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)6 )* AI K A CK= A @A ? FKJ=?E J ? E?= @A = J ELA O K A J H E JAH=?JEL F=H= @AI=HH @A = C HEJ I LEIK= E =?E @A @=J I = EIEI @A @=J I O ? ?K K HE? AI = =>HALE=JKH= @A )6HEN )* H=J HO O BKA @EIA =@ A I % I ? K = E JAHB=?A GKA FAH EJ = = I K?E @A CH= @AI IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI ,AI@A A J ?AI A I BJM=HA D= ANJA @E@ IK =F E?=?E = @EBAHA JAI ?= F I AIFA? ? I ? = AIJ=@ IJE?= =I HA@AI AKH = AI = CE?= @EBKI= =I = =I A FH ?AI= EA J @A E CA AI O I E@ AJ? FAH EJEA @ = EFK =H O I K?E =H IEI JA =I @E E? I @=J I AIJ=@ IJE? I E B H =?E A? E?= O = ?EAH= HA= E = @ IE K =?E AI @A IEIJA =I O AIJHK?JKH=I A B IE?= GK E?= O = CK =I E CA EAH =I -IJA I BJM=HA IA ?=H=?JAHE = F H HA= E =H IKI ? HAI FAH EJEA @ = EFK =H CH= @AI ?= JE@=@AI IA ?E = AI K = @A =I E JAHB=?AI @A =O H KI JH=>= = ? A = A *E JA? C= A@E?E = + .E = ?EAH I O )AH AIF=?E )6 )* @EIF A @A =@=I A A = A O I @EBAHA ?E= AI F=H?E= AI @A JEA F L=HE=> AI IE


?K I KJE E = @ =JHE?AI O LA?J @A E B H =?E @A = AH= H FE@= O = ELA K @E= O =?JK= A JA IA K E?=?E AI - A?JH E?= 5AHLE?E I

K ? @EC > IE? O @A L=HE I J > NAI E>HAH =I AIFA?E= E K?E @A FH > A =I AIFA? ? I ? F H A A F A?K=?E AI FJE E =?E HAIJHE CE@= A I @A @ I @E A IE AI IAHEAI > E?=I @EIJHE>K?E AI @A FH >=>E E@=@ AJ? -IJ I J > NAI

.=L H A LE=H ? HHA??E AI ? A J=HE I IKCAHA ?E=I = CHKF CA@A (O=D ? I J > NAI I F=GKAJAI @A DAHH= EA J=I =@E?E = AI GKA A KIK=HE JEA A = F IE>E E@=@ @A =@GKEHEH E @ELE@K= A JA IAC IKI A?AIE@=@AI F=HJE?K =HAI

/-,I K ? K J @A BK ?E F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I ?

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AI ? F=JE> AI ? A ? @EC > IE? F A I GKA A FH CH= = E E?E= A JA

O AIJ @EIA =@=I FKA@A I K?E =H

-NEIJA @ I JEF I @A J > NAI F H K =@ IA A ?KA JH= I J > NAI @EIA =@ I F H A CHKF ?HA=@ H @A )6 )* 6DA =JD9 H I 1 ?  O F H JH =@ I J > NAI @AI=HH =@ I F H KIK=HE I ? K AI @A FH CH= = ? A @A IKF EH IKI FH FE=I A?AIE@=@AI CA AH= A JA AIJ I JE I I @A E>HA =??AI A 1 JAH AJ A E ? KI = CK I @A A I IA FKA@A >= =H @A = AH= CH=JKEJ= @A = F CE = MA> @A I ?A JH= I A A ? @EC > IE? @A FH CH= = O =JDM H I 1 ? "  - AIJA E>H A K J > N @A @EIJHE>K?E CH=JKEJ= @A E =@ + F-? # =F E?=@ = A? = O = =I

8A J= =I @A

=J =>

+ A = I F H FHAIA J=H =I LA J= =I I E F HJ= JAI @A FH CH= = ) =>HEH A FH CH= = F H FHE AH= LA IA @AIF EAC= K ? K J @A LA J= =I ? A GKA IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH=   =I LA J= =I @AIF AC=@=I I + = @ 9E @ M =K ?D 2=JD 9 H IF=?A + $ = @ 0EIJ HO O +KHHA J ,EHA?J HO ?=@= K = IA ANF E?= = ? JE K=?E

= @ 9E @ M

-IJ= LA J= = IA A ?KA JH= K>E?=@= A = F=HJA @AHA?D= @A = F= J= = O A A = I @ECEJ=@ I O A A?KJ=@ I IE K J A= A JA I ? = @ I @A FH CH= = - AIJ= LA J= = J= >E IA KAIJH= I HAIK J=@ I @A J @=I =I FAH=?E AI J= J =I @A )6 )* > IE? ? =I @A I J > NAI = LA J= = @A ? = @ I JH=>= = @A = IECKEA JA B H = A = JE = A= GKA E E?E= ? A I >  IA @ECEJ= = E IJHK? ?E O IJ= AI A A?KJ=@= = FHAIE =H = JA? = <- JAH KAC @A A A AIJ= EI = LA J= = I LEIK= E =@ I I HAIK J=@ I @A FH ?A@E EA J 2 H A A F IE A @A?E I 1 + 5 = FH CH= = GKA HA= E?A = IECKEA JA FAH=?E FHE AH @A>A I @ECEJ=H 2
,=@ GKA AIJ FHAFH CH= =@ F=H= D=?AH = F CE = MA> @A 6DA =JDM H I 1 ? AI MMM =JDM H I ? # ,AI=HH =@ F H 2=K .=? AH O =HE EH= @= FH BAI HAI @A HJD +=H E = 5J=JA 7 ELAH IEJO O DE 5J=JA 7 ELAHIEJO HAIFA?JEL= A JA -IJA J > N IA A ?KA JH= @EIF E> A A = @EHA??E MMM" ?IK A@K FB=? AH ? FA? @ M =@ DJ O BKA @AI=HH =@ ? ? F A A J @A E >H .=? AH O EH= @=  ! $ - KIK=HE FKA@A ?= >E=H = @EIF IE?E @A =I LA J= =I A A A @A = >=HH= @A DAHH= EA J=I LEAM @AI J F =O KJ = .ECKH=   ? HHAIF @A = = F?E ,AB=K J @A AIJA A
" !

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

.ECKH=   +

K J 1 E?E= @A 8A J= =I

(1+sqrt(5))/2
KAC FHAIE = I <- JAHO A HAIK J=@ AI

ans = 1.6180
5E F H = C A AJH= @A ? JEL IA FHAIA J= K AHH H A FH CH= = @AIF EAC= K HH GKA @AI?HE>A A AHH H GKA IA D= FHAIA J=@ A I= A @A = AHJ=

=K ?D 2=@

-IJ= LA J= = IA A ?KA JH= K>E?=@= A = AIGKE = IKFAHE H E GKEAH@= @A = =F E?=?E - A = IA IA = = ?=@= K @A I A A A J I

?=HC=@ I A = E E?E=?E @A FH CH= = AI @A?EH =I DAHH= EA J=I @A =I ?K= AI @EIF A A KIK=HE F=H= HA= E =H IKI ? ?K I )I @A>A =F=HA?AH A ? @EC > IE? @A FH CH= = O J @ I I J > NAI ?HA=@ I F H 6DA =JD9 H I 1 ? O =@GKEHE@ I F H A KIK=HE - = .ECKH=   IA >IAHL= GKA IA D= ?=HC=@ )6 )* > IE? O = CK I JH I J > NAI + K E?=JE 6 > N + JH 5OIJA 6 > N ,=J= )?GKEIEJE 6 > N ,=J=>=IA 6 > N ,=J=BAA@ 6 > N .E JAH ,AIEC 6 > N AJ? ) JH=L I @A AIJ= LA J= = O @AIF AC= @ A A ? HHAIF @EA JA = ?=@= A A A J

"

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2HA E E =H

.ECKH= 

= @ 9E @ M

8A J= = @A +

= @ I

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? IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH=  ! IA FKA@A =??A@AH B ?E A JA = JKJ HE= AI @A I DAHH= EA J=I F=HJE?K =HAI =IE ? = @ ?K A J=?E HABAHA JA = I A A A J I ?=H C=@ I

9 H IF=?A

-IJ= LA J= = IA A ?KA JH= A = EI = F IE?E @A =K ?D 2=@ O F=H= =??A@AH = A = AI A?AI=HE D=?AH ? E? A = FAIJ= = 9 H IF=?A A = F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A = F= J= = + IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH=  " A AIJ= LA J= = IA KAIJH= J @ I =I L=HE=> AI GKA A KIK=HE D= @A E@ A = IAIE A = ? K = = A IA KAIJH= A >HA @A ?=@= K = @A =I L=HE=> AI A = IACK @= ? K = = =@= 5E A IA KAIJH= A J= = @A ?=@= L=HE=> A% A = JAH?AH= O ?K=HJ= ? K = IA A ?KA JH= AIFA?E ?=@ I A AH
%

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= AIFA?E ?=?E

@A J= =

@A = L=HE=> A AI

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

.ECKH=  " 9 H IF=?A @A >OJAI GKA ?KF= ?=@= L=HE=> A O A JEF @A L=HE=> A K > AJ
&

"

= @ 0EIJ HO

5A A ?KA JH= K>E?=@= A = F=HJA E BAHE H E GKEAH@= @A = LA J= = FHE ?EF= O ? IK >HA E @E?= IK BK ?E AI = @A AL=H K DEIJ HE= @A I ? = @ I KJE E =@ I F H A KIK=HE 4AIK J= @A CH= KJE E@=@ O= GKA ?K= GKEAH ? = @ ? K J @A ? = @ I GKA IA= A A?KJ=@ A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I  + = @ 9E @ M FKA@A IAH B ?E A JA HA?KFAH=@ =@E?E = A JA FAH EJA D=?AH IACKE EA J @A I ? = @ I KJE E =@ I A @AJAH E =@ A J O FH ?A@E EA J

.ECKH=  # +

= @ 0EIJ HO =?A =@ I O

+ IA KAIJH= A = .ECKH=  # I ? = @ I @A ?=@= IAIE I = HC= E =@ I F H BA?D= F H A@E @A H JK %-- Hora Fecha-- %

&

AH @A =I AH @A ? K =I  I JEF I @A L=HE=> AI O IKI ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I I

FHAIA J=@ I A

= IA??E

#!

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+KHHA J ,EHA?J HO

6= >E IA A ?KA JH= A = F=HJA E BAHE H E GKEAH@= @A = LA J= = FHE ?EF= 2=H= =??A@AH = +KHHA J ,EHA?J HO AI A?AI=HE D=?AH ? E? I >HA = FAIJ= = +KHHA J ,EHA?J HO A = F=HJA E BAHE H E GKEAH@= @A = F= J= = ? IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH=  $ -IJ= LA J= = FAH EJA GKA A KIK=HE >IAHLA A @EHA?J HE I >HA A ?K= AIJ JH=>= = @ = ECK= GKA I =H?DEL I GKA IA A ?KA JH= @A JH @A IJA ? IA KAIJH= A = .ECKH=  $

.ECKH=  $ +KHHA J ,EHA?J HO - KC=H AIFA?E ?=@ F H @ABA?J F=H= CK=H@=H I =H?DEL I @A KIK=HE AI = ?=HFAJ= M H GKA IA A ?KA JH= K>E?=@= @A JH @A = ?=HFAJ= FHE ?EF= @A FH CH= = IE A KIK=HE CK=H@= K =H?DEL A = CK = K>E?=?E @EBAHA JA F H A A F + EI @ ?K A J I AIJA F @H IAH =>EAHJ E A A?KJ=@ = A I GKA IA A AIFA?E GKA = FH CH= = = K>E?=?E @A EI =I = JAHE HAI I =I LA J= =I > IE?=I @A JH=>= ? ? F H A A F =I LA J= =I @A CH ? I @AI?HE>EHA I = =HC @A E>H -NEIJA JH=I @A KI I AIFA? =I @A ,A I = CK =I @A A =I =I

!

.E A -@EJ H

- = CK =I ?=IE AI A KIK=HE HAGKEAHA KJE E =H L=HE=I A=I @A ? = @ I F=H= I K?E =H K FH > A = AIFA?E= - AIJ I ?=I I AI HA? A @=> A KJE E =H = LA J= = @A + = @ I FKAI IE = C AHH H ?KHHA AI A?AI=HE L LAH = @ECEJ=H J @=I =I E IJHK??E AI

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

% = A GKA A H@A @A @A = 8A J= = .E AI .ECKH=

= LA J= = A -@EJ H FAH EJA @ECEJ=H I ? = @ I A K FH CH= HA? CA JEF AI E IJHK??E AI F=H= A A?KJ=H =I @A = AH= IA?KA ?E= A=I 2=H= ?HA=H K .E A IA @A>A IA A??E =H A = F=HJA IKFAHE H @A ? = @ I .E A AM .E A )F=HA?A A J ?AI A -@EJ H @A %

.ECKH=  % -@EJ H @A

.E AI A FKA@A )* FAH ANF E?= @ECEJ= A A= AIJ=

)@A I @A FAH EJEH @ECEJ=H JEF AI E IJHK??E AI IE K J A= A JA K ? F A A J=HIA ? ? A J=HE I AI @A?EH A=I GKA I A @=I F H )6 GKA IEHLA F=H= ? IJHKEH @A = AH= HC= E =@= AIJ I FH CH= =I ? ?= @ ?E AI KAC @A K = L=HE=I E IJHK??E AI 2=H= E IAHJ=H K ? A J=HE IA I >
  O KAC IA AI?HE>A A ? A J=HE +K= @ IA ? A J= K = =F=HA?A A ? H LAH@A ? IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH=  &

.ECKH=  & + - AIJ= .ECKH= F @A I >IAHL=H ? =

A J=HE I ?

A@E@= GKA IA L= AI?HE>EA @ A FH CH= =

& IA A K AH= ?=@= HA C A= A AHH H AI F IE> A K>E?=H @ @A IA ? IJA IA A ?KA JH= )@E?E = A JA A?AI=HE ? ?=H IEA FHA A I > IA FKA@A ? ?=H ? A J=HE I KAC ! O " @A KAIJH .E A

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

= F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A = F= J= = ) CA AH=HIA K AJE FKAI A FH CH= = E @E?= = A= A @ @A IA >IAHL= GKA F=H= HA= E =H ? A J=HE I AI
  = ? EA @A K = A= IE GKA J= >E @A K = E IJHK??E ? IA >IAHL= A =I A=I

2=H= ? A J=H JEF AI A=I IA @A>A IA A??E =H =I A=I GKA IA @AIA= ? A J=H O KAC @A A FHAIE =H
+JH 4 IA A??E =H A = F=HJA IKFAHE H @A A@EJ H @A .E AI 6ANJ + A J ,A = AH= IE E =H ?K= @ IA A?AIEJ= GKEJ=H I
 @A =I A=I ? A J=@=I IA KJE E =
+JH 6 A A A 6ANJ IA IA A??E = 7 ? A J 6 @ .E A @A>A IAH CK=H@=@ A K = ?=HFAJ= F=H= GKA FKA@= IAH A A?KJ=@ 2 H @ABA?J A FH CH= = KJE E = = ?=HFAJ= 9 H F=H= = =?A =H I =H?DEL I =K GKA IA FKA@A CK=H@=H A JH= ?=HFAJ= - AIJA ?=I IA D= CK=H@=@ A .E A A = ?=HFAJ= 9 H ? A >HA F?> = K>E?=?E @A =H?DEL IA >IAHL= A = F=HJA IKFAHE H @A = F= J= = GKA A AIJA ?=I AI + )6 )*$F M H F?> ' ? IA >IAHL= A = F=HJA IKFAHE H @A = .ECKH=  & - ? = @ F?> KAIJH= ? LA J= = @A ? = @ I @A JH= HA= E =H = FAH=?E = AH= A A?KJ=@= = JAHE H A JA A =

%Para calcular (a+b)/c, tenemos que: % Valor de a a=1; % Valor de b, es decir raz cuadrada de cinco. b=sqrt(5); % Valor de c c=2; % Operamos (a+b)/c
7 .E A FKA@A A A?KJ=HIA @A ?K=JH B H =I @EIJE J=I A J @=I A =I A .E A IA CK=H@= =KJ JE?= A JA = JAI @A IAH A A?KJ=@  FHE AH FHAIE = @ = JA? = .# IACK @ IA A??E = @ ,A>KC 4K A = F=HJA IKFAHE H @A -@EJ H @A A = LA J= = @A A@EJ H O ?K=HJ .E AI JAH?AH D=?EA @ ? E? I >HA A ?
+K= @ LA CK=H@=@
'

IA D= CK=H@=@ A =H?DEL IJA @AI=F=HA?A

= =@ @A AIJ= K>E?=?E

=F=HA?A A I

>

 OK =

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

'

AI?HE>EA @ A >HA @A A A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I O FHAIE = @ - JAH I HAIK J=@ I @A = A A?K?E @A FH CH= = .E A GKA IA IJH A = .ECKH=  & =F=HA?A A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I @A = .ECKH=  '

.ECKH=  ' 8A J= = @A +

= @ I O 4AIK J=@ I

+K= @ D=O K AHH H A A A - FH CH= = @E?A A GKA A= O A GKA ? K = IA FHAIA J= AIJA AHH H 2=H= ? HHACEH IA FKA@A EH = .E A D=?EA @ @ > A ? E? I >HA A E GKA =F=HA?A A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I O KAC @A A HA= E =H = ? HHA??E 0=O @ I =IFA?J I @A FH CH= = GKA IA FKA@A FHA?EI=H = F=HJEH @A = CKH=  ' )K GKA A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I I =F=HA?A A L= H 1.6180 IJA AI A E? ? ?K GKA A FH CH= = D= HA= E =@ 5E >IAHL= I A 9 H IF=?A LA I GKA =I L=HE=> AI a b O c D= IE@ ?HA=@ I GKA ?KHHA AI GKA A FH CH= = A A?KJ= J @=I =I A=I FAH I KAIJH= A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I I HAIK J=@ I @A =GKA =I A=I GKA JAH E = A
 )I ?K= @ IA ? HHA FH CH= =I GKA ?HA= =JHE?AI KO CH= @AI HA= E = ? ?K I ANJA I I KJE E =H
 = = @A ?=@= E IJHK??E FAH EJA GKA A FH CH= = I A A?KJA =I E IJHK??E AI IE C=IJ=H JEA F A IJH=H ? ?K I F=H?E= AI E JAH A@E I 5EA FHA IJH=H I HAIK J=@ I F=H?E= AI AI ? FKJ=?E = A JA E A ?EA JA ,AIFK I @A >IAHL=H = I= E@= AI F IE> A A A?KJ=H A A L=HE=I LA?AI O IECKA =F=HA?EA @ A HAIK J=@ = JAHE H A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I )6 )* @EIF A @A JHAI ? = @ I F=H= E FE=H = F= J= = O ?AHH=H LA J= =I - FHE AH AI clc GKA E FE= = 8A J= = @A + = @ I @A HAIK J=@ I = JAHE HAI - IACK @ AI clear GKA E FE= A 9 H IF=?A AI @A?EH > HH= J @=I =I L=HE=> AI O > AJ I ?HA=@ I D=IJ= A A J .E = A JA IA JEA A A ? = @ close GKA ?EAHH= =I LA J= =I =@E?E = AI GKA IA =>HA = A A?KJ=H ?EAHJ=I E IJHK??E AI ?

 F HAA F =I KAL=I LA J= =I GKA ? JHAI ? = @ I IA ? GKA IEA FHA = ?

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8AHIE

2HA E E =H

JEA A CH ? I 5A IKCEAHA GKA AIJ I EA @A K .E A

0=IJ= =D H= DA I LEIJ ? I AI IEHLA F=H= FHAIA J=H K = IK?AIE @A ? = @ I= C= = = GKA IA D=H = @AI@A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I AIJA JEF @A AI IA ? ?A ? ?DAH I @A ? = @ I 5?HEFJI IE A >=HC ANEIJA JH JEF @A =H?DEL I .m GKA HAFHAIA J= BK ?E AI 7 = BK ?E A J H E I ? FKJ=?E = AI AI K FH CH= = GKA HA?E>A K =I A JH=@=I E FKJI O HA= E = @ ? ?K I =JA JE? I O CE? I CA AH= K =I I= E@=I K KJFKJI 6 @ A ? @EC > IE? @A )6 )* O I J > NAI AIJ ? FKAIJ I @A AI GKA I KJE E =@ I ? BK ?E AI 2=H= ? IJHKEH K = BK ?E A K A IA @A>A ? ?=H = IE J=NEI

[salidas]=nombre(entradas)
@ @A salidas HAFHAIA J= K LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I GKA =HH = = BK ?E = F=HJEH @A =I entradas - AIJA ?=I nombre ? HHAIF @A = >HA @A = BK ?E O @A>A IAH J= >E A >HA ? A ?K= IA CK=H@= A A @ @A IA ? IJHKOA = BK ?E KAC @A AIJ= FHE AH= A= @A>A =F=HA?AH JH=I A=I ? =I E IJHK??E AI F=H= HA= E =H =I FAH=?E AI =JA JE?=I O CE?=I GKA ?= ?K = =I I= E@=I K KJFKJI @A = BK ?E 2=H= E KIJH=H AIJ I ? ?AFJ I LA= I K A A F 7 FH > A = BHA?KA JA A CA>H= AI A @A D= =H =I H= ?AI L= HAI @A N @A K = A?K=?E ?K=@H JE?= @A = B H = ax2 + bx + c = 0 5=>A I GKA =I I K?E AI I

x1 , x2 =

b2 4ac 2a

2 @A I ?HA=H K = BK ?E A K A @A )6 )* GKA ?= ?K A =I H= ?AI @A K = A?K=?E ?K=@H JE?= -IJ= BK ?E GKA = =HA I raiz HA?E>EH ? E FKJ A JH=@=I I L= HAI @A a b O c O CA AH=H ? KJFKJ I= E@=I =I H= ?AI L= HAI @A N = IE J=NEI AI = IECKEA JA

function [x1,x2]=raiz(a,b,c); x1=(-b+(sqrt(b^2-4*a*c)))/(2*a); x2=(-b-(sqrt(b^2-4*a*c)))/(2*a);

7 = LA CK=H@=@= = BK ?E ? A >HA raiz.m IJ= IA FKA@A E L ?=H @AI@A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I @AI@A = C JH A 2 H A A F F=H= D= =H =I H= ?AI 2 @A 2x + 4x + 1 = 0 F @A I KJE E =H = BK ?E GKA ?HA= I A A?KJ= @ = IECKEA JA E IJHK??E A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I

+-26 5 * 51+ 5



[x1,x2]=raiz(2,4,1)
+ HAIK J=@ IA >JEA A

x1 = -0.2929 x2 = -1.7071
.E = A JA D=O GKA A ?E =H K = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= =@E?E = @A = GKA @EIF A I AI +K= @ D=O A=I GKA I KO =HC=I F H A A F A B H K =I =JA JE?=I >=IJ= JA ? F A =I )6 )* FAH EJA @ELE@EH AIJ=I A=I A@E= JA JHAI FK J I IKIFA IEL I
... GKA IA @A>A ? ?=H = = @A ?=@= IAC A J 2 H A A F LA= I = F=HJE?E @A = B H K = ?K=@H JE?= A ?E =@= A A A A F = JAHE H 2=H= A ? GKA I A = FHE AH= A= A K AH=@ H O A = IACK @= IAF=H=@= @A = FHE AH= ? FK J I IKIFA IEL I A @A E =@ H =I

function [x1,x2]=raiz(a,b,c); x1=(-b+(b^2-4*a*c)^0.5)... /(2*a); x2=(-b-(b^2-4*a*c)^0.5)... /(2*a);

+K= @ IA ? ?= I FK J I IKIFA IEL I @A = = AH= ? HHA?J= A FH CH= = KAIJH= AIJ I FK J I @A ? H = K I?KH I HAIK J=@ I GKA IA >JEA A ? AIJ= FH CH= = ?E I AN=?J= A JA I EI I GKA IA >JEA A ? = = JAHE H

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2H ?AI I EJAH=JEL I

-NEIJA @ I J @ I F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I =JA JE? I = = JE? I O K HE? I I J @ I = = JE? I =F E?= ? ?AFJ I =JA JE? I F=H= D= =H K = I K?E ? JH=IJA I J @ I K HE? I CA AH= A JA =IEC = L= HAI = =I L=HE=> AI E L K?H=@=I A K FH > A = O AL= = ? @E?E AI I >HA J= AI L= HAI F=H= @AJAH E =H IE IA D= D= =@ = I K?E 2 H JH =@ ANEIJA @ I B H =I A GKA IA FKA@A HA= E =H I ? ?K I I ? ?K I J= J = = JE? I ? K HE? I F=H= I K?E =H K FH > A = = K= A JA O ? FKJ=?E = A JA 2=H= A JA @AH ? BK ?E = ?=@= J @ L= I = I K?E =H K FH > A = KO IA ?E ?= ?K =H A L= H @A x GKA I=JEIB=C= = A?K=?E x + 5 = 4 ) = JE?= A JA KJE E = @ CA>H= I=>A I GKA F=H= D= =H x @A>A I? ?=H J

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@ I I AH I = = @AHA?D= @A = ECK= @=@ O @A =H I = L=HE=> A x = = E GKEAH@= HAAI?HE>EA @ = A?K=?E @A = B H = x = 4 5 KAC @A>A I HA= E =H =I FAH=?E AI =HEJ JE?=I A?AI=HE=I A JHA I L= HAI GKA AIJ = = @AHA?D= @A = ECK= @=@ A AIJA ?=I HAIJ=H # = " F=H= D= =H A L= H @A = L=HE=> A -IJA FH ?A@E EA J IA FKA@A HA= E =H = K= A JA D=?EA @ = HAIJ= 4 5 ? FKJ=?E = A JA KJE E = @ K FH CH= = @A ? FKJ=@ H GKA HA= E?A @E?D= HAIJ= ,A AIJ= = AH= IA FKA@A D= =H = I K?E x = 1 F H A J @ = = JE? O HA= E = @ =I FAH=?E AI = K= O ? FKJ=?E = A JA 7 = = AH= = JAH =JEL= @A HAI LAH AIJA A AH?E?E AI K HE?= A JA - AIJA ?=I =F E?=H AIJA J @ ? IEIJA A @=H @EIJE J I L= HAI = = L=HE=> A x D=IJ= GKA IA ?K F = = ECK= @=@ x +5 = 4 4A= E =H AIJA JH=>= = K= A JA E F E?=H = ? IJHKEH K +K=@H IE E =H =  

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2=H= ? IJHKEH A ?K=@H IA ? A A = FHE AH= = F H =IEC =H A L= H @A " = x + K =  K = LA IA =IEC AIJA L= H = x IA AL= K A =@ E GKEAH@ @A = ECK= @=@ x + 5 4 + 5 = 1 + K = ! O IA @AJAH E IE ? E ?E@ = ? A =@ @AHA?D @A = ECK= @=@ + K = " -IJA FH ?AI AI ? ?E@ ? K = EJAH=?E + K =  + A = FHE AH= EJAH=?E IA ?K F = = ECK= @=@ BKA A?AI=HE L LAH = HA= E =H JH= EJAH=?E AIJ= LA ? x = 3 - J J= IA HA= E =H " EJAH=?E AI F=H= F @AH D= =H A L= H @A x x = 1) JAIA GKA AIJA FH ?AI IA FK@ D=>AH HA= E =@ = K= ? FKJ=?E = A JA I @ I J @ I = = JE? O K HE?  I FAH EJEAH AC=H = = I K?E 5E A >=HC A J @ K HE? HAIK J IAH F ? A ?EA JA AI @A?EH HAGKEHE @A I HA?KHI I JEA F O FH CH= =?E  )@A I BKA I B ?E HA= E =H = K= A JA =I FAH=?E AI HAGKAHE@=I F H A J @ = = JE? - CA AH= HAIK J= F ? A ?EA JA A ? ?K = K= @A =I FAH=?E AI GKA HAGKEAHA K AJ @ K HE? 7 = DAHH= EA J= ? FKJ=?E = ? )6 )* A E E = =I E EJ=?E AI @A ? ?K HAI LEA @ AIJA JEF @A FH > A =I

+-26 5 * 51+ 5 F

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- A AA ?E -IJ = = JE?= HE? I IA @KH= JA A

= JAHE H A J @ K HE? BKA K ?= E =HC F=H= D= =H = I K IEA FHA ?KHHA D=O = CK I FH > A =I GKA I E F IE> AI @A => H@=H A JA O =K GKA F @H = HAI LAHIA = K= A JA KJE E = @ J @ I K AL=H = K?D JEA F HA= E =H J @ I I ? ?K I =@A I AI FH >=> A GKA FH ?AI IA ? AJ= AHH HAI DK = I

- > AJEL @A AIJA E>H AI FHAIA J=H K = DAHH= EA J= ? FKJ=?E = F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I @A A? = =JA JE?= = = JE?= O K HE?= A JA 2=H= JH=>= =H A )6 )* A J @ = = JE? IA JH=>= = ? L=HE=> AI IE > E?=I =I ?K= AI FAH E JA JH=>= =H A A ? FKJ=@ H @A = EI = = AH= A GKA IA IKA A JH=>= =H A K ?KHI @A CA>H= @AIFA = @ L=HE=> AI ?= >E= @ IEC I AJ?  )6 )* @EIF A @A K J > N CH=JKEJ = =@ 5O > E? 6 > N GKA FAH EJA JH=>= =H ? AIJA JEF @A L=HE=> AI -IJA AI KO JE F=H= @AIFA =H K = I L=HE=> AI ?K= @ =I ANFHAIE AI A =I GKA IJ=I IA A ?KA JH= I ? F E?=@=I 6H=>= =H A J @ K HE? HAGKEAHA @A ANFHAIE AI ? ?E@=I ? >EBKH?=?E AI O >K? AI GKA FAH EJA HAI LAH ? FKJ=?E = A JA FH ?AI I EJAH=JEL I ? A @A +K=@H  
=I >EBKH?=?E AI FAH EJA HA= E =H K = K JH= FAH=?E IAC IA ?K F = K = @AJAH E =@= ? @E?E I >K? AI FAH EJA HAFAJEH =I EI =I = C=I FAH=?E AI I >HA @=J I @EIJE J I /=H? = @A =   ) CK =I @A AIJ=I ANFHAIE AI KJE E =@=I F H )6 )* I if, for, break, while, switch, try O catch ) ? JE K=?E ANF E?= I I JHAI FHE AH I @=@ GKA I I GKA L= I = JH=>= =H A AIJ= FHE AH= F=HJA @A E>H I =@A = JA IA FHAIA J=H A HAIJ @A =I ANFHAIE AI = IA JA ?E= if AI K = >EBKH?=?E O HA= E = FAH=?E AI @EIJE J=I @AFA @EA @ @A IE IA ?K F A K = ? @E?E = B H = CA AH= F=H= K = ? @E?E AI

if condicion sentencias1 else sentencias2 end

- AIJA ?=I IE IA ?K F A = ? @E?E if IA HA= E = =I FAH=?E AI GKA ? F A A FHE AH CHKF @A IA JA ?E=I sentencias1 5E IA ?K F A = ? @E?E else IA A A?KJ= A IACK @ CHKF @A IA JA ?E=I sentencias2 - ?=I @A EJEH else O IKI HAIFA?JEL=I IA JA ?E=I sentencias2 O =@A I IA ?K F A = condicion

" IA HA= E = E C AI ? ?K +K= @ ANEIJA

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if condicion1 sentencias1 elseif condicion2 sentencias2 elseif condicion3 sentencias3 else sentencias4 end
2 H JH =@ = IA JA ?E= for AI K >K? A O HA= E = @A = AH= HAFAJE@= K = IA ?KA ?E= @A FAH=?E AI ? K @AJAH E =@ ? K J @A @=J I 5K B H = I IA ?E = AI

for i=1:n sentencias end

- AIJA ?=I A FH CH= = ? EA = F H =IEC =H = i A L= H @A  O HA= E = J @=I =I FAH=?E AI AIJ=> A?E@=I A =I sentencias 5A D= J =@ =H>EJH=HE= A JA ?
? J=@ H = L=HE=> A i 5E A >=HC AIJA ? J=@ H DK>EAH= F @E@ IAH ?K= GKEAH JH= L=HE=> A F H A A F for a=1:n ) ? JE K=?E i J = A L= H @A O @A KAL IA HA= E = =I FAH=?E AI -IJA FH ?AI IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A = I K?E @A K FH > A = F H A@E @A J @ I K HE? I ?=@= HAFAJE?E @A FH ?AI IA = = EJAH=?E 5E A >=HC A ? J=@ H A AIJA ?=I i AIJ E EJ=@ = J =H L= HAI A JAH I F IEJEL I 7 ?=I I CA AH= AI ?K= @ A ? J=@ H AI K LA?J H @A = B H = [vi , vi + a, (vi + a) + a , . . . , vf ] GKA ? JEA A K ? K J @A L= HAI GKA ? EA = A vi JAH E = A vf O AIJ IAF=H=@ I A E JAHL= I @A =C EJK@ a = B H = @A = IA JA ?E= for A A ?=I I CA AH= AI

for i=vi:a:vf sentencias end

@ @A vi AI A L= H E E?E= @A ? J=@ H vf AI IK L= H = O a AI = =CE JK@ GKA

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

#

IAF=H= I L= HAI @A ? J=@ H i 2 H A A F F=H= ? ?=H A = IA JA ?E= for K

? J=@ H i GKA ? JA C= I L= HAI 0 3 0 4 0 5 . . . 3 4 = FH CH= =?E @A>A IAH @A = B H =

for i=0.3:0.1:3.4 sentencias end

1 KIJHA I AIJ I ? = @ I ? A A A F = JAHE H 8= I = ? IJHKEH K FH CH= = GKA HAIKA L= K HE?= A JA = A?K=?E x + 5 = 4 = E@A= AI =IEC =H L= HAI = x A JHA " O " AL= K=H A =@ E GKEAH@ @A = ECK= @=@ O LAHE ?=H IE AIJA HAIK J=@ ? E ?E@A ? A =@ @AHA?D

for x=-4:1:4 li=x+5 % li=Lado Izquierdo ld=4 % ld=Lado Derecho if li==ld break end; end x
- = FHE AH= A= IA AIJ=> A?A GKA A FH ?AI A ?=I @A ?K F EH = ? @E?E IA L= = HAFAJEH ' LA?AI  AH @A L= HAI A JHA " O " ? E JAHL= I @A =C EJK@ a=1 - = FHE AH= EJAH=?E IA =IEC = = x A L= H @A -4 KAC A = IACK @= A= ? AIJA L= H @A x IA AL= = A =@ 1 GKEAH@ li @A = A?K=?E GKA A AIJA ?=I AI x+5 O IA @A A A =@ ,AHA?D ld=4 - = JAH?AH= A= IA AL= = KJE E = @ if IE A =@ 1 GKEAH@ li AI ECK= = @AHA?D 4 5E IA ?K F A = ? @E?E = IA JA ?E= if JAH E = H FA A FH ?AI for F H A@E @A = E IJHK??E break IE IA ?K F A = ? @E?E = IA JA ?E= if D=?A =@= KAC IA ? JE = ? = IACK @= EJAH=?E A @ @A x J = A L= H @A -3 IA HAFEJA A FH ?AI O =I IK?AIEL= A JA D=IJ= GKA IA ?K F = = ? @E?E D=IJ= GKA A FH CH= = D=O= AL= K=@ J @ I I L= HAI @A N + AIJA FH CH= = )6 )* KAC @A ?K=JH EJAH=?E AI A ?KA JH= = I K?E x = 1 - FH ?AI I EJAH=JEL I ? A GKA IA =?=>= @A IJH=H IEA FHA IA AC= = K = I K?E ?=I A A ?K= IA @E?A GKA D=O ? LAHCA ?E= 2 H A A F IE x DK>EAH= J =@ L= HAI @A [-4:1:-2] @A [-3.5:0.2:3.5] IA D=>H = AC=@

$

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2HA E E =H

= K = I K?E - A FHE AH ?=I ?K= @ x=[-4:1:-2] = FAI=H @A HA= E =H J @=I =I EJAH=?E AI @A JH @A I L= HAI =IEC =@ I = x AI F IE> A A ? JH=H = I K?E x=-1 - A IACK @ ?=I ?K= @ x=[-3.5:0.2:3.5] A FH ?AI F=I= ?AH?= @A = I K?E =IEC = @ = x L= HAI @A -1.1 O -0.9 ) FAI=H @A GKA AIJ I L= HAI I ?AH?= I = = I K?E x=-1 I=JEIB=?A @A = AH= AIJHE?J= = ? @E?E x+4=5 H= F H = ?K= A FH ?AI I @AI?=HJ= ? F IE> AI I K?E AI O = A JA ? LAHCA = HAC = @A EJAH=?E A A = JAHE H A AH?E?E AH= JHELE= O =H>EJH=HE= =K GKA BKA JE F=H= E KIJH=H A KI @A =I IA JA ?E=I if O for - HA= E@=@ =I HAC =I GKA IA KJE E = F=H= = I K?E @A FH > A =I F H A@E @A J @ I K HE? I I I A => H=@=I O FAH EJA AIJ=> A?AH ? @E?E AI F=H= GKA A FH > A = ? LAH = D=?E= K = I K?E -IJ=I HAC =I @A EJAH=?E O J @ I K HE? I IA A ?E = I @AJ= =@= A JA A  ?=F JK I F IJAHE HAI

#
#

JH I +
2=JD

?AFJ I * IE? I

- A A J @A A A?KJ=H = C ?DAH  A IA HAGKEAHA GKA A =H?DEL IA A ?KA JHA @A JH @A = CK = ?=HFAJ= GKA FKA@= HA? ?AH A I BJM=HA 2=H= GKA K = ?=HFAJ= FKA@= IAH HA? ?E@= IA A?AIEJ= GKA IJ= IA A ?KA JHA @A JH @A = HKJ= @A > IGKA@= @A FH CH= = - A 2=JD I AIJ HACEIJH=@=I =I ?=HFAJ=I @A @EHA? J HE C:\MATLAB6p1 E ? KOA @ = ?=HFAJ= Work 5E A >=HC ?DAH I A JH=I ?=HFAJ=I GKA AIJ A A 2=JD IAH HA? ?E@ I F H )6 )* O CA AH=H AHH HAI @A A A?K?E = A I GKA IA @EHA??E A A FH CH= = D=?E= = K>E?=?E @A AI I =H?DEL I 2 H A A F IE IA A A?KJ= A ?DAH pcb.m K>E?=@ A C:\GEDEM\pcb.m A FH CH= = =HH = A IECKEA JA AHH H @A A A?K?E

??? Undefined function or variable pcb.

