Beauty in the Worlds of Islam

University of Texas at Austin April 3-4, 2009 Thompson Conference Center

Sponsored by: the South Asia Institute, Department of Religious Studies, Department of Asian Studies, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Islamic Studies Program, Hindi-Urdu Flagship Program, and Arabic Flagship Program.

Panel1:LiteraryAesthetics&LearninginMuslimWorlds ChairedbySyedAkbarHyder (FridayApril310:0012:30) Joseph:TheEmbodimentof'HalfoftheBeautyoftheEntireUniverse' NargisVirani(TheNewSchoolForSocialResearch,NY) GodisbeautifulandlovesBeauty,innallahaJamilunwayuhibbuljamal,isprobablyoneofthemost oftquotedsaying,hadith,oftheProphetofIslam,eventhoughsomescholarsmaydoubtits authenticity.Themysticssay,whenGoddecidedtocreate,Heplacedhalfofallbeautyintheentire creation,theotherhalfhegrantedtoJoseph!Joseph,theparagonofbeauty,appearsprominentlyin BiblicalexegeticalworksashedoesinMuslimpoetryfromaroundtheworldinmanylanguages.For themystics,hislover,Zulaykhas,passionateloveforhimbeginswithfallingheadoverheelsforhis physicalbeauty,astestifiedbytheQuran.InboththeOldTestamentandtheQuran,Potiphars wife(Zulaykha)isvindicatedwhenherverycriticscuttheirfingersinsteadofthefruitintheirhands, astheybeholdthebeautyofJoseph.YusufandZulaykhas,then,isthelovestoryparexcellencethat couldneverberivaledbyanyotherfamouslovestories.ItisnowonderthatinMawlanaJalaluddin Rumis(12071273)lyricalaswellasdidacticpoetry,Josephplaysacentralrole:theeverelusive, handsome,gifted,wise,cruel,andforgivingbeloved.Mypresentationwillexplorethevarious functionsthatJosephperformsinhispoems,andtheliteralandmetaphoricalmeaningsthatRumi givestoJosephsgiftofbeauty. TheArtofArabicOratory:AClassicalSermononPietybyImamAli TaheraQutbuddin(DepartmentofNearEasternLanguagesandLiteratureattheUniversityof Chicago) IntheseventhandeighthcenturiesC.E.,ratherthanpaintingorsculptureormusic,thepeoplesof Arabiaassiduouslycultivatedtheartofthespokenwordtheeloquently,metaphorically, rhythmically,appositelyspokenword.Theprimaryproseformofthatartwasthekhutbaororation, whichincludedbothsermonsandspeeches,andwhosethemesandstylecontinuetoinfluencethe rhetoricofpublicaddressinthecontemporaryIslamicworld. TheorationwasacrucialpieceoftheArabicliterarylandscape,andakeycomponentofpoliticaland spiritualleadership.InboththepreIslamicandearlyIslamicphasesofArabianlife,ithadsignificant political,social,andreligiousfunctions.Itrousedwarriorstobattle,legislatedoncivicandcriminal matters,raisedawarenessofthenearnessofdeathandtheimportanceofleadingapiouslife,called tothenewreligionofIslam,andevenformedpartofitsritualworship.Theoratoricaltextsextantin themedievalArabicsourcesformsomeofthemostbeautifulandpowerfulexpressionsoftheArabic literarycanon. Evolvingfromitsoralcultureanditsendgoalofpersuasion,theaestheticfeaturesoftheclassical orationmaybedividedintofivegroups:(1)heavyuseofbrief,parallelsentences,andrepeated phrases,aswellassporadicutilizationofrhyme(saj)whichyieldedastrongrhythminthe orationandfacilitateditscomprehensionandretention;(2)frequentdirectaddress,emphatic structures,andrhetoricalorrealquestionswhichengagedtheaudienceinthespeechact;(3)vivid imagerytoportrayabstractionsasobservable,desertphenomenawhichgavephysicalformto theoreticalconcepts;(4)citationofQurnicandpoeticverseswhichanchoredtheoratorswords inthesacredorsemisacredliteratureofpreandearlyIslam,bestowingdivineorquasidivine authoritytothem;and(5)dignifiedyetsimplelanguagewhichrenderedtheorationformaland simultaneouslymadeitunderstandabletoitspublicaudience. Thefirstshiaimamandthefourthsunnirightlyguidedcaliph,ImamAliswidelyacknowledged asamasterofArabiceloquence,andthebestknowncompilationofhiswordsisaptlytitledthePath

