?A = O F H J= J F @A I @AJAH E =H = FHE HE = GK BHA?KA ?E= H=@E= ?= ?K =H = HA =?E = JAHE H = AIJH=JACE= IACKE@= AI KJE E =H K = IAHEA @A >= ? I @A JH I GKA FKA@= AIJE =H = @A IE@=@ AIFA?JH= F=H= K A AL=@ AH @A BHA?KA ?E=I E @ELE@K= AI

,.,

A@E= JA = JH= IB H =@= 5

- 5K>>=H= '" = FH BK @E@=@ IA @AJAH E = A@E= JA = AIJE =?E @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE GKA HECE = E =CA @AIA B ?=@= 2=H= A IA @AI=HH = = 6H= IB H =@= 5 5F=JE= , =E + L KJE ,A? L KJE 6H= IB H  - AIJA ?=I = E =CA HECE = IA @A = ? K = BK ?E F E E?= >E@E A IE = ? >E?= @A =?KAH@ =
3 3m

i (x, y ) =
m=0 n=0

amn xm y n
E ? >E? = BK ?E

! % FKA@A

@ @A amn I IAH ANFHAI=@=

I ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E ) IAH K F E A@E= JA =I IAHEAI @A 6=O H

i (x, y ) =
0 m+n

(x s)m (y t)n mn) i (s, t) m ! n ! 3

! &

@A

mn)

m n (x, y ) = i (x, y ) xm y n

! '

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

!%

M P

fr

rb

.ECKH= ! !! 4A =?E BHA?KA ?E= H=@E= fr

A JHA = BK ?E

2 O A H=@E rb F=H= @EIJE J I L= HAI @A =

!&

+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

= BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE h (x, y ) AI ? A A HAIJ @A ?=I I K = BK ?E ?EH?K =H I A J I @A @E?D= BK ?E IA @A A ?

+ +

IE AJH =

hmn =

xm y n h (x, y ) dx dy
@A = E =CA A B ?=@= ? = BK ?E

! ! @A @EIFAH

IE

5E ? IE@AH= h (x, y )

I =D H= = ?

L K?E
+ +

i1 (x, y ) =
+ +

i (x s, y t) h (s, t) ds dt

! !

i1 (x, y ) =
0 n+m

(1)m+n mn) i (x, y ) sm tn h (s, t) ds dt m ! n ! 3

I GKA @AFA @A @A s
+ +

! ! 

5=?= @ BKAH= @A = E JACH=

IJ H E

t
! !! @A

i1 (x, y ) =
0 n+m

(1)m+n mn) i (x, y ) m!n! 3

sm tn h (s, t) ds dt

@ @A = E JACH= @ > A IA ? HHAIF @A ? @EIFAHIE h (x, y ) @AI?HEJ= A ! ! ?

I A J I @A H@A m, n @A = BK ?E GKA >JA A I = A JA

i1 (x, y ) =
0 n+m

(1)m+n mn) i (x, y )hmn m!n! 3

! !"

= JE = ANFHAIE ? HHAIF @A = = JH= IB H =@= 5 A E F E?= = ? L K?E @A @ I BK ?E AI A J H E I @A @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A i E =CA A B ?=@= ? I A J I @A h (x, y ) BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE  ,A>E@ = GKA = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE JEA A IE AJH = ?EH?K =H JA A I GKA 5K>>=H= '"

h01 = h10 = h11 = h30 = h03 = h21 = h12 = 0

A AI A?AI=HE AL= K=H A J I @A H@A IKFAHE H O= GKA IAC = ? L K?E 6= >E JA A I GKA ! !"

! !# =BA?J=

h02 = h20
O @A =?KAH@ = ! ! h00 = 1 2 H J= J A B ?=@= O = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE ? F @A I ANFHAI=H = ? L K?E

! !$ A JHA = E =CA

i1 (x, y ) = i (x, y ) +

h2 20) i (x, y ) + i02) (x, y ) 2

! !%

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

!'

@ @A h2 = h20 = h02 IA ? HHAIF @A ? = L=HE= = @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE )F E?= @ = IACK @= @AHEL=@= = = ANFHAIE = JAHE H HAIFA?J = x HAIFA?J = y O JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA =I @AHEL=@=I @A H@A =O H @A ! I K =I = IAH i K = BK ?E ? >E?= >JA A I

i20) (x, y ) = i1 (x, y )

O

20)

! !&

i02) (x, y ) = i1 (x, y )

2 H J= J JA A I GKA

02)

! !'

h2 2 i1 (x, y ) ! " 2 = ANFHAIE = JAHE H HA =?E = = E =CA A B ?=@= i A BK ?E @A = E =CA @AIA B ?=@= IKI @AHEL=@=I O I A J I @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE 2 H J= J IE = E =CA AI ? ?E@=  >JA E@= = JH=L I @A K = ? =H= FE D A F H A A F  = ANFHAIE = JAHE H I FAH EJA ?= ?K =H A L= H @A = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE = HA = ?E A JHA = @AILE=?E J FE?= O A H=@E @A ? H?K @A A > HH = EA J @AFA @A @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE A ACE@= ? FKA@A IAH = BK ?E 2E > N = BK ?E C=KIIE= = >E@E A IE = i (x, y ) = i1 (x, y )

5EIJA = E F A A J=@

,A =?KAH@ ? = >E> E CH=B = ANEIJA JA A A ?= F @A = AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I A@E= JA FH ?AI=@ @A E CA AI O A ? ?HAJ = LEIE AIJ HA O = AIJE =?E @A @EI J= ?E=I F H @AIA B GKA =I FHE ?EF= AI LA J= =I @A AIJ= JE = J ? E?= HAIFA?J = = LEIE AIJ HA AI IK A H ? F A E@=@ ? FKJ=?E = O A KI @A K = E?= ? =H= A KC=H @A @ I I 5E A >=HC IE JH=J= I @A A F A=H = ECK= GKA DE?E I ? = LEIE AIJ HA AIJ I = C HEJ I = = AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I A IEIJA =I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= LA I GKA I A ? JH= I ? @EIJE J I FH > A =I - FHE ?EF= AI A @A>E@ = DA?D @A GKA = A?AIEJ=H = ?=FJKH= @A @ I I E CA AI ? @EIJE J ELA @A A B GKA IE A F A= I K = E?= ? =H= =I E CA AI FKA@A IAH ?=FJKH=@=I = EI JEA F 5E JA A I A ?KA J= GKA A =I E CA AI = FH ?AI=H L= = ANEIJEH > AJ I A LE EA J GKA AI FHA?EI= A JA I >HA I GKA GKAHA I ?= ?K =H IK @EIJ= ?E= I @= I ?KA J= @A GKA AIJA J @ L= = IAH L E@ 5E A F A= I = F?E FH FKAIJ= F H 2A J = @&% GKA KJE E = @ I ? =H=I A B ?= @ = = EI = AI?A = ? A B GKAI @EIJE J I J= O ? IA FK@ LAH A = CKH= ! ! = ?=FJKH= = EI JEA F @A = >=I E CA AI I GKA IAH = F IE> A 5E A >=HC D=O GKA FAH@AH @A LEIJ= GKA ? AIJ= I K?E IAH = A?AI=HE A KI @A @ I ? =H=I ? ?K= A ? IJA @A IEIJA = @A ?=FJKH= @A E CA AI IAH = ? F ? ECK= = @A K IEIJA = AIJ HA @A @ I ? =H=I )@A I J= O ? IA LAH A = IECKEA JA IA??E = FHA?EIE A = @EIJ= ?E= AIJE =@= F H K IEIJA = AIJ HA AI ? CH= @EBAHA ?E= K?D =O H GKA = = ?= =@= F H

"
y

+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

Objeto

x Imagen

d x

.ECKH= ! !" 1 =CA @A K > AJ I >HA A GKA IA ?= ?K =H IK @EIJ= ?E= = = ? @EBAHA ?E= A JHA A ELA @A CHEI @A > AJ O A B @ AI ECK= =