2=H= = =@EH K = ?=HFAJ= = 2=JD IA @A>A EH = A .E A 5AJ 2=JD A @ @A =F=HA?A K = 8A J= = IE E =H = = .ECKH=   2 H A@E @A = F?E Add Folder IA FKA@A =CHAC=H ?K= GKEAH ?=HFAJ= = 2=JD 7 = LA =CHAC=@= = ?=HFAJ= AI A?AI=HE CK=H@=H I ?= >E I A A 2=JD HFE EA @ A > J Save JH=I F?E AI @EIF E> AI A AIJA A FAH EJA A E E =H ?=HFAJ=I @A 2=JD ? ?=H A 2=JD GKA A I BJM=HA JH=A F H @ABA?J E ? KEH J @=I =I IK>?=HFAJ=I @A K = ?=HFAJ=


5A IKCEAHA ?

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- ? = @ help FAH EJA @AIF AC=H = =OK@= @A ?=@= K @A I ? = @ I O BK ?E AI - AIJ= =OK@= CA AH= A JA =F=HA?A = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ O =I @EBAHA JAI F?E AI GKA AIJA JEA A - = =O H = @A ?=I I AIJA ? = @ IA KJE E = A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I O IA AI?HE>A @A = B H = help rutina @ @A rutina IA HA AHA = >HA @A ? = @ HKJE = @A GKA IA @AIA= >JA AH E B H =?E 2 HAA F xlabel AI K ? = @ GKA FAH EJA ? ?=H K = AJEGKAJ= = A A N @A K = CH ?= ) AI?HE>EH help xlabel A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I IA >JEA A

XLABEL X-axis label. XLABEL(text) adds text beside the X-axis on the current axis. XLABEL(text,Property1,PropertyValue1,...) sets the values of the specified properties of the xlabel. H = XLABEL(...) returns the handle to the text object used as the label. See also YLABEL, ZLABEL, TITLE, TEXT.
=I HKJE =I @A )6 )* AIJ HC= E =@=I F H JA =I A @EBAHA JAI ?=HFAJ=I 2 H A A F A = ?=HFAJ= C:\MATLAB6p1\toolbox\matlab\sparfun IA A ?KA JH= J @=I =I HKJE =I F=H= JH=>= =H ? K JEF AIFA?E= @A =JHE?AI GKA LAHA I

& I =@A = JA GKA I =I =JHE?AI @EIFAHI=I

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2HA E E =H

help J= >E AI JE F=H= LAH I ? = @ I HKJE =I @EIF E> AI F=H= JH=>= =H K JA = A F=HJE?K =H F H A A F A A?KJ= @ A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I = E IJHK? ?E help C:\MATLAB6p1\toolbox\matlab\sparfun IA KAIJH= J @ I I ? = @ I HKJE =I GKA IEHLA F=H= JH=>= =H ? =JHE?AI @EIFAHI=I
)6 )* J= >E FAH EJA GKA A KIK=HE FKA@= ? ?=H K = IA??E @A =OK@=  DA F = I AI GKA ? IJHKO= 5E A A AI K FH CH= = AIJ= F?E AI JE F HGKA FAH EJA ? ?=H K ? A J=HE GKA @AI?HE>= = KJE E@=@ @A FH CH= = GKA IA ?HA 5E A A AI K = BK ?E ? AIJ= F?E IA FKA@A @EIA =H K DA F IE E =H = I GKA JEA A =I HKJE =I @A I BJM=HA GKA @AI?HE>= J= J I E FKJI ? I KJFKJI @A @E?D= BK ?E 2=H= ? ?=H K = IA??E @A =OK@= A ?K= GKEAH A AI A?AI=HE ? ?=H = = E E?E @A IJA A A=I ? IA?KJEL=I ? A J=@=I 2 H A A F HAJ = @ A A pcb.m ?HA=@ = JAHE H A JA O ? ?= @ A K = IA??E @A =OK@= A A GKA@=H = @A = B H =

% Programa para crear la Matriz A y el Vector B % Creado para el Captulo de Conceptos Bsicos % Ya esta corregido % Esto ya no es seccin de Ayuda A=[1 2 3; % Primera Fila 4 5 6] % Segunda Fila B=[5 8]; % Vector con ;
- A?KJ= @ A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I help pcb help pcb.m IA >JEA A =I JHAI FHE AH=I A=I GKA JEA A A IEC % = ? EA @A = A= O GKA AIJ IAF=H=@=I F H AIF=?E I -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA = ANFHAIE

% Esto ya no es seccin de Ayuda

=F=HA?A A = I= E@= F HGKA IA A ?KA JH= IAF=H=@= F H K AIF=?E @A > GKA @A A=I ? IA?KJEL=I GKA JEA A A I > % =I I= E@= @A )6 )* = A A?KJ=H help pcb IA FHAIA J= A = .ECKH=   2=H= A J HFA?AH A JH=>= A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I @=@ GKA J @=I =I =OK@=I

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

' @= JH=>= =H ? helpwin rutina ?K= @ IA = @A =OK@= @A FH CH= = FHAIA J= @ = EI = = LA J= = @EBAHA JA A AIJ= LA J= = =F=HA?A = O =I ?HA=@=I F H A KIK=HE

=F=HA?A A AIJ= LA J= = IA HA? EA KJE E = AIJA ? = @ IA =>HA = LA J= I= E@= GKA FHAIA J= help FAH A K =I =OK@=I @A =I HKJE =I @A FH CH=

.ECKH=   0A F @A pcb 2 H JH =@ A ? = @ doc FAH EJA ? IK J=H = @ ?K A J=?E A A= @EIF E >A A )6 )* I >HA ?K= GKEAH ? = @ HKJE = -IJ= @ ?K A J=?E ? JEA A E B H =?E I @AJ= =@= GKA = AIFA?E ?=@= A A help I >HA = IE J=NEI O J @ I K HE? I GKA KJE E = ?=@= HKJE = 2=H= F @AH KJE E =H A ? = @ doc IA HAGKEAHA GKA A KIK=HE @KH= JA A FH ?AI @A E IJ= =?E D=O= E IJ= =@ =@A I @A FH CH= = J @= = @ ?K A J=?E = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ AI doc rutina @ @A rutina ? HHAIF @A = ? = @ HKJE = @A ?K= IA GKEAHA ? IK J=H = @ ?K A J=?E 2 H A A F = A A?KJ=H A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I doc clc )6 )* @AIF EAC= = @ ?K A J=?E F=H= A ? = @ clc A K = LA J= = KAL= IE E =H = = GKA =F=HA?A A = .ECKH=  

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C:\MATLAB6p1\toolbox\matlab\strfun
I ?=H=?JAHAI @A K = ?=@A = IA = =?A = A K LA?J H O ?=@= ?=H=?JAH IA = =?A = A K = @A =I F IE?E AI @A LA?J H 2=H= E JH @K?EH =I A )6 )* IJ=I IA @A>A ? ?=H @A JH @A ? E =I IE F AI 2 H A A F F=H= ?HA=H = ?=@A =
- A N = IE J=NEI AI Eje x 5E AIJA FH ?A@E EA J IA HA= E = @A = AH= =@A?K=@= A FH CH= = ? ?= = ?=@A = @A JANJ O =I ? E =I A ? H H I?KH -IJ= ?=@A = AI = =?A =@= A K LA?J H @A J= = # ? K > AJ @A JEF
?D=H =HH=O ?D=H=?JAH =HH=O GKA ?KF=  >OJAI A A 9 H IF=?A - = CK =I ?=IE AI IA HAGKEAHA GKA = C JANJ @A JH @A = ?=@A = @A ?= H=?JAHAI L=O= A JHA ? E =I 2=H= A @E?D=I ? E =I IA HAFHAIA J= F H K @ > A ?=H=?JAH ? E = 2 H A A F F=H= ?HA=H = ?=@A =
- A <N  IA @A>A ? ?=H = E IJHK??E Eje x + =I ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI I = =?A =@=I A LA?J HAI = = F=HJEH @A A =I IA FKA@= ?HA=H =JHE?AI @A ?=H=?JAHAI )I K = =JHE @A ?=H=?JAHAI AI K = =JHE ?KO=I =I I ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI 6 @=I =I =I @A K = =JHE @A ?=H=?JAHAI @A>A JA AH A EI AH @A A A A J I +K= @ AIJ ?KHHA AI A?AI=HE ? F AJ=H ? AIF=?E I =I ?=@A =I  =I I ? HJ=I ) CK I @A I ? = @ I GKA I FAH EJA JH=>= =H ? ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI


- J @= ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI ?=@= ?=H=?JAH ?KF=

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+ = @ +=H=?JAH IJE?=I

char(c1,c2,...)

deblank(c1) c1==c2

int2str(a) num2str(a,n)

str2double(c1) c1=cellstr(C)

+HA= K = =JHE @A ?=H=?JAHAI = F=HJEH @A =I ?=@A =I c1, c2,..., ? F AJ= @ ? AIF=?E I =I ?=@A =I I ? HJ=I - E E = I AIF=?E I = = @A K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JA HAI c1 + F=H= @ I ?=@A =I ?=H ?JAH = ?=H ?JAH ,ALKA LA K LA?J H =JHE @A K I O ?AH I @AFA @EA @ @A IE A A A A J AI ECK= @EBAHA JA HAIFA?JEL= A JA + LEAHJA K AH A JAH a A ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI + LEAHJA K AH HA= a A ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI +K= @ A AH JEA A @A?E = AI F H @ABA?J IA = =?A = A = ?=@A = I ?K=JH ?EBH=I @A?E = AI A AH @A @A?E = AI FKA@A = F E=HIA HA@K?EHIA =  + LEAHJA K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI HAFHAIA J= @ K AH HA= A A AH HA= ? HHAIF @EA JA + LEAHJA K = =JHE @A ?=H=?JAHAI + A K LA?J H @A ?A @=I ? A E E = @ I AIF=?E I = = @A ?=@= ?= @A = I+ = @ I I >HA +=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI

+K=@H 

) CK

-IJHK?JKH=I 7 = AIJHK?JKH= IJHK?J AI K = =CHKF=?E @A @=J I @A @EBAHA JA JEF >= K EI >HA -IJ I @=J I IA = = EA >H I  A >AHI ?= F I  A @I 7 = AIJHK?JKH= IA @A A A )6 )* IAF=H= @ IKI ?= F I F H FK J I A E JH @K?EA @ K L= H ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI GKA @A = A ?= F 8A= I K A A F GKA E KIJHA AIJ I ? ?AFJ I 2 @A I ?HA=H K = AIJHK?JKH= GKA ? JA C= A 21* FAH ? FEJ= O = F=HJE?EF=?E @A ? IK @A JH @A 21* @A =  F=H= = CK I F= IAI =JE =AHE?= I + >E= )HCA JE = *H=IE O 2=H=CK=O 2=H= A A?AIEJ= I ?HA=H A


/=H? = @A =

 

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

?= F
8=HE=> A 21* FAH ? FEJ= F=HJE?EF=?E @A ? IK  O @A JH @A AIJA ?= F @A EH JH F=H=
2= I 2=H= E JH @K?EH I @=J I IA @A>A AI?HE>EH A )6 )* IECKEA JA

% Primer Campo: Variable pibp=PIB Percapita pibp.col=5795.55 % col=Colombia pibp.arg=11729.08 % arg=Argentina pibp.bra=7744.71 % bra=Brasil pibp.pry=4801.30 % pry=Paraguay % Segundo Campo: pcon.col=67.93 pcon.arg=69.06 pcon.bra=65.75 pcon.pry=77.14 Variable pcon=Partic. Consumo en PIB % col=Colombia % arg=Argentina % bra=Brasil % pry=Paraguay

,A AIJ= = AH= IA D= ?HA=@ @ I AIJHK?JKH=I = FHE AH= ? JEA A @=J I @A FE> FAH? FEJ= F=H= ?K=JH F= IAI @A =JE = HE?= O = IACK @= ? JEA A @=J I @A F=HJE?EF=?E A A ? IK F=H= A EI CHKF @A F= IAI! I ?= F I L=HE=> A O F= I AIJ IAF=H=@ I F H
 ) E L ?=H A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I AIJ=I @ I AIJHK?JKH=I AI @A?EH = A A?KJ=H pibp,pcon = I= E@= @A )6 )* @A>AH = IAH IE E =H = = GKA IA FHAIA J= A = .ECKH=  !

.ECKH=  ! -IJHK?JKH=I FE>F F? 5A >IAHL= A

!

A 9 H IF=?A GKA IA D=

?HA=@ @ I > AJ I JEF

AIJHK?JKH=

I @=J I IA D= J =@ @A ) = 0AIJ 8AHIE $  +A JAH B H 1 JAH =JE = + ?JK>HA 

4 >AHJ 5K AHI = @ *AJJE = )JA 2A 9 H @ 6=> A F=HEI I =J JDA 7 ELAHIEJO B 2A IO L= E= +1+72

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

IJHK?JKHA =HH=O O ?=@= K @A A I ? JEA A ?= F I HA =?E =@ I ? F= IAI @A =JE = HE?= 5A FKA@A =??A@AH = = E B H =?E GKA JEA A ?K= GKEAH= @A AIJ I ?= F I AI?HE>EA @ IK K>E?=?E 2 H A A F F=H= =??A@AH = = F=HJE?E F=?E GKA JEA A A ? IK A A 21* @A + >E= >=IJ= ? AI?HE>EH A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I pcon.col GKA =HH = ? HAIK J=@ 67.93 A I B JM=HA @EIF A @A ? = @ I GKA IEHLA F=H= = EFK =H AIJHK?JKH=I ) CK I @A A I IA FHAIA J= A A +K=@H  !
+ = @ e=struct( campo1 ,valor1,...)
rmfield(ES,e)

+=H=?JAH IJE?=I 2AH EJA ?HA=H = AIJHK?JKH= e A K = I = A= - E E = A ?= F e @A = AIJHK?JKH= ES

+K=@H  ! ) CK ) JAHE H A JA ?HA= @A I KJE E =H A ? E IJHK??E =I

I+

= @ I I >HA -IJHK?JKH=I

I = AIJHK?JKH= pibp A@E= JA ?K=JH E IJHK??E AI 2 = @ struct F=H= ?HA=H AIJ= AIJHK?JKH= A K = I =

pibp=struct( col ,5795.55, arg ,11729.08,... bra ,7744.71, pry ,4801.30)

+ =I AIJHK?JKH=I I > AJ I GKA FAH EJA = =?A =H @=J I AI H=H GKA IJ=I IA FKA@= = =?A =H A =JHE?AI O LA?J HAI 2=H= A ? AIFA?E ?=H = F IE?E GKA @A>A ?KF=H = AIJHK?JKH= @A JH @A K K LA?J H 2 H A A F F=H= ?HA=H =I @ I AIJHK?JKH=I @A A A F 21* FAH? FEJ= O F=HJE?EF=?E @A ? IK F=H= = CK I F= IAI @A HE?= =  O ? ?=H AIJ=I AIJHK?JKH=I A K LA?J H lat GKA ? E B H =?E @A AIJ=I L=HE=> AI F=H= = CK I F= IAI @A =JE = HE?= @A AIFA >=IJ= = =JHE = JAHE H =JE = JAC= =

% Pib Percapita pibp=struct( col ,5795.55, arg ,11729.08,... bra ,7744.71, pry ,4801.30) % Participacion Consumo en PIB pcon=struct( col ,67.93, arg ,69.06,... bra ,65.75, pry ,77.14) lat(1)=pibp;

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

lat(2)=pcon;
+ AIJ=I E IJHK??E AI IA ?HA= K LA?J H lat ? @ I ? K =I GKA ? JEA A ?= F I 12 struct array with fields - IK FHE AH= ? K = lat(1) AIJA LA?J H ? JEA A A 21* FAH? FEJ=

ans = col: arg: bra: pry: 5795.55 11729.08 7744.71 4801.30

= lat(2) ? JEA A E B H =?E I >HA =

EA JH=I GKA A = IACK @= ? K F=HJE?EF=?E @A ? IK

ans = col: arg: bra: pry:

8A?J HAI

67.93 69.06 65.75 77.14

=JHE?AI @A ?A @=I ?A =HH=OI

7 ?A =HH=O AI K > AJ @A JEF I CA AH= O= GKA FAH EJA ? >E =H @EBAHA JAI JEF I @A @=J I  K HE? I ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI AIJHK?JKH=I A K I -IJ E F E?= GKA K ?A =HH=O FKA@A =@ EJEH F H A A F A IK FHE AH= F IE?E K = AIJHK?JKH= A IK IACK @= F IE?E K = =JHE O A = JAH?AH= K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI" 7 ?A =HH=O IA ?HA= AIFA?E ?= @ = F IE?E A GKA IA @AIA= ? ?=H A > AJ @A JH @A ?A =HH=O O ? ?= @ A > AJ @A JH @A =LAI  8A= I K A A F

ca(1)={[3 5 4]}; % Vector en la posicion 1 ca(4)={(conceptos basicos)} % Cadena de Caracteres en la posicion 4

- AIJA A A F DA I ?HA=@ K ?A =HH=O GKA ? JEA A ?K=JH > AJ I A IK FHE AH= F IE?E ? JEA A K LA?J H @A ! A = IACK @= O JAH?AH= ? JEA A =JHE?AI L=? =I O A = ?K=HJ= K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI JAIA GKA AI
"

JH=HE =

I JH I > AJ I GKA I

FAH EJA K

EI

JEF @A @=J I A J @=I IKI F IE?E

AI

+-26 5 * 51+ 5

A?AI=HE E JH @K?EH I A A A J I @A K ?A =HH=O A H@A ? IA?KJEL IA FKA@A E JH @K?EH A ?K= GKEAH F IE?E O )6 )* =KJ JE?= A JA ?HA= > AJ I
L=? I A =I F IE?E AI A =I GKA IA E JH @K E C AA A J ) CK I @A I ? = @ I F=H= JH=>= =H ? ?A =HH=OI IA >IAHL= A A +K=@H
+ = @ cell(m,n) celldisp(ca) cellplot(ca) iscell(ca) num2cell() cell2struct() struct2cell() +=H=?JAH IJE?=I ?HA= K ?A =HH=O L=? @A m =I O n ? K =I KAIJH= A ? JA E@ @A J @=I =I ?A @=I @A ca KAIJH= K = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= @A =I @EIJE J=I ?A @=I E @E?= IE ca AI K LA?J H @A ?A @=I ? LEAHJA K =HH=O K HE? A K ?A =HH=O ? LEAHJA K ?A =HH=O A K = AIJHK?JKH= ? LEAHJA K = AIJHK?JKH= A K ?A =HH=O

+K=@H  " ) CK =JHE?AI @EIFAHI=I

I+

= @ I F=H= > AJ I +A )HH=O

7 = =JHE @EIFAHI= IA ?=H=?JAHE = F HGKA = =O H = @A I A A A J I GKA = ? F A I ?AH I + FKJ=?E = A JA HAIK J= E A ?EA JA = =?A =H A = A HE= J= J I L= HAI @A ?AH I ?K= @ = =JHE AI @A CH= J= = )6 )* @EIF @A HKJE =I GKA FAH EJA JH=J=H @A = AH= AIFA?E= AIJ=I =JHE?AI ? A FH F IEJ @A JA AH =O H A ?EA ?E= ? FKJ=?E = A I ? ?K I -IJ=I HKJE =I O = CK I A A F I IA FHAIA J= A @AJ= A A A ?=F JK 2=H= JAH E =H AIJA ?=F JK @A>A I A ?E =H @ I ? = @ I GKA I BK @= A J= AI F=H= = FHAIA J=?E @A HAIK J=@ I K HE? I O CH ? I A )6 )* - FHE AH AI A ? = @ pause ?KO= IE J=NEI AI pause(n) -IJA ? = @ FAH EJA @AJA AH K = IA?KA ?E= @A FAH=?E AI FH ?AI I F H n IACK @ I ?K= @ IA KJE E = @A = B H = pause ?K= GKEAH ? ?K F IJAHE H = AIJ= E IJHK??E IA @AJEA A E @A E@= A JA D=IJ= GKA A KIK=HE FHE = = CK = JA? = - IACK @ ? = @ AI A ? = @ format ?KO= IE J=NEI AI format opcion -IJA ? = @ FAH EJA GKA A KIK=HE @A )6 )* @EIF C= @A L=HE=I opciones @A B H =J I A I GKA @AIA= LAH I HAIK J=@ I K HE? I ) CK I @A A I I B H =J ID HJ # @ CEJ I C # @ CEJ I O >=  @A?E = AI# - FH CH= = KJE E = F H @ABA?J A B H =J short ) CK =I LA?AI AIJA JE B H =J KJE E =
=I J J= E@=@ @A F?E A J=?E
#

AI IA FKA@A LAH KJE E = @ A help @A format

IK J= @

= @ ?K

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

J=?E ?EA J ?= F=H= I=JEIB=?AH A HAGKAHE EA J @A ? ?=H # @ CEJ I 2 H A A F ?K= @ IA @ECEJ= A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I A AH 0.000015

ans =

1.5000e-005
=O H = @A I HAIK J=@ I K HE? I @A E>H IAH FHAIA

2=H= ABA?J I FH ?JE? I = J=@ I A B H =J bank

) F=HJEH @A AIJ I ? ?AFJ I > IE? I AI F IE> A FHAIA J=H = AIJHK?JKH= @A E>H GKA IA @ELE@A A JHAI IA??E AI ) CA>H= E A= + ?K O FJE E =?E O ,E E?= = FHE AH= IA??E IA JH=>= = ? I ? ?AFJ I @A =JHE?AI O 8A?J HAI ?=F JK  O 5EIJA =I @A -?K=?E AI ?=F JK ! - = IACK @= IA??E IA = = E = A ? F H J= EA J @A K = BK ?E = F=HJEH @A DAHH= EA J=I CH ?=I ?=F JK " O @A ? ?K @EBAHA ?E= ?=F JK # A E JACH= ?=F JK $ - = JAH?AH= IA??E IA AIJK@E= =I ? @E?E AI IK ?EA JAI  @A IACK @ H@A  @A K FH > A = @A FJE E =?E ?= F JK % O I = C HEJ I F=H= D= =H FK J I FJE I ?=F JK & .E = A JA IA FHAIA J= K = E JH @K??E = = I K?E K HE?= @A IEIJA =I @E E? I ?=F JK 

2=HJA 1

/-*4) 1 -)

+=F JK

=JHE?AI O 8A?J HAI

E@= 3KE JAH =HE / A -@K=H@ 5 ?DA
-NEIJA ?EA ?E=I A @ @A A = EIEI @A @EBAHA JAI IEJK=?E AI D=?A A?AI=HE A ? JH=H K = = AH= FJE = @A HC= E =H CH= @AI L A AI @A E B H =?E =I =JA JE?=I = JH=L I @A CA>H= E A= BHA?A K = B H = @A HAFHAIA J=H @A = AH= HC= E =@= AIJ=I HA =?E AI KJE E = @ =JHE?AI -I =I ? A @A I A? E? I ? A @A A JEA =I =JHE?AI ANFHAI= =I HA =?E AI A JHA I E IK I O I FH @K?J I = AI @A =I @EBAHA JAI E @KIJHE=I >KI?= @ AIJ=> A?AH A ELA @A FH @K??E GKA I=JEIB=?A K = @A = @= @AJAH E =@= - AIJK@E @A CA>H= E A= AI JE A HA=I E F HJ= JAI F=H= =I ?EA ?E=I A? E ?=I J= AI ? JA H = @A = FJE E =?E JA H = @A =I A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI O A @EBAHA ?E= AIJ=@ IJE?= O A? AJH = - > AJEL @A AIJA ?=F JK AI AIJK@E=H =I ?= H=?JAH IJE?=I > IE?=I @A CA>H= E A= KJE E = @ )6 )* - = FHE AH= IA??E AN= E =HA I A = A > IE? @A =I =JHE?AI O IKI @EIJE J=I FAH=?E AI A = IACK @= => H@=HA I I LA?J HAI K J = IKI F=HJE?K =HE@=@AI O FAH=?E AI O A = JAH?AH= LAHA I = CK =I DAHH= EA J=I GKA B=?E EJ= A ? ?K @A L= HAI O LA?J HAI FH FE I


7 = ? K

=JHE?AI
=JHE AI K =HHAC =I HA?J= CK =H @A A A A J I @EIFKAIJ I A HA C AI  =I O

a11 a12 a21 a22 am1 am2

'

... ... ...

a1n a2n amn

!

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

- H@A J= = @A K = =JHE IA @A A ? A AH @A =I O @A ? K =I GKA = ? F A - AIJA ?=I JA A I K = =JHE @A H@A m n F HGKA @EIF A @A m =I O n ? K =I 6= >E F @A I AIFA?E ?=H K A A A J @A = =JHE E @E?= @ = = O = ? K = A = GKA IA A ?KA JH= )I A A A A J aij AI =GKA GKA AIJ A = = i O = ? K = j 2 H A A F A A A A J @A = = 1 O ? K = 2 F @A I AIFA?E ?=H ? a12 =I =JHE?AI @A>A HA?E>EH K >HA A )6 )* F=H= GKA IA= = =?A =@=I @K H= JA = IAIE -IJA >HA FKA@A IAH K = L=HE=I AJH=I >IJ= JA IA HA? EA @= GKA =I =JHE?AI IA @A JA ? AJH=I =O I?K =I IE AH I ?=H=?JAHAI AIFA  ?E= AI =I =JHE?AI @A>A AIJ=H ? JA E@=I A JHA F=H JAIEI = CK =HAI  O IAH @A E@=I F H =I AI @A?EH IA IAF=H= =I ? F A JAI @A K = EI = = A@E= JA AIF=?E I ? =I , EA JH=I GKA =I =I IA @EBAHA ?E= A JHA I ? FK J O ? = ; FHAIE = @ A JAH 2=H= HABAHA ?E=H A A A J I AIFA? ? I @A K = =JHE   O F=H= E JH @K?EH A A A J I JEF ?A =HH=O =LAI  KJE E = I F=H JAIEI ?EH?K =HAI IA D=?A KI @A I ? H?DAJAI

-A F

 /A AHA

I?

FKJ=?E

A JA =

=JHE

A23 =
2=H= E JH @K?EH = =JHE A @A>A

1 3 9 7 5 4
I A A A J I =I

I E JH @K?EH

A=[1,3,9;7,5,4]
J= >E @A = B H =

A=[1 3 9;7 5 4]
)6 )* I KAIJH= A J ?AI = =JHE A

A = 1 3 9 7 5 4
+K= @ = = =JHE IA A D= =IEC =@ K >HA )6 )* KJE E = K >HA @A L=HE=> A F H @ABA?J ans @A = IMAH  GKA ? JEA A = HAIFKAIJ= @A = JE = FAH=?E 7 = =JHE @A ?A @=I ?A =HH=O AI K =HHAC ?KO I A A A J I I ?K= GKEAH JEF @A L=HE=> A F HAA F JH=I =JHE?AI ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI AH I AJ?


)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

!

2=H= ABA?J I FH ?JE? I KJE E =HA I = =HC @A = =O H = @A E>H = B H = @A E JH @K?EH =JHE?AI A = ?K= IAF=H= I =I =I F H ; O IKI A A A J I F H AIF=?E I



0EFAH =JHE?AI

7 = ANJA IE @A ? ?AFJ @A =JHE AI A ? ?AFJ @A DEFAH =JHE @A E@= ? K = =JHE @A I @A @ I @E A IE AI 2 H A A F K = DEFAH =JHE @A ! @E A IE ! AI AI K = DEFAH =JHE @A J= = m n xk @ @A k AI A AH @A =JHE?AI @A =HHAC AI @A?EH = JAH?AH= @E A IE = FH BK @E@=@ @A = DEFAH =JHE  ?=@= K = ? m =I O n ? K =I LEIE> A A = .ECKH= 

m K N
.ECKH=  0EFAH =JHE @A ! @E A IE AI 2=H= E JH @K?EH DEFAH =JHE?AI A )6 )* IA =GKA F=H= E JH @K?EH K = =JHE = E@A= > IE?= JHE?AI A?AI=HE=I F=H= ? B H =H = DEFAH =JHE F IE?E GKA ?=@= K = @A A =I ?KF=H @A JH @A HA I K = =JHE @A J= = 3 3 2 IECKA K FH ?A@E EA J IE E =H = AI E JH @K?EH ?=@= K = @A =I = O IE K J A= A JA E JH @K?EH = = DEFAH =JHE 2 H A A F CA A

C(:,:,1)=[2 5 6;4 1 0;6 6 9]; C(:,:,2)=[-4 6 0;0 1 1;8 3 5];

!