ofEloquence(Nahjalbalgha).Atranslationcannotcapturethefullbeautyofthesermon,forits aestheticeffectisintrinsicallyconnectedwithitslanguage;stillitcanbringuspartofthewayin understandingthesheerpowerofAlsrhetoric.Astylisticanalysisofhisfamoussermononpiety demonstratesthemnemonic,rhythmic,additive,aggregative,closetothehumanworldfeatures thatarecharacteristicoforallybasedexpression.Tothegoalofconvincingtheaudiencetoprepare forthehereafter,heharnessesfromwithinthefivegroupsmentionedearlierseveralaesthetic techniquesoftacitpersuasion:antitheticalparallelism,repetitionofkeyterms,applicationof emphaticstructures,posingofrhetoricalquestions,andstraightforwardyetelevatedvocabularyand syntax.Throughaskillfulusageofthesedevices,hedelineatesaclearcontrastbetweenthisworld andthenext,todayandtomorrow,goodandevil,guidanceanderror.Hisbrilliantlycraftedtext leavestheaudiencestarklyremindedofthetransienceofthisworld,andthenecessityforeach individualtoutilizehisorherpreciousandlimitedtimeinittothefullest,inordertoensure salvationintheensuingeternity. PerfectionofParadise NerinaRustomji(DepartmentofHistoryatSt.JohnsUniversity) IslamicParadiseisarealmofgardens,rivers,fountains,goldenthrones,silkcouches,finefood,pure wine,abundantfruit,luxuriouscarpets,gloriousmusic,eternallypurefemalecompanions,angels, prophetsfromtheHebrewBible,andthepresenceofGod.Intermsofbeauty,thisotherworldly realm,knownasaljannaortheGarden,isnotjustaplaceofultimatebeautythatcanonlybeenjoyed afteralifetimeofrighteousbehavior,itisalsoconsideredaperfectedrealm.Inexploringthevarious representationsofParadiseortheGarden(aljanna),thispaperarguesthattheGardenoffersthe ultimatestandardofbeautysinceitrepresentsmoralandaestheticcompletion. InordertoexplorethewaysthattheGardenreflectedidealsofperfection,thepaperwilldiscusshow ethicsandaestheticsareintertwinedinIslamictextualtradition.Bytracingproscriptionsfor behaviorintheQur'an,traditionsoftheprophetMuhammad,andeschatologicalmanuals,thepaper willinitiallypresenthowtheGardenrepresentedadevelopingcorpusofwhatwasbeinginterpreted asrighteousbehavior.Alongsidetheproscriptionsandinjunctions,thesametextsalsodetailedhow theGardenwouldlook,feel,taste,andsmell.InordertoexplorethissenseperceptionoftheGarden, thepaperwillintroducehowwritingabouttheGardenyieldedanaestheticvocabulary.After discussingthefunctionoftheGardenasmoralandaestheticguide,thepaperwillintroduceimages fromtheUmayyadmosqueinDamascusandbooksartsfromNizami'sHaftPaykarinorderto demonstratehowtheGardenasaperfectedotherworldlyformwasrepresentedinartistic productions. BeautyintheLaughterofChildren:MuslimPreschoolsinEastAfrica ShafiqueVirani(DepartmentofIslamicStudiesattheUniversityofToronto) Thesunhasjustbeguntopeakoutoverthehorizon,andalreadylaughterpermeatestheairas groupsoftinytotsmerrilymaketheirwaytoasimplebutinvitinglittleschoolhouseontheoutskirts oftheirvillagenearMombasa.Thepreschoolwheretheyplayandlearnisnexttotheirlocalmosque andispartoftheMadrasaProgramofEastAfrica.Intheearly1980s,researchonearlychildhood interventionsbegantorevealthehighlypositivelongtermimpactofhighqualitypreschool experiences.Asthisresearchgainedattentionfrominternationalfoundationsandnongovernmental organizations(NGOs),aswellasfromavarietyofdonoragencies,educatorsbegantofocusonthe needtosupportandinvestinyoungchildrenandtheirfamilies.Takingnoteofthesefindings,a numberofvisionaryMuslimleadersinEastAfricaandbeyonddecidedthatthiswouldbeoneofthe bestwaystohelpthemarginalizedMuslimcommunitiesoftheregion.Aftermuchplanning,they enlistedthesupportofBiSwafiyaSaid,awellrespectedcommunitymember,whotodayisbest knownas"Nyanya"or"grandma"inSwahili.Ateacherbyprofession,BiSwafiyalovedplayingwith herfirstgrandson,butstruggledwithhowtoprovidehimwithagoodeducation,rootedinthevalues andethicsofIslam.Shebegantocreatebedtimestories,songsandnurseryrhymestothisend,and