=H=

K IEIJA = @A @AIA B GKA 2 H JE O @A>E@ = GKA A A IEIJA = @A LE@A LECE = ?E= E F A A J=@ A AIJA JH=>= = AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I I IA HA= E = I >HA I > AJ I @AJA?J=@ I GKA ? IJEJKOA K = F H?E KO FAGKA = @A = E =CA = ?=HC= ? FKJ=?E = IA HA@K?A A CH= A@E@= @A>EA @ IAH F H J= J = ?=HC= ? FKJ=?E = K B=?J H @EI?HE E = JA = = D H= @A @AJAH E =H =I LA J= =I A E ? LA EA JAI @A = > I IEIJA =I )I FKAI A E? ?=I A A GKA A IEIJA = @A AIJE =?E @A @EIJ= ?E=I F H @AIA B GKA IA= FHABAHE> A = K IEIJA = AIJ HA AI ?K= @ IA KJE E = K = E?= ? =H= ? A B GKA J= O? IA @AI?HE>A = ? JE K=?E = LA J= = FH LEA A @A DA?D @A GKA I = A JA A F A= I K = ? =H= GKA FKA@A IAH @A =I EI =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A =I GKA A F A=H = I A AIJ HA A KC=H @A @ I I )K GKA J= O ? IA D= ? A J=@ A = IA??E = JAHE H IA A?AIEJ=H = = A I @ I E CA AI ? @EIJE J @AIA B GKA F=H= F @AH HA= E =H A ? ?K @A @EIJ= ?E=I J= >E IAH = F IE> A HA= E =H @E?D ? ?K ? K = E?= E =CA IE IA JEA A A ?KA J= ?EAHJ=I HAIJHE??E AI I >HA = AI?A = LECE =@= 5E ? IE@AH= I ECK= GKA IA DE F=H= A IEIJA = @A LEIE AIJ HA GKA = I= E@= @A > GKA @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J IA ? HHAIF @A ? I > AJ I GKA AIJ A LE EA J A AIA E IJ= JA O GKA ? IJEJKOA I A A A J I I >HA I GKA GKAHA I ?= ?K =H IK @EIJ= ?E= = AIJH=JACE= ? IEIJA A ?A JH=H I E?= A JA A I > H@AI @A @E?D I > AJ I GKA FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@ I B ?E A JA = F=HJEH @A = I?=H= @A LE EA J 2 H J= J ? IE@AHA I A > H@A @A > AJ ? K AI?= @A L= H ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= ! !" 6= O ? IA D= ? A J=@ = JAHE H A JA = E =CA HAIK J= JA FKA@A A JA @AHIA ? = ? L K?E @A = E =CA A B ?=@= ? = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE FH @K?E@= F H = A JA

i (x, y ) = iB (x, y ) h (x, y )

@

! "

@A i (x, y ) AI = E =CA ?=FJKH=@= A iB (x, y ) AI = E =CA A B ?=@= )K GKA ANEIJA K?D=I BK ?E AI @A @EIFAHIE h (x, y ) F=H= @A =H A ABA?J @A @AIA B GKA FH @K?E@

2H BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

y Objeto y Objeto

"

PSF

PSF

.ECKH= ! !# + ?K @A = IA = @A I= E@= ? > AJ @A FHE AH F =

=?

L K?E

@A = BK ?E

25. ?

F H = A JA A AIJA JH=>= A F A=HA @A>E@ = GKA =F=HJA @A IAH K = =FH NE ANEIJA JAI A A AH?=@ I L= = IE F H J= J = ? F A E@=@ ? FKJ=?E L= I = @A EH = BK ?E FE > N IAC

I K = @A =I I F FK =HAI = @A E =@= FE > N =?E >=IJ= JA >KA = F=H= = =O H = @A FJE?=I F E ?=H A CH= A@E@= I ? ?K I = HA= E =H O = @A = C HEJ = E F A A J=H - KAIJH ?=I = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE

h (x, y ) =

1 2 rb

x2 + y 2 rb

! " 

@ @A (r) AI = BK ?E HA?J= CK =H GKA J = A L= H  F=H= r < 1 O  A A HAIJ O rb AI A H=@E @A @AIA B GKA LAH CKH= ! % GKA AIJ HA =?E =@ ? = @EIJ= ?E= = = GKA IA A ?KA JH= A > AJ @A =?KAH@ = !  !   ,AFA @EA @ @A IE A > AJ IA A ?KA JH= @A = JA @AJH I @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J F @H = I JA AH @ I I K?E AI @EIJE J=I F=H= K EI H=@E rb 2=H= ALEJ=H AIJ= = >EC A@=@ AI E FHAI?E @E> A GKA J @ I I > AJ I @A E JAH I AIJ IEJK=@ I >EA I = @A FK J @A A B GKA FAHBA?J >EA I ?AH?= @A @E?D FK J + rb L=H = ? = @EIJ= ?E= = > AJ = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE J= >E L=H = O F H J= J ! " ? HHAIF @A = K IEIJA = L=HE= JA A A AIF=?E (x, y ) 5E A >=HC ? I AIJ= I E JAHAI=@ I A I FAGKA I > AJ I @A FHE AH F = O I ? ?HAJ= A JA A IKI > H@AI F @A I ? IE@AH=H IE CH= AHH H GKA = @EIJ= ?E= @A J @ I I FK J I @A ? J H @A > AJ AIJ = = EI = @EIJ= ?E= O F H J= J ! " I FKA@A ? IE@AH=HIA ? K IEIJA = E L=HE= JA A A AIF=?E = A I A A A J H @A > AJ + IE@AHA I K > H@A LAHJE?= @A K > AJ @A FHE AH F = + = IA = iB (x, y ) AI ? IJ= JA = =HC @A A A y J= >E IAH = IA = i (x, y ) )@A I ? = ? L K?E E F E?= A @AIF = = EA J @A = BK ?E FE > N I >HA A > H@A LAHJE?= = I= E@= i (x, y ) FKA@A ?= ?K =HIA B ?E A JA ? = IKFAH ?EA @A ? H?K ? HHAIF @EA JA = = BK ?E 25. GKA IA I =F= F=H= ?=@= F IE?E A A A A x ? A AI?= LAHJE?= J= O ? KAIJH= = CKH= ! !# 2 H J= J = I= E@= FKA@A ANFHAI=HIA ?

"

+=F JK

! -IJE =?E

@A @EIJ= ?E=I

0 x < rb i (x, y ) = S (x) rb < x < rb x > rb

! "!

@ @A S (x) IA ? HHAIF @A ? = IKFAH ?EA @A IAC A J ?EH?K =H @A = 25. GKA IA I =F= ? A AI?= LAHJE?= @A > AJ @A FHE AH F = -IJA ? ?K FKA@A LAHIA @A B H = CH ?= A = CKH= ! !$ 5E ?= ?K = I = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A ! "! >JA @HA I @i (x, y ) = @x

2 2 rb

0 x < rb 2 2 rb x rb < x < rb 0 x > rb

! ""