= FHE AH=

A= IA ?HA= K = DEFAH =JHE C @A ! @E A IE

AI O = E B H =?E

)6 )* FAH EJA JH=>= =H DEFAH =JHE?AI @A ?K= GKEAH @E A IE

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

GKA IA E JH @K?A ? HHAIF @A = = FHE AH= @A =I @ I =JHE?AI GKA ? B H =H = DEFAH =JHE C ,A = AH= IE E =H A = IACK @= A= IA E JH @K?A = E B H =?E ? HHAIF @EA JA = = IACK @= =JHE GKA ? F A = DEFAH =JHE C + HAIK J=@ )6 )* ?HA= K = =JHE @A ! @E A IE AI =I

C(:,:,1) = 2 5 6 4 1 0 6 6 9

C(:,:,2) = -4 6 0 0 1 1 8 3 5
JH= = AH= A GKA IA FKA@A @A EH DEFAH =JHE?AI AI F H A@E @A ? = @ cat ?KO= IE J=NEI AI cat(dim,A,B) -IJA ? = @ ? ?=JA = =I =JHE?AI A O B = =HC @A = @E A IE dim 2 H A A F @A EA @ =I =JHE?AI

A=[2 5 6;4 1 0;6 6 9]; B=[-4 6 0;0 1 1;8 3 5];

2 @A I E L ?=H A ? = @ cat F=H= ? IJHKEH = DEFAH =JHE C GKA = JAHE H A JA D=> = I ? IJHKE@ 2=H= A @A>A I JA AH FHAIA JA GKA AIJ= ? ?=JA =?E IA HA= E = A = JAH?AH= @E A IE DIM=3 O= GKA GKAHA I ?HA=H K = DEFAH =JHE GKA ? JA C= 2 =JHE?AI @A 3 3

C=cat(3,A,B)
>JA EA @ = DEFAH =JHE C @A 3 3 2 @E A IE AI A A +K=@H  IA FKA@A KJE E =H ? DEFAH =JHE?AI 2=H= E KIJH=H A KI @A AIJ I ? = @ I LA= IK AA F I? = @ I HA =?E =@ I

-A F

5KF C= I GKA K = = EIJ= @AIA= HC= E =H K = IAHEA @A E B H =?E ? FKAIJ= F H I E @E?=@ HAI =?H A? E? I @A JHAI F= IAI (P1 , P2 , P3 ) @KH= JA I JE I @ I = I (A1 , A2 )

-I =I ? >JEA A I @=J I F=H= A ?HA?E EA J @A 21* = L=HE=?E A = 6=I= @A ?= >E HAIFA?J = -74 = E =?E O = L=HE=?E A A ELA @A @AIA F A

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

+ = @ )??E

!!

size(A) ndims(A) squeeze(A) reshape(A,m,n) permute(A) ipermute(A)

6= = @A = DEFAH =JHE ) AH @A @E A IE AI @A = DEFAH =JHE ) - E E = @E A IE AI ECK= AI = K ,EIJHE>KOA I A A A J I @A = DEFAH =JHE ) A K = =JHE @A J= = m n 2AH KJ= =I @E A IE AI @A = =JHE ) IAC I @E?AI @A LA?J H L 2AH KJ=?E E LAHI=  + = @ I F=H= DEFAH =JHE?AI

+K=@H

clear A(:,:,1)=[5 7 6;5.5 6 5] % PIB A(:,:,2)=[6 8 10; 7 9 11] % TRM A(:,:,3)=[4 7 10; 4 6 9] % Inflacion ( ) A(:,:,4)=[10 11 7; 8 11 10] % Desempleo
-IJ= =JHE AI = =?A =@= O A A +

= @ 9E @ M =F=HA?A @A = IECKEA JA B H =
5 7 6 5.5 6 5

A(:,:,1) =

A(:,:,2) = 6 8 10 7 9 11

A(:,:,3) = 4 7 10 4 6 9

A(:,:,4) = 10 11 7 8 11 10
- J= = @A = =JHE A AI 2 3 4 -IJA J= = IA FKA@A >JA AH KJE E = @ A ? = @ size ? = IE J=NEI size(A) ? A ?K= >JA A I

ans = 2 3 4

!"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

5=>A I J= >E GKA = =JHE A AI K = =JHE @A JHAI @E A IE 7JE E = @ A ? = @ ndims @A = B H = ndims(A) >JA A I

AI 2 3 4

ans = 3
2=H= E KIJH=H A KI @A ? = @ squeeze KJE E?A I = =JHE B @A E@= F H

B(:,:,1)=[-3;0] B(:,:,2)=[5;3] B(:,:,3)=[0;2] B(:,:,4)=[7;2]

= =JHE B AI @A JHAI @E A IE AI O JEA A ?K=JH =JHE?AI @ I =I F H K = ? K = 2 1 4  JAIA GKA A AIJA ?=I = IACK @= @E A IE @A = =JHE AI A?AI=HE= O= GKA A E E = @ IJ= @E A IE IA @E ?= A ? JA E@ @A = =JHE B )I = =JHE B GKA E E?E= A JA AI @A JHAI @E A IE AI = F @A I AI?HE>EH ? K = @A @ I @E A IE AI =IE

B24 =

3 5 0 7 0 3 2 2

)6 )* @EIF A @A ? = @ squeeze F=H= A E E =H @E A IE AI GKA I ECK= AI = K IE F E ?= @ =I @E A IE AI @A K = =JHE )F E?= @ AIJA ? = @ = = =JHE B GKA ?HA= I = JAHE H A JA @A = B H = squeeze(B) >JA A I

ans = -3 5 0 7 0 3 2 2
JH ? = @ JE A DEFAH =JHE?AI AI A ? = @ reshape GKA @EIJHE>KOA I A A A J I @A = DEFAH =JHE ) GKA ? JEA A m n k A A A J I A K = =JHE @A @ I @E A IE AI @A J= = m n 5=>A I @A J= = @A = =JHE A GKA IJ= JEA A " A A A J I 2 3 4 2 @A I KJE E =H A ? = @ reshape F=H= ?HA=H = F=HJEH @A = DEFAH =JHE K = =JHE A @A J= = 6 4 " -IJ F @A I D=?AH F H A@E @A = IE J=NEI reshape(A,6,4) GKA HA H@A = =I ? K =I @A = DEFAH =JHE A O ?HA= K = =JHE @A J= = 6 4 =I
-I F IE> A ?HA=H ?K= GKEAH =JHE @A J= = A A F K = =JHE @A 12 2
"

m n GKA ?K F = = ?

@E?E

m n = 24 2 H

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

!#

ans =

5 6 4 10 5.5 7 4 8 7 8 7 11 6 9 6 11 6 10 10 7 5 11 9 10

- AIJ= =JHE A ? JH= I A =I ? K =I ?=@= K @A I E @E?=@ HAI =?H A? E? I O A ?=@= F=H @A =I I @=J I ? HHAIF @EA JAI = ?=@= K @A I JHAI F= IAI LA I ? =I @ I FHE AH=I =I ? HHAIF @A = F=EI P1 =I @ I =I IECKEA JAI = F= I P2 O =I JE =I @ I =I = P3 .E = A JA JA A I I ? = @ I permute A ipermute = IE J=NEI @A FHE AH @A AIJ I ? = @ I AI permute(A,v) -IJA ? = @ HA H@A = =I @E A IE AI @A K = =JHE A A A H@A @=@ A A LA?J H v 5ECKEA @ KAIJH A A F I=>A I GKA = =JHE A JEA A JHAI @E A IE AI O AI @A J= = 2 3 4 2 @A I KJE E =H A ? = @ permute F=H= ?HA=H K = =JHE GKA ? JA C= I EI I A A A J I @A A FAH GKA IA= @A J= = 4 2 3 AI @A?EH K = =JHE GKA H@A A @A = AH= @EIJE J= =I @E A IE AI @A = =JHE A = IE J=NEI

v=[3 1 2] C=permute(A,v)
E @E?= = 3 @A = =JHE A A + )6 )* GKA ? GKA A = FHE AH= @E A IE @A = =JHE A A = IACK @= @E A IE @A = =JHE C = FHE O A = JAH?AH= @E A IE @A = =JHE C = IACK @= @E HAIK J=@ JA A I K = =JHE C @A J= = 4 2 3 =JHE C = @E A IE AH= @E A IE @A = A IE @A = =JHE =I

C(:,:,1) =

5 5.5 6 7 4 4 10 8

C(:,:,2) =

7 6 8 9 7 6 11 11

!$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

C(:,:,3) =

6 5 10 11 10 9 7 10

+=@= K = @A AIJ=I =JHE?AI I @A = = = E =H I @=J I @A B H = @EIJE J= ?=@= K = @A A =I JEA A A =I ? K =I I = I O =I =I ? HHAIF @A = I E @E?=@ HAI ?=@= K = @A AIJ=I ANFHAIE AI F @H = A JA @AHIA ? = E B H =?E HC= E =@= F H F= I 2 H IK F=HJA A ? = @ ipermute HA= E = = FAH=?E E LAHI= @A ? = @ permute O IK IE J=NEI AI ipermute(A,v) - AIJA A A F = =F E?=H ipermute = = =JHE C L LA I = = =JHE E E?E= A - AIJ= IA??E DA I >IAHL=@ ? =I DEFAH =JHE?AI IEHLA F=H= = A =H E B H =?E IE A >=HC AIJ= AI IK E?= BK ?E =I =@A = JA LAHA I A F=FA GKA KAC= A = ? IJHK??E @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= O @A CH ?=I

6EF I @A

=JHE?AI

)6 )* BHA?A ? = @ I GKA CA AH= =JHE?AI IE A?AIE@=@ @A AIFA?E ?=H ?= @= K @A IKI A A A J I F HGKA IA JH=J= @A =JHE?AI ? = CK = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AI FA?E= - CA AH= F=H= ?HA=H K = @A AIJ=I =JHE?AI IA E JH @K?A A ? = @ AI FA? ? @A JEF @A =JHE GKA GKAHA I IACKE@ F H IK J= = A JHA F=H JAIEI ?EH?K =H # ? ?=@= K = @A IKI @E A IE AI IAF=H=@=I F H ? =I$ @A = B H = A=comando(m,n) )IE EI F=H= K = DEFAH =JHE @A J= = m n k = IE J=NEI AI A=comando(m,n,k) +K= @ IA AIFA?E ?= @A = = AH= A=comando(n) A FH CH= = ?HA= K = =JHE ?K=@H=@= @A @ I @E A IE AI (n n) EA JH=I GKA ? = IE J=NEI A=comando IA CA AH= K AI?= =H - A +K=@H FHAIA J= I I FHE ?EF= AI ? = @ I F=H= ?HA=H @ELAHI I JEF I @A =JHE?AI

=JHE?AI ,EIFAHI=I
7 ? ?AFJ @A E JAH I ? FKJ=?E = I =I =JHE?AI @EIFAHI=I =JHE?AI A =I GKA = =O H = @A IKI ? F A JAI I ?AH +K= @ IA JH=>= = ? =JHE?AI @A CH= J=
# $

)K GKA J= >E AI F IE> A ?   5E IA KJE E =   =I @E A IE AI J= >E

IA FKA@A IAF=H=H F H AIF=?E I

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

+ = @ . H =K = =JHE

!%

eye(m,n,...) zeros(m,n,...) ones(m,n,...) rand(m,n,...) randn(m,n,...) magic(n)

-IJA ? 5 = @

1@A JE@=@ K = @A +AH I 7 EJ=HE= @A 7 I ,A AH I = A=J HE I A JHA  O  ? @EIJHE>K?E K EB H A ,A AH I = A=J HE I ? @EIJHE>K?E H = @A L= H A@E  O L=HE= =  + I AH I  ! " ? = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA J @=I =I =I O ? K =I IK = EI
=JHE?AI ?K=@H=@=I

CA AH= DEFAH =JHE?AI I =JHE?AI ?K=@H=@=I

F=H=

+K=@H

=JHE?AI CA AH=@=I =KJ

JE?= A JA

= HAIK J= ? FKJ=?E = A JA E A ?EA JA = =?A =H K = CH= ?= JE@=@ @A A JH= @=I @A ?AH I I F H @EIFA @E I GKA FKA@A HAIK J=H @ECEJ=H I IE J= >E F H A AIF=?E A A HE= GKA AIJ I @=J I ?KF= 2 H AIJ= H= )6 )* @EIF A @A I ? = @ I HA =?E =@ I A A +K=@H ! F=H= JH=J=H AIJA JEF @A =JHE?AI

-A F

! + IE@AHA

I =

=JHE

D=[0 5 -6 0;3 0 0 0;9 0 -7 0;0 0 0 4]

-IJ= =JHE AI = =?A =@= A )6 )* @A = IECKEA JA B H =

D = 0 3 9 0

5 -6 0 0 0 0 0 -7 0 0 0 4

/A AHA I = =JHE @EIFAHI= ? HHAIF @EA JA = D - ? = @ sparse I FAH EJA D=?AH AIJ= ? LAHIE KJE E = @ = IE J=NEI sparse(D) @A = ?K= >JA A I

!&
+ = @ sparse(D)
sparse(i,j) sparse(i,j,s,m,n)

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

speye(i,j) spones(D) spdiags(D)

spdiags(D,d) nonzeros(D) [i,j]=find(D) nnz(D) issparse(A)

+=H=?JAH IJE?=I + LEAHJA K = =JHE , = IK B H = @EIFAHI= A E E = @ J @ I IAA A J IA I GKA D=O= ?AH +HA= K = =JHE @A ?AH I @A J= = i j +HA= K = =JHE @EIFAHI= = F=HJEH @A i O j GKA E @E?= = F IE?E @A I A A AJ I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A = KAL= =JHE s GKA AI A LA?J H @A A A A J I O m O n GKA E F E?= GKA AI @A J= = m n . H = K = =JHE @EIFAHI= @A J= = i j ? K I A = @E= C = FHE ?EF= /A AH= K = =JHE ? = EI = AIJHK?JKH= @A @EIFAHIE @A , FAH HAA F = = I A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH F H K I -NJH=A J @=I =I @E=C = AI ? A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH @A = =JHE , @A J= = E  = KAL= =JHE JEA A i =I O J= J=I ? K =I ? @E=C = AI @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH JA C= , -NJH=A =I @E=C = AI AIFA?E ?=@=I F H @ @ @A @  ? HHAIF @A = = @E=C = FHE ?EF=  @A = =JHE , 8A?J H ? K = ? I A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH @A , 1 @E?= =I F IE?E AI A =I O ? K =I @A I A A A J I @EBA HA JAI @A ?AH @A , AH @A A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A = =JHE , 5E A HAIK J=@ @A AIJ= HKJE = AI K E @E?= GKA = =JHE D= IE@ CK=H@=@= @A JEF @EIFAHI= O IE AI ?AH @A ?K= GKEAH JH= B H =

+K=@H

! ) CK

I+

= @ I F=H=

=JHE?AI ,EIFAHI=I

ans = (2,1) 3 (3,1) 9 (1,2) 5 (1,3) -6 (3,3) -7 (4,4) 4

)6 )* A K A F A A ?EA JA @A = A HE= I=>A =D H= GKA A =I F IE?E AI   !     ! ! ! O " " D=O A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH ? ?A IK L= H O I=>A GKA A A HAIJ @A F IE?E AI D=O ?AH I 8A= I JH= B H = @A CA AH=H = =JHE @EIFAHI= @A ,

[i,j,s]=find(D)

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

!'

i = 2 3 1 1 3 4

j = 1 1 2 3 3 4

s =

3 9 5 -6 -7 4
L= H @A A A A J A AI= F IE?E J @A LA?J H i ? K =  FHE AH AH= A JH=@= LA?J H s O =I IK?AIEL= I GKA ? HHAIF @= = J= = @A , =JHE @EIFAHI=

-IJ I JHAI LA?J HAI I @E?A )I F H A A F A = = A A A J @A LA?J H j AIJ A A JA 2=H= CA AH=H = =JHE [m,n]=size(D) O A J ?AI

= F IE?E O A FHE AH A A A A A A J ! FHE @EIFAHI= D=?A ? IJHKE I =

S = sparse(i,j,s,m,n)
= =JHE @EIFAHI= S AI ECK= = =GKA = GKA A ? JH= I = JAHE H A JA -L= K= I = ?= JE@=@ @A A A A J I @A S @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH a=nnz(S) O b=nonzeros(S) HAIK J=@ @A a AI A AH @A A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A S A J J= IAEI b AI K LA?J H ? K = ? =GKA I A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A JH=I F= =>H=I AI ECK= = LA?J H s GKA O= D=> = I D= =@ JH ? = @ spones CA AH= = EI = AIJHK?JKH= @A @EIFAHIE @A spones(D) FAH ?= >E= I A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A LA?J H b A LA?J H s F H K I AI @A?EH spones(D)

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

ans = (2,1) (3,1) (1,2) (1,3) (3,3) (4,4)

1 1 1 1 1 1

)D H= >EA spdiags FAH EJA = ? IJHK??E @A K = =JHE @ @A =I @E=C = AI ? A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH ? IJEJKO= =I ? K =I O = ?= JE@=@ @A =I AGKEL= A = = ?= JE@=@ @A = =JHE HECE = )I C=spdiags(S) AI

C = 9 0 0 0

3 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 -7 0 -6 0 4 0 0

-IJA HAIK J=@ AI I HFHA @A JA IE >IAHL= I = =JHE D O = ? F=H= I ? C LA I GKA = JAH?AH= ? K = @A C AI = @E=C = FHE ?EF= @A D O GKA =I @A I ? K =I @A C IA ? HHAIF @A ? =I @E=C = AI @A D 5E A AIJA A A F = = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ A =CHAC= I K AH A JAH A JHA O >JA A I ?=@= ? K = @A C A JH=I F= =>H=I ?=@= @E=C = @A D JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA  AI = @E=C = FHE ?EF= C=spdiags(S,0) + ? KE I A = EIEI @A @EIFAHIE @A D ? issparse IE E JH @K?E I = IE J=NEI issparse(S) O A HAIK J=@ AI  A J ?AI 5 AI K = =JHE @EIFAHI= 2 H JH= F=HJA IE E JH @K?E I A )6 )* = HKJE = sparse(3,2) CA AH= I K = =JHE @A ?AH I @A J= = 3 2 - FH CH= = KAIJH= = =JHE FAH I I E @E?= GKA O= ANEIJA

All zero sparse: 3-by-2

2 H JE speye CA AH= K = =JHE @EIFAHI= = F=HJEH @A = =JHE E@A JE@=@ AI @A?EH A I KC=HAI @ @A i = j D=O K I F H A A F speye(3) CA AH= = IECKEA JA =JHE @EIFAHI=

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

"

ans = (1,1) 1 (2,2) 1 (3,3) 1

!

FAH=?E

AI * IE?=I A JHA

=JHE?AI

2=H= HA= E =H FAH=?E AI > IE?=I A JHA @ I =JHE?AI FHALE= A JA @A E@=I A O B O K AI?= =H n AI A?AI=HE E @E?=H = FAH=?E GKA GKAHA I O= IA= A@E= JA FAH=@ HAI F H A@E @A BK ?E AI ? = @ I - A +K=@H " A ? JH= I =I @EIJE J=I B H =I @A D=?AH =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I
FAH=?E + = @ .K ?E FAH=@ H

5K = 4AIJ= K JEF E?=?E K JEF E?=?E A A A J = A A A J 2 JA ?E=?E 2 JA ?E=?E A A A J = A A A J ,ELEIE E GKEAH@= ,ELEIE E GKEAH@= A A A J = A A A J ,ELEIE @AHA?D= ,ELEIE @AHA?D= A A A J = A A A J
=I FAH=?E @A = =JHE AI A A A J = A A A J =F E?=

plus(A,B) minus(A,B) mtimes(A,B) times(A,B) mpower(A,n) power(A,B) mldivide(A,B) ldivide(A,B) mrdivide(A,B) rdivide(A,B)
I FAH=@ HAI = ?=@= ?

A+B A-B A*B A.*B A^n A.^n A\B A.\B A/B A./B
F A JA

+K=@H

"

FAH=?E

AI > IE?=I A JHA

=JHE?AI @AJAH E A I A L= H @A

-A F

" ,=@=I =I
A2

A + B A B A. B

=JHE?AI A O B O A AI?= =H A.2 A/B O A./B

2 3 9 A = 7 5 3 8 5 8

5 4 9 B= 6 2 3 1 5 7
)6 )*

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I =I

=JHE?AI A

A=[2 3 -9;7 -5 3;8 -5 8]

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

B=[-5 4 -9;6 2 3;-1 -5 7]

2=I

4A= E =

I =I FAH=?E

AI E L ?= @

=I HKJE =I FAHJE A JAI

C=A+B C = -3 7 -18 13 -3 6 7 -10 15 D=A*B D = 17 59 -72 -68 3 -57 -78 -18 -31

E=A.*B E = -10 12 81 42 -10 9 -8 25 56 F=A^2 F = -47 36 -81 3 31 -54 45 9 -23 G=A.^2 G = 4 9 81 49 25 9 64 25 64

H=A/B H = -2.3973 -2.2329 -3.4110 -4.7123 -3.4521 -4.1507 -3.1918 -1.6986 -2.2329

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

"!

I=A./B I = -0.4000 0.7500 1.0000 1.6667 -2.5000 1.0000 -8.0000 1.0000 1.1429
+K AI = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA D O E F O G O H A I - D A FA@E I = )6 )* GKA K JEF E?=H= = >=I =JHE?AI EA JH=I GKA A E >KI? >= I GKA K JEF E?=H= ?=@= A A A J @A A F H A ? HHAIF @EA JA A B - A ?=I @A F A FH CH= = K JEF E? A F H ) EA JH=I GKA A G A AL ?=@= K @A IKI A A A J I = ?K=@H=@ - H A FH CH= = DE = IECKEA JA FAH=?E A B 1 O A I @ELE@E ?=@= ? F A JA @A A F H IK ? HHAIF @EA JA A B

"

EIEI @A K =

=JHE

-NEIJA JH I ? = @ I A )6 )* GKA I FAH EJA ANJH=AH E B H =?E GKA HALA = ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I E F HJ= JAI @A =I =JHE?AI - A +K=@H # IA HAIK A I ? = @ I GKA FH LAA =I FH FEA@=@AI AIA ?E= AI @A K = =JHE )
2H FEA@=@ FAH=@ H 5E J=NEI @A + = @

6H=IFKAIJ= 1 LAHI= ,AJAH E = JA H = 4= C 6H= = 6= = ,E A IE AI AH @A A A A J I - A A J I @A = @E=C = 6HE= CK =H 1 BAHE H 6HE= CK =H 5KFAHE H +K=@H # +

A inv(A) det(A) norm(A) rank(A) trace(A) size(A) length(A) ndims(A) numel(A) diag(A) tril(A) triu(A)
=JHE =JHE

= @ I F=H= = = E =H K = # = = E?A

-A F
A

# ) F=HJEH @A +K=@H

I =I ?=H=?JAH IEJE?=I @A =

""

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

A23

1 3 2 = 7 5 4 3 6 4
)6 )*

2=I  1 JH @K?E 2=I

I =

=JHE A A

A=[1 3 -2;7 -5 4;3 6 4]

) =E = I = =JHE A @A =?KAH@ = +K=@H #

C=A C = 1 7 3 3 -5 6 -2 4 4

D=inv(A) D = 0.2136 0.1165 -0.0097 0.0777 -0.0485 0.0874 -0.2767 -0.0146 0.1262

e=det(A) e = -206

f=norm(A) f = 9.6869

g=rank(A) g = 3

h=trace(A)

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

"#

h =

i=size(A) i = 3 3

j=ndims(A) j = 2

k=numel(A) k = 9

m=diag(A) m = 1 -5 4

N=tril(A) N = 1 0 0 7 -5 0 3 6 4 P=triu(A) P = 1 3 -2 0 -5 4 0 0 4

"$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

,A AIJ= B H = C AI = JH= IFKAIJ= @A A D AI = E LAHI= e AI A @AJAH E = JA O f AI = H = @A = =JHE ,A =?KAH@ = g A JEA A ! =I O ? K =I E A= A JA E @AFA @EA JAI = JH= = @A = =JHE AI h O IAC i A AI @A J= = 3 3 2 H JH= F=HJA j I KAIJH= A AH @A @E A IE AI @A = =JHE O k A AH @A A A A J I ? JA E@ I A A =HHAC N AI K = =JHE JHE= CK =H E BAHE H = F=HJEH @A BH=C A J JHE= CK =H E BAHE H @A A EA JH=I GKA P AI K = =JHE JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H F=HJEA @ @A = BH=??E JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H @A A

#

=JHE?AI .=?J HE => AI

7 = =JHE ?K=@H=@= AI B=?J HE => A ?K= @ FKA@A HAAI?HE>EHIA ? A FH @K?J @A @ I I =JHE?AI - > AJ @A AIJK@E @A AIJ= IA??E I JHAI @A =I B H =I @A B=?J HE =H =JHE?AI = B=?J HE =?E 7 +D AI O O @AI? F IE?E A L= HAI IE CK =HAI

.=?J HE =?E

7 2)

,=@= K = =JHE ?K=@H=@= A AIJ= AI B=?J HE => A IE ANEIJA K = =JHE L JHE= CK =H E BAHE H K = =JHE U JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H O K = =JHE @A FAH KJ=?E P @A = AH= GKA P A = LU )6 )* AI F IE> A ?= ?K =H =I =JHE?AI L U O P GKA CA AH= = =JHE A = F=HJEH @A ? = @ lu 2 H A A F F=H= ? ?AH = =JHE L O U = F=HJEH @A K = =JHE ?K=@H=@= FHE AH @A E I = =JHE

A=[1 -2 1;-3 1 -1;2 6 4]

)D H= >EA P KJE E = F=H= A ? JH=H I = HKJE = lu I A A A J I GKA ? F A =I =JHE?AI L U O

[L,U,P]=lu(A) L = 1.0000 0 0 -0.6667 1.0000 0 -0.3333 -0.2500 1.0000

U = -3.0000 1.0000 -1.0000 0 6.6667 3.3333 0 0 1.5000

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

"%

P = 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
5E FAH= I I HAIK J=@ I JA A I A J ?AI GKA L U = P A ,A>A I =? = H=H GKA J @=I =I =JHE?AI I B=?J HE => AI I =GKA =I ?KO @AJAH E = JA AI @EBAHA JA @A ?AH

+D AI O
= @AI? F IE?E @A +D AI O B=?J HE = K = =JHE A IE JHE?= O @A E@= F IEJEL= @A J= B H = GKA A = U T U @ @A U AI K = =JHE JHE= CK =H E BAHE H ? A A A J I F IEJEL I A IK @E=C = -I F IE> A ?= ?K =H = =JHE U = JH=L I @A = @AI? F IE?E @A +D AI O ? A ? @EC chol 8A= I F H A A F = @AI? F IE?E @A +D AI O F=H= = IECKEA JA =JHE

A=[2 -1 0;-1 2 -1;0 -1 2]

7JE E = IA J ?AI A ? = @ chol

U=chol(A) U = 1.4142 -0.70711 0 0 1.2247 -0.8165 0 0 1.1547

)I )6 )* T U U =A I KAIJH= = =JHE U GKA ?K F A ? = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA

,AI?

F IE?E

A L= HAI IE CK =HAI

JH= B=?J HE =?E @A =JHE?AI AI = @A E =@= @AI? F IE?E F H L= HAI IE CK =HAI O AI JE = = D H= @A = = E =H IE K FH ?AI EJAH=JEL AIJ ? LAHCEA @ = K = I K?E ) ECK= GKA =I JH=I B H =I @A B=?J HE =?E = E@A= > IE?= ? IEIJA A HAAN FHAI=H K = =JHE Amn ? A FH @K?J @A JH=I A AIJA ?=I @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

"&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

T Amn = Umm Smn Vn n

  A HAI FHA HAI

, @A U O V I =JHE?AI K EJ=HE=I O S AI K = =JHE @E=C = IAA J I aij FAHJA A?EA JAI = = @E=C = @A = =JHE S I @A E =@ I L= IE CK =HAI @A A ,=@= = =JKH= A = @A = B=?J HE =?E K = =JHE A IEA JA @H K?D=I @AI? F IE?E AI A L= HAI IE CK =HAI IE A >=HC I L= IE CK =HAI IEA FHA I I EI I =K GKA =F=HA ?= A @EBAHA JA H@A

)K GKA ANEIJA JH I J @ I F=H= @AI? F AH =JHE?AI D=?A I B=IEI A =I B=?J HE =?E AI P A = LU O +D AI O @A>E@ = = KJE E@=@ GKA JEA A F=H= A = EIEI O =I I K?E AI @A IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI

8A?J HAI
I LA?J HAI I JEF I AIFA?E= AI @A =JHE?AI @A J= = n 1 LA?J H ? K = n /A 1 n LA?J H = A A AIF=?E JHE?= A JA FKA@A IAH @A E@ I ? A IAC A J @A HA?J= A JHA A HECA O K FK J GKA IA ?=H=?JAH = F H F IAAH @EHA??E =C EJK@ O IA JE@

EIEI @A K LA?J H

=C EJK@ @A K LA?J H
= =C EJK@ H = @A K LA?J H v IA @A J= F H v O IA HA AHA = = CEJK@ @A LA?J H 5K ? ?K AIJ >=I=@ A A JA HA = @A 2EJ C H=I F H A A F F=H= K 2 LA?J H A

v =
@ @A v1 O v2 I I ? CA AH= F=H= K LA?J H A F
n

2 + v2 v1 2

 = -

A JAI @A LA?J H v A A AIF=?E >E@E A IE a = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) = H = AIJ @=@= F H

a =
5E = H H = AI d A JHA @ P1 P2 I

2 2 a2 1 + a2 + ... + an

 !

= @A K LA?J H AI ECK= = 1 A LA?J H AI = =@ K EJ=HE - ? ?AFJ @A JE A A ? ?K @A @EIJ= ?E=I F H A A F F=H= A ? JH=H = @EIJ= ?E= 3 P = (a , a , a ) O P = (b , b , b ) = I FK J I A H = @A LA?J H 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 FH F H?E = A L= H @A = @EIJ= ?E= @ @A P1 P2 = P2 P1 AI @A?EH

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

"'

d=

(b1 a1 )2 + (b2 a2 )2 + (b3 a3 )2

 "

- CA AH= = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA @ I FK J I P1 = (a1 , a2 , . . . an ) O P2 = (b1 , b2 , . . . bn ) n IA @A A A?

n

d=
i=1

(bi ai )2

 #

)6 )* ?= ?K = = =C EJK@ @A K LA?J H a F H A@E @A ? = @ norm ?KO= IE J=NEI AI norm(a) 2 H A A F F=H= D= =H = H = @A LA?J H c = (8 1 6 5) - FHE AH KC=H ?HA= I A LA?J H cO O KAC KJE E = IA ? = @ norm

c=[8 1 6 5]; d=norm(c)

)I = =C EJK@ H = @A LA?J H c AI d=11.2250

-A F 2=I  +

$ 0= =H = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA I FK J I P1 = (15, 23, 4) O P2 = (9, 10, 1)

A = I F H E JH @K?EH P1 P2 = P2 P1

I LA?J HAI P1 O P2 O ?= ?K =H P = P1 P2 @

@A

p1=[15 23 4] p2=[-9 10 -1] p=p2-p1

2=I

KAC

KJE E =

IA ?

= @ norm F=H= D= =H = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA P1 O P2

d=norm(p)

= @EIJ= ?E= A JHA I FK J I P1 O P2 AI A J ?AI d=27.7489 /H ?= A JA IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? = H = @A LA?J H p J= ? IA KAIJH= A = .ECKH= = H = @A K = =JHE A AI A NE @A IKI L= HAI IE CK =HAI )D H= >EA I L= HAI IE CK =HAI @A K = =JHE I I A A A J I @A = @E=C = @A = =JHE S GKA HAIK J= @A @AI? F AH = =JHE HECE = A K FH @K?J @A JHAI =JHE?AI J= GKA

#

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

P1

2 H

A@E @A = IECKEA JA IE J=NEI IA >JEA A

- ? = @ svd ?= ?K = = @AI? F IE?E F H L= HAI IE CK =HAI @A = @A?EH GKA AI AGKEL= A JA ?= ?K =H = H = @A = =JHE ?= ?K =H A % @AI? F IE?E @A )

,EHA??E

@A K LA?J H

= @EHA??E @A K LA?J H AIJ @AJAH E =@= F H A CK A JHA A IAC A J @A HA?J= GKA F=HJA @A HECA LA?J H O K A A @A AIF=?E A A GKA IJA IA A ?KA JH= 2 = @EHA??E AI A CK A JHA A IAC A J @A HA?J= O A A A x F IEJEL & ,A AIJ= = AH= F=H= K LA?J H l = [a, b] ? a = 0 = @EHA??E IA ?= ?K = @A = B H ='
JH=I F= =>H=I IA ?K F A GKA norm(A)=max(svd(A)) 3 >IJ= JA F=H= LA?J HAI A O n ? n > 3 IKHCA A FH > A = @A AIFA?E ?=H ? HAIFA?J = GK A A AIJ @AJAH E =@ A CK 2 H AIJ= H= CA AH= A JA IA ?= ?K = = @EHA??E I F=H= 2 LA?J HAI A ' 5E a = 0 = @EHA??E @A LA?J H @AFA @A @A IEC @A b ?K= @ b > 0 = @EHA??E AI @A 90o O ?K= @ b < 0 AI @A 270o
& %

z
1

P2
0 10 1 30 25 0 20 15 10 5 5 10 0 5 15

P x

.ECKH=

,EIJ= ?E= A JHA P1 O P2

A=U SVT
=I JHAI =JHE?AI

[U,S,V]=svd(A)
=JHE ) -I NE @A =

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

#

tan =

b a

= tan1

b a

 $

-I F IE> A ?= ?K =H = @EHA??E KJE E = @ = BK ?E atan GKA ? HHAIF @A = = E LAHI= @A = J= CA JA AI =I ? F=H= @AJAH E =H = @EHA??E @A LA?J H l IA KJE E = = a IE J=NEI atan( b ) ?KO HAIK J=@ AI K CK @A E@ A H=@E= AI 8A= @K?E I F HAA F = @EHA??E GKA ? HHAIF @A = LA?J H u = (7, 5) )I E JH IA )6 )* = IE J=NEI F=H= A ? JH=H = =C EJK@ @A CK

c=atan(-5/7)
= @EHA??E CH=@ I ? @A LA?J H u AI c=-0.6202 H=@E= AI IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH= !
90 10 120 8 6 150 4 2 30 60

GKA ? HHAIF

@A = ! " "$

180

210

324.46

330

240 270

300

.ECKH=

= @EHA??E

@A LA?J H u = (7, 5)

FAH=?E

AI A JHA 8A?J HAI

+ I LA?J HAI I JEF I F=HJE?K =HAI @A =JHE?AI = A I =F E?= J= >E IKI " IEA FHA O ?K= @ IK J= = FAH EJ= ) ? JE K=?E FAH=?E AI LAH +K=@H LAHA I =GKA =I FAH=?E AI FH FE=I @A I LA?J HAI A FH @K?J AI?= =H O A FH @K?J ?HK =I ? = CK =I HA =?E AI A JHA LA?J HAI GKA KJE E = AIJ=I FAH=?E AI ? I A CK A JHA @ I LA?J HAI = FH OA??E @A K LA?J H A ?= ?K @A = =JHE HJ C = O =I =JHE?AI ?HA=@=I = F=HJEH @A LA?J HAI

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2H @K?J -I?= =H
,=@ I @ I LA?J HAI a = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) O b = (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) A =H a b AI ECK= =
n

A FH @K?J AI?=

a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + .... + an bn

 %

2=H= ?= ?K =H A FH @K?J AI?= =H A JHA @ I LA?J HAI A )6 )* ANEIJA = HKJE = dot ?KO= IE J=NEI AI c=dot(a,b) @ @A a O b I LA?J HAI @A EI J= =  - HAIK J=@ @A ? = @ IE I LA?J HAI I LA?J HAI = AI AGKEL= A JA = a*b O AI ECK= = b*a IE = > I I LA?J HAI ? K =

2H @K?J +HK
3 A FH @K?J ?HK ,=@ I @ I LA?J HAI a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) O b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) A FH @K?J LA?J HE= A JHA a O b AI A LA?J H a b FAHFA @E?K =H = = > I LA?J HAI GKA AIJ= @A E@ F H

a b = (a2 b3 a3 b2 , a3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b2 a2 b1 )

 &

2=H= ?= ?K =H A FH @K?J ?HK )6 )* @EIF A @A ? = @ cross ?KO= IE J= NEI AI c=cross(a,b) @ @A a O b I LA?J HAI A JAH?AH= @E A IE  

-A F

% ,AJAH E A

I A 2H @K?J +HK @A

I LA?J HAI a O b A

a = (6 8 9 7) b = (4 1 2 5)

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I LA?J HAI = O >

a=[6;8;9.7], b=[4;1.2;5]

2=I

1 L ?=

IA ?

= @ ?H II

c=cross(a,b)


?


5 F

AI =F E?=> A F=H= @ I LA?J HAI A A JAI )6 )* I

EI = @E A IE
3

AI @A?EH ?