dreamtofestablishingaMuslimpreschooluponretirement.Whenshewasinvitedtobecomethe firstdirectorofthepilotmadrasapreschoolprograminitiative,shewasexcited.Shewouldserveas trainer,curriculumdeveloperandcommunityorganizer.However,whileshehaddonesomevery creativeworkforhergrandson,shecouldnothaveimaginedtheenormityandcomplexityofthetask shehadtakenon.Shewasgivenopportunitiestospendtimewithmentorsandtrainersinanumber ofprojectsinIndiaandtheUnitedKingdom,andbecamewellgroundedintheconceptsandtheory ofprogrammingforyoungchildren.Finally,shewasready.Thefirstmadrasapreschool,attachedto LiwatoniMosque,openedonOctober2,1986.Therewereonlyfourchildren.Notdisheartenedat thelowturnout,BiSwafiyabeganadoortodoorcampaign,andwithintwoweekstheattendance hadincreasedtothirty.Today,theEastAfricanmadrasaprogramboastsover200preschools,close to800teachers,reachingsome30,000households,andservingmorethan54,000children. IndependentresearchbyeducationalspecialistsatOxfordUniversityandelsewherehas demonstratedtheprofoundeducationalimpacttheseschoolsarehavinginsomeoftheworld's poorestcommunities.Between1999and2004,theEffectivenessInitiative,ajointprojectbetween theConsultativeGrouponEarlyChildhoodCareandDevelopmentandtheBernardvanLeer Foundationreviewedtheunderlyingprinciplesandpracticesfor"EffectiveECDPrograms"andbased onaninternationalstudyof10acclaimedprojectsacrossdifferentregionsoftheworld,namedthe EastAfricanMadrasaPreschoolProgramasoneofthemosteffectiveforhavingenhancedthe developmentandwelfareofyoungchildrenandtheirfamilies.Thispresentationwillanalyzethe experiencesandchallengesoftheEastAfricanMadrasaPrograminsuchareasaschildcenteredand activelearning,communityinvolvement,culturalandreligiousrelevance,femaleempowerment, donorconsiderations,andimpactstudies. Panel2:EncounteringDifference ChairedbyGailMinault (FridayApril32:004:30) SexChangeintheIslamicRepublicofIran FaeghehShirazi(DepartmentofMiddleEasternStudiesattheUniversityofTexasatAustin) SystematiccampaignsagainsthomosexualityhavebeeninstitutedbynumerousIslamicgovernments tosafeguardnotonlymoral,cultural,andtraditionalvalues,butalsonationalidentityaswell.Inthe IslamicRepublicofIran,homosexualityispotentiallypunishablebydeath,perShi`iShariaIslam, whichwasadoptedbytheIslamicRepublicofIranastheconstitutionallawsince1978.While throughouttheMuslimworld,allnonheterosexualindividualsfacetheconstantthreatofexposure, ostracism,oreventhefearofdeath,itisnoteworthytomentionthat,outofthisclimateoffear,an increasinglypopularphenomenonisemerging:surgicalgenderchange. IntheIslamicRepublicofIranwherehomosexualbehaviorscarrythedeathpenaltyunderthe blessingofmembersoftherulingShi`iclergy,hundredsofpeoplearehavingtheirgenderchanged legally.ThelateAyatollahKhomeinigavehisblessingtothistypeofsurgeryandissueda1980fatwa (religiousdecree)endorsingit.AyatollahKhomeinibelievedthatifmenorwomenfelttrappedinthe wrongbody,theyshouldbepermittedtoexperiencerelieffromtheirmiserybyhaveasexchange operation. Khomeini'srulingonthevalidityofsexchangewentlargelyunquestionedbecauseoftheabsenceof suchtopicsintheQur`anorahadith(recordedsayingsoftheProphetMohammad).Becausesex changeisnotmentionedintheQur`an,therearenogroundsonwhichtojustifyitsprohibition. However,approvingofgenderchangeisnotapprovinghomosexualityunderthewatchfuleyesof