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x1 x2 = 2rb

! #

GKA E @E?= GKA K IEIJA = AIJ HA ? =I EI =I @E A IE AI B IE?=I GKA K IEIJA = ,.. ,., @A>AH = FHAIA J=H HAI K?E AI IE E =HAI - = FH ?JE?= IE A >=HC = @EBA HA ?E= AIJHE>= A GKA EA JH=I A IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA A J= = @A = =FAHJKH= IKA A IAH @A H@A @A K @ I ?A J AJH I J= = I =O HAI E F E?= A JAI I CH= @AI ?K= AI A? E?= A JA I ?=H E ? KI B IE?= A JA EHHA= E => AI A K IEIJA = AIJ HA = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA I ?A JH I @A FH OA??E @A =I ? =H=I FKA@A =K A J=HIA = L K J=@ IE A?AIE@=@ @A =K A J=H A ? IJA @A IEIJA = 5ECKEA @ A H= = EA J = JAHE H J= >E F @A I ? FH >=H B ?E A JA GKA K IEIJA = @A @AIA B GKA J= F ? AIJ E>HA @A FH > A = @A =I ? KIE AI 5E >IAHL= I = CKH= ! " F @A I ? FH >=H ? K > AJ @A @E A IE AI ? F=H=> AI = IEIJA = FJE? FH L ?= K = ? KIE A = E =CA LEIK= E =@= - ABA?J GKA FH @K?A AI GKA HA@K?A A J= = @A = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE - HA= E@=@ = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE @A =H = @A JA AH IE AJH = ?EH?K =H 2 H A A F A = CKH= ! " IE A > AJ AI IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A A IA JE@ D HE J= = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE IAH = K IA E? H?K 5E A >=HC A FH > A = @A = ? KIE AI J= CH=LA ? A I IEIJA =I AIJ HA @ @A F=H= ?=@= F NA IA @A>A @A?E@EH ?K= AI IK ? HHAIF @EA JA A = JH= E =CA 5E AI= @A?EIE AI E ? HHA?J= @=H KC=H = K = FH BK @E@=@ GKA JEA A =@= GKA LAH ? = HA= E@=@ I IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA = ? KIE FH L ?= GKA = BK ?E @A @EIFAHIE IA= ECAH= A JA @EIJE J= = = JA HE?= A JA ? IE@AH=@= GKA FH L ?=H E FHA?EIE AI FAH A CA AH= FH L ?=H AHH HAI J= CH=LAI

!! +

F=H=?E

A JHA LEIE

AIJAHA I? FE?= O FH BK @E@=@ F H @AIA B GKA

#

Objeto

Oclusin
.ECKH= ! " -BA?J @A = ? KIE A IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA

-IJA JE H= = EA J FKA@A LAHIA ? K = F=HJE?K =HE =?E @A K ? ?AFJ I CA HE? GKA AI = H >KIJA - IEIJA =I AIJ HA A ? ?K @A = FH BK @E@=@ @A K FK J @A = AI?A = IA HA= E = ? = E B H =?E @A @ I FK J I E?= A JA H=O I @A K  EA JH=I GKA A IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA A ? ?K AIJ >=I=@ A K?D= =O H ?= JE@=@ @A K = GKA =JH=LEAI= = =FAHJKH= @A = A JA F H GKA = HA =?E IA = = HKE@ IA LAH A H=@= )@A I D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA A IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA = =FAHJKH= AI @A @ I @E A IE AI EA JH=I GKA A IEIJA =I AIJ HA A @AIF = = EA J @A =I ? =H=I IA FH @K?A A K = E?= @E A IE + IA LE = = = E =H I IEIJA =I AIJ HA AIJ I JEA A CH= @E ?K J=@ F=H= ?= ?K =H = @EIF=HE@=@ A > H@AI F=H= A I = = A= >=IA - IEIJA =I @A @AIA B GKA = FH @K?EHIA A A > HH = EA J A @ I @E A IE AI = FH BK @E@=@ FKA@A ?= ?K =HIA E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A = HEA J=?E @A I > H@AI

+=F JK

" @A B H =I

+ =IE ?=?E

7 = LA @AJA?J=@ I I > AJ I @A E JAH I @A JH @A = AI?A = LECE =@= A IECKEA JA F=I IKA A ? IEIJEH A HA? ?AH I > AJ I HAIK J= JAI O K = F IE> A F?E IAH = ? A =H ? A HA? ?E EA J @A IK B H = - FH ?A@E EA J @A ? =IE ?=?E @A B H = A I IA FKA@A @ELE@EH A @ I > GKAI - FHE AH O CA AH= A JA I E F HJ= JA IA @A E = HAFHAIA J=?E O @AI?HEF?E O ? IEIJA A = IA A??E @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I I HAFHAIA J=JEL=I @A I > AJ I GKA FAH EJ= K BK ?E = EA J I => A F IE> A @A IACK @ > GKA GKA AI = ? =IE ?=?E FH FE= A JA @E?D= 2 H A A F IE KAIJH E JAH I H=@E?= A ? =IE ?=H > AJ I @A =?KAH@ = IK HA =?E @A =IFA?J IK ? H K = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= >=IJ= JA IA ?E = F @H = IAH = HA =?E @A A J I @A H@A @A > > @AJA?J=@ F=H= F @AH ? =IE ?=H @A =?KAH@ = IK HA =?E @A =IFA?J A ? H @A = HACE E JAHE H @A > > F=H= ? =IE ?=H F H ? HAI >LE= A JA = A@E@= GKA =I B H =I = ? =IE ?=H I I ? F A =I O F=HA?E@=I A JHA I A FH > A = IA LKA LA I ? F E?=@ O IA D=?A A?AI=HE A HA= E =H = IA A??E @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A K = B H = I ?KE@=@ I= ) ? K J @A J @ I I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A > AJ IKA A @A E =HIA ? LA?J H @A ? =IE ?=?E 2 H JH =@ A > GKA @A ? =IE ?=?E @AJAH E = = F=HJEH @A LA?J H @A ? =IE ?=?E @A K > AJ @AJAH E =@ = ? =IA = = GKA FAHJA A?A A AIJA ?=I IK B H = @A JH @A ? K J @A B H =I ? IE@AH=@=I -NEIJA K AH I I = C HEJ I F=H= = E F A A J=?E @A AIJA > GKA @AI@A K IE F A ? ?K @A AHH H ?K=@H JE? A@E A JHA =I KAIJH=I @A LA?J H @A ? =IE ?=?E @A > AJ = = E =@ O I F=JH AI @A HABAHA ?E= D=IJ= AIGKA =I I AL K?E =@ I ? FKA@A IAH =I 4A@AI AKH = AI   0=O E '' =I GKE =I @A 8A?J HAI 5 F HJA 58 I 8=F E  - AIJA ?=F JK I ?A JH=HA I FHE ?EF= A JA A A AIJK@E @A > GKA @A HAFHAIA J=?E O @AI?HEF?E EA JH=I GKA = ? =IE ?=?E IA HA= E =H ? A = C HEJ ? ?E@ ? 8A?E I ?AH?=  A=HAIJ AECD> KH 6DA @ HE@EI! = HAFHAIA J=?E @A K = HACE E F E?= A KI @A @ I F IE>E E@=@AI = >=I = = LA D=?AH A J H E I @A IKI ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I ANJAH =I IK ? J H  A J H E I @A IKI ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I E JAH =I  I F NA AI GKA ? FHA @A = HACE  /A AH= A JA = HAFHA IA J=?E ANJAH = IA A ECA ?K= @ A > AJEL FHE ?EF= IA ?A JH= A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A B H = O = HAFHAIA J=?E E JAH = ?K= @ A FHE ?EF= E JAH I IA ?A JH= A FH FEA@=@AI

#"

+=F JK

" + =IE ?=?E

@A B H =I

J= AI ? A ? H O JANJKH= 2 H J= J IE KAIJH > AJEL AI = ? =IE ?=?E @A = B H = @AJA?J=@= AIJ ? =H GKA E?= A JA IAH A?AI=HE A KI @A ? J H @A > AJ FHAI?E @EA @ ? F AJ= A JA @A E JAHE H @A IJA - IECKEA JA F=I AI = A A??E @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A > AJ 1 @AFA @EA JA A JA @A > AJEL = AI E JAHAI= JA GKA =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I IA A??E =@=I ? @AI?HEFJ HAI IA= J= E IA IE> AI ? BKAH= F IE> A = L=HE=?E AI J= AI ? ?= >E I @A J= = JH=I =?E H J=?E )@A I J= >E AI HA? A @=> A GKA @E?D=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I IA= I @EBAHA JAI F IE> AI A JHA =I @EIJE J=I ? =IAI ? IE@AH=@=I 2 H A A F IE GKEIE H= I @EIJE CKEH A JHA ?K=@H=@ I O JHE CK I AGKE JAH I K = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= E JAHAI= JA IAH = A AH @A L HJE?AI FHAIA JAI A A ? J H EA JH=I GKA K = HA? A @=> A F @H = IAH = AN?A JHE?E@=@ @A > AJ