EI

AH @A

?= ?K = A FH @K?J ?HK @A LA?J HAI A

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5 - HAIK J=@ GKA KAIJH= )6 )* AI A FH @K?J ?HK A JHA AIJ ? JA E@ A A LA?J H c

#! I LA?J HAI a O b GKA

c =

28.3600 8.8000 -24.8000

10

b a c

z
11

18

25 0 20 10 0 8 6 2 4

y x

.ECKH=

" 2H @K?J ?HK A JHA a O b I ? A FH @K?J ?HK GKA

- = .ECKH= " >IAHL= I I LA?J HAI a b O LA ?= ?K = I c AI FAHFA @E?K =H J= J = a ? =b

CK

A JHA @ I LA?J HAI

K IeOl A CK

,=@ I @ I LA?J HAI

A JHA A

I AIJ= @AJAH E =@ F H

cos =

l e l e

= cos1

l e l e

 '

2=H= ?= ?K =H A CK A )6 )* H = O A FH @K?J AI?= =H K J ? acos @A = B H =

E L ?= I I ? = BK ?E JHEC

= @ I HA =?E =@ I ? = JHE?= E LAHI= @A ? IA

acos(dot(l,e)/((norm(l)*norm(e))))

#"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

4A? H@A I GKA F @A I ? =IE ?=H I LA?J HAI @A =?KAH@ = CK A JHA A I AI =I ? @ I LA?J HAI a O b I F=H= A I IE A CK A JHA A I AI 0 180 CH=@ I  O IACK @ @ I LA?J HAI a O b I FAHFA @E?K =HAI K HJ C = AI IE A CK A JHA o A I AI @A 90 AI @A?EH ?K= @ a b = 0 5E = CK @A I LA?J HAI AI K A CK A JHA A I AI 2 H=@E= AI

2H OA??E
,=@ I @ I LA?J HAI a O b = FH OA??E @A a I >HA b AIJ @AJAH E =@= F H

proyb a =

a b b b 2

  =

@A J= B H = GKA proyb a AI K LA?J H F=H= A = b O A LA?J H a proyb a AI HJ C = b 8A= I A A IECKEA JA A A F A ? ?K @A K = FH OA??E

-A F

& ,=@ I I LA?J HAI v = (1, 1) O u = (1, 2) A ? JH=H proyb a

I I LA?J HAI A )6 )*

2=I  1 JH @K?E 2=I

v=[1;1], u=[1;2]
1 L ?= I I? = @ I @A FH @K?J AI?= =H O H =

proy=(dot(u,v)/((norm(v))^2))*v
= I= E@= @A )6 )* KAIJH= = FH OA??E @A v I >HA u

proy= 1.5000 1.5000

-IJ= HAIFKAIJ= AI CH ?= A JA LEIE> A A = .ECKH= # A = ?K= LA ?K F A =I @ I ? @E?E AI A JHA I LA?J HAI O = FH OA??E

I ?

IA

=JHE?AI O 8A?J HAI

7JE E = @ I ? ?AFJ I O DAHH= EA J=I ? FKJ=?E = AI GKA DA I JH=>= =@ D=IJ= A A J AI F IE> A FHAIA J=H @ I ? ?AFJ I GKA IA ? IJEJKOA ? ? H =HE I @A = EIEI @A =JHE?AI O LA?J HAI ? I I @A =JHE?AI HJ C = AI O 2H @K?J +=HJAIE=


-I @A?EH IE a = 0 A J

?AI b = a F=H= = CK = ?

IJ= JA

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

Proyeccin de (u) en (v)

##

Ortogonalidad entre v y u menos la proyeccion

1.5

1 Diferencia entre u y la proyeccion 0.5

Y

0.5 0.5 0 0.5 X 1 1.5

Vector v Vector u Proyeccin 2

.ECKH=

# 2H OA??E

@A a I >HA b

=JHE?AI

HJ C

= AI

7 = =JHE A IA @E?A HJ C = IE AI E LAHJE> A O AT = A1 AI @A?EH AT A = I @ @A I AI = =JHE E@A JE@=@ =I =JHE?AI HJ C = AI JEA A K = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= KO F=HJE?K =H IKI ? K =I I LA?J HAI GKA ? IJEJKOA K = >=IA HJ H = T - JH=I F= =>H=I @=@= = =JHE Qnn = [aij ] O = =JHE Q = [aji ] A FH @K?J AI?= =H bij = a1i a1j + a2i a2j + ... + ani anj ?K F A ? @ I ? @E?E AI FHE AH bij = 0 IE O I IE i = j O IACK @ bij = 1 E?= A JA IE i = j )6 )* ? JEA A K = HKJE = GKA A@E= JA A FH ?AI @A /H= 5?D E@J! ? I JHKOA =JHE?AI HJ C = AI = F=HJEH @A JH=I =JHE?AI @A EI J= = - CA AH= Q=orth(A) HA?E>A ? E FKJ K = =JHE ?K=@H=@= A O A JHAC= ? HAIK J=@ Q =JHE ?KO=I ? K =I I LA?J HAI GKA B H = K = >=IA HJ H = F=H= A A T AH @A IKI ? K =I AI ECK= = H= C @A A J= GKA Q Q = I

-A F

' - ? JHA

I ?K

AI =

=JHE

HJ C

= @A A

5 7 4 A = 8 6 3 9 0 1
1 JH @K?E
!

I =

=JHE A O KAC E L ?=

I A ? @EC

HJD

8AH /H II = ''$

#$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

A=[-5 7 4;8 6 -3;9 0 -1] M=orth(A) M AI A J

?AI = =JHE HJ C = =A

M = -0.3884 0.6588 0.6443

8A= I IE M AI K = =JHE HJ C

0.8375 0.5441 -0.0515

-0.3844 0.5196 -0.7631

=

= -NJH=EC=

I IKI LA?J HAI ? K

s=M(:,1) d=M(:,2) f=M(:,3)

)D H= LA= HJ C = I IE I FH @K?J I AI?= =HAI ?K F A ? =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A K = >=IA

y=dot(s,s) y= 1.0000 u=dot(s,d) u= 1.3878e-016 i=dot(d,d) i= 1.0000 p=dot(d,f) p= 2.4286e-016

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5

#%

4A? H@A I GKA I AH I u=1.3878e-016 O p=2.4286e-016 AIJ ANFHAI=@ I A J=?E ?EA J ?= O I KO ?AH?= I = ?AH ? FH > @ IA GKA A FH @K?J AI?= =H A JHA =I ? K =I @A A AI ?AH O A FH @K?J AI?= =H @A ?=@= K = @A =I ? K =I F H A =I EI =I AI ECK= = K M AI F H J= J K = =JHE HJ C = I @A I HAIK J=@ I @A>A LAHE ?=HIA

=JHE?AI ?HA=@=I = F=HJEH @A 8A?J HAI

- FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= AI K = FAH=?E GKA IEHLA F=H= >JA AH J @=I =I ? >E = ?E AI F IE> AI A JHA J @ I I A A A J I @A @ I I LA?J HAI )6 )* F=H= >JA AH A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A JHA LA?J HAI =JHE?AI KJE E = I A ? @EC " meshgrid = IE J=NEI CA AH= @A ? = @ AI

[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y)
@ @A x O y I @ I LA?J HAI =JHE?AI FHALE= A JA @A E@ I )I meshgrid HAF E?= A LA?J H x n LA?AI @ @A n AI A AH @A ? F A JAI @A LA?J H x ? I JHKOA @ K = =JHE ?K=@H=@= X ,A = AH= IE E =H FAH ? A LA?J H y JH=IFKAIJ  IA ? IJHKOA = =JHE Y + IE@AHA I F H A A F I LA?J HAI x = (1, 2, 3) O y = (4, 5, 6) )F E?= @ meshgrid @A = B H = [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y) >JA A I

X = 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Y = 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6
JAIA GKA meshgrid HAGKEAHA GKA ? F A JAI I LA?J HAI x O y JA C= A EI AH @A

- ? = @ meshgrid E?= A JA IEHLA F=H= CA AH=H J HAI F H A A F [X,Y,Z]=meshgrid(x,y,z)

"

=JHE?AI = F=HJEH @A JHAI LA? )6 )* FAH EJA CA AH=H

-IJA ?

= @ IEHLA I

F=H= LA?J HAI A

#&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

.ECKH=

$ =

E?= 5 K?E

>

-NEIJA 5 K?E

? 1

EJ=I I K?E

AI

A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= = F=HJEH @A I @A JHAI LA?J HAI ? A ? = @ ndgrid A ?K= KJE = = EI = IE J=NEI GKA A ? = @ meshgrid F H A A F

[V,W,X,Y,Z]=ngrid(v,w,x,y,z)
= FAH=?E GKA HA= E = meshgrid AI JE FHE ?=HJAIE= @A @ I LA?J HAI A?AI=HE = CH= ?=H @A ? = @ AI ANJA IE> A = ? ?K @A FH @K?J ?=I A HAIK J=@ I DEFAH =JHE?AI 5E A >=HC I @A JHAI @E A IE AI ?EF= A JA F=H= D= =H A FH @K?J BK ?E AI A ! @E A IE AI - KI ?=HJAIE= @A JHAI LA?J HAI A ?KO A ? = @ JEA A HAIJHE??E AI F=H=

4A?J=I O 2 =

7 IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI ? LAHA I I =@A = JA FKA@A IAH I K?E =@ @A @EIJE J=I B H =I A AIJ= IA??E L= I = FHAIA J=H = E@A= GKA O=?A JH=I A ? ?AFJ @A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI - @ I @E A IE AI AI @A?EH A?K=?E AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI ?=@= A?K=?E HAFHAIA J= K = HA?J= A JHAI @E A IE AI ?=@= K = ? IJEJKOA K n F=H= F = O A CA AH= F=H= n @E A IE AI ?=@= A?K=?E AI K DEFAHF = A J @ n>3 2 H J= J IE ANEIJA I K?E = IEIJA = @EHA I GKA =I HA?J=I I F = I IA E JAHIA?= IE ANEIJA I K?E AI F HGKA ANEIJA K FK J @A ? HJA O ?K= @ K = @A =I HA?J=I I F = I AI F=H= A = JH ANEIJA E EJ=I I K?E AI -IJ AI ALE@A JA A = .ECKH= $ F=H= ?=@= K @A I ?=I I - AIJ= IA??E AIJK@E=HA I ? @AJ= A I J @ I ? FKJ=?E = AI KI=@ I F=H= A = EIEI @A HA?J=I O F = I )K GKA ANEIJA ? = @ I AIFA? ? I F=H= IK AIJK@E )6 )* B=?E EJ= A ? ?K @A = CK I F=I I E JAH A@E I IE F E ?= @ IK J @

)641+-5 ; 8-+6 4-5 IKIJ= ?E= A JA

#'

!

4A?J=I

7 = HA?J= AI K = IK?AIE E EJ= @A FK J I A K AIF=?E 2=H= AIJ=> A?AH = A?K=?E @A K = HA?J= A @ I @E A IE AI A?AIEJ= I @A K FK J O = FA @EA JA @A = A= A =KIA ?E= @A = FA @EA JA @A @ I FK J I - JHAI @E A IE AI >IJ= JA F=H= D= =H = A?K=?E @A = HA?J= A ? ?AFJ @A FA @EA JA IA D=?A E JE O FHA?EI= I @A K LA?J H GKA @AI?HE>= K = @EHA??E @A E@= @A = HA?J= + IE@AHA I = .ECKH= % 5KF C= I K = HA?J= r A @E A IE AI GKA F=I= F H I FK J I P0 = (a, b, c, ..., n) O P = (x, y, z, ..., m) - LA?J H GKA F=I= F H AIJ I @ I FK J I P0 P = (x a, y b, z c, ..., m n) AI F=H= A = LA?J H @EBAHA JA @A ?AH v = (d, e, f, ..., l) AI @A?EH ANEIJA K AI?= =H t t  J= GKA

P0 P = tv
; ? >IAHL= IA = .ECKH= %

 

P = P0 + P0 P

  

tv
P PP 0 P0

P P0

.ECKH= 1 JH @K?EA @ = A?K=?E

% 7 = HA?J= A JAH?AH= @E A IE  A = A?K=?E  >JA A I

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

P = P0 + tv
3KA AI IE F A A JA

a b c n

+ t

d e f l

x y z m

 !

-IJ=I I =I A?K=?E AI F=H= JHE?=I @A = HA?J= r @ @A t t  I E @E?= GK J= J IA A?AIEJ= F=H= F=I=H @A P0 = P O A LA?J H v GKA KAIJH= = @EHA??E @A = A= AI ? ?E@ ? LA?J H @EHA?J H @A K = HA?J= 8= A = FA = HAI= J=H GKA ANEIJA J= J=I A?K=?E AI @A K = HA?J= ? FK J I D=O I >HA A = @=@ GKA P0 FKA@A J =H ?K= GKEAH L= H @A JH @A = EI = HA?J= )D H= >EA ?E AI = HAI LAH A IEIJA = =JHE?E= @A = A?K=?E ! JA A I JHAI A?K=

a + td = x b + te = y c + tf = z
) @AIFA =H t @A ?=@= K = @A =I A?K=?E AI A HAIK J=@ AI

t=
+ J AI ECK= A ?=@= K

yb zc xa t= t= d e f @A I ?=I I ECK= = I =I JHAI A?K=?E xa yb zc = = d e f

AI  "

-IJ= HAFHAIA J=?E @A = HA?J= A = A?K=?E " IA = = A?K=?E IE JHE?= ?=HJAIE= = )K GKA ?= >E= = B H = @A = A?K=?E IECKA =F=HA?EA @ I EI I ? F A JAI A?AI=HE I F=H= = ? IJHK??E @A K = HA?J= A LA?J H F IE?E P0 = (a, b, c) O A LA?J H @EHA?J H v = (d, e, f ) >IJ= JA D= @AI=F=HA?E@ A F=H= AJH t @A = A?K=?E

-A F

F=H= FK J I P0 = (5, 6, 8, 7) O P1 = (9, 2, 0, 2) I I FK J I P0 O P1 ?

 - ? JH=H = A?K=?E

JHE?= @A = HA?J= GKA F=I= F H

2=I  1 JH @K?E

IE BKAH= LA?J HAI

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p0=[-5,6,8,7]; p1=[9,-2,0,-2];

2=I

- ?

JH=

I A LA?J H @EHA?J H @A = HA?J= P0 P1

p0p1=p1-p0 p0p1= 14 -8 -8 -9

+ P0 P1 AI A LA?J H @EHA?J H @A = HA?J= @A E I = A?K=?E @A = HA?J= @A = B H = x = 5 + 14t y = 6 8t z = 8 8t w = 7 9t ,=@ GKA P0 AI K FK J GKA FAHJA A?A = = HA?J=

2=

I
E ? KE@= =@= IA= K J @A A IE

7 F = AI K HA= A = GKA IE K = HA?J= F=I= F H @ I @A IKI FK J I AIJ I @AJ= @A JH @A A = /H II = /H II = ''$ =F HJ= K = @A E?E P K FK J A A AIF=?E O n K LA?J H @EBAHA JA @A ?AH - J ?AI A ? J @ I I FK J I Q F=H= I GKA P Q n = 0 ? IJEJKOA K F = A JAH?AH= @E 7 H=IC BK @= @A JHAI @E A IE F = AI @AJAH ? H = O >IAHL= I GK

A J= @A F = AI GKA @A>A AIJ=H A JHAI @E A IE AI HA=I A I AI I DEFAHF = I = B H = I? @A D= =H = A?K=?E @A E =H K LA?J H @EBAHA JA @A ?AH O FAHFA @E?K =H = F = ? ?E@ ? HHAIF @EA JA = n A = @A E?E @A /H II = - = .ECKH= AI CH ?= A JA A LA?J H H =

- = .ECKH= & LA I = FK J P0 = (a, b, c) O = K FK J ?K= GKEAH= P = (x, y, z ) - LA?J H GKA K A AIJ I @ I FK J I P0 P = (x a, y b, z c) AI FAHFA @E?K =H = LA?J H H = n = (d, e, f ) AI @A?EH

n P0 P = 0
HAA F = = @ P0 P O n A = A?K=?E # JA A I

 #

d(x a) + e(y b) + f (z c) = 0
,A = A?K=?E $ IA @AIFHA @A = B H =

 $

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

n P P0

.ECKH=

& - LA?J H n AI FAHFA @E?K =H = J @ I

I FK J I @A F =

dx + ey + f z = g
, @A g = ad + be + cf F= = A?K=?E % IA = = = A?K=?E GKA F=I= F H

 % ?=HJAIE= = @A K I FK J I P0 =

-A F

@A F = (4, 1, 1) P1 = (2, 0, 1) O P2 = (1, 2, 4) I I FK J I A )6 )* ?

 ,AJAH E =H = A?K=?E

2=I  1 JH @K?E

IE BKAH= LA?J HAI

p0=[-4,-1,-1] p1=[-2,0,1] p2=[-1,-2,-4]

2=I

0= =

I LA?J HAI GKA F=I= F H

I FK J I P0 P1 O P2

p0p1=p1-p0 p0p1= [2,1,2]

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p0p2=p2-p0 p0p2= [3,-1,-3]

2=I ! 0= =H A FH @K?J ?HK A JHA P0 P1 O P0 P2 ?KO= HAIFKAIJ= AI A LA?J H

H = = F=

c=cross(p0p1,p0p2) c= -1 12 -5

2=I " 7I= @ A FK J P = (x, y, z ) >JA A

A A F=

I A LA?J H P2 P GKA AIJ E ? KE@

P2 P = (x + 1, y + 2, z + 4)

2=I # 1 JH @K?E
?E

I A LA?J H ?=HJAIE= =

H = O A LA?J H ?

JA E@ A A F =

= A?K=

(x + 1, y + 2, z + 4) (1, 12, 5) = 0
= A?K=?E ?=HJAIE= = @A AIJA F = AI x 12y +5z = 3 +=>A HAI= J=H GKA IE ANEIJA @ I F = I F=H= A I A J ?AI IKI LA?J HAI H = AI I F=H= A I - JH=I F= =>H=I A FH @K?J ?HK A JHA I @ I LA?J HAI JEA A ? HAIK J=@ ?AH

!!

,EIJ= ?E= A JHA K FK J O K F =

dx + ey + f z + g =

2=H= A ? JH=H = @EIJ= ?E= D A JHA K FK J P = (a, b, c) O A F = 0 JA A I = IECKEA JA B H K =

D=
8A= I A A IECKEA JA A A F K FK J O K F = ?

|ad + be + cf + g | d 2 + e2 + f 2
D= =H ? FKJ=?E =

 & A JA = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA

$"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

-A F

0= A

I = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA A FK J  &  ! O A F =

3x 7y + 4z + 1 = 0

2=I  0= =

I FHE AH ?K

AI A L= H @A ad + be + cf + g O IK L= H =>I KJ

j=(-8*3)+(1*-7)+(3*4)+1 k=abs(j)

2=I

)D H= @AJAH E =

I A L= H @A @A

E =@ H @A = A?K=?E

&

m=sqrt(3^2+(-7)^2+4^2)

2=I ! .E = A JA @ELE@E
d=k/m

IA

K AH=@ H A JHA A @A

E =@ H

)I AC= d ' #

I = GKA A L= H @A = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA A FK J O A F =

? HHAIF

@A =

"

8= HAI O 8A?J HAI 2H FE I

+K= @ I K?E = I K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @A = B H = Ax = b ? E?= I K ?E = JH= IB H =?E E A= @A K LA?J H x =IEC = K = E =CA = ?=@= K @A IKI ? F A JAI 5E A >=HC = CK =I LA?AI I ? ?A I = =JHE O F=H= A JA @AH A ? F HJ= EA J @A =I L=HE=> AI GKA IJ= HAFHAIA J= AI A?AI=HE A ? JH=H A LA? J H GKA = CA AH K F=H= A = 2=H= D= =H AIJ=> A?A I K = FAH=?E GKA = F=HJEH @A K = =JHE A @A n n I FAH EJA @AJAH E =H A LA?J H m A@E= JA K AI?= =H J= GKA AI HA= ? F A GKA ?K F = ? = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAH IJE?=

Am = m

 '

2=H= C=H= JE =H GKA m = 0 = I K?E @A# A I K ?= @A>A IAH JHELE= AI @A?EH m = 0 2 H J= J = =JHE CA AH=@= = FAH=H (A I ) @A>A IAH IE CK =H A JH=I F= =>H=I IK @AJAH E = JA @A>A IAH ECK= = ?AH -IJ= ? @E?E AI ? ?E@= ? CA AH= = F=HJEH @A A = AI A F E
#

= A?K=?E ?=H=?JAH IJE?= O A F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A J=@ p()

E GKA IA

= A?K=?E

(A I ) @

@A I AI =

=JHE E@A JE@=@ HAIK J= @A @AIFA =H m @A = A?K=?E

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p() = det(A I ) = 0



=I H= ?AI @A p() I I L= HAI FH FE I =I ?E=@ I = A -I = F=HJEH @A A I GKA A ? JH= I A LA?J H m ? ?E@ J= >E ? A LA?J H FH FE HA =JEL = )6 )* ?= ?K = L= HAI FH FE I O K LA?J H FH FE =I ?E=@ = ?=@= L= H F H A@E @A ? = @ eig ?KO= IE J=NEI AI [V,L]=eig(A) -IJA ? = @ HA?E>A = =JHE ?K=@H=@= ? =I JH= IB H =?E AI E A= AI O ?= ?K = =I =JHE?AI L K = =JHE @E=C = ? I L= HAI FH FE I O V K = =JHE ?KO=I ? K =I I I LA?J HAI FH FE I ? HHAIF @EA JAI J= GKA A*V=V*L >IAHLA I ? JH=>= = = HKJE = ? A IECKEA JA A A F

-A F

! += ?K A

I LA?J HAI FH FE I @A =

=JHE

1 1 4 A = 3 2 1 2 1 1

2=I  1 JH @K?E 2=I

I A E FKJ @A ?

= @

=JHE A

A=[1 -1 4;3 2 -1;2 1 -1];

6A EA @ O= A E FKJ E L ?= FH FE I I eig F=H= D= =H I L= HAI O LA?J HAI

[V,L]=eig(A)
)I A HAIK J=@ @A )6 )* AI ? =H L AI = =JHE @A L= HAI FH FE I O =I ? K =I @A V I IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI LA?J HAI FH FE I J= GKA V O L ?K F A A ABA?J = FH FEA@=@ GKA A*V=V*L

V = 0.4082 0.5774 0.2357 0.8165 -0.5774 -0.9428 0.4082 -0.5774 -0.2357

L = 3 0 0 0 -2 0 0 0 1
+=>A HAI= J=H GKA IE IA AIFA?E ?= I K = E?= I= E@= B=eig(A) AIJ= ? HHAIF @A = K LA?J H GKA ? JEA A E?= A JA I L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE  =JHE L

$$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

- AH?E?E I
 7 = A FHAI= IA AIFA?E= E = A = FH @K??E @A ?E ? =HJ ?K I = E B H =?E GKA @AI?HE>A =I K E@=@AI LA @E@=I A @EBAHA JAI AIAI @A = = KJE E@=@ F H K E@=@ LA @E@= O A L= H @A E FKAIJ F H ?=@= K @A I FH @K?J I I I IECKEA JAI

P roducto 1 P roducto 2 P roducto 3 P roducto 4 P roducto 5 U tilidad 22 28 15 20 12 Impuestos 2 8 1 0.5 2 Enero 4 5 8 3 9 F ebrero 9 8 2 2 6 M arzo 1 2 2 1 9 Abril 8 4 1 8 2 M ayo 8 8 9 5 2 Junio 10 21 9 11 6
7I= @ K JEF E?=?E @A =JHE?AI A ?KA JHA K = =JHE 6 2 GKA ? JA C= A IK FHE AH= ? K = = KJE E@=@ J J= O A = IACK @= ? K = I E FKAIJ I J J= AI @KH= JA ?=@= K @A I AIAI ) = E?A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A = =JHE * 8AH ?K=@H # O ? ?=@= F=H @A = JHE?AI =F EGKA =I FAH=?E AI @A IK = HAIJ= K JEF E?=?E @ELEIE E GKEAH@= @AHA?D= O F JA ?E=?E 2 6 5 4 5 6 9 0 3 = A = 1 2 3 B= 8 4 2 0 1 2 6 12 7 1 2 3 10 3 9 5 > A = B= 4 5 6 2 6 4 3 2 6 7 16 16 5 15 20 3 3 3 4 ?  A = 18 1 27 27 20 11 B= 0 1 1 5 18 20 1 1 27 4 3 4 ! ) F=HJEH @A = DEFAH =JHE A @A A A F F IE> AI =JHE?AI @A J= = 2 2 CA AHA A )6 )* J @=I =I

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" 0= A = H = O @A = =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A ?=@= F=H @A LA?J HAI D= A A CK A JHA A I O ?= ?K A proyv u O proyu v
2 = u = (3, 2) v = ( 3 5, 5)

> u = (3, 5, 6) v = (4, 3, 2) ?  u = ( 2, 3, 5) v = ( 3 2, 55 , 0) # + = =JHE L =

2 8 5 4

O A LA?J H m = (2, 2)

= 0= A = E LAHI= @A L > K JEF EGKA A LA?J H m F H = E LAHI= @A L @AHA?D= O @ELEIE E GKEAH@= A JHA L O m 6H=IF ?  )D H= =F EGKA @ELEIE C= IE AI A?AI=HE

@  3K IA FKA@A @A@K?EH @A $ 5A= u = (3, 1, 2) O v = (4, 2, x) O v IA= HJ C = AI

I FK J I = JAHE HAI 2=H= GK L= H @A x Z + IA ?K F A GKA u

% - ?KA JHA = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA A FK J (2, 3, 1) O A F = & - ?KA JHA = A?K=?E O Q = (0, 2, 8) ' 0= A F=H= JHE?= @A = HA?J= GKA F=I= F H

x+y+z =5
I FK J I P (1, 2, 3)

I L= HAI O LA?J HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE 3 2 2 C = 3 1 3 1 2 0 E@= 2 IEJEL= AC=JEL= =I

) F=HJEH @A HAIK J=@ @AJAH E A IE IJ= =JHE AI ,A 1 @A E@= 8AH H=   F C !&

 /A AHA K = =JHE = A=J HE= @A @EIJHE>K?E K EB H A O K = O ? K =I IK A J @=I EI O ? ?=@= K = = 0= A IK F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE? = JH=L I @A FAH=?E LA?J HAI A )6 )*

=JHE ?KO=I AI ?

=JHE?AI O AI O

> 0= A J= >E I L= HAI O LA?J HAI FH FE I = JH=L I @A FAH=?E ? JH IJA I KAC ? I HAIK J=@ I GKA @= eig

$&

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8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+=F JK

5EIJA =I @A -?K=?E
H =/ A -@K=H@ 5 ?DA

AI

=I HA =?E AI A JHA @EBAHA JAI L=HE=> AI GKA E JAH=?J = A K FH > A = FKA@A HAFHAIA J=HIA A B H = @A A?K=?E AI O A K?D I ?=I I F=H= AIJ=I A?K=?E AI AI A?AI=HE A ? JH=H L= HAI @A x1 , x2 , ..., xn J= AI GKA HAIKA L=

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2 = am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm
-IJA ? K J @A A?K=?E AI I=H @A B H = =JHE?E= =I = =@ IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI IA FKA@A ANFHA ! 

a11 a12 a21 a22 am1 am2

@A = AH= AGKEL= A JA

... ... ...

a1n x1 b1 a2n x2 b2 = amn xn bm

! 

Ax = b

! !

@ @A A AI = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI  =I ? IJ= JAI GKA =? F= = = =I E ? C EJ=I @A IEIJA = x AI A LA?J H @A L=HE=> AI O b A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I = I K?E = IEIJA = ? ?E@= ? LA?J H I K?E AI K LA?J H ? K = GKA ? JEA A I L= HAI @A =I E ? C EJ=I GKA I=JEIB=?A J @=I =I A?K=?E AI


- A +=F JK

IA??E

! LE

I CH

?= A JA GKA ?=@= K = @A =I A?K=?E

AI @A IEIJA =

$'

%

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

) HAI LAH K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI ANEIJA @ I ?=I I FHE AH I IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI @A E@ I A @ @A ANEIJA I K FK J @A ? HJA AI @A?EH K = E ?= I K?E O IACK @ I IEIJA =I IE CK =HAI GKA FKA@A JA AH E EJ I FK J I @A E JAHIA??E AI @A?EH E EJ=I I K?E AI FKA@A JA AH E C FK J @A E JAHIA? ?E ?=I A A GKA ANEIJA I K?E 2 H JH= F=HJA I IEIJA =I H = AI @A E@ I ?KO FK J @A E JAHIA??E AI A HECA IA ? ?A ? IEIJA =I D C A I > AJEL @A AIJA ?=F JK AI FHAIA J=H =I DAHH= EA J=I ? FKJ=?E = AI GKA FH LAA )6 )* F=H= I K?E =H FH > A =I A? E? I ANFHAI=@ I A B H = @A IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI >=I=@ I A I FHE ?EFE I @A = CA>H= E A= -IJK@E=HA I @ I ?HEJAHE I @A I K?E @A K =@ I J @ I @EHA?J I = = JE? I BK @= A J=@ I A =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I ? =JHE?AI GKA >HE @= HAIK J=@ I AN=?J I ? ?= ?K I EJ I O GKA FKA@A IAH KJE E =@ I I IE = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI AI E LAHJE> A

2 H JH =@ AIJ I J @ I E @EHA?J I J= >E = =@ I EJAH=JEL I K HE ? I  GKA CA AH= K = IA?KA ?E= @A =FH NE =?E AI = = HAIFKAIJ= @A IEIJA = !  @AIFK I @A HAFAJEH ?EAHJ JEF @A FAH=?E AI FHALE= A JA AIJ=> A?E@=I

!
!
-IJA J @ M = [A b]

J @ I ,EHA?J I
- E E =?E
I K?E

) = JE? I
H@=
= =JHE = F E=@= @A E@= ?

/=KII

= A IEIJA = !  KJE E = @

a11 a12 a21 a22 M = am1 am2

) AL=H = =JHE = F E=@= M = K ? JH=H = I K?E = IEIJA = ! F =HEJ JE?=I H@A =@=I A JHA =I rref ?KO= IE J=NEI AI rref(M) @

... ... ...

a1n a2n amn

b1 b2 bm

! "

= B H = H A@E )6 )* @A M AI

AI?= =@= HA@K?E@= AI F IE> A A @A K FH ?A@E EA J @A FAH=?E AI =F E?= AIJA J @ ? A ? = @ = =JHE = F E=@= )@A I ANEIJA A
n

!  HAFHAIA J= K = HA?J= IE x 2 K F = IE x 3 K DEFAHF = IE x ANEIJA AI = E JAHIA??E A JHA A I IAC A ?=I  AL=H K = =JHE = = B H = AI?= =@= HA@K?E@= IEC E ?= JH= IB H =H K = A K = =FH NE =?E @A = =JHE E@A JE@=@

O IK I K?E =JHE

IE

?K=@H=@=

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

%

? = @ rrefmovie GKA KAIJH= F=I = F=I = HA@K??E @A = =JHE = F E=@= = IK B H = HA@K?E@= = IE J=NEI @A AIJA ? = @ AI rrefmovie(M)

-A F

!  5 K?E A

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

AI

x + 2y = 8 2x + y = 1

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A1 O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b1 @A IEIJA = O KAC ? IJHKE I = =JHE = F E=@= M1

A1=[1 2;2 1] b1=[8;1] M1=[A1 b1]

2=I

7JE E =

I rref

S1=rref(M1)
,A =?KAH@ = = HAIFKAIJ= @A S1 AI @A?EH x = 2 O y = 5 )6 )* = E?= I K?E = IEIJA = AI

S1 = 1 0 0 1 -2 5
AI IE CK =HAI

-A F

5 K?E

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

2x + y z = 2 3x + 2y + 4z = 8 5x + 4y + 14z = 20

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A2 O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b2 @A IEIJA = O KAC ? IJHKE I = =JHE = F E=@= M2

A2=[2 1 -1;3 2 4;5 4 14] b2=[2;8;20] M2=[A2 b2]

/-,7JE E = I rref

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I

S2=rref(M2)
+ A HAIK J=@ @A )6 )* F @A I = H =H GKA A IEIJA = JEA A E I K?E AI @A E@=I F H x 6z = 4 O y + 11z = 10 EJ=I

S2 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 -6 11 0 -4 10 0
AI IE CK =HAI

-A F

! ! 4AI L=

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

x + y + 2z = 9 3x 2y + 7z = 20 2x + 7y + 3z = 27

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A3 O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b3 @A IEIJA = O KAC ? IJHKE I = =JHE = F E=@= M3

A3=[1 1 2;3 -2 7;2 7 3] b3=[9;20;27] M3=[A3 b3]

2=I

7JE E =

I rref

S3=rref(M3)
- HAIK J=@ @A )6 )* AI ? DAHA JA @=@ GKA = JE = = E @E?= GKA = IK = @A J @=I =I L=HE=> AI K JEF E?=@=I F H ?AH AI  F H AIJ= H= I F @A I ? ? KEH GKA AIJA IEIJA = JEA A I K?E

S3 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 2.2 -0.2 0 0 0 1

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5 I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = D C A

%!

-A F

! " 5 K?E A

x + 3y z = 0 y 8z = 0 4z = 0

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A4 O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b4 @A IEIJA = O KAC ? IJHKE I = =JHE = F E=@= M4

A4=[1 3 -1;0 1 -8;0 0 4] b4=[0;0;0] M4=[A4 b4]

2=I

7JE E =

I rref

S4=rref(M4)

= I K?E = IEIJA = AI x = y = z = 0 HA? H@A I GKA A I IEIJA =I D C A I I D=O @ I F IE> AI = JAH =JEL=I = I K?E JHELE= A = ?K= J @=I =I L=HE=> AI I ?AH ANEIJA E EJ=I I K?E AI

S4 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

!

J @ @A = 1 LAHI=

-IJA J @ KJE E = = E LAHI= @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b @A K IEIJA = Ax = b AGKEL= A JA = IEIJA = ! ? A > AJEL @A A ? JH=H A LA?J H I K?E x GKA I=JEIB=?A A IEIJA = HAI LEA @ = FAH=?E

x = A1 b

! #

>IJ= JA IE = =JHE AI KO CH= @A @EIFAHI= A ? JH=H IK E LAHI= @A B H = = = JE?= FKA@A AC=H = IAH K FH ?AI KO ? F A )6 )* FAH EJA ?= ?K =H = E LAHI= A@E= JA A ? = @ inv ?KO= IE J=NEI AI C=inv(A)

%" + ?EA @ A J @=@= F H ?AI = E LAHI= @A = =JHE

/-,= I K?E

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A IEIJA = Ax = b AIJ ! $ AI F H A J @ @A =

x = Cb

-A F
E LAHI=

! # 5 K?E A

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

x + y + 2z = 6 3x + 2y + z = 3 4x + 2y + z = 2

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I ? HHAIF @EA JA = IEIJA =

A1=[1 1 2;3 2 1;4 2 1 ] b=[6;3;2]

2=I

0= =

I = E LAHI= @A =

=JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI

C=inv(A1)

2=I ! -IJ=> A?A

x=C*b
= I K?E

I = IE J=NEI F=H= I K?E

=H A IEIJA = = F=HJEH @A = E LAHI=

= IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

AI AI

x = -1 1.6667 2.6667

!!