religiousclericsintheIslamicRepublicofIran.Thus,celebratoryportrayalsofIran'sattitudetoward transgendershouldnotbetakenasakindgesturetowardsthegay,lesbian,ortranssexual communityinIran.Whereashomosexualityisconsideredasin,transsexualityiscategorizedasan illnesssubjecttocure.Itisbasedonthisideologythatthecureisgrantedbythereligiousauthority, thusasexchangeoperationisconsideredacureforthis"sexualproblem."Asignificantnumberof peopleinIranwhogetasexchangeareactuallygaypeoplewhofindthissurgicaloperationasthe

onlylegalwaytobewithpersonsofthesamesex. Myresearchisfocusedon:1)generalissuesrelatedtosexualityinIran,and2)morespecificissues relatingtothesocietal,medical,andreligiousmattersconcerningsexchangeoperationintheIslamic RepublicofIran. CosmopolitanMuslimEmpiresandReligiousDiversity:TheOttomanExperience CemilAydin(DepartmentofHistoryattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatCharlotte) Ifwetakethepeacefulexistenceofreligiousandculturaldiversityinasocietyasasignofbeautyin governance,Muslimempiresseemtohavebeenverysuccessfulinthiseffortinworldhistory.From thefirstcenturyofIslamtothe19thcentury,variousMuslimempiresexhibitedsomeofthebest practicesoftoleranceandprotectionofdiversegroupsofnonMuslimpopulations.Infact,despite ourdominantperceptionofthenotionofMuslimcommunity,ummah,therewasneveranabstract, closedmindedandexclusiveinterpretationofthisterm.Theideaoftheummahhasalwaysincluded nonMuslimslivingunderMuslimpoliticalprotectionandinvolvedgloballinkstoothersocieties. CosmopolitanMuslimempiresseemedveryharmoniouswiththeidealsofpoliticalcommunityin Islamictradition. Inthispaper,IwillfirstdepictthepracticeofgoverningdiversityintheOttomanEmpireinorderto discussthevariousinterpretationofthiscosmopolitanIslamictradition.Then,Iwillanalyzehowthis cosmopolitanMuslimimperialtraditionwaschallengedbynewnormsofgovernanceandnational visionofhomogeneouscommunityduringthe19thcentury.Onlywiththishistoricalbackgroundand bysituatingthetransformationinMuslimsocietieswithinthebroaderglobalhistoricalcontext,can weunderstandtheshifttowardsmorecommunalandultimatelynarrowernotionsoftheideaofthe ummahandMuslimnationalism.BasedoncarefulconsiderationoftheimperialaspectsofMuslim cosmopolitanismandthebroaderglobalrootsofitstransformationduringthe19thcentury,wecan graspthesecularrootsofmuchlesscosmopolitaninterpretationsoftheIslamicreligiousand politicaltraditionintheIslamismsandnationalismsofourtime. Kabir:God'sMysticWitness RupertSnell(DepartmentofAsianStudiesatTheUniversityofTexasatAustin) ItisappropriatethatweshouldknowsoverylittleaboutthetruehistoryofKabir,Indiasmost celebratedmysticpoet,becausethespiritualirrelevanceofsuchhistoricalepistemologyand knowledgewouldbeareadytargetforhismercilesslycausticcritique.Kabirsinsistentinnerquest forthetrueknowledgeofanineffableGodhasinspiredcountlessmillionsoverhalfamillennium, whilehisderisivecastigationofreligiousinstitutionshasoftenbeenwilfullymisinterpretedasan appealforreligiousecumenicalism.OftenportrayedaslyingatthecuspofHinduismandIslam,Kabir isknowntousthroughmultipletraditionsorstreams,andsomeversesascribedtohimarealso enshrinedwithintheSikhscriptures;sungorrecited,hisstridentpoetryspeakstoustodaywitha uniquelyforcefuldirectness. Muslims&UrduintheWorldsofBollywood AliMir(DepartmentofManagementatNewYorkInstituteofTechnology) InhispresidentialaddresstothefirstConferenceoftheAllIndiaProgressiveWritersAssociation, heldinLucknowin1936,MunshiPremchanddeclared:Wewillhavetotransformthestandardsof beauty.Overthenextfewdecades,UrdupoetsoftheprogressivemovementinIndiaandPakistan devotedthemselvestochallengingandredefiningextantideasofbeauty,aswellasreconfiguringthe relationshipbetweenaestheticsandpoliticsthroughtheirpoemsandsongs.Understoodasacrucial partofaprojectofprogressivesocialtransformation,theirworkwaspremisedonawholesale rejectionoftheartforartssakeframeworkwhichreveredtheideaofapureaestheticsfreeof worldlyconcerns.Inasocietydefinedbyinjustice,theysaid,suchartwasnothinglessthanan abomination.TheirculturalpoliticsinvolvedtransformingtheverystructureoffeelingofUrdu