"

-IGKA =I @A @AI?HEF?E

=I J ? E?=I @A @AJA??E @A LE EA J LEIJ=I D=IJ= =D H= @A IAC A J=?E @A E CA AI A CA AH= CA AH= ? K J I @A F NA AI > >I @A ?K= FKA@A ANJH=AHIA IK ? J H B ?E A JA / = A '! ) F=HJEH @A =GK = IA A??E @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A > AJ AI J J= A JA @AFA @EA JA @A > AJEL = O @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A =I B H =I = ? =IE ?=H -I @A?EH AI EI HA= E =H = ? =IE ?=?E @A B H =I CA JHE?=I IA ?E =I @ @A IAH = E JAHAI= JA ?A JH=HIA A = @AI?HEF?E A@E= JA HA?J=I L HJE?AI AJ? GKA ? =IE ?=H B H =I I ? F A =I ? LAD ?K I @ @A JH I AIGKA =I @A @AI?HEF?E IAH = A?AI=HE I ) ? JE K=?E IA @AI?HE>A I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A ? J H I ? K AI A = EJAH=JKH= K J ? A A F I @A KI

"

,AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH

2=HJEA @ @A ? J H @A K > AJ IJA FKA@A IAH HA? HHE@ O= IA= A IA JE@ D H=HE = JED H=HE @AI@A K FK J =H>EJH=HE F=H= AC=H = EI FK J I F=HAI @A ? H @A =@=I ? HHAIF @EA JAI = ?=@= FK J (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xN 1 , yN 1 ) GKA IA A ?KA JH= = HA? HHAH A ? J H FKA@A ANFHAI=HIA A = B H = x(k ) = xk O y (k ) = yk + AIJ= J=?E A FH FE ? J H IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? = IAHEA @A ? H@A =@=I s(k ) = [x(k ), y (k )] F=H= k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 I =K ?=@= F=H @A ? H@A =@=I FKA@A IAH JH=J=@ ? K AH ? F A J= GKA

s (k ) = x (k ) + y (k )

" 

F=H= k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 -IJ AI IA J = A A A x ? A A HA= O A A A y ? A A E =CE =HE @A K = IAHEA @A AH I ? F A I = JH= IB H =@= @EI?HAJ= @A . KHEAH ,.6 @A s(k ) AI

a (u) =

1 N

N 1

s (k ) exp
k=0

2 uk N

" 

"  -IGKA =I @A @AI?HEF?E

##

F=H= u = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 I ? A ?EA JAI ? F A I a(u) IA @A E = @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH @A ? J H = JH= IB H =@= E LAHI= @A . KHEAH @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH HAIJ=KH= A ? J H HECE = -I @A?EH
N 1

s (k ) =
k=0

a (u) exp

2 uk N

" !

F=H= k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 5KF C= I IE A >=HC GKA A LA @A J @ I I ? A ?EA JAI @A a(u) I = A JA IA KJE E = I FHE AH I M ? A ?EA JAI -IJ AI AGKEL= A JA = D=?AH a(u) = 0 F=H= u > M 1 A " ! - HAIK J=@ AI = IECKEA JA =FH NE =?E = s(k )
M 1

s (k ) =
k=0

a (u) exp

2 uk N

" "

F=H= k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 )K GKA I IA KJE E = M J H E I F=H= >JA AH ?=@= ? F A JA @A s (k ) k FAH = A?A A A E JAHL= @A  = N 1 AIJ AI ANEIJA A EI AH @A FK J I A A ? J H =FH NE =@ FAH IA KJE E = J= J I J H E I A = HA? I JHK??E @A ?=@= FK J 5E A AH @A FK J I @A ? J H AI CH= @A CA AH= A JA IA IA A??E = N ? K = F JA ?E= @A @A J= B H = GKA IA FKA@= KJE E =H K = C HEJ ..6 F=H= HA= E =H A ? ?K @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH HAFHAIA J= = B H = @A > AJ A A @ E E @A = BHA?KA ?E= I ? A ?EA JAI @A >= = BHA?KA ?E= ? JEA A = E B H =?E I >HA = B H = CA AH= @A > AJ O I ? A ?EA JAI @A = J= BHA?KA ?E= I @AJ= AI @A IJ= - CA AH= A =I =F E?=?E AI @A ? =IE ?=?E IKA A IAH IK ?EA JA ? A F A=H K ? K J HA@K?E@ @A ? A ?EA JAI F=H= F @AH @EI?HE E =H A JHA B H =I 5E A >=HC D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA A AIJA ?=I = IAH = IA = s(k ) ? F A = IK JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH AI IE JHE?= O F H J= J IA FKA@A ANF J=H = FH FEA@=@ @A IE AJH = GKA ?=H=?JAHE = = JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH @A K = IA = HA= 2=H= ? IACKEH GKA A IEIJA = IA= E L=HE= JA = @AIF = = EA J >=IJ= ? HAAI?HE>EH =I ? H@A =@=I @A I F NA AI @A ? J H x(k ) A y (k ) ? HAIFA?J = ?A JH @A =I=I @A > AJ A KC=H @A ? HAIFA?J = HECA @A ? H@A =@=I @A = E =CA = E L=HE= = HAIFA?J = = H J=?E IA ? IECKA =FH LA?D= @ = FH FEA@=@ @A @AIF = = EA J @A = JH= IB H =@= @A . KHEAH ,A AIJ= B H = @AI?=HJ= @ = E B H =?E @A B=IA O CK=H@= @ E?= A JA A @K @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH ? IACKE I @E?D= E L=HE= = 2 H JE = E L=HE= = = AI?= =@ FKA@A ? IACKEHIA @ELE@EA @ I L= HAI =>I KJ I @A I @AI?HEFJ HAI F H A L= H =>I KJ @A = KAIJH= A ?AH |a (0)| / = A '! I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH D= IE@ KJE E =@ I = F E= A JA A @EIJE J I JH=>= I 2 H AA F A =KFFE A '# I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH I KJE E =@ I K J ? JH I J @ I F=H= HA= E =H = ? =IE ?=?E @A AJH=I @A = B=>AJ E C I O @A I @A =LE AI E EJ=HAI K JJK! I @AI?HEFJ HAI @A . KHEAH I A F A=@ I F=H= ? =IE ?=H @ABA?J I A A FH ?AI @A ? =IE ?=?E @A F=FA ? =CK AH I =HHKC=I IK?EA@=@AI O @ABA?J I A IKFAH ?EAI AJ E?=I

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=

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> +AH? ?

LAN  ACH  @A = HACE

IJH=@=

"

+AH? O @A ?EA ?E= ?