4AC = @A +H= AH

= HAC = @A +H= AH KI= A @AJAH E = JA @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI F=H= AC=H = = I K?E @A IEIJA = !  )6 )* ?= ?K = A @AJAH E = JA = JH=L I @A ? = @ det = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ AI a=det(A) - @AI=HH @A = HAC = @A +H= AH F=HJA @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I A FH ?A@E EA J ? IEIJA A HAA F = =H A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I A =I

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

%#

? K =I @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI B H = @ =JHE?AI JH= IB H =@=I O ?= ?K = @ I @AJAH E = JAI @A ?=@= K = @A A =I = I K?E = FH > A = IA >JEA A = @ELE@EH I @AJAH E = JAI @A =I =JHE?AI JH= IB H =@=I I >HA A @AJAH E JA @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI =I

x=

b1 a12 b2 a22 . . bm am2 a11 a12 a21 a22 . . am1 am2

... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn ... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn

y=

a11 b1 a21 b2 . . am1 bm a11 a12 a21 a22 . . am1 am2

... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn ... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn

n=

a11 a12 a21 a22 . . am1 am2 a11 a12 a21 a22 . . am1 am2

... b1 ... b2 ... . ... bm ... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn

-A F

! $ 5 K?E A
E JH @K?E

IA -A F

! # =D H= F H = 4AC = @A +H= AH I IK @AJAH E = JA O KAC

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI ?= ?K = I A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I

A=[1 1 2;3 2 1;4 2 1]; a=det(A) b=[6;3;2];

2=I

IJHKE

I =I

=JHE?AI JH=IB H =@=I O ?= ?K =

I IK @AJAH E = JA

A1=[b,A(:,2:3)]; dA1=det(A1) A2=[A(:,1),b,A(:,3)]; dA2=det(A2) A3=[A(:,1:2),b]; dA3=det(A3)

2=I ! += ?K =
x=dA1/a y=dA2/a z=dA3/a

I A L= H @A x y O z

- FH CH= = KAIJH= =I I L= HAI @A ?=@= L=HE=> A GKA I K?E E?= I K?E @A AIJA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI

= A IEIJA = =

%$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

x= -1 y= 1.6667 z= 2.6667

!"

.=?J HE =?E

@A +H KJ

-NEIJA J @ I @EHA?J I GKA @AI? F A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A JH=I =JHE?AI >KI?= @ GKA F=H= AC=H = = I K?E @A IEIJA = ! I IA D=C= FAH=?E AI > IE?=I A JHA A =I -NEIJA @ I FH ?AI I F=H= AC=H = AIJ=I =JHE?AI A FHE AH @A A I AI K J @ GKA FAH EJA @AI? F AH K = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A @A J= = n m A @ I =JHE?AI E LAHJE> AI L JHE= CK =H E BAHE H O U JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H @A = B H = A = LU ? ?E@ ? B=?J HE =?E 7 @ @A L O U JEA A =I EI =I HAF = JA= I @E A IE AI @A A ,A AIJ= B H = F=H= HAI LAH A IEIJA = ! Ax = b ?

LU x = b
)IE EI @A E I K LA?J H y = U x @A B H = GKA

! %

Ly = b

! &

5 K?E =H A IEIJA = ! & @=@ GKA = =JHE L AI JHE= CK =H E BAHE H AGKEL= A = HA= E =H K FH ?AI @A IKIJEJK?E D=?E= =JH I IE HAA F = = I = A?K=?E ! & A = A?K=?E ! % >JA A I A IEIJA =

Ux = y
?KO= I K?E F H IKIJEJK?E D=?E= =JH I A@E= JA A

! ' J @ @A = E LAHI= AI ! 

x = U 1 y

)6 )* FH F H?E = K ? = @ GKA A ?KA JH= =I =JHE?AI FAHJE A JAI = = B=?J HE =?E 7 = IE J=NEI @A AIJ= HKJE = AI [L,U]=lu(A) ?KO E FKJ AI =

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1 =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A O =JHE JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H =I =JHE?AI L O U IAH ?E AI ! % = !  8A= 7

-5 I HAIK J=@ I I K =

%% =JHE JHE= CK =H E BAHE H O K =

JE AI F=H= D= =H I L= HAI @A I LA?J HAI x A y @A =I A?K= I A A IECKEA JA A A F ? JH=>= =H ? = B=?J HE =?E

-A F

! % 5 K?E A
I =

I A IEIJA = @A - A F =JHE A O A LA?J H b

! # F H B=?J HE =?E

2=I  1 JH @K?E

A=[1 1 2;3 2 1;4 2 1] b=[6;3;2]

2=I

1 JH @K?E

I = IE J=NEI @A ?

= @ F=H= =

=JHE A

[L,U]=lu(A)

2=I ! 0= = 2=I " 0= =

I A L= H @A y

y=inv(L)*b
I A L= H @A x

x=inv(U)*y
= HAIFKAIJ= @A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E )6 )* AI L,U,y,x IEA @ A LA?J H x = AI E?= I K?E =

L= 0.2500 0.7500 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0 1.0000 0 0

U= 4.0000 0 0 y= 2.0000 1.5000 2.0000 0.5000 0 1.0000 0.2500 1.5000

%&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

4.0000 x= -1.0000 1.6667 2.6667

!#

.=?J HE =?E

@A +D AI O

- IACK @ FH ?AI F=H= @AI? F AH = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI ? HHAIF @A = = B=? J HE =?E @A +D AI O GKA I K?E = K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI = A ? JH=H K = =JHE JHE= CK =H IKFAHE H U J= GKA U U T = A ! -IJ= =JHE AI ? ?E@= ? A B=?J H @A +D AI O ? = H= ?K=@H=@= @A A )I = B=?J HE =?E @A +D AI O FAH EJA HAANFHAI=H A IEIJA = Ax = b @A = B H =

U T U x = U T (U x) = b
) HAI LAH AIJA IEIJA = F H IKIJEJK?E D=?E= =JH I >JA A I

! 

UT y = b
KAC F H IKIJEJK?E D=?E= =JH I

!  

Ux = b

! !

2=H= I K?E =H K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI A@E= JA = B=?J HE =?E @A +D AI O KI= I A ? = @ chol ?KO= IE J=NEI AI U=chol(A) IE E =H = = B=?J HE =?E LU F HGKA = F=HJEH @A = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI >JA A I = =JHE U O HAI LA I =I A?K=?E AI !  O ! !

-A F

! & 5 K?E A

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = F H .=?J HE =?E

@A +D AI O

9x + 2y + 4z = 0 6x + 3y + 3z = 0 5x + 4z = 0
-IJ= = =JHE 7
!

=JHE @A>A IAH IE JHE?= O @A E@= F IEJEL= F=H= GKA A IEIJA = JA C= I K?E - ?=I GKA JA C= AIJ= ?=H=?JAH IJE?= HA? A @= I I K?E =H A IEIJA = = JH=L I @A = B=?J HE =?E

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5 =JHE A O A LA?J H b GKA ? F A A IEIJA =

%'

2=I  1 JH @K?E

I =

A=[9 2 4;6 3 3;5 0 4]; b=[0;0;0];

2=I

+= ?K =

I A B=?J H @A +D AI O KJE E = @ A ?

= @ chol

U=chol(A)

2=I ! += ?K =

I A LA?J H y @AIFA = @ @A = A?K=?EI ! 

y=inv(U)*b

2=I " 4AA F = =

x=inv(U)*y
- FH CH= = I

I A LA?J H y A

= A?K=?E

! ! O @AIFA =

I A LA?J H x

IJH=H

=JHE U A LA?J H y O x A LA?J H I K?E

@A IEIJA =

U= 3.0000 0 0 y= 0 0 0 x= 0 0 0 0.6667 1.5986 0 1.3333 1.3206 0.6916

!
I

J @ I 1 @EHA?J I

HE? I

J @ I E @EHA?J I K HE? I AIJ= @EIA =@ I ? K = IA?KA ?E= @A FAH= ?E AI GKA >KI?= A ? JH=H HAIK J=@ I =FH NE =@ I = = I K?E @A K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI -IJ I J @ I I AIFA?E= A JA >KA I ?K= @ I IEIJA =I JEA A K CH= AH @A E ? C EJ=I O I @EB ?E AI @A HAI LAH AI @A?EH IE = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I FHAIA J= ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I F=HJE?K =HAI

&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

- CA AH= A J @ I I FH ?AI I EJAH=JEL I GKA IA KJE E = F=H= HAI LAH IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI @A = B H = Ax = b IA KJE E = K = =JHE Q = =@= =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E AI? CE@= @A J= B H = GKA A FH > A = HECE = IA FKA@= HAAI?HE>EH " ?

Qx = (Q A)x + b
= A?K=?E ? ! " IKCEAHA K FH ?AI EJAH=JEL HAC = @A EJAH=?E

! " GKA IA ANFHAI=

Qxk (Q A)x(k1) ; k > 1

- AIJ= HAC = @A EJAH=?E GKAHA I A ? JH=H K = IK?AIE @A LA?J HAI xk GKA I K?E A A IEIJA = ! " = JH=L I @A K FH ?AI EJAH=JEL - AIJA FH ?AI AI A?AI=HE AIJ=> A?AH K LA?J H E E?E= @A L= HAI F=H= x0 GKA FKA@A IAH =H>EJH=HE FAH F H CA AH= IA J = ? =FH NE =?E E E?E= = K = A JH=I F= =>H=I =GKA = A = GKA x01 = x02 = ... = x0n = 0 KAIJH > AJEL AI AI? CAH K = =JHE Q @A = AH= GKA IA ?= ?K A B ?E A JA = IK?AIE xk O GKA =@A I ? LAH = H FE@= A JA = = I K?E - J @ J @ EJAH=JEL AI E F HJ= JA AIFA?E ?=H K ?HEJAHE @A ? LAHCA ?E= GKA FAH EJ= AC=H = = I K?E I H=FE@= A JA O K AH NE @A EJAH=?E AI M - AIJA ?=I @=@ GKA x AI K LA?J H AIJ=> A?AHA I @ I ?HEJAHE I @A ? LAHCA ?E= GKA IA @A>AH I=JEIB=?AH IE K J A= A JA 
x(k) x(k1) xk xm xm (k ) xm
(k ) (k1)

AH @AJAH E =@ F H A = FHA?EIE AI =O H A

@ @A xm = M ax{xi } O AI K E LAIJEC=@ H GKA ? A JA AI =O H ECK= =  ?K= J JA C= L= HAI I=J I

KAIJH > AJEL AI FHAIA J=H @ I J @ I EJAH=JEL I F=H= I K?E A?K=?E AI E A= AI /=KII =? >E O /=KII 5AE@A

=H IEIJA =I @A

=JHE?AI , >E

A JA +

@E?E

=@=I

I FH ?AI I GKA LAHA I =@A = JA ANEIJA K HEAIC HA =?E =@ ? = ANEIJA ?E= @A IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI GKA FHAIA J= =JHE?AI @A ? A ?EA JAI A =I ?K= AI K =
"

-IJA HAIK J=@ IA >JEA A = IK =H A J H E

Qx = = > I =@ I @A = ANFHAIE

Ax = b

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

&

FAGKA = L=HE=?E @A = CK @A IKI ? F A JAI CA AH= CH= @AI ?= >E I A A LA? J H I K?E =K GKA J= J I A AH?E?E I FH FKAIJ I ? I A AH?E?E I F = JA=@ I F=HJA @A =JHE?AI GKA JEA A AIJ= ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AI @A AIFAH=H GKA D=O= ?=I I A I ?K= AI = ANEIJA ?E= @A =JHE?AI @ >E A JA ? @E?E =@=I D=C= GKA = KJE E =?E @A J @ I K HE? I IA= E A ?EA JA A J= AI ?=I I HA? A @= I KJE E =H A NE ELA @A FHA?EIE @A ? FKJ=@ H F = JA=H JH= IB H =?E AI I >HA = =JHE HECE =

/=KII =? >E
A AI @EIFAHI= HAIKA LA A IEIJA = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A AI @E=C = @A @AI? F IE?E Q GKA @A>A IAH I @A = @E=C = FHE ?EF= @A A =

J @ @A /=KII =? >E# KO JE ?K= @ @A A?K=?E AI @A = B H = Ax = b I IE = $ @ E = JA 2=H= D=?AH KJE E = K = =JHE % @E=C = O ?KO I A A A J I ? HHAIF @A = HAC = @A EJAH=?E F=H= AIJA J @ AI

Qxk (Q A)x(k1) + b
-IJ= A?K=?E AI K = JH= IB H =?E @A = HAC = @A EJAH=?E CA AH= @A E@= F H = A?K=?E ! " )6 )* @A A K L= H E E?E= =H>EJH=HE F=H= A LA?J H x GKA IA A ?KA JH= = K = @EIJ= ?E= x @A LA?J H @A L=HE=> AI GKA I K?E = A IEIJA = + = HAC = @A EJAH=?E AIJ= @AJAH E =@= F H = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E = @EIJ= ?E= AI A J ?AI A ? ?EA JA A JHA = A?K=?E E A= ECK= =@= = ?AH O = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E ,AIFK I @A E I A L= H @A x ? = IK = A JHA A L= H E E?E= O = @EIJ= ?E= A ? JH=@= AI @A?EH A FH CH= = L= =?AH?= @ A L= H E E?E= @A x = = I K?E @A FH > A = KJE E = @ K = IAHEA @A FAH=?E AI HAFAJE@=I GKA IA L= A @A = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E ? F=H AJH @A ? LAHCA ?E= AH @A FAH=?E AI AIJ E EJ=@ F H = H=FE@A = = GKA = H = @A LA?J H x IA =?AHGKA
2=H= >IAHL=H = @A@K??E =JA JE?= @A J @ O IK HAC = @A EJAH=?E HA? A @= I LAH A =F @E?A @A AIJA ?=F JK $ 7 = =JHE @E=C = @ E = JA AI =GKA = A = ?K= J @ I I A A A J I @A = @E=C = I =O HAI = HAIJ @A I A A A J I @A = =JHE AI @A?EH ?K F A
n

|Aii | >
i=1 i=j

|Aij |i

=I =JHE?AI @E=C FHE ?EF=

= AI I

=GKA =I GKA I

JEA A A A A J I @EBAHA JAI @A ?AH A IK @E=C

& =K AH F IEJEL KO ?AH?= = ?AH

&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

AH @A HAFAJE?E AI FKA@A IAH AIJ=> A?E@ F H A KIK=HE O ANEIJA ?=I I A @ @A A AH @A EJAH=?E AI FH FKAIJ=I I IK ?EA JAI 2 H A @A HA? A @= I KJE E =H K AH @A EJAH=?E AI = J IA HA? EA @= I @A #

-A F

! ' 5 K?E A
@A

= FH CH= =?E

I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E J @ @A /=KII =? >E

AI

H = AI D=?EA @

2x + z = 5 x + 2y = 1.345 0.5y + 8z = 8.76

2=I  ,A E

I = =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A A LA?J H HAIFKAIJ= b O K LA?J H I K?E E E?E= F=H= GKA A FH CH= = A FEA?A = EJAH=H = F=HJEH @A - AIJA ?=I KJE E = I A LA?J H K

A=[2 0 1;1 2 0;0 0.5 8]; b=[5;1.345;8.76]; x=[0;0;0];

2=I

+HA= I = =JHE Q = F=HJEH @A = @E=C Q=diag(A)

= @A =

=JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI FH CH= = E = I A I =I FA = AC=H =

2=I ! -IJ=> A?A

I = FH CH= =?E @A =I FAH=?E AI GKA HA= E =H A F=H= AC=H = K = I K?E ) F=HJEH @A ? = @ for @AJAH AH @A LA?AI GKA @A>A HAFAJEHIA A FH ?A@E EA J FHAIA J= H=?E AI = HAFAJEH O = ? @E?E F=H= GKA )6 )* IA @AJA C= K = I K?E

for it=1:1600 dx=(b-A*x)./Q x=x+dx if norm(dx)<tol,break,end end

)GK it=1:n @AJAH E = A AH @A LA?AI GKA IA HAFEJA AIJ= FAH=?E GKA L= @A  D=IJ= - AIJA A A F J = I n = 1600 F=H= I=>AH ?K AI A AH @A LA?AI GKA EJAH A FH CH= = @ECEJ= I it O KAC A JAH
3KA = H = @A LA?J H IA= ?AH E F E?= GKA J @ I I L= HAI @A x I F IEJEL I O IA =FH NE = = ?AH AIJ IKCEAHA GKA IA D= AC=@ = K = I K?E A = ?K= b Ax = 0
&

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

&!

tol AI K AH KO FAGKA ?AH?= = ?AH GKA IEHLA F=H= AIJ=> A?AH A ELA @A J AH= ?E= @A = I K?E A JH=I F= =>H=I A L= H NE GKA FKA@A J =H = H = @A x ) tol IA A FKA@A =IEC =H A L= H GKA @AIAA I >IJ= JA A I FAGKA GKA A I BJM=HA HA? ?A AI sqrt(eps) GKA AGKEL= A = = H= ?K=@H=@= @A L= H @A FK J J= JA @A FH CH= = AI @A?EH A AH I CH= @A GKA IK =@ = K @= K 
- AIJ= I= E@= =F=HA?A J @=I =I FAH=?E AI GKA D=?A A FH CH= = = JAI @A AC=H = K = I K?E 5E )6 )* A JHAC= = HAIFKAIJ= >EA FKA@A A?AIEJ=H K =O H AH @A EJAH=?E AI >EA GKE A I EJAH=?E AI @A =I O= AIJ=> A?E@=I 2=H= AIJA A A F = I K?E @A IEIJA = AI A J ?AI

1.9432 -0.2991 1.1137

/=KII 5AE@A

= EJAH=?E @A /=KII 5AE@A ' AIJ=> A?A = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E Q ? = F=HJA JHE= CK =H E BAHE H @A A E ? KOA @ I A A A J I @A = @E=C = = HAC = @A EJAH=?E F=H= AIJA J @ AI

Qxk (Q A)x(k1) + b
)K GKA = HAC = @A EJAH=?E AI E@ JE?= = = @A J @ /=KII =? >E = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E AI = EI = 8A= I A A IECKEA JA A A F = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA AIJA O A J @ = JAHE H

-A F
AI @E=C

!  5 K?E A
= @

I K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E E = JA O @EIFAHI=

AI ?KO=

=JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI

x+z =7 5x + 2y = 4 8z = 2
2=H= >IAHL=H = @A@K??E =JA JE? @A AIJA ?=F JK
'

=JA

JE?= @A

J @ O IK HAC = @A EJAH=?E

LA= A =F

@E?A

&"

/-,I =

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I  ,A E

=JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A O A LA?J H @A HAIK J=@ I b

A=[1 0 0;5 2 0;0 0 8]; b=[7;4;2]; x=[0;0;0];

2=I

+HA= I = E BAHE H

=JHE Q = F=HJEH @A A HA? H@A

I GKA Q @A>A IAH JHE= CK =H

Q=tril(A);

2=I ! -IFA?E ?=

IA EJA @A J AH= ?E= A AH @A EJAH=?E AI O FH CH= = I =I BK ?E AI @A J @ = HAC = @A EJAH=?E O = ? @E?E F=H= GKA A FH CH= = IA @AJA C= O A JHACKA K = I K?E

tol=sqrt(eps); n=1600; for it=1:1600; dx=Q\(b-A*x); x=x+dx if norm(dx)<tol, break, end end
- HAIK J=@ @A = FAH=?E AI @A?EH = I K?E AI A LA?J H x

7.0000 -15.5000 0.2500

- AH?E?E I
 4AIKA L= I-A F I! 7 =H AIJ I FH > A =I KJE E = @ +D AI O = ! % KJE E = @

= .=?J HE =?E

> -I F IE> A I K?E 5 K?E A Ax = b @ @A

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

&#

A=

27 7 5.5 1 7 25 2 17.5 5.5 2 27.5 11 1 17.5 11 47.5

F IE?E 7

b=

1 1 1 1

= 7JE E = @ @AI? > /=KII 5AE@A ?  /=KII =? >E +K !

FH ?A@E EA J HA= E =

I EJAH=?E

AI A@E @A K = BK ?E

= @A = @= F H ?EAHJ FH @K?J AIJ HAFHAIA J=@= F H E A= @A = B H =

Qd = 200 5p
,A = EI = B H = AI F IE> A HAFHAIA J=H = BAHJ= @A AIJA FH @K?J F H @A K = BK ?E @A = B H =

! # A@E

Qo = 100 + 5p

! $

7JE E?A K J @ @EHA?J O K J @ K HE? F=H= D= =H A FHA?E O = ?= JE@=@ @A AGKE E>HE @A AH?=@ @A AIJA FH @K?J " + IE@AHA A ?=I @A K = A? = ?KO= BAHJ= AIJ= ? FKAIJ= F H ?K=JH H =I GKA BHA?A ?= JE@=@AI @EBAHA JAI @A ?=@= AH?= ? = O I FHA?E =?AFJ= JAI = H =  BHA?A &! K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = ! O ' K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = " = H = BHA?A #& K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = ! K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = ! O " K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = " = H = ! BHA?A "! K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? =  O  K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = " 2 H JE = H = " BHA?A "& K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = ! O $% K E@=@AI @A = AH?= ? = " +=@= H = @A>A = ?= =H K = AJ= @A E CHAI I AIFA? ?= '"! %&$ ##" O $ " K E@=@AI AJ=HE=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA +K AI I I FHA?E I FJE I F=H= GKA J @=I =I H =I = ?= ?A IK AJ= @A E CHAI I # = A? = @A K = ?EK@=@ F IAA @ I IA?J HAI A IA?J H FH @K?A = =D HE= O A IA?J H ) =?AH 2=H= FH @K?EH K = K E@=@ @A = =D HE= IA A?AIEJ= !  @A K = K E@=@ @A = =D HE= O "  @A K = K E@=@ @A =?AH 2=H= FH @K?EH

&$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

K = K E@=@ @A =?AH IA A?AIEJ= #  @A K = K E@=@ @A = =D HE= O !  @A K = K E@=@ @A =?AH =I @A = @=I = AI I # K E@=@AI @A = =D HE= O & @A =?AH 4AFHAIA JA AIJ= IEJK=?E ? K A A F @A @A @A A JEAB O HAIKA L= = A?K=?E @A AIJA @A +K AI I =I ?= JE@=@AI @A =?AH O = =D HE= GKA D=O GKA FH @K?EH F=H= I=JEIB=?AH =I @A = @=I = AI $ + IE@AHA A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @A A A F ! ! O HAF = JAA A FH > A = @A = B H = AT Ax = AT b ) GK HAIK J=@ AC= -NF EGKA % 7 = A FHAI= @AIA= K>E?=H K @A IKI FK J I @A LA J= A K = = = = K>E?=@= A K = = AN? KIEL= @A = ?EK@=@ IE A >=HC F=H= A I IAH = K?D A H IE AI? CA A ?= A = ?= A ? =O H K LADE?K =H @A @A L =I ? IKI @EHA??E AI AIJ E @E?=@ A = IECKEA JA CKH= A = ?K= IA IA = = A AH @A LAD ?K I GKA ?EH?K = A K = D H= O F=I= F H =I E JAHIA??E AI ) * + O,

.ECKH= ! 

@A

@A L =I

,AJAH E A A K LADE?K =H F H D H= I >HA ?=@= ?= A AI @A?EH I >HA x1 , x2 , x3 O x4 ANFHAI=@ ? K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI = +K J=I I K?E AI ANEIJA +K J=I JEA A IA JE@ ?= -NF EGKA

> 7IJA@ GKA ?= A AI? CAH = F=H= K>E?=H A

& 7 = A FHAI= @A = E A J I A => H= L=HE I FH @K?J I I I E F HJ= JAI I 0A =@ I 2 GK I 2=IJA AI @A 2 2=IJA AI @A +=H A - F=HA@=@ I @A + H @AH O - F=HA@=@ I @A 2=L +=@= K @A AIJ I FH @K?J I @A>A F=I=H F H

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

&%

?=@= K = @A =I IAEI AJ=F=I @A FH @K??E @A = E A J I + FH= = 2H LAA@ HAI ) =?A = EA J - => H=?E 2HKA>= @A += E@=@ - F=GKA O ,EIJHE>K?E 7 = K E@=@ @A 0A =@ HAGKEAHA @A ! # " ! ! O D H=I A ?=@= AJ=F= @A FH ?AI K = K E@=@ @A 2 GK HAGKEAHA " " ! " O # K = 7 E@=@ @A 2=IJA @A 2 " & " O " K = K E@=@ @A 2=IJA @A +=H A @A # " ! "O! K - F=HA@=@ @A + H@AH ! # ! O " O K - F=HA@=@ @A 2=L "  " & +K J=I K E@=@AI IA FKA@A FH @K?EH IE @=@=I =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A =I A FHAI= IA @EIF A @A '% D H=I A + FH= = 2H LAA@ HAI '# A ) =?A = EA J '' A - => H=?E !& A 2HKA>= @A += E@=@ !# A - F=GKA O !# A ,EIJHE>K?E ' I J @ I EJAH=JEL I FHAIA J=@ I A AIJA ?=F JK F=HJA @A K = =JHE @A @AI? F IE?E 5ECKEA @ = FHAIA J=?E @A J @ @A 4E?D=H@I A A =F @E?A = 5 K?E A K @A I IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI FHAIA J=@ I A AIJA ?=F JK @AI?HE>EA @ = FH CH= =?E @A AIJA J @ A K A > +K J=I EJAH=?E AI HA= E IK FH CH= =

!!

)F

@E?A

- KI @A J @ I EJAH=JEL I F=H= = I K?E @A K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI E A= AI F=HJA @A = HAC = @A EJAH=?E @A E@= A@E= JA = JH= IB H =?E @A IEIJA = Ax = b ALE@A JA A = A?K=?E ! "

Qx = (Q A)x + b
-IJ= HAC = ?= >E= IAC = FH FEA@=@ @A ?=@= J @ EJAH=JEL

!!
- A

/=KII =? >E
J @ @A EJAH=?E @A /=KII =? >E = A?K=?E ! " FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? ! %

Qxk = (Q A)x(k1) + b
IE @A E IK = =JHE R = (Q A) = A?K=?E ! % IA HAANFHAI= ?

Qxk = Rx(k1) + b

! &

&&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H =IE EI LA?J H AI AI A J i

- FH @K?J @A = =JHE Q F H A LA?J H ? K = x(k) AI K LA?J H ? K = A FH @K?J @A = =JHE R F H A LA?J H ? K = x(k1) AI J= >E K ? K = = A?K=?E LA?J HE= ! & IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H A@E= JA n A?K=?E ?= =HAI K = F=H= ?=@= ? F A JA @A LA?J H @A @ GKA F=H= K A A ?K= GKEAH= IA ?K F A = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE
n j =1

qij xj

(k)

=
j =1

rij xj

(k1)

+ bi

! '

5E JA A I A ?KA J= GKA A = =JHE Q J @ I I A A A J I BKAH= @A = @E=C = I ?AH A A FHE AH EA >H A E? J H E K @A = IK =J HE= AI =GKA GKA ? JEA A A A A A J @E=C = qii GKA AI FHA?EI= A JA aii =I = @A>E@ = GKA I A A A J I @A = @E=C = @A R I ?AH F @A I A E E =H A J H E i = j @A = IK =J HE= @A IACK @ EA >H GKA @A =H = = A?K=?E ! ' @A = B H =
(k) aii xi n

=
j =1 j =i

aij xj

(k1)

+ bi

! 

@A @

@A @AIFA = @ xi k

>JA A

I
n

xi (k) = (bi
j =1 j =i

aij xj

(k1)

)/aii

! 

GKA AI = ANFHAIE GKA I FH F H?E = =I KAL=I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H xk A BK ?E @A LA?J H = JAHE H x(k1) A = EJAH=?E @A =? >E - HAIK A A J @ @A /=KII =? >E IA >=I= A HAAI?HE>EH A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @A = B H =

x1 = (b1 a21 x2 a31 x3 ... an1 xn )/a11 x2 = (b2 a12 x1 a32 x3 ... an2 xn )/a22 = xn = (bn a1n x1 a2n x2 ... ann xn )/ann
2=HJE I A J ?AI @A K = =FH NE =?E E E?E= F=H= =I I K?E AI = IEIJA A?K=?E AI O IKIJEJKE I AIJ I L= HAI A = A?K=?E ! ' F=H= CA AH=H K = =FH NE =?E = = I K?E @A IEIJA = GKA >= ?EAHJ=I ? @E?E AI AI A = =FH NE =?E E E?E= -IJ= KAL= =FH NE =?E IA FKA@A IKIJEJKEH @A KAL F=HJA @AHA?D= @A = A?K=?E ! ' O @A AIJ= EI = B H = HAA F = =H IK?AIEL= D=IJ= GKA = I K?E ? LAH = = @A KAL= H GKA A = A JA

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

&'

!!
6= ? A?K=?E

/=KII 5AE@A
A A ?=I = JAHE H @A E I = ! " IA HAAI?HE>A @A = B H = =JHE R = Q A @A = AH= GKA =

Qxk = Rx(k1) + b
,

!

@A K A A A J ?K= GKEAH= i @A LA?J H Qxk AIJ= @AJAH E =@ F H = A?K=?E

n j =1 (k) aij xj n

=
j =1

aij xj

(k1)

+ bi

! !

5E JA A I A ?KA J= = ? F IE?E @A =I =JHE?AI Q O R J @ I I IK = @ I F=H= K I EA JH=I GKA A = F=HJA @AHA?D= I GKA j > i A = F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A ! ! I I K I J @ I I IK = @ I F=H= I GKA j < i 2 = JA= I A J ?AI
i j =1 (k ) aii xi i1 (k) aij xj n

=
j =i+1

aij xj
n

(k1)

+ bi

! "

+
j =1

(k) aij xj

=
j =i+1

aij xj

(k1)

+ bi

! #

@A @

@A @AIFA = @ xi k

>JA A
i1

xi

(k)

= (bi
j =1

aij xj
j =i+1

(k )

aij xj

(k1)

)/aii

! $

>IAHLA I GKA A A J @ @A /=KII 5AE@A I L= HAI =?JK= E =@ I @A xi IKIJEJK OA @A E A@E=J = I L= HAI = JAHE HAI EA JH=I GKA A A J @ @A =? >E J @=I =I ? F A JAI KAL=I @A LA?J H IA ?= ?K = = JAI @A AL=H = ?=> = IKIJEJK?E - A J @ @A /=KII 5AE@A I ? ?K I @A>A AL=HIA = ?=> A H@A F HGKA A KAL L= H xi @AFA @A @A I L= HAI =?JK= E =@ I @A x1 , x2 , ..., xi1

!!!

J @ @A 4E?D=H@I
=JHE Q = = =JHE E@A JE@=@ (I ) @A @ GKA =

-IJA FH ?A@E EA J J = ? A?K=?E ! ' AI =D H=

Ixk = (I A)x(k1) + b = x(k1) + r(k1)

@ A @A r(k1) AI A LA?J H HAIE@K= @A I = A?K=?E ! % E@

! %

A@E= JA r(k1) = b Ax(k1) 4AF = JA

'

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

xk = x(k1) Ax(k1) + b = x(k1) + r(k1)

A AIJ= A?K=?E IE

! &

K A A A J ?K= GKEAH= @A LA?J H r(k1) LA @H= @=@ F H = ANFHA

(k1) ri xi

= bi
i=1

aij xj

(k1)

! '

2=HJA 11

+7

'

+=F JK

"

.K ?E
H =/ A

AI
H = =@ =@

- = FHE AH= F=HJA @A E>H =>=H?= I I ? ?AFJ I > IE? I @A CA>H= E A= O A F = JA= EA J ? FKJ=?E = @A AIJ I A )6 )* ? A > AJEL @A =F E?=H I = = I K?E @A FH > A =I A? E? I - CA>H= E A= FAH EJA ? IJHKEH AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI GKA ?K F A ? ?EAHJ=I FH FEA@=@AI ?AHH=@KH= >= = IK = O >= = K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H 7 = LA @A E@ A AIF=?E I >HA IJA IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH HA =?E AI GKA FKA@A IAH BK ?E AI ? HHAIF @A ?E=I -IJA ?=F JK K J ? I @ I IECKEA JAI JEA A ? > AJEL KJE E =H DAHH= EA J=I ? FKJ=?E = AI F=H= A = EIEI @A BK ?E AI @A E@=I A AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI - F=HJE?K =H A AIJA ?=F JK IA KAIJH= = = AH= A GKA F @A I KJE E =H )6 )* F=H= = = E =H CH ?= A JA =I FH FEA@=@AI @A K = BK ?E =I ? I ?= >E I GKA IA CA AH= A A = ?K= @ IA @E ?= F=H AJH I 5E A >=HC AI F IE> A HA= E =H K = EIEI CH ? ?K= @ =I BK ?E AI JEA A I @A JHAI L=HE=> AI F H GKA AI A?AI=HE KJE E =H A ? ?K @EBAHA ?E= A E JACH= F=H= AIJK@E=H =I FH FEA@=@AI @A ?K= GKEAH BK ?E -IJA JE AI A FH F IEJ @A I ?=F JK I # O $ - CA AH= = CK =I L=HE=> AI A? E?=I FKA@A =BA?J=H A ? F HJ= EA J @A JH=I O AIJA JEF @A HA =?E AI IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A@E= JA BK ?E AI ? F HAA F = HA =?E GKA JEA A = =?K K =?E @A B=?J HAI ? A ?HA?E EA J A? E? 2 H J= J ? ?AH I J @ I F=H= = = E =H K = BK ?E O IK F = JA= EA J ? FK J=?E = AI JE F=H= => H@=H FH > A =I A? E? I - = FHE AH= IA??E @A AIJA ?=F JK IA AIJK@E= A ? ?AFJ @A BK ?E K EL=HE=@= O = = AH= A GKA F @A I CH= ?=H = A )6 )* F=H= = = E =H IKI FH FEA@=@AI '!

'"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

)@A I AIJ=> A?A I =I DAHH= EA J=I GKA BHA?A )6 )* F=H= = =@EH = CK =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I =@E?E = AI = CH ? @A = BK ?E J= AI ? J JK I >HAI @A I A AI ? HAI A JHA JH I - = IACK @= IA??E HA= E = I A EI = EIEI F=H= BK ?E AI ? @ I L=HE=> AI AI @A?EH FHAIA J= I A ? ?AFJ =JA JE? LEIK= E = I = BK ?E O = =@E I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I = I CH ? I 6= >E KJE E = I A ? ?AFJ @A ?KHL= @A ELA F=H= LEIK= E =H CH ?= A JA I ? K J I ? J H @A K = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI = JAH?AH= O ?K=HJ= IA??E ANF E?= ? LEIK= E =H A ?= >E @A BK ?E AI @A K = O @ I L=HE=> AI HAIFA?JEL= A JA ?K= @ ?= >E= A L= H @A = CK @A IKI F=H A JH I IE K =?E AI .E = A JA = JE = IA??E AIJK@E= ? AIJ I J @ I = CK =I BK ?E AI A? E?=I E F HJ= JAI

"

.K ?E

AI @A K = 8=HE=> A
Y R f : X Y  AI K = HA =?E JA K A A A J y Y 5A @E?A GKA y @ E E  ? K J @A I= E@= @A f K J @A AC=@= ? IJ= @A J @=I =I

7 = BK ?E f @A K ? K J X R A JH GKA =IEC = = ?=@= A A A J x X AN=?J= A AI = E =CA @A x O IA J=H ? f (x) AI A ? K J X O IK HA? HHE@ H= C ? E CA AI f (x) @A I A A A J I x X

- F=HJE?K =H K = BK ?E @A K = L=HE=> A IA ?=H=?JAHE = F HGKA ?=@= A A A J x X AI K AI?= =H )I AIJ=I BK ?E AI JEA A ? ? K J @A I= E@= = R O ? ? K J @A AC=@= = R f : R R

"

8EIK= E =?E

@A BK ?E

AI @A K = L=HE=> A
)6 )* IA IECKA JHAI F=I I

2=H= LEIK= E =H K = BK ?E

K EL=HE=@= f (x) A

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

7 = BK ?E A )6 )* IA FKA@A @A EH @A @ I = AH=I @EIJE J=I 2 H K =@ IA FKA@A ?HA=H K m-file A @ @A IA @A A = B H = @A = BK ?E 2 H JH =@ IA FKA@A KJE E =H A ? = @ inline GKA FAH EJA ?HA=H ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI ? =I GKA IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H = B H = BK ?E = +HA=H I @=J I 2 H = =JKH= A = K HE?= @A J @ CH ? F @A I LEIK= E =H = BK ?E = =HC @A J @ I I HA= AI O= GKA AIJA AI K ? K J =? J=@ 2 H AIJ AIJ=> A?A I I L= HAI @A = L=HE=> A @A I= E@= A

2=I

.7 +1

-5 I GKA IA GKEAHA LEIK= E =H = E =CA @A = BK ?E BK ?E GKA ?HA= I A A 2=I  CA AH= I K @A = BK ?E A A @ E E

'# )@A I KJE E = @ = HE?= A JA =I E CA AI

2=I ! 7JE E =H A ?