poetrybothintermsofformandcontent.Theyreworked,reinterpretedand/orredeployedits existingmetaphors,struggledwith,againstandthroughtheghazal,andchosethemesthatwere hithertoconsideredinappropriateforpoeticexpression.Inthispresentation,Iintendtoexaminethe waysinwhichtheseprogressiveUrdupoetssoughttoredefinetheideaofbeautythroughboththeir poetryandthelyricstheywroteforHindicinema. KeynoteAddress (FridayApril35:306:30) StrivingforBeauty:PoeticsandEthicsinMuslimHistory AyeshaJalal(DepartmentofHistoryatTuftsUniversity) IntheIslamicconception,allcreationisamanifestationoftheoneandonlyGod,whosetwomain attributesarebeauty(jamal)andmajesty(jalal).InkeepingwiththespiritoftheQuranicverse,To Godbelongthemostbeautifulnames,socallHimbythem(7:180),Muslimpoetsthroughtheages havecelebratedthewondersofthecreator,whoisthemostperfect,theincomparableandultimate beloved.WhileallMuslimpoetshaveattemptedtoconstructbeautifulverses,poetrylikeother formsofIslamicarthasrarelybeenanendinitself.PoetryintheMuslimtraditionisideallymeantto spurthefaithfulintoGodspresence,byinculcatinginthemthehighethicalstandardsexpectedof truebelievers.ThefirstpartofthetalkwillelucidatethephilosophicalbasisoftheIslamicideaof husniikhlaq,literallyethicalbeauty.Itwillthenturntodemonstratinghowpoetry,insteadofbeing justanotheraestheticalformtobeenjoyedforitsownsake,hasbeenusedbyanarrayofpoetsto invoketheethicalidealsofIslam.Instrivingforbeauty,itwillbeshown,Muslimsareexpectedto constantlystruggletoapproximatetheethicalinIslam,bothasawayofinnerselfstrengtheningand alsoimprovingtheworld. Panel3:MuslimSpacesinAmerica ChairedbyKamranAli (SaturdayApril410:3012:15) CouldaMuslimBePresident?IslaminAmerica DeniseSpellberg(DepartmentofHistoryatTheUniversityofTexasatAustin) InJulyof2006,IpublishedanarticleinthejournalEighteenthCenturyStudiesthatItrustnoneofyou everread.Whyshouldyou?EighteenthCenturyStudiesisnotavenerablesiteforthestudyofthe MiddleEastorIslam.However,itwasthejournalwhereIfirstconsideredaquestioninearly AmericanhistorythathassincegainedsomecurrencyincontemporaryAmericanpoliticaldiscourse. Thequestion:CouldaMuslimbepresident?i Iwillarguethatthisisnotanewquestion,despitetheobviousunease,fear,andhatredtheidea arousedduringthecampaignofnowpresidentBarackHusseinObama.Despitehispracticeof ProtestantChristianity,hecamewithanIslamicheritagethathecouldnotfullyexcise.Hecertainly seemedasifhewishedto,however,becausehewantedtowin.Politicalcommentatorstalked endlesslyandwithgreatselfcongratulationaboutrace,evenusingthetermpostracialforthis country.Yetmoststudiouslyignoredthefactthatreligionremainedanissueandnotjustany religion:Islam,afaiththat,Ibelieve,trumpedraceinthiselection.NeitherthencandidateObama, normostofthemainstreamAmericanmediachallengedthefactthatwhilethenwordwasnow reprehensibleinpoliticaldiscourse,thewordMuslimhadtakenitsplace,alongwithArab.The newsstoriespeakedinJune2008,droppingthenrisingagaininOctoberjustbeforetheelection.ii Whywouldntthisstorydieevenaftersomanydenialsbythecandidate? ThewordsMuslimandArab,meremarkersofreligiousandethnicidentity,becamecodewords synonymouswithaneoOrientalistcampaignstrategyofoppositiontothencandidateObama.They drewuponapoliticsoffear,onethatimplicitlypositedthatIslamwasunAmerican,despitethe