LAN I

+K= @ A ? J H @A = CKH= FHAIA J= K = I ? ?=LE@=@AI IEC E ?=JEL=I GKA ? JEA A E B H =?E I >HA = B H = FKA@A HAIK J=H E JAHAI= JA A F A=H A ?AH? ? LAN ? LAN DK  - ?AH? ? LAN H @A K = HACE S AI A ? K J ? LAN I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A = S - ? K J @EBAHA ?E= H S IA @A E = @A ?EA ?E= ? LAN= , ? LAN @A ?EA ?O -IJ I ? ?AFJ I AIJ HAFHAIA J=@ I A = CKH= "  + IE@AH= @ = HACE S IJH=@= A " = IE = F E= I = HACE JH= = @ HA?J=I A =GKA I FK J I @A S @ @A IA FH @K?A K = JH= IE?E @A =BKAH= D=?E= =@A JH F=H= A E E =H J @=I =I F=HJAI ? ?=L=I >JA A I A ?AH? ? LAN H ? IA HAFHAIA J= A " > = @EBAHA ?E= @A = >=I HACE AI HAFHAIA J=@= A ACH A = CKH= = JAHE H IAH = = @A ?EA ?E= ? LAN= D = FHE ?EF= LA J= = @A AIJ I @AI?HEFJ HAI AI IK E L=HE= = = @EBAHA JAI JH= IB H =?E AI CA JHE?=I - ? ?HAJ ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I ? A AH @A ? F A JAI @A = @A ?EA ?E= ? LAN= = IEJK=?E HA =JEL= A JHA IJ=I ?= >E= >= E C JEF @A JH= IB H =?E 7 F=H AJH A F A=@ BHA?KA JA A JA AI = HA =?E A JHA = @A ?EA ?E= ? LAN= O A ?AH? ? LAN ,E EIE "

R=

Area (D) Area (H )

" #

O= GKA AIJ= HA =?E ?= >E= = JA K = JH= IB H =?E =B 2 @A I ? FH >=H AIJ B ?E A JA IE IKF A I T K = JH= IB H =?E =B =H>EJH=HE= 0=HJ AO! O A = =JHE GKA HAFHAIA J= @E?D= JH= IB H =?E *= @E?D= JH= IB H =?E A HA= @A K = HACE S ?K= GKEAH= F=I= = L= AH

Area (T (S )) = |A| Area (S )

" $

"  -IGKA =I @A @AI?HEF?E

#%

@ @A |A| HAFHAIA J= A @AJAH E = JA @A A -I @A?EH A HA= @A = IKFAH ?EA GKA@= K JE F E?=@= F H A @AJAH E = JA @A = =JHE @A JH= IB H =?E O = IAH @E?D= JH= IB H =?E =B = =JHE IAH IE CK =H O F H J= J A @AJAH E = JA @EIJE J @A  ,A AIJ= B H = A = ANFHAIE " # = GKA@=H = > I J H E I K JEF E?=@ I F H = EI = ? IJ= JA AIJ I IA = K = A JHA I ?K= @A KAIJH= GKA @E?D F=H AJH AI E L=HE= JA = JA K = JH= IB H =?E =B -IJA @AI?HEFJ H AI KJE E =@ F H A A F A ,E EIE " K J ? JH I @AI?HEFJ HAI F=H= HA= E =H = ? =IE ?=?E @A CAIJ I AIJ JE? I @A = = A JHA JH=I ? =F E?=?E F=H= = E JAHFHAJ=?E @A A CK= A @A I H@ K@ I

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.K ?E

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= ?KHL=JKH= @A ? J H @A K > AJ A K FK J @AJAH E =@ pi IA ?= ?K = ? = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA CK I @A =I J= CA JAI = ? J H A JHA @E?D FK J O A IECKEA JA pi+1 ? KAIJH= = CKH= " -I @A?EH A L= H @A = ?KHL=JKH= A @E?D FK J FKA@A ?= ?K =HIA ?

yi+W yi yi+W +1 yi+1 tan1 " % xi+W xi xi+W +1 xi+1 = BK ?E c(i) @ @A i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 O N AI A AH @A FK J I @A ? J H IA @A E = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= - JAH E W FAH EJA ALEJ=H I AHH HAI @A>E@ I = = =JKH= A = @EI?HAJ= @A K = E =CA @ECEJ= GKA IA LAH = HA A =@ I A = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= ? ? F A JAI @A = J= BHA?KA ?E= )I K L= H F=H= W FAGKA D=?A GKA A HKE@ @A = J= BHA?KA ?E= @A>E@ = = @EI?HAJE =?E @A = E =CA =K A JA EA JH=I GKA K L= H CH= @A D=H GKA @E?D=I ? F A JAI IA HA@K ?= FAH IE IJA AI AN?AIEL= A JA CH= @A J= >E F @H = D=?AH =I ? F A JAI @A >= = BHA?KA ?E= GKA I =I GKA AL= = E B H =?E BK @= A J= @A = B H = @A > AJ 2 H J= J IA @A>A FJ=H F H K L= H @A ? FH EI F=H= W GKA ALEJA I FH > A =I = JAHE H A JA A ?E =@ I - CA AH= @E?D L= H L= = @AFA @AH A JHA JH=I ? I=I @A J= = @A > AJ ) =O H J= = @A > AJ @E?D L= H @A>AH = =K A J=H @A B H = FH F H?E = =KFFE A '# = FHE ?EF= LA J= = @A = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= AI GKA HA@K?A K FH > A = >E@E A IE = = K K E@E A IE = GKA IKA A IAH I IA ?E @A JH=J=H A@E= JA =I J ? E?=I JH=@E?E = AI @A FH ?AI=@ @A IA = )@A I F H A DA?D @A A F A=H @EBAHA ?E=I A JHA CK I A KC=H @A CK I @EHA?J= A JA ? IACKE I GKA = BK ?E IA= E L=HE= JA = = H J=?E =K GKA = FK J @A ? EA -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA @AFA @EA @ @A ?K= IA= A FK J @A ? J H F H A GKA A FA?A I = >JA AH = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= IJ= L= = IAH @EIJE J= O IA LAH HA A =@ ? K @AIF = = EA J ?EH?K =H A @E?D= BK ?E = E L=HE= = = AI?= =@ FKA@A ? IACKEHIA KAIJHA= @ = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= = K AH @A KAIJH=I @AJAH E =@ F=H= GKA =I J @=I =I BK ?E AI @A ?KHL=JKH= JA C= K J= = 2 H JE = FH FE= =JKH= A = @A = ANFHAIE F=H= = >JA ?E @A = ?KHL=JKH= IAC " % D=?A GKA IA= E L=HE= JA = @AIF = = EA J = BK ?E @A ?KHL=JKH= AI KJE E =@= F H A A F A =KFFE A '# F=H= = ? =IE ?=?E @A @EIJE J I ? J H I ? AJH=I O =LE AI 2=H= ALEJ=H = @AFA @A ?E= @A FK J @A ci = tan1

#&

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F A= @ = +KHL=JKH= . KHEAH @A = BK ?E F JA ?E= @A @A J= IA LE = JAHE H A JA

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7 =D CH=B = A @ I @E A IE AI IA HAFHAIA J= A@E= JA K = =JHE IE CK =H @A J= = 3 3 ? & CH=@ I @A E>AHJ=@ , . ,ACHAA B .HAA@  GKA IAH = I'? A ?EA JAI @A K = =JHE IE CK =H A I K @A AI?= = 7 = B H = ? @A ?= ?K =H @E?D= D CH=B = AI A@E= JA A = C HEJ , 6 ,EHA?J E A=H 6H= IB H =JE  0=HJ AO! = C HEJ A?AIEJ= K ? K J @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A JHA FK J I O A AH E @A @E?D=I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I @AFA @A @A JEF @A D CH=B = = ?= ?K =H - A ?=I @A K = D CH=B = CA HE?= @A @ I @E A IE AI IA JEA A & , .I + ?=@= ? HHAIF @A ?E= @A K FK J A = > I F = I IKF A @ I HAIJHE??E AI IAH = A?A I=HE K E @A " ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A JHA FK J I @A = > I F = I 5E A >=HC IE HA= E = I ?EAHJ=I IKF IE?E AI = FH ?AI @A CH=>=?E @A = E =CA AI F IE> A HA@K?EH A AH @A , .I A A IEIJA = )K GKA A ?=I CA HE? @A K = ? =H= @A L @A CH=>= @ K F = FKA@A @AI?HE>EHIA ? K = JH= IB H =?E FH OA?JEL= GKA IKF @H = I & , .I A ?E =@ =HHE>= A K?D=I ?=IE AI A IEIJA = @A CH=>=?E A F A=@ A LE@A LECE = ?E= FKA@A =FH NE =HIA IE K?D AHH H = K = JH= IB H =?E =B GKA HA@K?EH = A AH @A , .I = I $ ,A AIJ= B H = A AH @A ? HHAIF @A ?E=I @A FK J I >= =H = D=IJ= ! - JA H = = IE F E ?=?E = K = JH= IB H =?E =B ?KHHA ?K= @ = ? =H= GKA AIJ LEIK= E = @ A F = IA A ?KA JH= A A E EJ 2 H J= J = JH= IB H =?E =B FKA@A IKF AHIA IEA FHA O ?K= @ = ? =H= IA A ?KA JHA A A E EJ = A I = K = @EIJ= ?E= ? IE @AH=> A A JA I CH= @A GKA A J= = @A > AJ LEIK= E =@ GKA AI A = =O H = @A =I ?=IE AI H = A I IEIJA =I @A LE@A LECE = ?E= 2 H J= J = =JHE 0 IA ? LEAHJA A