= @ plot @A )6 )* F=H= CH= ?=H -IJA ? = @ JEA A = IE J=NEI plot(x,y) @ @A x AI K LA?J H GKA ? JEA A I L= HAI @A @ E E @A E@ A A 2=I A y AI K LA?J H GKA ? JEA A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E F=H= ?=@= L= H @A x )I plot K A ? K = A= I FK J I CA AH=@ I F H ?=@= F=H @A A A A J I (xi , yi ) @ @A xi AI A A A A J i @A LA?J H x O yi AI A A A A J i @A LA?J H y -IJ= HKJE = I AI JE F=H= BK ?E AI K EL=HE=@=I - ? = @ plot FAH EJA AIFA?E ?=H A ? H O JEF @A = A= GKA IA L= = KI=H O I =H?=@ HAI GKA IA ? ?=H A ?=@= FK J 2 H A A F = IE J=NEI plot(x,y,r+:) CH= ?= I LA?J HAI x A y ? K = A= @A ? H H r FK JA=@= : O ? ?= =H?=@ HAI + A ?=@= K @A I FK J I (xi , yi ) - CA AH= = IE J=NEI @A AIJA ? = @ AI plot(x,y,s) @ @A s AI K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI GKA AIFA?E ?= A ? H A JEF @A A= O A =H?=@ H = KJE E =H

-I E F HJ= JA =? =H=H GKA I 2=I I O ! IA @A>A FH CH= =H A K m-file @EBAHA JA = m-file A @ @A IA ?HA = BK ?E 2=H= I A A F I @A E>H I m-files GKA ? JEA A = BK ?E 2=I  IA >H=H @A = B H = fejc# @ @A f E @E?= GKA AI K = BK ?E ej A A F c A ?=F JK ? HHAIF @EA JA O # A AH @A A A F 5E E =H A JA = FH CH= =?E @A I F=I I O ! IA ? ?=H A m-files >H=@ I @A = B H = pejc# )I fmej3 E @E?= K = BK ?E f KJE E =@= A A ?=FEJK @A =JHE?AI O LA?J HAI m A A JAH?AH A A F 3 O pejc AI IK FH CH= =?E I?HEFJ 2=H= E KIJH=H AIJ I F=I I LA= I = BK ?E f : [2, 5] R @ @A f (x) = x3 4x2 + 6 - FHE AH KC=H @A>A I ?HA=H = BK ?E 2=H= A =>HE I K m-file A )6 )* O AI?HE>E I = BK ?E @A = IECKEA JA B H =

function f=ffej0(x); f=x.^3-4*x.^2+6;

- = FHE AH= A= IA @A A = BK ?E ffej0 GKA JEA A ? A JH=@= A LA?J H x O? I= E@= A LA?J H f - = IACK @= A= IA AIFA?E ?= = B H = BK ?E = -IJA m-file @A>A IAH CK=H@=@ ? A >HA GKA IA =IEC = = BK ?E GKA A AIJA GKA A FAH=@ H FK J GKA IA ?=I AI ffej0 2 H JE HA? H@A I @A ?=F JK

'$ KJE E = A = IACK @= A= IEHLA F=H= HA= E =H FAH=?E A A F A x.^3 J = ?=@= A A A J @A LA?J H x O

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H F H

AI A A A J = A A A J A AL= = = F JA ?E= !

- ? = @ inline J= >E FAH EJA AIFA?E ?=H K = BK ?E ANFHAI @ = ? K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI -IJ= BK ?E = @EBAHA ?E= @A = GKA =?=>= I @A ?HA=H @A>A IAH FH CH= =@= A K m-file E @AFA @EA JA IE A A EI A @ @A IA ? ?=H = FH CH= =?E @A I JH I F=I I )6 )* F @A I ?HA=H = @A = IECKEA JA B H =

f=inline(x.^3-4*x.^2+6);
- AIJA ?=I = E IJHK??E ?HA= K > AJ f GKA ? JEA A = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI x.^3-4*x.^2+6 O GKA F H IK AIJHK?JKH= HA?E>A I L= HAI @A K LA?J H x - IECKEA JA F=I K = LA ?HA=@= = BK ?E AI ?HA=H I @=J I 2=H= A A K KAL ?DAH GKA = =HA I pej0 ?HA= I I L= HAI @A = L=HE=> A @A I= E@= x O KAC KJE E = I = CK = @A =I BK ?E AI ?HA=@=I A A F=I  F=H= CA AH=H I L= HAI @A =I E CA AI f(x) ;= GKA A A A F I E @E?= GKA = BK ?E L= @A I AH I HA= AI A A E JAHL= # = I AH I HA= AI @A>A I @A EH AIJ I L= HAI F=H= x O f(x) )6 )* =>HE I K KAL m-file A @ @A ?HA= I I L= HAI @A x A y KJE E = @ = BK ?E ffej0 =I

x=[-2:0.1:5]; y=ffej0(x);
KJE E = @ f ?HA=@= ?

inline

x=[-2:0.1:5]; y=f(x);
- LA?J H x ? JEA A L= HAI A JHA O # IAF=H=@ I A JHA I A   K E@=@AI  ' & " ' # O A LA?J H y ? JEA A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E A AIJA E JAHL=  KAC @A ?HA=H I @=J I )6 )* I FAH EJA @E>K =H = BK ?E F H A@E @A = IE J=NEI plot(x,y) + HAIK J=@ O = =@EA @ = CK =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I =@E?E = AI GKA ANF E?=HA I I =@A = JA )6 )* KAIJH= A CH ? @A = .ECKH= "  A K = KAL= LA J= = @A CKH=I .ECKHA 9E @ M 8A= I = ? JE K=?E JH A A F A A ?K= = BK ?E


2=H= ?HA=H =I E CA AI ? K m-file @A E JH @K?A I E FKJI A A H@A AIFA?E ?=@ A K = BK ?E @A = B H = f=inline(a*x) A AI A?AI=HE E JH @K?EH I E FKJI A H@A = B=>

= B H = function f=ffej0(x,a); f=a*x IA A m-file AI @A?EH y=ffej0(x,a) 7JE E = @ A A J @A KJE E =H = F=H= ?HA=H =I E CA AI JE? AI @A?EH y=f(a,x)

.7 +1

-5
f(x) = x3 4x2 + 6
40

'%

30

20

f(x)

10

10

20 2

.ECKH= "  .K ?E FHAIA J= @EI? JE KE@=@AI

4 (x1)2

+ >E?=

-A F

"  /H= ?=H f (x) =

A A ?

K J @A I= E@= X = [0.8, 1.25]

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

- K m-file = =@ ffej1

function f=ffej1(x); f=4./((x-1).^2);

KJE E = @ inline

f=inline(4./((x-1).^2));
4A? H@A I GKA A A ?=I @A KJE E =H inline = BK ?E A A EI m-file @A I F=I I O ! @A>A IAH ?HA=@=

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I - K m-file GKA = =HA

I pej3

x=[0.8:0.01:1.25]; y=ffej1(x);

% Conjunto de Salida o Dominio % Conjunto de Llegada o Rango

- ?=I @A KJE E =H = BK ?E E E A f I IA @A>A @E ?=H = IACK @= A= @A = B H = y=f(x) 2 H IE F E?E@=@ @A =GK A =@A = JA J @=I =I BK ?E AI IA ?HA=H A m-files A LA @A KJE E =H = E IJHK??E inline

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

plot(x,y,r+-)

'&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+ HAIK J=@ IA >JEA A K = CH ?= @A = BK ?E @A ? H H H ? A= IAC A J=@= - O ? =H?=@ HAI   A ?=@= FK J ) =@EA @ = CK =I ?=H=?JA H IJE?=I = CH ? >JA A I = .ECKH= " >IAHLA I GKA AIJ= BK ?E FHAIA J= 4 K = @EI? JE KE@=@ ?K= @ x = 1 - AIJA L= H @A x = BK ?E f AI ECK= = 0 = )6 )* FAH EJA JH=>= =H ? L= HAI ECK= AI = O I HAFHAIA J= ? inf KAIJH A A F F @A I LAH GKA A = F IE?E  @A LA?J H y = BK ?E J = A L= H @A inf
x 10 4
4

f(x) = 4/(x1)2

3.5

2.5

f(x)

1.5

0.5

0 0.8

0.85

0.9

0.95

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

.ECKH= "

.K ?E

,EI?

JE K= A N 

2=H= GKA AIJ IA >IAHLA A = CH ?= BKA A?AI=HE @A EH I A A A J I @A @ IAF=H=@ I F H   K E@=@AI @A J= B H = GKA  x O y

E E

+K= @ =I BK ?E AI I @EI? JE K=I F=H= ?EAHJ I L= HAI @A @ E E O AIJA AI @A E@ A )6 )* @A J= B H = GKA = BK ?E K ?= J = AI I L= HAI = CK H= ?= >E= ? IE@AH=> A A JA 8A= I GK ?KHHA ? KAIJH= BK ?E ?K= @  FAHJA A?A = @ E E F H GKA D=?A F=HJA @A H= C ? K J @A AC=@=

-A F

"

/H= ?=H f (x) = 7I=

4 (x1)2

x=[0.8:0.013:1.25] /y
?HA=@= A A m-file ffej1 I L= HAI @A ? K J

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E 2=I

I = BK ?E

+HA=H I @=J I += >E= @A I= E@=

I A AIF=?E= EA J A JHA

.7 +1

-5

''

x=[0.8:0.013:1.25]; % Conjunto de Salida o Dominio y=ffej1(x); % Conjunto de Llegada, Imagenes

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

plot(x,y, o-)

x 10

f(x) = 4/(x1)2

16

14

12

10

f(x)
8 6 4 2 0 0.8

0.85

0.9

0.95

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

.ECKH= " ! - A F

"

- HAIK J=@ AI = .ECKH= " ! A @ @A = BK ?E IA CH= ?= ? ? H = K ? A= ? JE K=   O ? =H?=@ HAI   A ?=@= FK J - AIJ= CKH= = BK ?E F=HA?A IAH ? JE K= -IJ IA @A>A = GKA = L=HE=> A x J A L= H @A  F=H= A ?K= = E =CA AH= IE GKA J L= HAI KO ?AH?= I =   ''# O  & ?KO= E =CA AI @EBAHA JA = - ? = @ plot K A ? K = E A= A = = @A = @EI? JE KE@=@ =I E CA AI @A I @ I FK J I I ?AH?= I =  CA AH= @ = CH ?= @A K = BK ?E
=F=HA JA A JA ? JE K= 2 H AI IA HA? EA @= IEA FHA =IACKH=HIA @A E ? KEH A A LA?J H x I L= HAI @A @ E E @ @A = BK ?E AI @EI? JE K=

"

F?E

AI =@E?E

= AI F=H=

I CH

? I

0A I >IAHL=@ GKA =I @EBAHA JAI CH ?=I GKA D= =F=HA?E@ = =HC @A ?=F JK JEA A ?EAHJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I A I A AI ?EAHJ=I BKA JAI F=H= I J JK I @AJAH E =@ I
A ? +K= @ IA AIFA?E ?= K ? H ? ?KHHA A AIJ= CKH=   A FH CH= = KJE E = F H @ABA?J H = K > =I JH=I F?E AI GKA KJE E = F H @ABA?J I A= ? JE K=   O E C =H?=@ H

 ? HAI @A =@ I A

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

A= F IE?E AI @A =I CKH=I 6 @ I AIJ I =IFA?J I FKA@A IAH FH CH= )6 )* O = ? JE K=?E IA ANF E?=H = = AH= @A @E ?=H I

text(x,y,Texto) K>E?= = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI Texto A =I ? H@A = @=I N O +K= @ x A y I LA?J HAI A JANJ IA HAFEJA A ?=@= F=H @A A A A J I (xi , yi ) + CH ? I A JHAI @E A IE AI AI A?AI=HE AIFA?E ?=H ? H@A =@=I N O 
2=H= ? ?=H L= HAI @A K = L=HE=> A A = C JANJ IA A?AIEJ= ? LAHJEH I FHE AH A ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI = E IJHK??E num2str(a) ? LEAHJA A L= H K HE? a A K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI!

title(Titulo) = =@A = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI Titulo A = F=HJA IK FAHE H @A CH ? - = E IJHK??E = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI @A>A =F=HA?AH A ? HH I?KH xlabel(X) ? ylabel(Y) ?
?= = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI X ? ?= = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI Y ? AJEGKAJ= @A A A N AJEGKAJ= @A A A O AJEGKAJ= @A A A A I A AI

zlabel(Z) ? ?= = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI Z ? CH ? I @A JHAI @E A IE AI

xlabel off, ylabel off, zlabel off GKEJ= = AJEGKAJ= @A x,y,z HAIFA?JEL= A JA

legend(Leyenda) ? ?= = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI Leyenda ? AJEGKA J= H JK @A I A A A J I @A K CH ? O= IA= A=I >=HH=I K > AJ I + JEF AI A A A J I = IE J=NEI AI legend(leyenda1,leyenda2,...) texlabel ?HA= JANJ A B H =J 6-: 6= >E B H =J 6-: ? ? @ IACKE@ @A

IA FKA@A ? ?=H JANJ A

grid ?HA= K = = = ?K=@H ?K = A I CH ? I 2KA@A E JH @K?EHIA AI?HE >EA @ grid on O @AI=F=HA?A ? grid off line ?HA= A=I 5K IE J=NEI AI line(x,y) @ @A x A y I LA?J HAI @A = EI = CEJK@ O I FK J I @A = E A= I =I ? H@A =@=I GKA B H = AIJ I LA?J HAI ? F A JA = ? F A JA +K= @ AIJ I I LA?J HAI IE =JHE?AI @A ECK= J= = )6 )* @E>K = K = A= F H ? K = 2=H= CH ? I A ! @E A IE AI IA @A>A AIFA?E ?=H LA?J HAI  =JHE?AI x,y,z
!

8AH +K=@H 

.7 +1

-5



axis ? JH = = AI?= = @A I A AI GKA IA E JH @K?A A A CH ? 2=H= CH ? I @A @ I @E A IE AI HA?E>A ? A JH=@= K LA?J H @A ?K=JH ? F A JAI A L= H E @A @ E E I >HA A A A N N E  A L= H NE I >HA A A A N N =N A L= H E @A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E A A A A O O E  O IK L= H NE O =N = IE J=NEI AI axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax])
+K= @ A CH ? AI @A JHAI @E A IE AI AI A?AI=HE E ? KEH =I ? H@A =@=I @A I L= HAI E O NE GKA J =H A A A  E O =N ANJA @EA @ = IE J=NEI = axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax zmin zmax]) ) CK I ? = @ I ? ?= H= C I FHA@AJAH E =@ I F=H= I A AI 2 H A A F axis auto = I A AI =KJ JE?= A JA IAC A @ E E @A = BK ?E axis xy ?HA= K F=H @A A AI ?KO HECA AIJ A = AIGKE = E BAHE H E GKEAH@= IEIJA = ?=HJAIE= JH=@E?E =  axis ij ? ?= A HECA A = AIGKE = IK FAHE H E GKEAH@= O ?HA= @ I A AI i O j LAHJE?= O D HE J= HAIFA?JEL= A JA I L= HAI @A i L= @A =HHE>= = =>= O I @A j @A E GKEAH@= = @AHA?D= = E IJHK??E axis equal A FH CH= = ? ?= = EI = AI?= = = J @ I I A AI + A ? = @ axis square I A AI B H = K ?K=@H=@  K ?K>  2=H= HAIJ=KH=H I L= HAI FHA@AJAH E =@ I @A I A AI IA KI= A ? = @ axis normal = E IJHK??E axis on =?JEL= I A AI A K CH ? O axis off I ?K J= +

view(az,el) AIFA?E ?= = H J=?E @A K CH ? A JHAI @E A IE AI F=H= >IAHL=H = CKH= @AI@A K CK @EIJE J - IK IE J=NEI az HAFHAIA J= A =?E KJ = E KJD A E C I CK D HE J= @A H J=?E O el AI A CK @A A AL=?E LAHJE?=  A@E@ I A CH=@ I
- ? = @ view(2) CA AH= = LEIJ= @A = A F = ?=HJAIE= ? K =?E KJ @A  O K view(3) CA AH= K = LEIJ= ? K =?E KJ @A >IAHL=H A CK A A ?K= IA AIJ LEA @ [az,el]=view O )6 )* IJH=H I GKA AIJ =>EAHJ= A AIA A J CKH= A @ I @E A IE AI I >HA = A AL=?E @A 90 EA JH=I GKA !% # O K = A AL=?E @A ! 2=H= K = CKH= IA KJE E = = IE J=NEI L= HAI @A az O el @A = CKH=

subplot @ELE@A = LA J= = @A CKH=I A =I O ? K =I = IE J=NEI AI subplot (r,c,i) @ @A r AI A AH @A =I A GKA IA @ELE@A = LA J= = cA AH @A ? K =I A i AI A AH @A = IK>LA J= = GKA GKA@=H =?JEL=

 AI @A?EH = IK>LA J= = A @ F IJAHE HAI @A IA CH= ?=H

/-,=I E IJHK??E

8AHIE AI E

2HA E E =H A@E=J= A JA

+=@= > AJ A K = CKH= JEA A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I FH FEA@=@AI GKA IA FKA@A @E ?=H I IE A > AJ HA?E>A K >HA 2 H A A F A J JK @A K CH ? AI K > AJ GKA JEA A ? ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I A JHA JH=I A J= = JEF CH I H A E ? E =?E @A = AJH= ) ? ?=H = E IJHK??E ts=title(Titulo) )6 )* = =?A = A > AJ Titulo ? A >HA ts O ? AIJA >HA IA FKA@A @E ?=H IKI FH FEA@=@AI ) ? JE K=?E ANF E?=HA I = CK =I FH FEA@=@AI @A I > AJ I

font =I F?E AI GKA ? EA = ? font D=?A @E ?=?E AI I >HA A JANJ fontangle ?= >E= A CH=@ @A E ? E =?E @A =I AJH=I @A JANJ A JHA =I F?E AI normal italic O oblique GKA CA AH= JEF I @A AJH= H = EJ E?= O > E?K= HAIFA?JEL= A JA fontname ?= >E= = BKA JA @A JANJ fontunits AIFA?E ?= = K E@=@ A = GKA IA E@A A J= = @A = AJH= FK C=@=I inches ?A JE AJH I centimeters FK J I points FENA AI pixels fontsize ?= >E= A J= = @A = AJH= 2 H JE fontweight FAH EJA ?= >E=H A CH I H A A JEF @A AJH= light normal demi bold alignment ANEIJA @ I ? = @ I GKA @E ?= = = E A=?E @A I > AJ I = = E A=?E D HE J= horizontalalignment GKA JEA A ? F?E AI = E A=H = = @AHA?D= right = = E GKEAH@= left A A ?A JH center O = = E A=?E LAHJE?= verticalalignment GKA FKA@A IAH =HHE>= top A A A@E middle O =>= bottom color FAH EJA HA= E =H ?= >E I A A ? H @A K > AJ )6 )* E@A JE ?= = =O H = @A I ? HAI ? IK E E?E= A E C I b F=H= = K g F=H= LAH@A r F=H= H c F=H= = K LAH@ I m F=H= =CA J= y F=H= = =HE O k F=H= ACH line =I F?E AI GKA ? EA = ? line D=?A @E ?=?E A=I @A > AJ linestyle @E ?= A AIJE @A = A= @A K ? F?E AI A= ? JE K= - A= FK JA=@= : A= IAC O A= ? FK J -. linewidth @E ?= = = F EJK@ CH I @A > AJ F H @ABA?J AI  #
AI I >HA =I > AJ 6EA A A J=@= - H @A = A=

marker =I F?E AI GKA ? EA = ? marker D=?A @E ?=?E AI I >HA I =H?=@ HAI @A > AJ marker AIFA?E ?= = C JEF @A =H?=@ H + o * . x square diamond v ^ > < pentagram hexagram none markersize

.7 +1

-5

!

E @E?= A J= = @A =H?=@ H markeredgecolor =IEC = A ? H @A > H@A @A =H?=@ H EA JH=I GKA markerfacecolor =IEC = A ? H @A HA A A =H?=@ HAI GKA I F EC I ?AHH=@ I ? F H A A F
 2=H= >IAHL=H @E ?=H =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A = C > AJ ob IA KJE E = I ? = @ I get O set - FHE AH KAIJH= =I FH FEA@=@AI @A > AJ EA JH=I GKA A IACK @ =I @E ?= = E IJHK??E get(ob) A FH CH= = KAIJH= = ? CKH=?E =?JK= @A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A > AJ ob EA JH=I GKA ? = E IJHK??E set(ob) KAIJH= =I F?E AI @EIF E> AI F=H= ?=@= FH FEA@=@ @A > AJ + = E IJHK??E set(ob,p,v) )6 )* =IEC = A L= H v = = FH FEA@=@ p @A > AJ ob 2=H= E KIJH=H AIJ I ? = @ I A ?=@= K @A I IECKEA JAI A A F I IA @E ?=H =I F?E AI @A = CK I > AJ I

"

.K ?E

AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI

) @EBAHA ?E= @A K = BK ?E @A K = L=HE=> A K = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI IA ?=H=? JAHE = F HGKA A ? K J @A I= E@= AI A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= @A I LA?J HAI x A y x y x, y R F H GKA AIJ=I BK ?E AI JEA A ? ? K J @A I= E@= = R2 O? ? K J @A AC=@= = R f : R2 R )I ?=@= A A A J @A ? K J @A I= E@= AI K = F=HA = H@A =@= @A = B H = (xi , yi )

"

8EIK= E =?E

@A .K ?E

AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI
A )6 )* O

+ A ?A I F H HAJ =H I F=I I A?AI=HE I F=H= LEIK= E =H K = BK ?E =@=FJ=H I = ?=I @A BK ?E AI ? @ I L=HE=> AI

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E 2=I

fej(X,Y)

+HA=H I @=J I - BK ?E AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI IA ?HA= JHAI ? K J I @A @=J I =I @ I L=HE=> AI @A I= E@= x A y  O = L=HE=> A @A AC=@= z  -IJ I JHAI ? K J I @A @=J I FKA@A IAH LA?J HAI =JHE?AI" @A ECK= @E A IE ,=@ I I ? K J I x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) A @ E E I >HA A ?K= IA @A A = BK ?E f (x, y ) AI A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= x y -IJA FH @K?J CA AH= ? HAIK J=@ K = IAHEA @A F=HA =I H@A =@=I @A = B H = (xi , yi ) @A E@= F H = =JHE

"

=I

+ IA AIJ=> A?E A A +=F JK =JHE?AI ? =O I?K =I

I LA?J HAI

I @A

J=

I?

I?K =I

EA JH=I GKA

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y1 ) (x1 , y2 ) (x2 , y2 ) (x1 , yn ) (x2 , yn )

... ... ...

(xn , y1 ) (xn , y2 ) (xn , yn )

/H ?= A JA I FK J I CA AH=@ I F H AIJ= =JHE IA FKA@A LAH ? K =

= = A = F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A = .ECKH= " " +=@= E JAHIA??E @A =I A=I FK JA=@=I ? HHAIF @A = K = @A =I F IE?E AI @A = =JHE = JAHE H CA AH= @ A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A?AI=HE F=H= @A EH A @ E E ? K J @A I= E@= @A = BK ?E - = F=HJA @AHA?D= @A AIJ= CKH= IA KAIJH= A AIF=?E A @ @A IA LEIK= E = = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI f (x, y ) = >=IA @A AIJA AIF=?E AI A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= x y O A A A LAHJE?= ? HHAIF @A = H= C @A = BK ?E f (x, y )

0.9

0.8 1 0.7 0.8

0.6

0.6

f(x,y)

0.4

0.5

0.2 0.4 0 1 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

.ECKH= " "

= = GKA ? JA C= I

2 @A I HAAI?HE>EH = =JHE = JAHE H A @ I =JHE?AI A A A J I xi A yi HAIFA?JEL= A JA =I x1 x2 ... xn y1 y1 ... x1 x2 ... xn y2 y2 ... X= Y = x1 x2 ... xn yn yn ...

y1 y2 yn

=I =JHE?AI X A Y IA FKA@A ?HA=H = F=HJEH @A @ I LA?J HAI x A y )6 )* AIJ IA D=?A F H A@E @A = E IJHK??E meshgrid# ?KO= IE J=NEI AI
#

8AH +=F JK

.7 +1

-5

#

[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y)
=I F=HA =I H@A =@=I @A A A A J I X(i,j),Y(i,j) ? B H = = = = @A = F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A = .ECKH= " " 2=H= ?HA=H A ? K J @A AC=@= E CA AI @A f (x, y ) IA @A A = =JHE Z =I

Z=fej(X,Y)

2=I ! 7JE E =H K ?
?

= @ F=H= CH= ?=H )6 )* @EIF = @ I F=H= CH= ?=H K = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI

A @A

I IECKEA JAI

plot3 -IJA ? = @ AI AGKEL= A JA = plot KJE E =@ F=H= CH= ?=H BK ?E AI @A K = L=HE=> A O JEA A = IE J=NEI plot3(X,Y,Z) +K= @ I A A A J I = CH= ?=H I LA?J HAI x, y, z  AIJA ? = 3 @ JH= = A A AIF=?E R K = A= GKA K A I FK J I CA AH=@ I F H =I ? K =I @A ?=@= K @A I LA?J HAI )I IEA @ x, y, z LA?J HAI @A J= = 1 n A ? = @ JH= = K = A= GKA K A I FK J I (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), . . . , (xn , yn , zn )
+K= @ I A A A J I = CH= ?=H I =JHE?AI X, Y, Z  A ? = @ @E >K = =I A=I CA AH=@=I F H =I ? K =I @A =I =JHE?AI X, Y, Z 5EA @ X, Y, Z =JHE?AI @A J= = m n = E IJHK??E plot3(X,Y,Z) @E>K = IE K J A= A JA = A= CA AH=@= F H = FHE AH= ? K =

(X11 , Y11 , Z11 ), (X21 , Y21 , Z21 ), . . . , (Xm1 , Ym1 , Zm1 )

= A= CA AH=@= F H = IACK @= ? K =

(X12 , Y12 , Z12 ), (X22 , Y22 , Z22 ), . . . , (Xm2 , Ym2 , Zm2 )

O =I IK?AIEL= A JA D=IJ= = A= CA AH=@= F H = ? K =n

(X1n , Y1n , Z1n ), (X2n , Y2n , Z2n ), . . . , (Xmn , Ymn , Zmn ) mesh ,E>K = K = = = A A AIF=?E R3 GKA HA A = BK ?E  =JHE Z  = =HC @A @ E E @A E@ F H A Y =I A=I GKA ? B H = = = = I @E>K =@=I A A JA @A E@ I A A colormap - HA= GKA A ?EAHH= @A = = = AI > = ?= = IE J=NEI @A AIJA ? = @ AI mesh(X,Y,Z) surf ) ECK= GKA mesh AIJA ? = @ @E>K = K = R3 GKA HA A = = B H = @A = BK ?E  =JHE Z  =
= = A A AIF=?E =HC @A @ E E = B H = @A = =I =JHE?AI X ? HAI FHALE= ?=@= ?K=@H=@

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A E@ F H =I =JHE?AI X A Y =I A=I GKA ? B H = = = = I @A ? H ACH O A HA= GKA A ?EAHH= ?=@= ?K=@H=@ @A = = = IA @E>K = = F=HJEH @A = AI?= = @A ? HAI @A E@= F H A colormap 5K IE J=NEI AI

surf(X,Y,Z) contour3 ,E>K = K AH n @A ?KHL=I @A ELA @A = BK ?E A 3 A AIF=?E R 7 = ?KHL= @A ELA ? HHAIF @A = CH= ?=H f (x, y ) = @ @A AI K = ? IJ= JA - ? K J @A ?KHL=I @A ELA AIJ @=@ F H I n @EIJE J I L= HAI GKA FKA@A J =H 5K IE J=NEI AI [CS,H]=contour3(X,Y,Z,n)
@ @A CS JEA A I ? ?K I @A ?=@= K = @A =I ?KHL=I @A ELA ? J H I L= HAI @A  O H JEA A I L= HAI GKA FAH EJA @E ?=H =I FH FEA@=@AI @A ?=@= ?KHL= @A ELA +K= @ n AI K LA?J H ?=@= ? F A JA @A n AI K @EBAHA JA L= H @A AIFA?E ?=@ F H A KIK=HE

contour ,E>K = K AH n @A ?KHL=I @A ELA A A AIF=?E R2 ? K J @A I= E@= x y  5K IE J=NEI AI [CS,H]=contour(X,Y,Z,n) clabel + ?= AJEGKAJ=I GKA E @E?= A L= H @A A ?=@= K = @A =I ?KHL=I @A ELA >JA E@=I ? I ? = @ I contour 3 contour 5K IE J=NEI AI clabel(CS,H)
= IA?KA ?E= @A F=I I O = KJE E =?E AA F @A ?=@= ? = @ IA E KIJH= ? A IECKEA JA

-A F
R

" ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

= ?HA=

f (x, y ) = x + y A A @

E E f : [5 20] [5 20]

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

I A K m-file = =@ ffej3 =I

function f=ffej3(x,y); f=x+y;

2=I

+HA=H I @=J I - A I LA?J HAI x A y KAC BK ?E

?DAH pej3 ?

I F H @A

EH

I L= HAI F=H=

x=[5:1:20];y=[5:1:20];
A?AIEJ= I ?HA=H = = =  @ E E  I >HA = ?K= AIJ @A F H A@E @A ? = @ meshgrid =I E@= =

.7 +1

-5

%

[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y);
)D H= D= = I I L= HAI @A =I E K J GKA IA CK=H@= A = =JHE Z CA AI @A = BK ?E I >HA AIJA ?

Z=ffej3(X,Y);

2=I ! /H= ?=H 7JE E?A

LEIK= E =H = BK ?E

I @EBAHA JAI ? f (x, y ) = x + y

= @ I GKA BHA?A

)6 )* F=H=

subplot(2,2,1) plot3(X,Y,Z); grid on; title(Plot3); subplot(2,2,2); mesh(X,Y,Z); title(Mesh); subplot(2,2,3); surf(X,Y,Z); title(Surf); n=20; subplot(2,2,4); contour3(X,Y,Z,n); title([Contour3 (n=,num2str(n),)]); grid off
+ HAIK J=@ @A AIJ= FH CH= =?E )6 )* I KAIJH= = .ECKH= " # ) F=HJEH @A AIJ= CKH= F @A I LAH GKA A ? = @ plot I @E>K = A=I EA JH=I GKA mesh O surf @E>K = K = = = - A CH ? @A =I ?KHL=I @A ELA >IAHL= I GKA ?=@= K = @A A =I JEA A K ? H @EBAHA JA @AFA @EA @ @A L= H  = GKA IA ECK= = = BK ?E 2=H= I CH ? I A 3 R J= >E AI F IE> A KJE E =H A ? = @ grid - AIJA A A F =?JEL= I = ?K=@H ?K = ? grid on @AIFK I @A plot3 O= GKA AIJA @AI=?JEL= = ?K=@H ?K = F H @ABA?J O KAC = @AI=?JEL= I = KJE E =H = E IJHK??E contour3

&
Plot3
40 40

/-,Mesh

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

30

30

f(x,y)

20

f(x,y)
20 10 15 10 5 5

20

10 20 15

10 20 15 10 15 10 5 5 20

Surf
40 40

Contour3 (n=20)

30

30

f(x,y)

20

f(x,y)
20 10 15 10 5 5

20

10 20 15

10 20 15 10 15 10 5 5 20

.ECKH= " # +

= @ I F=H= CH= ?=H BK ?E

AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI

"

F?E

AI =@E?E

= AI F=H=

I CH

? I

=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A = IA??E "  FKA@A =F E?=HIA = CH ? I A JHAI @E A IE AI 7 = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= =@E?E = @A CH ? I A R3 AI A =F= @A ? HAI ? A GKA IA CH= ?= =I IKFAH ?EAI GKA IA @E ?= ? A ? = @ colormap -IJA ? = @ =JE = A JHA K ? K J @A ? HAI F=H= ?=@= CKH= I ? H =FI =I KJE E =@ I$ I

hot * = ? flag 4

ACH >= ?

= =HE

OH

= K O ACH

cool ) E O autumn 4

=CA J= O = =HE

summer 8AH@A O = =HE winter ) K O LAH@A

-I F IE> A ? IJHK H K HE?= A JA ? H =FI FAHI @ ?K A J=?E A = =OK@= @A AIJA ? = @
$

= E =@ I -IJ IA FKA@A ?