presenceofsevenmillionAmericanMuslimcitizens,whowhileperpetuallyinsultedduringthe campaign,alsoretainedtherighttovote.Thelastpresidentialcampaignconfirmedthattheconcepts MuslimandAmericanwereantitheticaltomanyindiscerniblyneoOrientalistterms.Thisbinary definitionofIslamicOthernessasdangeroustothiscountry,however,wasnotprojectedaspartof Americanforeignpolicy,butinsteadtargetedadomesticpoliticalcampaignforthehighestofficein theland.TheMuslimacquisitionofpoliticalpowerbecamecentraltoneoOrientalist,American assumptionsthatnoMuslimcitizencouldorevershouldbepresident. EmbodyingGenderJustice:AmericanMuslimWomenandthe2005WomanLedFridayPrayer inNewYork JulianeHammer(DepartmentofIslamicStudiesattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaat Charlotte) OnMarch18,2005,AminaWadud,professorofIslamicStudiesandleadingAmericanMuslimscholar inwomensQuraninterpretation,gaveasermontoamixedgendercongregationofMuslimsinNew YorkCityandsubsequentlyleadthesamecongregationinFridayprayer.Theeventwasorganizedby journalistAsraNomaniandsupportedbyanetworkofAmericanMuslims,manyofwhomwere associatedwiththeProgressiveMuslimUnion. Theprayerwasanembodiedperformanceofaparticularunderstandingofgenderjusticeasgender equality,basedonQuranichermeneuticsandreadingsofMuslimhistory.Itstandsatthecenterof mylargerresearchprojectonAmericanMuslimwomenscholars,activistsandwritersandtheir textualproduction.Theprayerandthewomenwritingaboutitinformmydiscussionoflarger questionsrelevanttoAmericanMuslimwomen,includingwomensleadership,reinterpretationof foundationaltexts,selfrepresentationintheAmericanpublicsphere,andcommunityactivism. Inthispresentation,IamexploringthemultilayeredanddiverseresponsesofMuslimsinAmerica andworldwidetotheprayerinMarch2005.Iarguethattheprayerasaneventandasaperformance needstobeunderstoodinthelargercontextofMuslimdebatesaboutwomensleadershiprolesand theirplace(andspace)inAmericanmosquesandcommunities.Theheateddebateaboutthe permissibilityandmeaningoftheprayer,carriedoutovervariousformsofmedia,wasandisatthe sametimeadebateoverwhocanandcannotdefinetheIslamictraditionandcontemporary interpretationsandapplicationsoftheQuran,theSunnah,andIslamicLaw.Thepaperwillfocuson theargumentsandframeworksdevelopedbytheorganizers,participants,andsupportersofthe prayerontheonehand,andthevariouscritiquesandrejectionsbyscholars,organizationsand activists.Inarguingagainstbinaryconstructionsofforandagainstonthisissue,Iwilldevelopa morenuancedapproachtotheagendasandconcernatstakeforthosewhoparticipatedinthe worldwideconversationabouttheevent.Itwillcontextualizethewomanledprayerin2005aspart ofaglobalMuslimconversationonwomenandgenderrolesinthecontemporaryworldandasan AmericanreligiouseventwithconsequencesfortheperceptionandrepresentationofMuslim women,Muslimmen,andIslamintheAmericanpublicsphere. Nineteen:AStory NaveedaKhan(DepartmentofAnthropologyatJawaharlalNehruUniversity) Thisisastoryaboutamanwhofellinlovewithanumber.ThemanisDr.RashadKhalifa,bornin Egyptin1935,immigratedtotheUnitedStatesin1959tostudybiochemistry,andassassinatedin themosquethatheestablishedandraninTucson,Arizonain1990.Thenumberis19.Thenumber 19issacredinvariouspathwayswithinIslam.ItappearsintheHolyQuran,inSura74,titledThe CloakedOne.SufishavelongdelvedintothemysteryofwhyGodspecificallymentions19inthe sura.19isalsoaccordedgreatimportancebytheBahais,whosecontextofemergenceisShiiIslam. Thus,forinstance,theBahaishaveacalendarcomprisedofnineteenmonths,eachnineteendays long.19fascinatedLouisFarrakhanoftheNationofIslamfindingrepeatedmentioninhisspeechat theMillionManMarchofOctober1995.YetDr.RashadKhalifawasnotSufi,norShii,norBahai,nor