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- ? ?K @A = D CH=B = @A HA HEA J=?E F=H= HA?J CK I FKA@A @AHEL=HIA @A = C HEJ @AI=HH =@ F=H= I JHE CK I A@E= JA ECAH=I @E ?=?E AI - A ?=I @A I HA?J CK I ANEIJA ?K=JH FK J I ? I GKA D=?AH =I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I GKA I FAH EJEH = ?= ?K =H = D CH=B = IE A?AIE@=@ @A HA= E =H = IE F E ?=?E = K = JH= IB H =?E =B 5E A >=HC =GK J= >E IA FKA@A HA= E =H = =FH NE =?E = K = JH= IB H =?E =B GKA I L= = FAH EJEH =D HH=H JEA F A A ? ?K 2 H J= J = JA AH " ? HHAIF @A ?E=I GKA AGKEL= A = ?D A?K=?E AI O I $ E ? C EJ=I AI @A?EH I IAEI , .I @A K = JH= IB H =?E =B JA A I K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= I >HA@AJAH E =@ GKA FKA@A IAH HAIKA J E E E = @ A AHH H ?K=@H JE? A@E A@E= JA =I A?K=?E AI H = AI

:6 : h = :6 y

" #

I ?K=JH L HJE?AI @A HA?J CK I ?= E =@ I @A = EI = B H = GKA I @A JHE CK LEIJ= = JAHE H A JA = F=HJEH @A = H = FHALE= A JA ?= ?K =@= O =I ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A JHA FK J I HA= E =@=I ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= "  ,A KAL =GK IA FHAIA J= A EI FH > A = GKA = JAI AI @A?EH GKA F=H= K FK J @=@ AI F IE> A AIJ=> A?AH ?K=JH ? HHAIF @A ?E=I @EIJE J=I O F H J= J IA @A>AH HA= E =H K = HAIJHE??E IE E =H - A ?=I @A HA?J CK AI IK ?EA JA ? IKF AH GKA A > AJ IKBHEH K = H J=?E =O H @A "# CH=@ I F=H= =IACKH=H I @A GKA = E =CA @A HA?J CK JH= IB H =@ ? =D CH=B = @ALKA J= ? A = C HEJ @AI=HH =@ AIJ IEJK=@ A IK HEA J=?E ? HHA?J= - AIJ=I ? @E?E AI IA FKA@A =IACKH=H F H A A F GKA A L HJE?A E BAHE H @AHA?D @A HA?J CK @A HABAHA ?E= ? HHAIF @AH IEA FHA ? A FHE AH FE? @A = H = AI @A?EH A FHE AH L HJE?A @A > AJ GKA I A ? JH=H = I IE A FA H= I A A A A x =L= = @ A IA JE@ AC=JEL 5E BKAIA F IE> A A =IACKH=H GKA A > AJ IKBH= K = H J=?E

%
x4 x1 x1

+=F JK
y0=1 x4

" + =IE ?=?E

@A B H =I

x2

x3 x2 x x3

.ECKH= "  + HHAIF

@A ?E=I A JHA FK J I A HA?J

y

CK I

r=0.5 x

.ECKH= "  + HHAIF

@A ?E=I A ? H?K I

IKFAHE H = "# CH=@ I JA @HA I GKA >KI?=H K = I K?E IE E =H = = @EIA =@= F=H= I JHE CK I - AIJA ?=I IAH = A?AI=HE=I ?K=JH E CA AI @EIJE J=I IEA @ =I JHAI JE =I =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI = =I LAHIE AI H J=@=I = ' & O % CH=@ I HAIFA?J @A = FHE AH=

""!

H = E =?E

@A ? H?K I

- FHE ?EF= FH > A = GKA IA FHAIA J= A = H = E =?E @A I ? H?K I ? HAIFA?J = =I H = E =?E AI LEIJ=I D=IJ= =D H= AI GKA A ? H?K JEA A L HJE?AI O F H J= J F @A I KJE E =H I FK J I ? HABAHA ?E= F=H= A ? ?K @A = D CH=B = 2 H A AI F IE> A AIJ=> A?AH ? HHAIF @A ?E=I A JHA FK J I O = D CH=B = @A>AH IAH ?= ?K =@= @A JH= B H = 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA K = JH= IB H =?E =B FKA@A JH= IB H =H K ? H?K A K = A EFIA I A?AIEJ=H = I AIJE =H I F=H AJH I @A = A EFIA = = E =@= F=H= F @AH ?= ?K =H = ? HHAIF @EA JA D CH=B = 0=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA K = A EFIA IA @A A ? ?E ? F=H AJH I GKA IAH = A ?A JH GKA ? J=H = ? @ I F=H AJH I I A AI =O H O A H O = HEA J=?E @A A A FHE ?EF= EA JH=I GKA K = D CH=B = =B JEA A IAEI , .I - JE , . IA ? HHAIF @AH = ? = HEA J=?E @A ? H?K GKA FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@= @A>E@ = = B= J= @A FK J I @A HABAHA ?E= O F H J= J = D CH=B = I FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@= D=IJ= K = H J=?E = HA@A@ H @A IK ?A JH )K GKA ANEIJA @EIJE J I JH=>= I GKA FAH EJA = KIJ=H FK J I = K = A EFIA /= @AH'" AIJ I = C HEJ I IA ?A JH= A A ? ?K @A I F=H AJH I @A = A EFIA - AIJ= JAIEI IE A >=HC FH F A I K J @ GKA ?= ?K = @EHA?J= A JA = D CH=B = A?AI=HE= F=H= HA HEA J=H A > AJ IE E C JEF @A ? ?K =@E?E = -IJ= JH= IB H =?E =FA= = A EFIA HECE = A = CKH= @A HABAHA ?E= A AIJA ?=I K ? H?K @A @E= AJH  O ?A JH=@ A 0,5; 0,5 ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= " 

""

?= E =?E

@A = CKH=

%!