IK J=H A

.7 +1

-5

'

)@A I colorbar E JH @K?A K = >=HH= @A ? HAI GKA FAH EJA LAH IAC A =F= @A ? HAI GKA IA =F EGKA A ? H ? HHAIF @EA JA = ?=@= L= H @A = BK ?E AI @A?EH = ?=@= L= H @A A A A A LAHJE?= + I IECKEA JAI A A F I IA E KIJH=H AIJ=I F?E AI

-A F

" " /H= ?=H = BK ?E

10x2 + 10y 2 + 50x I >HA A @

3 3 2 f (x, y ) = 1 6 (x + y ) + 2 (x + y ) 500(x + y ) + E E f : [90 90] [90 90] R

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

A K m-file = =@ ffej4

function f=ffej4(x,y); f=(1/6)*(x+y).^3+ (3/2)*(x+y).^2-500*(x+y)+... 10*x.^2+10*y.^2+50*x;

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I A

JH m-file = =@ pfej4

x=[-90:2:90];y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); Z=ffej4(X,Y);

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

mesh(X,Y,Z) title([ x,y \in [,num2str(min(x)),,,num2str(max(x))]]); colorbar; xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); view(50,34)
+ HAIK J=@ JA A I = .ECKH= " $ 2=H= AIJA CH ? IA KJE E =H =I E IJHK??E AI xlabel ylabel O zlabel F=H= ? ?=H >HAI A ?=@= ) K @A I A AI )@A I A A J JK IA ? ?=H I > I 6-:% KJE E = @
 = E IJHK??E \in CA AH A I > = BK ?E @A = .ECKH= " $ =F=HA JA A JA AI ?HA?EA JA = =HC @A J @ IK @ E E & 5E A >=HC @A>E@ = = AI?= = GKA IA AIJ = A = @ L= HAI A JHA ' O ' IA FKA@A AIJ=H >LE= @ @AJ= AI I >HA A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E 2 H AIJ= H= AI A?AI=HE AN= E =H A @AJ= A A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E A L=HE I @ E E I 2=H= A =I IECKEA JAI E IJHK??E AI CH= ?= = EI = BK ?E A ?K=JH ? K J I @A I= E@= @EBAHA JAI
2=H= K = =O H ANF E?=?E @A AIJ I I > I ? IK J=H  4A? H@A I GKA K = BK ?E f (x, y ) AI ?HA?EA JA A IK @ E E S IE F=H= J @ (x, y ) S A A A J I @A CH=@EA JA FA @EA JA I F IEJEL I
& %


x,y [90,90]

/-,-

8AHIE
x 10 10
5

2HA E E =H

x 10

10 6 8 6 4 4

f(x,y)

2 2 0 2 0 4 6 2 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 80 60 20 40 6 0 20 40 60 80 4

.ECKH= " $ - A F

""

% Crear los cuatro conjuntos de datos x1=[-90:9:90];y1=x1; [X1,Y1]=meshgrid(x1,y1); n=length(x1); Z1=ffej4(X1,Y1); x2=linspace(-70,70,n);y2=x2; [X2,Y2]=meshgrid(x2,y2); Z2=ffej4(X2,Y2); x3=linspace(-50,50,n);y3=x3; [X3,Y3]=meshgrid(x3,y3); Z3=ffej4(X3,Y3); x4=linspace(-30,30,n);y4=x4; [X4,Y4]=meshgrid(x4,y4); Z4=ffej4(X4,Y4); % Graficar

subplot(2,2,1) mesh(X1,Y1,Z1);view(50,34); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); title([(x,y) \in [,num2str(min(x1)), ,,num2str(max(x1)),]]);

.7 +1

-5



subplot(2,2,2) mesh(X2,Y2,Z2);view(50,34); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); title([(x,y) \in [,num2str(min(x2)),,,num2str(max(x2)),]]); subplot(2,2,3) mesh(X3,Y3,Z3);view(50,34); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); title([(x,y) \in [,num2str(min(x3)), ,num2str(max(x3)),]]); subplot(2,2,4) mesh(X4,Y4,Z4);view(50,34); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); title([(x,y) \in [,num2str(min(x4)), ,,num2str(max(x4)),]]);
x,y [90,90]
x 10
5

x,y [70,70]
x 10
5

10 4 5

f(x,y)

0 5

f(x,y)
50 0 50 50 0

2 0 2 50

50

50 0 50 50 0

x,y [50,50]
x 10
4

x,y [30,30]
x 10
4

3 15 10 2 1 0

f(x,y)

5 0 5 50 50 0 50 50 0

20 0 20 20 0

20

.ECKH= " % ,EIJE J I ?

K J I @A I= E@=

- = .ECKH= " % IA FHAIA J= = EI = BK ?E I >HA I @ E E I [90 90] [90 90] [70 70] [70 70] [50 50] [50 50] [30 30] [30 30] ) A@E@= GKA IA KJE E =

 @ E E I ? A BK ?E JEA A K =

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

H AI?= = E JAHL= I @A x A y I FAGKA I IA >IAHL= GKA = = @A?HA?EA JA = HA@A@ H @A FK J (x, y ) = (10, 10)

-A F
[30 30]

" # /H= ?=H = BK ?E

R
A K

f (x, y ) = x2 y 2 I >HA A @

E E f : [30 30]

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

A = =@ ffej5

function f=ffej5(x,y); f=(x.^2)-(y.^2);

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

x=[-30:1:30];y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); Z=ffej5(X,Y);

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

colormap(winter); subplot(2,2,1) contour3(X,Y,Z,30) title(Contour3, n = 30); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); subplot(2,2,2) [c1,h1]=contour(X,Y,Z,8); clabel(c1,h1); title([Contour, Clabel, n=8]); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); subplot(2,2,3) [c2,h2]=contour(X,Y,Z,[-800 -600 -400 -200 200 400 600 800]); clabel(c2,h2); title([Contour, Clabel]); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y)); subplot(2,2,4) cn = [-800 -150 0 150 800]; contourf(X,Y,Z,cn)

.7 +1

-5

!

title([Contourf]); xlabel(x);ylabel(y);zlabel(f(x,y));

Contour3, n = 30
30 1000 500 20

Contour, Clabel, n=8

3 38
20 20

1 2
43

10

f(x,y)

500 10 1000 20 0 20 20 20 0 30 30 20

642.85

71

12 8.

57 1

14 .57 28 1 385.7143 642

10 0

.8571
10 30

20

Contour, Clabel
30

Contourf
30

00

800 600

20

0 40 2

00
20

20 0

10

10

400

800 600

800

10

20

10

20

30 30

00 2
20

600 800
10 0

40 2 0 00
10 20 30

20

30 30

20

10

10

5.7
642.8571
30

.ECKH= " & 2K J @A 5E =

- HAIK J=@ AI = .ECKH= " & 2=H= AIJA CH ? @A E I K KAL =F= @A ? HAI ? A ? = @ colormap(winter) 5A KJE E contour K J ? clabel F=H= CH= ?=H & ?KHL=I @A ELA ?= ?K =@=I F H )6 )* ? IK HAIFA?JEL= AJEGKAJ= E @E?= @ A L= H @A  -IJ I ? = @ I J= >E IA KJE E =H F=H= CH= ?=H ?KHL=I @A ELA FHA@AJAH E =@=I  & $ "   " $ & = E IJHK??E contourf CH= ? JH=I ?KHL=I @A ELA @EBAHA JAI  & #  # & IE AJEGKAJ=I FAH HA A = @ IKI ? J H I @A EI ? H @A =I ?KHL=I'

'

- A ?=F JK

% IA AIJK@E=H

I=B

@ A ?

?AFJ @A ?

K J I?

J H

14

8.5

642.8571 .7143 385 71 4

7 128.5

5 38 .71

14

400

600

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

"!

5E K =?E

AI A BK ?E

AI @A K = L=HE=> A

7 = IE K =?E AI K A AH?E?E K HE? GKA @E ?= A L= H @A K L=HE I F=H AJH I @A I GKA @AFA @A K = BK ?E -IJ IA D=?A F=H= >IAHL=H A ?= >E A A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E = @E ?=H IE K =H I F=H AJH I - FH ?A@E EA J F=H= HA= E =H = IE K =?E F=HJA @A I EI I F=I I F=H= @E>K =H K = BK ?E GKA DA I JH=>= =@ D=IJ= =D H= ?HA=H = BK ?E ?HA=H I @=J I O CH= ?=H 5E A >=HC D=O @ I @E ?=?E AI = FHE AH= ? IEIJA A GKA = ?HA=H = BK ?E IJ= @A>A HA?E>EH ? A JH=@=I =@A I @A =I L=HE=> AI I F=H AJH I = IACK @= HAGKEAHA GKA I F=I I @A ?HA=H I @=J I AIFA? ?= A JA A H= C ? K J @A AC=@= O CH= ?=H IA HAFEJ= n LA?AI GKA FKA@A IAF=H=HIA F H K = F=KI= @ @A n AI A AH @A L= HAI @A F=H AJH GKA IA L= = IE K =H 2=H= E KIJH=H AIJA FH ?A@E EA J LA= I A IECKEA JA A A F
f(x) = x0.3
0.7 0.35

f(x) = x0.7

0.6

0.3

0.5

0.25

0.4

0.2

f(x)

0.3

f(x)
0.15 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

.ECKH= " ' 5E K =?E

@A K = BK ?E

@A K = L=HE=> A

- = F=HJA E GKEAH@= @A = .ECKH= " ' IA KAIJH= = E =CA @A f (x) = x0.3 GKA JEA A K = BKAHJA ?KHL=JKH= - = F=HJA @AHA?D= IA LEIK= E = = BK ?E f (x) = x0.7 HAIK J=@ @A K ?= >E A A ANF A JA @A = L=HE=> A F=H AJH  =D H= = BK ?E FHAIA J= K = ?KHL=JKH= =I IK=LA O JEA @A = IAH E A= -IJ I ?= >E I FKA@A IAH >IAHL=@ I AIJ=> A?EA @ = E JAHE H @A =I BK ?E AI F=H AJH I GKA FKA@= J =H @EBAHA JAI L= HAI - A ?=I = JAHE H = B H = CA AH= @A = BK ?E AI f (x) = xa ? a (0, 1) O IA IE K A F=H AJH a F=H= I L= HAI @A a = 0.3 O a = 0.7 ) ? JE K=?E ANJA @A I A = JAHE H A A F IE K = @ A F=H AJH a A ANF A JA @A = L=HE=> A x F=H= I L= HAI @A 0.1 0.4 0.6 O 0.9

.7 +1

-5

# AJH a A f (x) = xa F=H= a = {0.1, 0.4, 0.6, 0.9}

-A F

" $ 5E K =H A F=H

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

- K m-file

function f=ffej6(x,a); % Parametro como entrada f=x.^a; % Forma funcional

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I ,A

I L= HAI @A x a A y

x=[0:0.0025:0.2]; a=[0.1 0.4 0.6 0.9]; n=length(a); for i=1:n; y(i,:)=ffej6(x,a(i)); end

% Conjunto de salida % Valores del Parmetro % Numero de valores del parametro

% Crear n conjuntos de llegada

@A n AI A AH @A L= HAI

5A ?HA=H n ? K J I @A AC=@= H= C I @ GKA J = A F=H AJH length(a)

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

HAFAJEH n LA?AI

for i=1:n; subplot(2,2,i) plot(x,y(i,:)); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(f(x)); ts=title([f(x) = x^a, a = ,num2str(a(i))]); set(ts,Fontsize,18,Fontweight,Bold,color,b) set(xs,FontSize,14,Fontweight,Bold) set(ys,FontSize,14,Fontweight,Bold) end
- ? = @ for HAFEJA A FH ?AI " LA?AI GKA AI A AH @A L= HAI GKA J = A F=H AJH a n=length(a) = E IJHK??E y(i,:)=ffej6(x,a(i)) ?HA= K ? K J @A E CA AI @A = BK ?E ffej6 F=H= ?=@= L= H @A F=H AJH a O CK=H@= A = = i @A = =JHE y 7 = LA ?HA=@ I I @=J I IA KJE E = = E IJHK??E subplot(2,2,i) F=H= D=?AH K CH ? GKA JA C= @ I =I O @ I ? K =I - ?=@= F IE?E i @A subplot IA KJE E = plot(x,y(i,:)) F=H= CH= ?=H = E =CA @A = BK ?E ?K= @ A F=H AJH a J = A L= H a(i) = I= E@= @A )6 )* IA KAIJH= A = .ECKH= " 

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

f(x) = xa, a = 0.1

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6

f(x) = xa, a = 0.4

f(x)

0.4 0.3

f(x)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.5

0.4 0.3 0.2

0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

f(x) = xa, a = 0.6

0.4 0.35 0.2 0.3 0.25 0.15 0.25

f(x) = xa, a = 0.9

f(x)

0.2 0.15 0.1

f(x)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.1

0.05 0.05 0 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

.ECKH= "  - A F +

"$

I ? = @ I xlabel O ylabel IA ? ?=H =I AJEGKAJ=I x O f(x) F=H= I A AI = E IJHK??E num2str(a(i)) ? LEAHJA A L= H K HE? a(i) A K = ?=@A = @A ?=H=?JAHAI F H GKA A J JK ?= >E= F=H= ?=@= L= H @A a ) ?HA=H = CKH= IA ? ?= >HA = J JK ts O = I A AI xs,ys F=H= F @AH @E ?=H IKI FH FEA@=@AI + A ? = @ set IA @A A F=H= A J JK K J= = @A AJH= & CH I H
> @ O ? H = K O F=H= I A AI K J= = @A AJH= " O CH I H
> @ - AIJA A A F IA >IAHL= GKA A >K? A for HAFEJA A FH ?AI n LA?AI J= J = ?HA=H =I E CA AI ? = CH= ?=H )K GKA AIJA >K? A IA IAC A J F=H= IACKEH I EI I F=I I A K = IE J=NEI =I IA ?E = IA FKA@A K EH AIJ I @ I >K? AI A K I 8A= I K A A F ? = BK ?E IA

-A F

" % 5E K =H A F=H

AJH a A f (x) = asen(x)

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

- K m-file

function f=ffej7(x,a); f=a.^(sin(x));

.7 +1

-5 +HA=H I @=J I ,A E I I L= HAI @A x O a

%

2=I

x=[1:0.01:25]; a=[0.3:0.2:1.7]; v=[min(x) max(x) -10 10];

- AIJA ?=I a J K E@=@AI

% Eje vertical

= L= HAI A JHA  ! O  % AIF=?E=@ I A JHA IE F H 

2=I ! 5E K =H A F=H

AJH a

for i=1:length(a); y=ffej7(x,a(i)); plot(x,y); ls=line([min(x) max(x)],[0 0]); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(f(x)); ts=title([f(x) = a^{sin(x)} a = ,num2str(a(i))]); axis(v); % Escala de los ejes set(ts,Fontsize,16,Fontweight,Bold,color,r) set([xs ys],FontSize,10,Fontweight,Bold) set(ls,linestyle,:) pause(2) end
5A KJE E = K EI >K? A for F=H= ?HA=H I H= C I O F=H= CH= ?=H

+ HAIK J=@ )6 )* CH= ?= IA?KA ?E= A JA = IE K =?E @A = BK ?E F=H= ?D L= HAI @A F=H AJH a - = .ECKH= "  IA KAIJH= IE K J A= A JA A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E F=H= ?K=JH L= HAI @A a 0.3 0.7 1.3 1.7 ) F=HJEH @A = A= % IA @E ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI @A = CK I > AJ I 2=H= A J JK IA AIJ=> A?A J= = @A AJH= $ CH I H
> @ O ? H H =I AJEGKAJ=I @A I A AI JEA A J= = @A AJH=  CH I H
> @ O F H @ABA?J A ? H @A = AJH= AI ACH ) @EBAHA ?E= @A A A F = JAHE H = ? CKH=?E @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A I A AI IA DE A K = I = E A= O A @ I A=I @EBAHA JAI KJE E = @ A LA?J H [xs,ys] A = E IJHK??E set + line IA ? ? K = A= D HE J= FK JA=@= F=H= HAFHAIA J=H A A A @A =I N F H GKA L= @A FK J (x, y ) = (min(x),0) = FK J (x, y ) = (max(x),0) O ? = E IJHK??E axis(v) IA ? ? K = AI?= = = = A A LAHJE?= @A = CH ?= A JHA  O 

&
f(x) = asin(x) a = 0.3
10 8 6 4 2 10 8 6 4 2

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

f(x) = asin(x) a = 0.7

f(x)

0 2 4 6 8 10 5 10 15 20 25

f(x)

0 2 4 6 8 10 5 10 15 20 25

f(x) = asin(x) a = 1.3

10 8 6 4 2 10 8 6 4 2

f(x) = asin(x) a = 1.7

f(x)

0 2 4 6 8 10 5 10 15 20 25

f(x)

0 2 4 6 8 10 5 10 15 20 25

.ECKH= "  - A F

"%

)6 )* F @A I IE K =H K = BK ?E @A K = L=HE=> A F=H= K CH= AH @A L= HAI @A IK F=H AJH ? CH ? I @A JHAI @E A IE AI A @ @A I L= HAI @A F=H AJH IA ? ?= A A A A A A LAHJE?= 8A= I K A A F

-A F

" & 5E K =H A F=H

2 @A

AJH a A

= BK ?E

f (x) = asen(x) ? ffej7

a = [0, 0.2]

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E 2=I

+HA=H I @=J I

I KJE E =H = BK ?E

x=[-10:0.1:6]; a=[0:0.1:4]; [X,A] = meshgrid(x,a); Y=ffej7(X,A);

% Valores de x % Valores del parametro % Dominio % Rango, Imagenes

I L= HAI @A F=H= AJH  =JHE A

2=I ! /H= ?=H - A A A IA CH= ?=

mesh(X,Y,A); t=texlabel(a^{sin(x)}); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(f(x));zs=zlabel(a);

.7 +1

-5

'

ts=title([f(x) = ,t, a \in [,num2str(min(a)),... ,,num2str(max(a)),]]); set(ts,Fontsize,18,Fontweight,Bold); set([xs ys zs],FontSize,14,Fontweight,Bold);

f(x) = asin(x) a [0,4]

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0 10 8 6 4 2 8 0 10 4 6 0 2 4 2 6

f(x)

.ECKH= " 

-A F

"& 7JE E = I = E IJHK??E @A )6-: O = E ? KE I @ I HA C AI ? FK J I CKH=H =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I zs] A = E IJHK??E set

= I= E@= @A )6 )* IA FHAIA J= A = .ECKH= "  texlabel F=H= ? ?=H = BK ?E ? K = ANFHAIE @A JH @A J JK = E IJHK??E title IA IAC A J A IKIFA IEL I ... @A>E@ = IK ANJA IE )@A I IA ? @A I A AI A K = I = A= KJE E = @ A LA?J H [xs ys

5A >IAHL= GKA F=H= L= HAI @A a ?AH?= I =  = BK ?E JEA @A = IAH E A= FAH = A@E@= GKA IA = A = @A AIJA L= H =I I?E =?E AI ?=H=?JAH IJHE?=I @A = BK ?E IA IA D=?A I FH K ?E=@=I + = E IJHK??E contour(X,Y,A,40) >JA A I ?KHL=I @A ELA GKA KAIJH= A EI HAIK J=@ A A F = A @ @A AIJ @A E@= = BK ?E .ECKH= " ! +K= @ IA IE K = F ? I L= HAI @A F=H AJH @A K = BK ?E AI A?AI=HE KJE E =H >K? AI ? IK>F JI F=H= CH= ?=H = IE K =?E 8A= I K A A F A @ @A = BK ?E GKA L= I = IE K =H AI @A B H = ANF A ?E=

-A F

" ' 5E K =H A F=H

AJH a A

= BK ?E

ANF

A ?E= f (x) = e(ax) ?

a = {0.1, 0.4, 0.7, 1}

 
f(x) = asin(x)
9 8

/-,a [0,4]

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

f(x)
4 3 2 1 0 10

.ECKH= " ! - A F

"&

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

- K m-file

function f=ffej9(x,a); f=exp(-a*x);

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I ,A

I L= HAI @A x O a

x=[0:0.01:20]; a=[0.1 0.4 0.7 1]; for i=1:length(a); y(i,:)=ffej9(x,a(i)); end

% Conjuntos de llegada

2=I ! /H= ?=H = IE K =?E

p = plot(x,y(1,:),r :,x,y(2,:),b -.,... x,y(3,:),k -,x,y(4,:),m -); ls = legend([a = ,num2str(a(1))],[a = ,num2str(a(2))],... [a = ,num2str(a(3))],[a = ,num2str(a(4))]); % Caracteristicas adicionales grid on; xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(f(x));

.7 +1

-5

 

ts=title([f(x) = e^-ax a = [0.1 0.4 0.7 1]]); set(ts,Fontsize,16,Fontweight,Bold,... horizontalalignment,left,... verticalalignment,baseline); set([xs ys],FontSize,12,Fontweight,Bold); set(ls,fontsize,12,fontname,times,location,north);

f(x) = eax
a = 0.1 a = 0.4 a = 0.7 a=1

a = [0.1 0.4 0.7 1]

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

f(x)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

.ECKH= " " - A F

"'

- = .ECKH= " " IA >IAHL= A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E 5A KJE E plot F=H= ? ?=H A K = I = CKH= =I ?K=JH IE K =?E AI +=@= IE K =?E IA ? ? ? K JEF @A A= O ? H @EBAHA JA 5A KJE E legend F=H= ? ?=H K = AOA @= ? =I AJEGKAJ=I @A ?=@= IE K =?E IAC IKI ? HAI O JEF I @A A= + set A J JK IA = E A D HE J= A JA = = E GKEAH@= @AHA?D= @A KIK=HE  O LAHJE?= A JA I >HA = A= @A CH ? 6= >E IA KJE E F=H= @E ?=H J= = O JEF @A AJH= @A = AOA @= O K>E?=H = A = F=HJA IKFAHE H ?A JH= north @A CH ?

""

5E K =?E

AI A BK ?E

AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI

- AIJ= IA??E AIJK@E=HA I = B H = @A = = E =H A ? F HJ= EA J @A BK ?E AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI ?K= @ ?= >E= = CK @A IKI F=H AJH I 2=H= AIJ=I IE K =?E AI IA IECKA A EI FH ?A@E EA J GKA ? BK ?E AI K EL=HE=@=I AI @A?EH F=H= IE K =H n L= HAI @A K F=H AJH @A>A I ?HA=H = BK ?E E ? KOA @ A =I A JH=@=I =

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

F=H AJH  ?HA=H I @=J I ? n ? K J I @A I= E@= O CH= ?=H n LA?AI - = CK I ?=I I F=H= D=?AH = IE J=NEI =I IA ?E = IA ?HA=H A K I >K? A I n ? K J I @A @=J I O I n CH= ? I

-A F

"  5E K =H A ?
?

F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E

f (x, y ) = acos(xy) F=H=

a = {0.1, 0.9, 2, 10}

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

A F=H

AJH a

function f=ffej10(x,y,a); f=a.^(cos(x.*y));

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

x=[-2:0.1:2];y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); a=[0.1 0.9 2 10]; n=length(a); for i = 1:n Z{i} = ffej10(X,Y,a(i)); end

% Conjunto de Salida % Valores del parametro

% n Conjuntos de Llegada

2=H= CK=H@=H =I n =JHE?AI IA KJE E =H ?A =HH=OI ,A>E@ = GKA J @ I I ? K J I @A AC=@= I @A EI J= = J= >E AH= F IE> A KJE E =H DEFAH =JHE?AI Z(:,:,i)

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

% Parametros fst=14; % fsej=12; % fw=demi; % fn=Times; % de fuente Tamao de fuente para el titulo Tamao de fuente para ejes Grosor de letra Tipo de letra

for i=1:n; subplot(2,2,i); mesh(X,Y,Z{i}); ts=title([f(x,y) = a^{cos(xy)}, a = ,num2str(a(i))]); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(y);zs=zlabel(f(x,y)); set(ts,Fontsize,fst,Fontweight,fw,Fontname,fn);

.7 +1

-5

 !

set([xs ys zs],FontSize,fsej,Fontweight,fw); end

) @EBAHA ?E= @A I A A F I = JAHE HAI A AIJA A A F IA @A EAH FHALE= A JA I Parametros de fuente J= = CH I H O JEF  ? AH I O ?=@A =I @A ?=H=?JAHAI ) CK =I LA?AI AIJ FAH EJA IE F E ?=H = FH CH= =?E O= GKA >=IJ= I ? ?= >E=H A L= H @A F=H AJH K = I = LA F=H= @E ?=H = FH FEA@=@ @A L=HE I > AJ I + HAIK J=@ >JA A =  = BK ?E I?E = A H= - = A@E@= A GKA a IA J= >E KAIJH= ? A H= C @A ?=@= ? K J I = .ECKH= " # C I KO FAGKA = A = @A  =K A )6 )* = KIJ= @A AC=@= 5A >IAHL= GKA ? L= HAI @A a ?AH?= I I JA @EA @ = IAH K = BK ?E ? IJ= JA J= A H= C @A =I I?E =?E AI = .ECKH= = AI?= = @A A A A ?=@= IK>F J IAC

f(x,y) = acos(xy), a = 0.1

10 8 1.15 1.1

f(x,y) = acos(xy), a = 0.9

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 2

f(x,y)

1.05 1 0.95 0.9 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 2

f(x,y) = acos(xy), a = 2
2 10 8

f(x,y) = acos(xy), a = 10

f(x,y)

f(x,y)
2 0 1 0 2 1 2

1.5

6 4 2

0.5 2

0 2 2 0 1 0 2 1 2

.ECKH= " # 5E K =?E

@A F=H

AJH a A f (x, y ) = acos(xy)

-A F

"  5E K =H A ?

F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E

f (x, y ) = x3 ax2 y +

6xy 2 y 3 F=H= a [6, 6]

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

F=H

AJH I 7I=

I = BK ?E

ffej11

 "

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

function f=ffej11(x,y,a); f=x.^3-a*x.^2.*y+6*x.*y.^2-y.^3;

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

x=[-5:0.3:5]; y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); a=[-6:0.5:6]; n=length(a);

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

for i = 1:n Z(:,:,i) = ffej11(X,Y,a(i)); mesh(X,Y,Z(:,:,i)); ts=title({f(x,y) = x^3-ax^2y+6xy^2-y^3;... [a = ,num2str(a(i))]}); set(ts,Fontsize,12,Fontweight,bold); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(y);zs=zlabel(f(x,y)); set([xs ys zs],FontSize,12); pause(0.5) end
+ HAIK J=@ IA >JEA A K = IA?KA ?E= @A CH ? I GKA KAIJH= A ?= >E @A = BK ?E = JA A ?= >E @A F=H AJH a ) CK =I @A A =I IA FHAIA J= A = .ECKH= " & - = FH CH= =?E IA KJE E =H DEFAH =JHE?AI F=H= CK=H@=H I ? K J I @A I= E@= Z )@A I KJE E = @ ?A =HH=OI IA ? ? K J JK ? @ I A=I IAF=H=@=I A JHA IE ?


"#

EIEI @A .K ?E

AI A?

E?=I

/A AH= A JA I FH > A =I A? E? I B H K =@ I =JA JE?= A JA HAGKEAHA K = I K?E - ? F HJ= EA J @A AIJ= I K?E @AFA @A @A ? F HJ= EA J @A =I BK ?E AI GKA ? F A A FH > A = BK ?E AI A? E?=I - > AJEL @A AIJ= IA??E AI KJE E =H = DAHH= EA J= CH ?= @A )6 )* F=H= LEIK= E =H = CK =I BK ?E AI A? E?=I 7 FH > A = = = E =@ A E?H A? = AI = A A??E @A K ? IK E@ H A JHA

.7 +1

-5
f(x,y) = x ax y+6xy y a = 6
2000 1000

 #
3 2 2 3

f(x,y) = x ax y+6xy y a = 2
1000 500

f(x,y)

0 1000 2000 5 5 0 0 5 5

f(x,y)

0 500 1000 5 5 0 0 5 5

f(x,y) = x3ax2y+6xy2y3 a=2

2000 1000 2000 1000

f(x,y) = x3ax2y+6xy2y3 a=6

f(x,y)

0 1000 2000 5 5 0 0 5 5

f(x,y)

0 1000 2000 5 5 0 0 5 5

.ECKH= " $ 5E K =?E

@A F=H

AJH a A f (x, y ) = x3 ax2 y + 6xy 2 y 3

@EBAHA JAI ?= =IJ=I @A >EA AI F=H= ?K= IA =IK A GKA IKI FHABAHA ?E=I AIJ HAFHA IA J=@=I F H K = BK ?E @A KJE E@=@ 7 = @A A =I AI = BK ?E + >> , KC =I GKA @A = A ? IK @A K =CA JA I >HA >EA AI GKA I IKIJEJKJ I E FAHBA?J I @A = AH= GKA A ? IK E@ H FHA AHA C=IJ=H IK FHAIKFKAIJ ? FH= @ ? >E =?E AI @A I >EA AI GKA JEA A = IK = ?= ?A GKA C=IJ=H ? IK EA @ I K @A A I +K= @ A =CA JA ? IK A @ I >EA AI x A y = BK ?E AI @A = B H = U (x, y ) = xa y 1a @ @A a (0, 1) HAFHAIA J= = F @AH=?E GKA @= A =CA JA = ?=@= >EA 2=H= D=?AH = IE K =?E @A F=H AJH a IACKE I A EI FH ?A@E EA J GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH JH= BK ?E ?HA= I = BK ?E O A JH m-file ?HA= I I @=J I FH CH= = I = IE K =?E F=H= @EBAHA JAI L= HAI @A a O CH= ?= I

-A F
A A F=H

"

5E K =H A ? AJH a

F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E

+ >> , KC =I = JA ?= >E I

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

+ >> , KC =I ?

A F=H

AJH a

function f=ffej12(x,y,a); f=(x.^a).*(y.^a);

 $

/-,+HA=H I @=J I 2=H= HAFHAIA J=H ?= JE@=@AI @A >EA AI J = L= HAI AC=JEL I

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I

AC=JEL=I x A y

x=[0:0.5:10];y=x; a=[0.1:0.1:0.9]; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y);

2=I ! 5E K =H A F=H

AJH a O CH= ?=H = BK ?E

for i=1:length(a); Z=ffej12(X,Y,a(i)); mesh(X,Y,Z); xs=xlabel(x);ys=ylabel(y);zs=zlabel(f(x,y)); ts=title([Funcion Cobb-Douglas a = ,num2str(a(i))]); set(ts,Fontsize,12,Fontname,helvetica); set([xs ys zs],FontSize,9,Fontname,helvetica); pause(0.5) end
)6 )* @E ?= A CH ? A E JAHL= I @A  # IACK @ I = A@E@= GKA L= ?= >E= @ A L= H @A F=H AJH a - = .ECKH= " % IA FHAIA J= = CK =I @A =I IE K =?E AI JH= BK ?E KJE E =@= A E?H A? = JA H = @A FH @K?J H AI = BK ?E @A - =IJE?E@=@ @A 5KIJEJK?E + IJ= JA +-5 F H IK IEC = A E C I = FH @K??E A AIJ= BK ?E @AFA @A @A @ I E IK I ?=FEJ=   O JH=>= J O K F=H AJH 1 = B H = @A = BK ?E AI (k + t ) @ @A < 1 ) ?HA=H I @=J I @A = BK ?E JA A I A ?KA J= GKA A ?=FEJ= O A JH=>= J = L= HAI AC=JEL I O = ? @E?E < 1 KAC IE K =HA I A F=H AJH @A = BK ?E HAFHAIA J @ ? = AJH= p

-A F

" ! 5E K =?E

@A = .K ?E +-5 ? F=H

+-5 AJH I

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

function f=ffej13(k,t,p); f=((k.^p)+(t.^p)).^(1./p);

- F=H AJH p AI K = A JH=@= E FKJ @A = BK ?E

.7 +1

-5
CobbDouglas, a = 0.2
10 8 10 8

 %
CobbDouglas, a = 0.4

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5 5 0 0

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5 5 0 0

CobbDouglas, a = 0.6
10 8 10 8

CobbDouglas, a = 0.8

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5 5 0 0

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5 5 0 0

.ECKH= " % .K ?E

+ >> , KC =I I LA?J HAI @A ?=FEJ= O JH=

2=I

+HA=H I @=J I >= ,A E I

A @= I L= HAI F IEJEL I = I L= HAI @A A JHA # O 

k=[0:1:30];t=k; p=[-15:0.1:1]; [K,T]=meshgrid(k,t);

2=I ! 5E K =H A F=H

AJH p O CH= ?=H = BK ?E

% Parametros de fuentes tfs=10 fs=9 fw=demi fn=times for i=1:length(p); Z=ffej13(K,T,p(i)); mesh(K,T,Z);

 &

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

xs=xlabel(k);ys=ylabel(t);zs=zlabel(f(k,t)); ts=title([Funcion CES \rho = ,num2str(p(i))]); set(ts,Fontsize,10,Fontname,times); set([xs ys zs],FontSize,8,Fontweight,bold); pause(0.1) end
+ HAIK J=@ IA JEA A K = IA?KA ?E= @A CH ? I GKA ?= >E= @A =?KH@ = I ?= >E I A A F=H AJH 5A >IAHL= A AIJ= IA?KA ?E= GKA = BK ?E @A FH @K??E AI @A = B H = A JEAB .K ?E E ?K= @ A L= H @A ?K= @ 0 = BK ?E @A FH @K??E AI + >> , KC =I O ?K= @ 1 = BK ?E @A FH @K??E AI E A= - J ?AI = +-5 CA AH= E = @EBAHA JAI ? F HJ= EA J I @A =I BK ?E AI @A FH @K??E = ?= >E=H A L= H @A IK F=H AJH @A = @ >EA AI ? F A A J=HE I IKIJEJKJ I E FAHBA?J I O IKIJEJKJ I FAHBA?J I HAIFA?JEL= A JA  = IE K =?E F=H= AIJ I L= HAI EJA @A K J IKI ?KHL=I @A ELA IA KAIJH= A =I CKH=I " & O " ' - ?=F JK I F IJAHE HAI IA KJE E = = DAHH= EA J= CH ?= F=H= HAFHAIA J=H = CK =I BK ?E AI O = CK I HAIK J=@ I K HE? I I CH ? I GKA IA FHAIA J= ? JEA A J JK I AJEGKAJ=I @A I A AI O JH=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I GKA IA ANF E?=H A AIJA ?=F JK + AIJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I IA ?HA= ? A EI FH ?A@E EA J GKA IA IJH A AIJA ?=F JK IA ? ?=H ANF ?EJ= A JA IK FH CH= =?E I ?=F JK I # O $ = = E = BK ?E AI KJE E = @ ? ?K @EBAHA ?E= A E JACH=  O J @ I K HE? I -IJ I J @ I IEHLA F=H= AIJK@E=H BK ?E AI GKA FKA @A HAFHAIA J=HIA CH ?= A JA ?K= @ IA HAGKEAHA ? ?K I FHA?EI I A K FK J @AJAH E =@ -IJ IAH JE O= GKA = CK =I BK ?E AI A? E?=I FHAIA J= AIJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I

- AH?E?E I
I CH ? I GKA @A>A HA= E =H = ? JE K=?E HA?KAH@A ?HA=H F=H= J @=I =I CKH=I K J JK >HA F=H= I A AI A=I IACA J=@=I A =I =I J J=I O ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I AIFA?E= AI F=H= ?=@= > AJ @EBAHA JAI A ?=@= A AH?E?E


8AH

E?D I

''% F C

"

.7 +1

-5
Funcion CES = 100
9 10 8 8 7 6

 '

Minimo

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5

y
5 0 0

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 8

x CobbDouglas
9

Funcion CES = 0.01

x 10 15
30

8 7

f(x,y)

10

5 4 0 10 10 5 1 5 0 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 3 2

.ECKH= " & .K ?E

+-5

 /H= GKA A )6 )* =I IECKEA JAI BK ?E AI @A E@=I A R 7JE E?A ? ? K J @A I= E@= E JAHL= I A @ @A = BK ?E FHAIA JA ?= >E I A IK ? F HJ= EA J

f (x) = |x| 2x 3 IE x < 2 g (x) = x 5 2 x 1 3 x x > 1 h(x) = [[x]] = n IE n x < n + 1 y 2 2y 2 + 5y y 0.5 2y + 4 0 IE z 3 g (z ) = 1 IE z > 3 f (y ) = f (x) = x (x 1)(x + 2) nZ

!
Funcion CES = 1
9 20 15 8 7 6 10 5 0 10 10 5 1 5 0 0 0 0 2

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

Lineal

f(x,y)

5 4 3 2

x Maximo
9

Funcion CES = 100

10 8

8 7 6

f(x,y)

6 4 2 0 10 10 5

y
5 0 0

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 8

.ECKH= " ' .K ?E

+-5

/H= GKA A )6 )* =I IECKEA JAI BK ?E AI @A E@=I A R2 7JE E?A ? ? K J @A I= E@= E JAHL= I A @ @A = BK ?E FHAIA JA ?= >E I A IK ? F HJ= EA J

x+y y g (x, y ) = 2 x 1 h(z, w) = max{min{2z, 3w}, {3z, 2w}} f (x, y ) = z (m, n) = |m3 n3 | p(x, y ) = [[x + y ]] = n IE n x + y < n + 1 g (h, z )
! 2=H= = BK ?E

nZ

f : R+

R?

f (x) =

ax2 + bx c dx + 5e

0.4

5E K A I F=H AJH I a, b, c IA?KA ?E= A JA A R2 F=H= A F=H AJH IE K =@ =IK = L= HAI A A E JAHL= [3, 3] O F=H= I JH I F=H AJH I =IK = A L= H @A 1

.7 +1

-5

!