oftheNationofIslam.HewasamodernSunniMuslim,whopridedhimselfinbeingscientific.Hefelt thatIslamwasperfectlycompatiblewithmodernity,providingitlostthebalefulaccretionsofhistory andtradition.WiththeaidofacomputerhefoundnumericproofoftheQuransdivineorigins,soas torescueitfromthefieldofpolemicsandtheologicaladditionsthatthreatenedtounderminethis miracle. InthispaperIexaminethenatureofDr.Khalifasrelationshiptothenumber19,throughabrief excursusofthetheologicaldebatessurroundingtheQuranandtheHadithandinstancesinthe Islamictraditioninwhichnumberfeatureprominently,notablyinmagicsquaresandinattemptsto unveilthescientificknowledgecontainedwithintheQuran.Insodoing,Iexplorethewaysinwhich numbermaybothaidanddeterthecontemplationofGodsmajesty. Panel4:ThePoetics&PoliticsofArt,Architecture,andLaw ChairedbyKamranS.Aghaie (SaturdayApril41:303:15) AestheticDimensionsinClassicalIslamicLaw HinaAzam(DepartmentofMiddleEasternStudiesatTheUniversityofTexasatAustin) Themeetingbetweenlawandaestheticsisnotonethatiseasilyseennorcommonlysought,andso tolocatethatmeetingrequiressomecreativity.Themostobviousroutemightbetoexaminelegal attitudestowardartisticendeavors,suchaspaintingormusic.Oronemight,moreinterestingly, evaluatelegaltreatisesalongliteraryandstylisticlines:Juristsroutinelyincorporatedrhyme, alliterationandassonanceintotheirtitles.Legistswithpoeticinclinationspennedpedagogical poems.Legallyorientedadthscholars,intheirdesireforcomprehensiveness,includedempty chaptersintheiradthcompendia.Yetanotherpossibleroutewouldbetoseetheextenttowhich juristsmayhavebeeninfluencedbyparticulardefinitionsofbeauty,suchasbytheGreekdesignation ofbeautysthreeelementsasorder,symmetryanddefiniteness.Theproblemwiththeseapproaches, however,isthattheysomehowseemtosidestepexplorationofthefundamentalrelationship betweenbetweenartandlaw.WhatIwouldliketodohereissuggestawayinwhichwemight considerthisrelationshipheadon,toseehowwemightthinkabouttheaestheticsoflegal interpretation. Inordertoidentifyaestheticstandardsthatis,standardsofbeautyinIslamiclaw,Isuggestdoing somethingcounterintuitive,whichisconsideringlegalinterpretationasanartform.Ifwedoso,then wemightlookatIslamiclegaldoctrinesasworksofart,inwhichtheartistthatis,thejuristseeks torealizecertainidealsofbeauty.Theseworksofartcanthusbeexaminedasexemplaryofthose standardsandideals. Iflegalinterpretationistoberegardedasanartform,thenwhatisitsobjective,distinctfromthe othergreatclassicaldisciplinessuchascosmologyandtheologyononehand,andexegesisonthe other?Ifthescholarlypursuitofcosmologyandtheologywasprimarilyconcernedtoproduce ontologicaldiagrams,andthefocusonexegeticalmethodswastoenableepistemologicalconfidence, thenwemightsaythattheconcernofthejuristswas,aboveall,ethics.Thus,iflegalinterpretationis anartform,thenitsobjectiveistoproduceethicalmodelsbywhichwemayknowvirtuefromvice, thatis,toprovideblueprintsformoralaction. Doctrinalsystemsthatis,theartisticoutputofjuristswereevaluatedamongtheirpeers accordingtothreemainaestheticcriteria: a)concordancewithtruth:alegalinterpretation,inordertobeaestheticallypleasing(hasan,not qabih),hadtomakesenseinlightofcosmologicalclaims,egthathumansareimperfect,that judgmentawaitseverysoul,orthathumanactionsaredeterminedbyGod; b)comprehensionof/explanationofrevelation:adoctrinehadtoaccountforalldivine