6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA I ? IE@AH=HA I I F NA AI @A ? J H F H IE F E ?=H A = C HEJ I I F NA AI @A = H = IA FKA@A ? IE@AH=H = A EFIA ? K = ? E?= 0=HJ AO! GKA FKA@A IAH @AI?HEJ= F H K = =JHE IE JHE?= @A = B H =

a b/2 d/2 + = b/2 c e/2 , d/2 e/2 f

" $

? ?E ? CH=@ I @A E>AHJ=@ GKA IAH = I IAEI ? A ?EA JAI @EIJE J I @A K = =JHE IE JHE?= A I K @A AI?= = 2 H J= J IAH A?AI=HE K E @A ?E ? FK J I F=H= @A EH K = A EFIA +K= GKEAH FK J FAHJA A?EA JA = = A EFIA @A>A ?K F EH

x6 i +x i = 0 ,
AGKEL= A JA A JA
2 x2 i , xi yi , yi , xi , yi , 1

" %

c=0,

" &

@ @A c = (a, b, c, d, e, f )6 AI = ? E?= + HAFHAIA J=@= ? K LA?J H @A IAEI A A A J I ) F=HJEH @A = A?K=?E = JAHE H >JA E@= F=H= J @ I I FK J I @EIF E> AI @A = H = @A > AJ >JA A I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI

2 x2 x1 y1 y1 x1 y 1 1 1 x2 x2 y2 y 2 x2 y2 1 2 2 c = 0 . 2 2 xN xN yN yN xN yN 1

" '

5E A AH @A FK J I A =O H @A ?E ? " ' IKF A A ? ?K @A AIF=?E K @A K IEIJA = I >HA@AJAH E =@ GKA FKA@A IAH HAIKA J B ?E A JA A@E= JA J ? E?=I @A E E E =?E = CA>H=E?= 7 = LA GKA = ? E?= + D= IE@ ?= ?K =@= A IECKEA JA F=I ? IEIJA A A ? ?K @A = D CH=B = @A @ I @E A IE AI GKA JH= IB H A = A EFIA A K ? H?K =KNE E=H @A H=@E 0,5 ?A JH=@ A A HECA @A ? H@A =@=I @A =?KAH@ = 0=HJ AO!

+ = 06 +01 ,

" !

@ @A + = diag (4, 4, 1) AI A ? H?K =KNE E=H HAFHAIA J=@ ? K = =JHE @E=C = @A 3 3 ? A ?EA JAI IEA @ I L= HAI @A IK @E=C = FHE ?EF= ECK= = " " O  0=?EA @ = JH= IB H =?E E LAHI= O @AI? F EA @ 0 A K FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI
6 + = 06 R 0P 0D + 0D 0P 0R ,

" !

@ @A 0R AI K = =JHE HJ C = )@A I + C = FKA@A LAHIA ? = @AI? F IE?E A ,A? F IEJE  @A + GKA FKA@A ?= ?K =HIA KJE E ?E 58, = =JHE 0P AI K = =JHE @A FAH

= 06 @A +D AI K = =JHE @E= R +D 0R @ L= HAI IE CK =HAI 58, 5E CK =H 8= KA = @ = C HEJ I AIJ @=H @A @AI? F IE KJ=?E F=H= =IACKH=H GKA +D = 06 P +E 0P

%"

+=F JK

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@A B H =I

IEA @ +E K = =JHE @E=C = ? A JH=@=I e11 O e22 F IEJEL=I O = A JH=@= e33 AC=JEL= 2 H JE 0D AI K = =JHE @E=C = ? A JH=@=I

d11 =

e11 /2;

d22 =

e22 /2;

d33 =

e33 .

" ! 

.E = A JA = =JHE 0 = 0D 0P 0R AI = =JHE GKA JH= IB H = = A EFIA HECE = + A K ? H?K + @A H=@E 0,5 ?A JH=@ A A HECA @A ? H@A =@=I - AIJA FK J F @A I A@EH A AHH H CA JHE? ? = IK = @A = @EIJ= ?E= @AI@A ?=@= K @A I FK J I @A = H = D=IJ= = A EFIA AIJE =@= IAC

1 e= N

|d (0pi , 0) 0,5| ,
i=1

" !!

@ @A d (x1 , x2 ) AI = @EIJ= ?E= AK? @A= A JHA I FK HECE = AI @A = H = @A > AJ JH=I =@=@ I = F = ?A JH @A ? H?K   O 0,5 AI A H=@E @A ? H?K IAH K >H= E =@ F=H= @AI?=HJ=H B= I=I = =H =I 2 H GKA GKAHA I >JA AH AI K ? H?K @A H=@E 0,5 ?A =JHE @A JH=I =?E F=H= @AIF = =H A ? H?K = JAHE

I FK J I J I x1 O x2 pi = 0pi I @AIJE 0I =I ? H@A =@=I @A - AHH H CA JHE? >JA E@ FKA@A JE ? = CKH= @A HABAHA ?E= JH=@ A 0,5; 0,5 A?AIEJ= I K = H IK = F IE?E = " !"

0t =
@ @A 1 AI K = =JHE E@A JE@=@ @A J= =

1 t 06 1

2 2 O t = (0,5, 0,5)6 AI A LA?J H @A JH=I =?E

"""

H = E =?E

@A IA E? H?K I

5E ? IE@AH= I A IA E? H?K ? K FH > A = @A IAC A J=?E A A ?K= A @K @A IAC A J=?E @ALKA LA @ I IA E? H?K I A KC=H @A K E? ? H?K K = B H = @A ?= E =H A IA E? H?K AI AIJE = @ = F IE?E @A ? H?K GKA HECE @E?D I IA E? H?K I 2 H J= J A FH > A = @A = ?= E =?E @A IA E? H?K I IA HA@K?A = ? ?K @A = D CH=B = GKA JH= IB H = A ? H?K @A ?K= @AHEL A IA E? H?K = = E =@ A A ? H?K @A HABAHA ?E= AI @A?EH AN=?J= A JA A EI FH > A = = = E =@ A = IA??E = JAHE H )K GKA ECK= GKA F=H= A ? H?K I FK J I F=H= AIJE =H = D CH=B = FKA@A IAH ANJH= @ I @A = H = A FH > A = =D H= AI GKA D=O GKA @AJAH E =H GK FK J I @A = H = FAHJA A?A = = F=HJA ?EH?K =H @A IA E? H?K O GK FK J I FAHJA A?A = = F=HJA HA?J= 5E >IAHL= I = CKH= "  F @A I ? FH >=H ? = H = @A K = IA EA EFIA JEA A JHAI FE? I @ I @A A I FAHJA A?A = I FK J I @A ?HK?A @A = A EFIA ? = HA?J= GKA CA AH= = IA EA EFIA O A JH ? HHAIF @A = =FH NE =@= A JA A FK J ?A JH= A JHA I @ I FK J I = JAHE HAI *=I @ IA = JAHE H F @A I @EIA =H K = C HEJ IE E =H = @EIA =@ F=H= I JHE CK I O A F A=H F=H= AIJE =H =I JHAI HA?J=I GKA K A I FK J I GKA ? HHAIF @A ? I JHAI FE? I @A = H = 5E ?= ?K = I A AHH H CA JHE? F=H= ?=@= A= @A =?KAH@

" # -L= K=?E

@A = C HEJ

E F A A J=@

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@A ?E=I A IA E? H?K I

= "  @A>AH = I >JA AH K = @A A =I ? K AHH H FAGKA EA JH=I GKA =I JH=I @ I @A>AH = JA AH K AHH H K?D I CH= @A ?K= I FAH EJEH @AJAH E =H ?K= @A =I JHAI HA?J=I FAHJA A?A HA= A JA = = F=HJA HA?J= @A IA E? H?K 7 = LA @AJAH E =@ GK F=HJA @A = H = FAHJA A?A = = HA?J= O GK F=HJA = ? H?K I I GKA@= ? IJHKEH K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI IE E =H = @AI?HEJ A " ' A F A= @ E?= A JA =I KAIJH=I @A = H = GKA ? HHAIF @A = = F=HJA ?EH?K =H - HAIJ @A = C HEJ A E@ JE? = @AI?HEJ A = IA??E = JAHE H F=H= = ?= E =?E @A ? H?K I 2=H= A ?=I @A IA E? H?K I F @A I HA= E =H @ I AL= K=?E AI F=H= @AJAH E =H D=IJ= GKA CH=@ = CKH= @AJA?J=@= IA ? HHAIF @A ? K IA E? H?K 2 H K =@ O= GKA JA A I ?= ?K =@ A AHH H CA JHE? @A ?=@= K = @A =I JHAI HA?J=I O I=>A I ?K= @A A =I AI = GKA IA ? HHAIF @A ? = F=HJA HA?J= @A IA E? H?K F @A I K >H= E =H A AHH H CA JHE? @A @E?D= HA?J= @A = EI = B H = GKA IA D=? = F=H= JHE CK I O HA?J CK I 2 H JH =@ ECK= GKA IA DE F=H= A ?=I @A I ? H?K I IA FKA@A J= >E ?= ?K =H A AHH H CA JHE? @A I FK J I GKA IA ? HHAIF @A ? = F=HJA ?EH?K =H @A = H = O K >H= E =H AIJA L= H 7 IA E? H?K IAH ? IE@AH=@ ? K = B= I= = =H = IE ?K= GKEAH= @A =I @ I A@E@=I = JAHE HAI AI IKFAHE H = IK K >H= ? HHAIF @EA JA

"#

-L= K=?E

@A = C HEJ

E F A A J=@

- AIJA =F=HJ=@ AL= K=HA I A BK ?E = EA J @A = C HEJ E F A A J=@ J= J A IK =>E E@=@ F=H= HA= E =H = ? =IE ?=?E @A B H =I ? A IK FHA?EIE F=H= ?= E =H O HA HEA J=H = CKH= K = LA ? =IE ?=@= ? HHA?J= A JA )K GKA A IEIJA = FKA@A JH=>= =H ? E CA AI HA= AI DA I FJ=@ F H JAIJ=H A IEIJA = ? E CA AI IE J JE?=I CA AH=@=I =KJ JE?= A JA ,A AIJ= B H = ? IACKEHA I GKA I HAIK J=@ I IA= E @AFA @EA JAI @A > GKA @A IAC A J=?E A E ? KI @A =I ? @E?E AI @A E K E =?E = ?= E@=@ @A = E =CA ?=FJKH=@= )@A I = IAH =I CKH=I CA AH=@=I =KJ JE?= A JA J @= = E B H =?E FAHJA A?EA JA = ?=@= CKH= ? B H = F IE?E AN=?J= J= = AJ? FKA@A IAH J= >E = =?A =@= GKA I FAH EJEH >JA AH I HAIK J=@ I >KI?=@ I @A B H = =KJ JE?= 2=H= A IA D= @AI=HH =@ K = =F E?=?E =@E?E = GKA AI ?=F= @A CA AH=H JHE CK I HA?J CK I A EFIAI O IA EA EFIAI @A B H = = A=J HE= O CK=H@=H = E B H =?E FAH JA A?EA JA = ?=@= K = @A A =I AI K =H?DEL =F=HJA = E =CA IA CA AH= A > = ? O

%$

+=F JK

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@A B H =I

ACH F H GKA AI A?AI=HE HA= E =H E CK = IAC A J=?E =@E?E = F=H= A A?KJ=H A = C HEJ 2=H= = ? IJHK??E @A JHE CK I = =F E?=?E CA AH= JHAI ? H@A =@=I = A=J HE=I O JH=I L= E@=H ?EAHJ=I HAIJHE??E AI CA JHE?=I IA CA AH= K JHE CK GKA JEA A ? L HJE?AI =I JHAI ? H@A =@=I = JAHE HAI 2=H= HA?J CK I A IEIJA = AI >=IJ= JA IE E =H 5E A >=HC D=O GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA =K GKA A IEIJA = F @H = IAH ?=F= @A CA A H=H ?K= GKEAH JEF @A ?K=@HE JAH I = A JA I E JAHAI= JAI I ?K=@HE JAH I ? LAN I )@A I ? A = @AJA??E @A HA?J CK I I = A JA IA D= JA E@ A ?KA J= JH= IB H =?E AI = AI E?= A JA IA JA @H A ?KA J= I F=H= A CH= I F H GKA I IAH A?AI=HE CA AH=H JHAI ? H@A =@=I 2=H= =I A EFIAI IAH = A?AI=HE I ?E ? F=H AJH I @ I F=H= @A EH A ?A JH @A = A EFIA K F=H= A J= = @A A A =O H JH F=H= A A A A H O A JE F=H= = HEA J=?E @A A A =O H 2=H= =I IA EA EFIAI AI A?AI=HE K F=H AJH I A GKA @A A = HEA J=?E @A = HA?J= GKA @ELE@A = A EFIA A @ I EJ=@AI 2=H= = = E =H A = C HEJ A FHAIA ?E= @A HKE@ = =F E?=?E @AI=HH =@= E ? HF H= K F=I I F=H= HA= E =H = =@E??E @A HKE@ = = E =CA 2=H= IE K =H AIJA ABA?J A AIJA F=I = =F E?=?E CA AH= L=HE=I ? H@A =@=I = A=J HE=I FH NE =I = I > H@AI @A = CKH= O @E>K = F=H?DAI ?EH?K =HAI @A J= = = A=J HE GKA = JAH=H A ? J H @A = CKH= + GKAHA I AL= K=H A BK ?E = EA J @A = C HEJ FH FKAIJ A FHAIA ?E= @A @EIJE J I ELA AI @A HKE@ A @E AJH @A I F=H?DAI AI K = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= ? @EIJHE>K?E @A FH >=>E E@=@ H = O @AILE=?E J FE?= ? CKH=> A ,A AIJ= B H = F @A I CA AH=H ? K J I @A CKH=I ? @EIJE J ELA @A HKE@ ?=@= K @A A I >LE= A JA ?K= J =O H IA= A L= H @A = @AILE=?E J FE?= =O HAI IAH I F=H?DAI O =O H IAH = @EIJ HIE = =@E@= = = CKH= HECE = = CKH= " ! KAIJH= = CK I A A F I @A CKH=I ? HKE@ CA AH=@=I ? AIJ= =F E?=?E - ABA?J @A =I ? KIE AI F=H?E= AI J= >E IAH = = E =@ =GK 2=H= A = =F E?=?E = JAHE H J= >E AI ?=F= @A @E>K =H K F=H?DA @A J= = K?D =O H GKA I A F A=@ I F=H= A HKE@ A I > H@AI @A =I CKH=I 2=H= JHE CK I O HA?J CK I A F=H?DA AI @E>K =@ ? IK ?A JH KIJ A K @A I L HJE?AI @A = CKH= O= GKA AIJ AI A FA H ?=I A A ?=I @A K = ? KIE 6= O ? IA LE A A =F=HJ=@ @A = A @A =I ? KIE AI ?K= @ = ? KIE IA FH @K?A A = F=HJA HA?J= @A = CKH= AIJ FH ?JE?= A JA JEA A ABA?J A A HAIK J=@ = 2=H= =I A EFIAI A F=H?DA AI @E>K =@ ?A JH=@ A K FK J FAHJA A?EA JA = = A EFIA A ACE@ @A B H = = A=J HE= 2=H= IA EA EFIAI A BK ?E = EA J AI A EI AN?AFJ A GKA A IEIJA = @A>A =IACKH=HIA @A GKA @E?D FK J FAHJA A?A = = F=HJA A E E =@= @A = A EFIA HECE = ) CK I A A F I @A CKH=I ? ? KIE AI F=H?E= AI FKA@A LAHIA A = CKH= " " 7JE E = @ AIJ= DAHH= EA J= =@E?E = L= I = AL= K=H A BK ?E = EA J @A = C HEJ @EIA =@ = F=HJEH @A @ I A@E@=I 2 H K =@ IA >JA @H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A =?EAHJ A = ? =IE ?=?E @A = B H = @A > AJ A@E@ ? = HA =?E A JHA A AH @A > AJ I ? HHA?J= A JA ? =IE ?=@ I O A J J= @A > AJ I = = E =@ I 2 H JH =@ J= >E IA A@EH = FHA?EIE A = ?= E =?E @A = F IE?E @A = CKH= 2=H= A = CKH= ? = F IE?E AIJE =@= IA @E>K = I >HA = CKH= HECE = IE HKE@ E ? KIE O IA ? J=H A

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