communication,allsigns,onthatsubject,egversesoftheQuran,adth,rationalreflection; thematically,eg,textsontheobligationofprayer,thevirtueofcharityandtheprohibitiononeating swine; c)conducivenesstotheultimateend(telos)ofreligiouslife:alegalsystemhadtoenableachievement of,eg,salvationintheafterlife,publicwelfare,orpreservationofthefivepurposesofthelaw. DefiningIdentities:LessonsfromBamiyanandtheTajMahal JaniceLeoshko(DepartmentofArtandArtHistoryandAsianStudiesatTheUniversityof TexasatAustin) ThevalleyofBamiyaninAfghanistan,wherethetwolargeBuddhasstoodthatweredestroyedbythe TalibaninMarch2001,wasplacedonthelistofWorldHeritageSitesbyUNESCOin2004,some wouldsay,somewhatbelatedly.Variousdebatescontinueaboutcopyingtheselostsculpturesat locationsinIndia,SriLankaandChina,andthereissupportbysomeAfghanistanleaderstoactually rebuildthemputthembacktogether,aHumptyDumptyjobofepicproportionsindeed.Withthe Talibansrecentresumptionofpower,thelostBamiyanBuddhasareremarkablybackinthenews again,asthispastactofdestructionispressedonceagainintoservicetoillustratethedegreeofthe Talibansuncivilizednature.Giventhatbeforetheirdestruction,thesesculptureshadmeritedlittle attentioninrecenttimes,onenewsaccountdeclaringthatthedestructionwasthebestthingthat mayhavehappenedtothesegiganticfiguresmaynotbeacompletemisstatement.Suchanact providesrelevantandapparentmeaningtoaworkevenasitdestroysthatwork. Ratherthanseeingitasanactoffierceiconoclasm,whichunfortunatelywasandremainsa dominantinterpretation,itisimportanttoalsoseethedestructionoftheBamiyanBuddhasasa tightlymanagedoperationofimagedevelopment.TheimageisfarmorethanoneoftheTalibans religiousintoleranceofnonIslamicthings.Sadly,itisstillnotwellrecognizedhowthisactof destructionwasdirectedtootowardsShiaMuslimswhohavelonginhabitedtheBamiyanvalley. Thesepeople,knownastheHazara,wereamongthefiercestfoesoftheTalibanduringtheirfirstrise inAfghanistan.ThelimitedinterpretationoftheBuddhasdestructiondemonstrateshowthosewho lookatthepastneedalsotothinkaboutthefallaciesthatwedealwithinthepresent. ThispresentationfirstpointsoutsomeofthingsmissinginthepresentrecordconcerningBamiyan inordertounderstandthecomplexityofallacts.Secondly,aconsiderationofhowsimilarconstraints mayoperatewithseeminglyverydifferentmaterialandeventsdemonstratesthedegreetowhich previousknowledgeproductionactuallycanundermineourunderstandingofIslamicateculture. ThisexamplecentersontheTajMahal,oneofthebestknownmonumentsintheworld,whichis, however,alsofrequentlyoneofthemostmisunderstood.Forinstance,thismausoleumisoften calledapalace.BuiltintheseventeenthcenturybytheMughalemperorShahJahanforhiswife,the TajMahalsignificantlyreflectsthediversitytobefoundinIndianart.ElementsdrawnfromHindu, Persian,andEuropeantraditionscreatedapowerfulandsophisticatedvisualcultureduringtherule oftheMughalsfromthesixteenththrougheighteenthcenturies.ByfocusingupontheTajMahalwe canconsiderthesignificanceoftheshiftsinconstructingknowledgeaboutit.Inparticular,theways inwhichtheimageofShahJahanarediscusseddemonstratetheextentoftroublingpreconceptions thatoftenunderlaydiscussionsofthepresenceofIslamintheSouthAsiansubcontinent. PersianateElementsintheTraditionalAthleticCulturesofWestandSouthAsia HouchangChehabi(DepartmentofInternationalRelationsandHistoryatBostonUniversity) Centuriesbeforetheuniversalpopularityofsoccerandcricket,wrestlingwasapopularathletic contestfromtheBalkanstoBengal.Athletes,calledpahlevans,traveledwidelybackandforthinthis region,seekingcourtpatronageandentertainingthemasses.Thispaperexaminesthecommon agonistictraditionsofsoutheasternEurope,WestandSouthAsia,arguingthatithastobe understoodaspartofthecosmopolitanPersianateculturethatunitedthesepartsoftheworldbefore theriseofmodernnationalisms.