5E K A I F=H AJH I d, e A R3 KJE E = @ mesh F=H= A F=H AJH IE K =@ =IK = L= HAI A A E JAHL= [3, 3] O F=H= I JH I F=H AJH I =IK = A L= H @A 1 "  FHAIA J= K = LAHIE E A= @A @A @A DEFAHE =?E FH FKAIJ F H  ) HAI LAH F=H= I FHA?E I pt KJE E = @ ANFA?J=JEL=I =@=FJ=JEL=I IA D= = K = A?K=?E A @EBAHA ?E=I GKA F=H= IAH AIJ=> A  DEFAHE =?E  HAGKEAHA GKA

+ 1 <1 1 +

" 

@ @A [0, 1] AI = LA ?E@=@ @A = KIJA @A =I ANFA?J=JEL=I O HAFHAIA J= = HA =?E A JHA = J=I= @A E JAH I O = @A = @= @A @E AH  < 0 /H= GKA = BK ?E

f (, ) =

+ 1 1 +
=?E A A @A

/H= GKA A R2 I L= HAI @A O GKA CA AH= DEFAHE @A +=C= 1 JAHFHAJA #

2

h) = A?K=?E (y k ) = (x HAFHAIA J= K = F=H > = A A F = 4a ? L HJE?A A (h, k ) O ? K = @EIJ= ?E= a A JHA A L HJE?A O A?K=?E IA FKA@A HAAI?HE>EH @A J= B H = GKA y IA= K = BK ?E F=H AJH I h, k, a 2=H= = BK ?E y (x) HA= E?A K = IE K =?E A F=H AJH ? ?= @ K = A= FK JA=@= A = @EHA?JHE =IK F=H= A F=H AJH IE K =@ A A E JAHL= [2, 2] O F=H= I JH @A 3 O 1

?=HJAIE= A B ? -IJ= @A x O @A I R3 F=H= ?=@= EA @ L= HAI I F=H AJH I

$ 1 =CE A A AH?=@ @A =HH A = CK = ?EK@=@ @A 6 E = 5KF C= GKA AIJA AH?=@ AI FAHBA?J= A JA ? FAJEJEL = ?= JE@=@ @A = @=@= FKA@A HAFHA D IA J=HIA F H = IECKEA JA BK ?E E A= Q = a P c @ @A a c I F=H AJH I O P AI A FHA?E @A =HH = ?= JE@=@ BHA?E@= IA HAFHAIA J= F H = BK ?E O E A= Q = b + P d = /H= GKA A K = EI = CKH= =I BK ?E EA @ a = 5 b = 1 c = 4 O d = 2 > 0= A K AHE?= A JA A AGKE E>HE @A AI @A BAHJ= O @A = @= =IK

AH?=@

?  4A= E?A K = IE K =?E @A ?=@= F=H AJH F=H= E ?HA A J I A IKI L= HAI A A E JAHL= [1, 1] 3K ?KHHA ? A AGKE E>HE @A AH?=@ A ?=@= IE K =?E -NF EGKA >HALA A JA

! %

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

= BK ?E @A A =IJE?E@=@ ? IJ= JA HA?E>A AIJA >HA F HGKA IK A =IJE?E@=@ 1 @A IKIJEJK?E  = 1  @AFA @A I @A F=H AJH = + IJHKO= = BK ?E +-5 @A FH @K??E J= GKA @AFA @= @A ?=FEJ= A JH=>= O = A =IJE?E@=@ @A IKIJEJK?E   > 2 H ? A@E @A IE K =?E AI K HE?=I @AJAH E A I GKA IA >JEA A =I BK ?E AI E A= E I L= HAI EJA @A O + >> , KC =I

& , I BK ?E AI KJE E =@=I ? BHA?KA ?E= A A? + IJ= J 4A =JELA 4EI )LAHIE  O +)4) + @A E@=I ?

=  I = BK ?E +44) IJ= J )>I KJA 4EI )LAHIE 

CRRA : U (ct ) =

1 ct 1 Ln(c ) t 1

> 0, = 1

=1 ec >0

CARA : U (ct ) =

- AIJ=I BK ?E AI A + A ?EA JA @A )LAHIE )>I KJ= = 4EAIC AIJ @=@ F H (ct ) ct )ct U 4A =JEL= = 4EAIC F H UU (( 2=H= ?=@= BK ?E U (ct ) O A @A )LAHIE ct ) = += ?K A =JA JE?= A JA U O U

> /H= GKA A K = I = CKH= U U O U ?  5E K A A ? F HJ= EA J @A U U O U F=H= @EBAHA JAI L= HAI @A O =?K K =@= @A =I IECKEA

' /H= GKA = BK ?E @A @EIJHE>K?E O @A @EIJHE>K?E JAI @EIJHE>K?E AI @A FH >=>E E@=@ = 7 EL=HE=@= 7 EB H A A A E JAHL= > 7 EL=HE=@= IE K =?E  H = ? =>

= [2 1 0 1 2] O L=HE= = = [0.2 0.5 1 2]

?  7 EL=HE=@= @A =F =?A IE K = @ O @  *EL=HE=@=

 

H = ?

A@E=  O L=HE=

=

I= LA  #= * = ?D=H@ '&' 8AH 

.7 +1 

-5

!! I ?=FEJ=   O @A FH @K??E

= BK ?E @A FH @K??E @A K = A FHAI= GKA JEA A ? E IK JH=>=   5E IA D= AIJE =@ GKA = A FHAI= JEA A K = BK ?E @A = B H = F (K, L) = K + L = + > + AI AIJ= BK ?E I IKI ?KHL=I @A ELA

?  /H= GKA AIJ=I CKH=I A K = I = LA J= = 5KCAHA ?E= 7IA A ? subplot

= @

x+1 I GKA AIJ= BK ?E JEA A K = =I J J=  /H= GKA = BK ?E f (x) = 3x 2 5=>A A x = 2 ,E>K A A = EI = LA J= = = =I J J= ? K AIJE @A A= FK JA= @= 5KCAHA ?E= 7IA A ? = @ line 3K IEJK=?E A? E?= = ?EAH= F @H = HAFHAIA J=H K = BK ?E @A AIJA JEF

!"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+=F JK

,AHEL=?E
- = F=I=@= IA??E AN= E = I ? AL= K=H ? FKJ=?E = A JA @EBAHA JAI BK ?E AI = F=HJEH @A K ?HEJAHE CH ? HA? ?EA @ @EIJE J=I FH FEA@=@AI O >IAHL= @ A FH ?AI F=H= AC=H = IK ? IJHK??E >IJ= JA = A?AIE@=@ @A AIJK@E=H ?EAHJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A =I BK ?E AI GKA E L K?H= =O H FHA?EIE I AL= = ? IE@A H=H KAL I ? ?AFJ I GKA FAH EJA D=?AH JH JEF @A = EIEI - AIJA ?=F JK I A B ?=HA I A J ?AI A = @AHEL=?E -IFA? ?= A JA F=H= JA AH K = =FH NE =?E = = I K?E @A FH > A =I ?KO= HAI FKAIJ= = = JE?= AI E EJ=@= IA D= @AI=HH =@ = @AHEL=?E K HE?= ,A AIJ= = AH= @= @ K =H? ? ?AFJK= = @AHEL=@= HAFHAIA J= K ?= >E E EJAIE = A = BK ?E ? HAIFA?J = =I L=HE=> AI @A =I GKA @AFA @A O = B H = I =JKH= @A AIJ=> A?AH ?K AI = =FH NE =?E K HE?= AI A@E= JA = IECKEA JA @A E?E

f (x) = l m

f (x + h) f (x) h0 h

# 

, @A f (x) AI = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E f ,=@ K E JAHL= I O K = BK ?E f :I IE f JEA A K = @AHEL=@= f O f AI = IK LA @EBAHA ?E=> A = @AHEL=@= @A f AI = IACK @= @AHEL=@= AI @A?EH = @AHEL=@= @A = @AHEL=@= GKA IA @A J= F H f + JE K= @ =I ? A FH ?AI JA A I = JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= = ?K=HJ= = GKE J= AJ? f (3) , f (4) , f (5) , ..., f (n) @ @A f (n) AI = @AHEL=@= IE = @A f IEA FHA O ?K= @ f IA= n LA?AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A I +K= GKEAH @AHEL=@= I = @A = FHE AH= IA ? IE@AH= @AHEL=@= @A H@A IKFAHE H O IK ANEIJA ?E= AIJ IK AJ= = AH @A LA?AI GKA FKA@= IAH @EBAHA ?E=@= = BK ?E 2=H= I K?E =H ? FKJ=?E = A JA FH > A =I GKA ? !# FHA @= @AHEL=?E = IE

!$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

CKEA JA AIJHK?JKH= @AJAH E = ? IA D= ?HA=@ ?=@= K @A I A A F I ? JA E@ I A AIJA ?=F JK >KI?= @ D=?AH K KI =FH FE=@ @A ?=@= K = @A =I DAHH= EA J=I @EIF E> AI

2=I  ,AJAH E =H A JEF @A FH > A = GKA IA FHACK J= O ?HA=H =I BK ?E AI

GKA A?AIEJA )6 )* F=H= E E?E=H A FH ?AI @A @AHEL=?E A @A ?K= GKEAH JH= B H = GKA HA? ?= A FH CH= = O= IA= A K

2=I

+HA=H I @=J I FAHJE A JAI O K EH I ? =I BK ?E AI O JH I F=H AJH I FHALE= A JA =@ I A )6 )* F=H= F = JA=H = IEJK=?E

2=I ! 1@A JE ?=H O = =H A ? @EC =@A?K=@ F=H= HAI LAH A FH > A =

- AIJA FH ?AI L= A = FA = HA? H@=H GKA ANEIJA @EBAHA JAI B H =I @A AC=H = = EI = I K?E O F H J= J D=O @EIJE J=I HKJE =I GKA I JE AI F=H= = ?= =H AIA HAIK J=@ IEA @ E F HJ= JA AL= K=H =I O @AI?=HJ=H =GKA =I A I A ?EA JAI A D=?AH 5ECKEA @ AIJ= AIJHK?JKH= A ?=F JK AIJ @ELE@E@ A @ I IA??E AI A = FHE AH= AN= E = I ? @AJ= A =I HKJE =I ? FKJ=?E = AI GKA FAH EJA >JA AH @AHEL=@=I @A FHE AH H@A O I J @ I GKA =I IKIJA J= O A = IACK @= =GKA I ? = @ I JE AI F=H= AC=H = =I @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H @A K = BK ?E

#
#

,AHEL=?E
polyder

@A FHE AH H@A
E #  = F IE?E )6 )* ?EA JAI @A F E E

= IECKEA JA AI = B H = @A K F E

cn xn + cn1 xn1 + + c2 x2 + c1 x + c0
, @A c AI K = ? IJ= JA GKA =? F= = = L=HE=> A x O A IK> @E?A E @E?= A = GKA IA A ?KA JH= HAIFA?J = = L=HE=> A 2=H= @AHEL=H K F E E @EIF A @A = HKJE = polyder GKA HAGKEAHA ? E FKJ A LA?J H @A ? A F E E = @AHEL=H O A JHAC= ? HAIK J=@ A LA?J H @A ? A ?EA JAI @A HAIK J=@ @A = @AHEL=?E )I = @AHEL=@= @A F E E #  AI

[cn n]xn1 + [cn1 (n 1)]xn2 + + [c2 2]x + c1

-A F

#  - ? JHA

I = @AHEL=@= @A F E

E g (x) = 5x4 9x3 41x + 32

>HA @A +=F JK

!%

2=I  -I?HE>E I A )6 )* A LA?J H @A ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E GKA I E JAHAI= @AHEL=H

F=[5 -9 0 -41 32]

2=I

)D H= E L ?=

I = = HKJE = polyder

F1=polyder(P)
- HAIK J=@ @A AIJ= FAH=?E AI K LA?J H . ? I A A A J I [20 -27 0 -41] GKA I A ABA?J I ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E HAIK J=@ @A FH ?AI @A 3 2 @AHEL=?E 20x 27x 41 +=>A HAI= J=H GKA A LA?J H HAIK J= JA . AI @A J= = 1 n 1 F HGKA A JE ? A ?EA JA @A LA?J H . ? HHAIF @A = x0 JH=I F= =>H=I A JE IK = @ @A F E E AI K AI?= =H O IK @AHEL=@= AI IEA FHA ?AH )6 )* KAIJH= A J ?AI IK @AHEL=@=

J @ @A ,EBAHA ?E= .E EJ=

+ O= DA I A ?E =@ = @A E?E =JA JE?= @A @AHEL=@= FAH EJA ?= ?K =H K HE?= A JA = @AHEL=@= @A K = BK ?E -IJ= B H = @A D= =H = AI ? ?E@= ? ,EBAHA ?E= .E EJ= IE E F HJ=H = @E A IE A GKA IA A ?KA JHA = E@A= IK>O=?A JA ? IEIJA A @ELE@EH =I @EBAHA ?E=I @A =I E CA AI A JHA K AH IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA I @EIJE J I = C HEJ I GKA KJE E = = @EBAHA ?E= EJ= F=H= A ? ?K @A = @AHEL=@= L=H = @A =?KAH@ = = B H = ? @AJAH E = =I E CA AI =GKA I A A A J I @A ? @ E E  AIJ=> A?A A L= H @A AIF=?E= EA J A AIF=?E A JHA I A A A J I @A @ E E  O GKE K @A I = C HEJ I I IA ?E I F=H= A ? JH=H = @AHEL=@= @A AIJ= B H = ? IEIJA A EJEH A EJA O KJE E =H K h IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA A = A?K=?E #  AI @A?EH

f (x) =

f (x + h) f (x) + O(h) h

# !

, @A O() AI K = BK ?E GKA FHAI?HE>A A AHH H A JHA = @AHEL=@= O = =FH NE =?E K HE?= ? ?E@ ? -HH H @A 6HK ?= EA J -IJ= BK ?E @AFA @A A AIJA 1 ?=I @A h h 0 O F H AIJ IA ? IE@AH= @A H@A  A@E= JA = ? IJHK??E @A K F E E @A 6=O H @A H@A O ANECEA @ GKA f IA= JHAI LA?AI @EBAHA ?E=> A >JA A I K HAIK J=@ ? K = =FH NE =?E I AN=?J= = = @AHEL=@=
JAIA GKA A ? A ?EA JA GKA =? F= = = x2 AI ?AH 2 H IKI ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I polyder I FAH EJA @AHEL=H A HAIFA?J = K = I = L=HE=> A


K = I = @E A IE

AI @A?EH ?

!&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

f (x) =

f (x + h) f (x h) + O(h2 ) 2h

# "

- AIJA ?=I A AHH H @A JHK ?= EA J AI @A IACK @ H@A h2 K?D=I @A =I HKJE =I KJE E =@=I F H )6 )* F=H= A ? JH=H @AHEL=@=I IA >=I= A A J @ @A @EBAHA ?E= EJ= F H IK B=?E E@=@ @A ? ?K LA= I A J ?AI I ? = @ I I ? K AI F=H= = =FH NE =?E @A @AHEL=@=I K HE?=I  = JE = "

#

gradient

- /H=@EA JA @A K = BK ?E AI K LA?J H GKA ? JEA A IKI FHE AH=I @AHEL=@=I O @A AIJA @ = AL= K=H = H = @A CH=@EA JA = @EHA??E @A LA?J H I IA = = IE = BK ?E ?HA?A @A?HA?A )I F=H= ?K= GKEAH LA?J H @A L=HE=> AI x = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn A CH=@EA JA @A = BK ?E f = f (x) GKA @AFA @A @A n L=HE=> AI ? HHAIF @A =

f =

f (x) f (x) f (x) , ,..., x1 x2 xn

# #

)6 )* >JEA A K HE?= A JA A CH=@EA JA @A K = BK ?E D=IJ= ?EAHJ AH ! @A L=HE=> AI A@E= JA A ? = @ gradient = F=HJEH @A J @ @A @EBAHA ?E= E J= -IJA ? = @ ?= ?K = A J ?AI =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A K = BK ?E A ?K= GKEAH FK J x A A GKA IA @AIAA D=?AH = C JEF @A = EIEI = IE J=NEI @A gradient AI [FX,FY] = gradient(F,HX,HY) @ @A F =JHE @A E CA AI @A = BK ?E = @AHEL=H @A J= = O HX O HY ? HHAIF = AIF=?E A JHA FK J I = =HC @A A A X O = A A Y HAIFA?JEL= A JA ANJA = AH @A @E A IE AI A =I GKA IA JH=>= A - HAIK J=@ @A KI @A ? dF I @ I =JHE?AI FX O FY GKA ? HHAIF @A HAIFA?JEL= A JA = dF dx O dy J= ANJA @E> AI = AH @A @E A IE AI A =I GKA IA JH=>= A AI = @A @E> A = @ >E

-A F

+= ?K A

I A CH=@EA JA @A = BK ?E

f (x) = x4 f :

2

= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E f (x) = x4 AI f (x) = 4x3 ,A B H = GKA CH ?= A JA = BK ?E = @AHEL=H AI K = F=H > = O = @AHEL=@= JEA A = B H = @A K = BK ?E ? >E?= 8A= I GK IK?A@A ? = @AHEL=@= =F E?= @ gradient

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
!

GKA

I E JAHAI= @AHEL=H A K
GKE = GKA D=C= A FH ?AI

= ?= JE@=@ @A L=HE=> AI @AFA @A @A = ?=F=?E@=@ @A =

>HA @A +=F JK

!'

function f=ej2(x) f=x.^4;

2=I

JH

?DAH @AJAH E =H

I @=J I @A =I L=HE=> AI

x=[-10:1:10]; z=ej2(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H A CH=@EA JA K
gradient f1=gradient(z,1)

HE? @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA

, @A A AIF=?E @A E@ A JHA ?=@= L= H @A x AI HX  AI @A?EH A CH=@EA JA ?= ?K =@ JEA A = EI = AI?= = @A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E 5E HX @E AHA @A AIF=?E ANEIJA JA A JHA A A A J I @A LA?J H x = AI?= = @A CH=@EA JA AI @EIJE J= = =GKA = @A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E HECE = O =@A I ? =GK = BK ?E I JEA A K = L=HE=> A = =JHE GKA ? JEA A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E AI K LA?J H @A J= = 1 n ?KO= H = AI ! #' IA= = BK ?E AI ?HA?EA JA A JHA  O  ) F=HJEH @A I ? ?K I K HE? I GKA DA I HA= E =@ O I J @ I F=H= CH= ?=H 4 @A ?=F JK " = BK ?E f (x) = x O IK @AHEL=@= AIJ A = .ECKH= #  @ @A >IAHL= I GKA = @AHEL=@= K HE?= @A f (x) I JEA A K = B H = ? >E?=
800

600

400

200 Y 0 200

400

f(x)=x f(x)=4x3
4 3 2 1 0 X 1 2 3 4 5

600 5

.ECKH= #  /H

?= @A f (x) = x4 O IK @AHEL=@=

-A F

# ! += ?K A

I A CH=@EA JA @A = BK ?E

f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 A

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I  -I?HE>EH K
function f=ej3(x,y); z=x.^2+y.^2;

AA!

2=I BK ?E

+HA=H

I @=J I @A = L=HE=> A x @A = L=HE=> A y O @A =

x=[-10:0.5:10]; y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); Z=ej3(X,Y);

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?

= @ CH=@EA J

[PX,PY]=gradient(Z,1,1)
- AIJA ?=I HX O HY I @EBAHA JAI = AIF=?E O= @A E@ A JHA ?=@= L= H @A X A Y O F H A @A A CH=@EA JA ?= ?K =@ PX PY JEA A = EI = AI?= = @A =I E CA AI @A = BK ?E Z ) @EBAHA ?E= @A - A F # = BK ?E JEA A I @A K = L=HE=> A A J ?AI IE n ? HHAIF @A = AH @A A A A J I ? JA E@ I A x A y = =JHE @A E CA AI @A = BK ?E AI =D H= @A J= = n n 2=H= =FHA?E=H A H I HAIK J=@ I @A A AH?E?E >IAHLA I = BK ?E f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 O IK @AHEL=@= A = .ECKH= # GKA AI A HAIK J=@ @A CH= ?=H =I =JHE?AI PX O PY A )6 )*

.ECKH= #

f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 O IK CH=@EA JA = AI?= = @EIJE J=

>HA @A +=F JK

"

#!

diff

) JH=L I @A J @ @A @EBAHA ?E= EJ= A ? @EC diff D=?A J= >E = @AHEL=?E K HE?= @A K = BK ?E 5E A >=HC A ? JH=IJA ? gradient F=H= AIJ=> A?AH ? HHA?J= A JA = @AHEL=@= ? diff O LEIK= E =H A ? F HJ= EA J @A = @AHEL=@= = HAIK J=@ @A ? = @ @A>A I @ELE@EH F H = @EIJ= ?E= ,A AIJ= = AH= F=H= KJE E =H diff IA E JH @K?A = BK ?E = @AHEL=H O = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA =I ? H@A =@=I @A = BK ?E O A HAIK J=@ GKA A JHAC= )6 )* AI = =FH NE =?E K HE?= = = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E 8A= I A A - A F # " ? IA KJE E = diff

-A F

# " += ?K A

I = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E

f (x) = x 2

2=I  +HA=H N
h=0.1 x=[0:h:5];

I @=J I @A AIF=?E A JHA ?

H@A =@=I O @A = L=HE=> A

2=I

1 L ?=H A ?

= @ @E
3

F1=diff(x.^(5/2))/h
2 = HAIFKAIJ= F1 AI K = =FH NE =?E K HE?= = 5 = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E 2x 5 f (x) = x 2  = H = @A LA?J H F1 AI $& GKA E F E?= GKA AI K = BK ?E ?HA?EA JA ,A B H = ? ?HAJ= A HAIK J=@ @A E L ?=H A ? = @ diff >IAHL= I A = .ECKH= # ! GKA AI A HAIK J=@ @A CH= ?=H = I= E@= @A )6 )*
60

50

40

f(x) 30

20

10

f(x)=x5/2 f(x)=(5/2)x3/2
0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

.ECKH= # ! ,AHEL=@= @A f (x) = x 2

A@E= JA diff

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H ? K I HE?=

) ECK= GKA gradient = HKJE = diff AI ANJA @E> A = ?=I I @A @AHEL=?E L=HE=> AI - A IECKEA JA A A F >IAHL= I ? HA= E =H = @AHEL=?E @A K = BK ?E ? FKAIJ= F H @ I L=HE=> AI

-A F

# # - ? JHA

I = @AHEL=@= K

HE?= @A = BK ?E

f (x, y ) = x0.5 y 0.8

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
function q=ej5(x,y); f=x.^.5.*y.^.8;

= @AHEL=H A K

2=I

JH

?DAH @AJAH E =H

I @=J I @A =I L=HE=> AI

h=0.5; x=[0:h:10]; y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); Z=ej5(X,Y);

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?
ZX=diff(Z,1,2)/h ZY=diff(Z,1,1)/h

= @ diff F=H= D= =H =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI

- = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ = AIFA?E ?=H diff(Z,1,2) )6 )* A ?KA JH= F=H= Z FHE AH J H E  = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= A 1 @A = EJ=@ = JA EA @ = = IACK @= L=HE=> A @AHEL=@= F=H?E= HAIFA?J = x O = AIFA?E ?=H diff(Z,1,1) ?= ?K = = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= F=H?E= @A = BK ?E HAIFA?J = y  = JEA A = = FHE AH= L=HE=> A - HAIK J=@ GKA )6 )* I FH F H?E = E @E?= GKA =I BK ?E AI >JA E@=I  =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI I ?HA?EA JAI = H = @A =I =JHE?AI ZX O ZY I =O HAI = ?AH A F=HJE?K =H 125.8730 O 126.5741

#"

fjac O fdjac

7 = =JHE =? >E= = D=?A K = CA AH= E =?E @A CH=@EA JA = ?= ?K =H IE K J A= A JA =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A L=HE=I BK ?E AI HAIFA?J = @EBAHA JAI L=HE=> AI HC= E @ =I A K = =JHE 5KF C= I K ? K J @A m A?K=?E AI ? n L= HE=> AI

>HA @A +=F JK

"!

y 1 = f1 (x1 , x2 , , xn ) y 2 = f2 (x1 , x2 , , xn )

y m = fm (x1 , x2 , , xn )
= =JHE =? >E= = J =I ?E=@= = IEIJA = = JAHE H ? JEA A A ?=@= K = @A IKI A CH=@EA JA @A =I BK ?E AI fi F=H= J @ i = 1, 2, . . . , m -I @A?EH =I

f1 f2 J = fm

# $

)6 )* ?= ?K = F H @EBAHA ?E= EJ= I A A A J I @A K = =JHE =? >E= = " = IE J=NEI @A = HKJE = fjac AI A@E= JA I ? = @ I fjac O fdjac

J=fjac(f,[i,j],a,P1,P2,...)
, @A f AI A >HA @A A GKA ? JEA A A IEIJA = = @AHEL=H [i,j] IEC E ?= GKA IA @AHEL=H = BK ?E j HAIFA?J = = L=HE=> A i# A LA?J H a @A A A FK J @ @A IA L= = ?= ?K =H = @AHEL=@= O P1,P2,... AJ? I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI = = BK ?E )K GKA A J @ KJE E =@ F H fdjac AI = C = =F E?=@ F H fjac IK IE J=NEI AI @EIJE J= J=fdjac(f,a,P1,P2,...) ) ECK= GKA = JAI f AI A >HA @A A @ @A @A E I A IEIJA = @A BK ?E AI FAH a E @E?= A FK J @ @A IA AL= = = @AHEL=@= @A IEIJA = O P1,P2,... I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI =F E?=> AI = BK ?E 8A= I K A A F @A ? IA KI= I ? = @ I fjac O fdjac

-A F
@A A?K=?E

# $ 0= A
AI

I =

=JHE

=? >E= = A A FK J   @A IECKEA JA IEIJA =

z 1 = x2 + y 2 z 2 = x3 + y 3
-IJ=I HKJE =I FAHJA A?A = J > N + 2-+ 5E F H A A F IA @AIA=H= ?= ?K =H = @AHEL=@= @A = IACK @= A?K=?E L=HE=> A A LA?J H @A>AH = IAH [1,2].
# "

HAIFA?J = = FHE AH

""

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E A

GKA ?

JEA A A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

AI A K

function [z1,z2]=ej7a(v); x=v(1); y=v(2); z1=x.^(2)+y.^(2); z2=x.^(3)+y.^(3);

2=I - JH >E= = A  

?DAH E L ?=

IA ?

= @ O ?= ?K =

I = =?

H(1,:)=fjac(ej7a,[1,1],[1;1]); H(2,:)=fjac(ej7a,[1,2],[1;1]); H
+=>A J=H GKA A AIJA A A F = @A E?E ? FKJ=?E = @A =I L=HE=> AI AI @EIJE J= = =GKA = GKA DA I LA E@ KI= @ = =HC @A ?=F JK - LA?J H v @A J= = 1 2 JEA A ? FHE AH A A A J = = L=HE=> A x O ? IACK @= ? F A JA = y A J= = AIJ @AJAH E =@ F H = ?= JE@=@ @A L=HE=> AI A A A A F  -IJ= J=?E IE F E ?= IKIJ= ?E= A JA A = EIEI F HGKA A A B @ = =JHE =? >E= = AI = @AHEL=@= @A K = =JHE HAIFA?J = K LA?J H @A L=HE=> AI )I = =JHE H AIJ ? IJEJKE@= F H @ I LA?J HAI @A @AHEL=@=I HAIFA?J = x A y A FHE AH LA?J H = ? HHAIF @A = CH=@EA JA @A = FHE AH= A?K=?E O A IACK @ = CH=@EA JA @A = IACK @= A?K=?E = >=I @AHEL=@=I AL= K=@=I A A FK J   )D H= LA= I ? A ? JH=H = =JHE =? >E= = A A EI FK J = F=HJEH @A fdjac

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E A

GKA ?

JEA A A IEIJA = @A BK ?E

AI A K

function [z]=ej7b(v); x=v(1); y=v(2); z1=x.^(2)+y.^(2); z2=x.^(3)+y.^(3); z=[z1;z2];

2=I - JH >E= = A  

?DAH E L ?=

IA ?

= @ O ?= ?K =

I = =?

H=fdjac(ej7b,[1;1])
- AIJA A A F >IAHL= I GKA fdjac AI K = CA AH= E =?E @A fjac EA JH=I A fjac IA HAGKEAHA AIFA?E ?=H GK A?K=?E @A =I FH FEA@=@@AI IA @AHEL= HAIFA?J =

>HA @A +=F JK GK L=HE=> A O A FK J @A AL= K=?E GKA IA GKEAHA ?= ?K =H = =? >E= = A fdjac I IA A?AIEJ= @A

"# EH A FK J A

##

)F E?=?E

7 = BK ?E

@A 2H @K??E

JEF + >> , KC =I

- = EIEI A? E? @A =I A FHAI=I AL = K?D I = AIJK@E=H = B H = I IA ?E = @A =>IJH=AH = FH @K??E @A = AH= GKA IA ALEJ=H= ?=AH A =I ? F A E@=@AI J ? E?=I FH FE=I @A FH ?AI FH @K?JEL I A? EIJ=I D= CH=@ D=?AH AI= =>IJH=??E F H A@E @A = BK ?E @A FH @K??E K = = AH= =JA JE?= @A HAFHAIA J=H A FH @K?J ? K = L=HE=> A @AFA @EA JA @A @EBAHA JAI B=?J HAI @A FH @K??E LEIE> A A = A?K=?E # %

q = f (K, L, ...)

# %

, @A q AI = ?= JE@=@ FH @K?E@= F H = H = K AI A ?=FEJ= KI @A GKE =I L ? HHAIF @A = JH=>= ?= JE@=@ @A D H=I JH=>= =@=I O I FK J I IKIFA IEL I E @E?= JH I E IK I KJE E =@ I A A FH ?AI FH @K?JEL ,AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= A? E? AI E JAHAI= JA >IAHL=H ? =I H =I A ECA I ELA AI @A FH @K?J O @A KI @A ?=@= K @A I B=?J HAI O F=H= D=?AH K IE F A AIJK@E ? FKJ=?E = KJE E =HA I K = BK ?E @A FH @K??E IE F E ?=@= @A = B H = q = f (K, L) >IJ= JA =I A FHAI=I FKA@A FH @K?EH E EJ= A JA @A>E@ = GKA ANEIJA K = HAIJHE??E @A HA?KHI I O ?=F=?E@=@ GKA IA E FE@A 1 JKEJEL= A JA K =K A J A = ?= JE@=@ @A K B=?J H F H A A F ?=FEJ=  = JA EA @ ? IJ= JAI I @A I B=?J HAI @A>A FH @K?EH I FH @K?J IE A >=HC AI I E ?HA A J I @EI E KOA ?=@= LA = FH @K?JELE@=@ @A AIA B=?J H 2 H A A F IE JA A I K HAIJ=KH= JA O GKAHA I =JA @AH = J @ I I ? EA JAI F @A I ? JH=J=H K AIAH GKA D=C= 5E ? JH=J= I JH AIAH IAH = @A CH= =OK@= F=H= A AIAH O= ? JH=J=@ IEA FHA O ?K= @ =I AI=I AI IA= =IEC =@=I ? =H= A JA @A B H = GKA =JEA @= @ I LA?AI = EI = AI= 2AH IE IA ? JH=J= I AIAH I GKA AI=I A JE AIAH ? JH=J=@ JA @H = GKEA =JA @AH O F H J= J IK =F HJA = = FH @K??E AI FH ?JE?= A JA K 5KF C= I A J ?AI GKA K = A FHAI= JEA A = IECKEA JA BK ?E @A FH @K??E 1 1 f (K, L) = K 3 L 3 8A= I CH ?= A JA IK ? F HJ= EA J O IK B H = A = .ECKH= #" ) >IAHL= I GKA = BK ?E JEA A HA @E EA J I @A?HA?EA JAI A ?=@= B=?J H O= IA= K L = B H = I IA ?E = F=H= = = E =H A ABA?J @A K =K A J @A K B=?J H I >HA

"$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

Q 5

3 f(K,L) 2

0 10 8 6 4 2 L 0 0 4 2 K 6 8 10

.ECKH= # "

= BK ?E

@A FH @K??E

f (K, L) = K 3 L 3

A FH @K?J AI =EI = @ AIA B=?J H @A I @A I F H K E IJ= JA = ? JHE>K?E = FH @K?J HAIK J= JA @A =CHAC=H K = K E@=@ I @A B=?J H IA @A E = 2H @K?JELE@=@ =HCE = P M g  O IK AL= K=?E =JA JE?= IA D=?A A@E= JA @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI AI @A?EH = AIJK@E=H = @E ?=?E @A K B=?J H IA @A = ? IJ= JAI J @ I I @A I 5K B H = AI @AI?HEJ= A = A?K=?E # &

P M gK =

q K

P M gL =

q L
1

# &
1

,A AIJ= = AH= HAJ = @ KAIJH= BK ?E @A FH @K??E f (K, L) = K 3 L 3 A = EIEI @A = ? JHE>K?E @A K B=?J H D=?A I A@E= JA IKI @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI HAIFA?J = ?=FEJ= = JH=>= )I F=H= D= =H = @AHEL=@= F=H?E= E L ?= I gradient ?K= @ O= DA I ?HA=@ = BK ?E

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

@A FH @K??E

A K

function q=cobb(k,l,a,b); q=(k.^(a)).*(l.^(b));

2=I +HA=H = =H =

I @=J I FAHJE A JAI = = BK ?E

AC=JEL I O

h=0.2 k=[0:h:10]; l=k; a=1/3; b=a;

>HA @A +=F JK

"%

[K,L]=meshgrid(k,l); Q=cobb(K,L,a,b);

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?

= @ gradient

[PK,PL]=gradient(Q,h,h)
I HAIK J=@ I @A AIJ= FAH=?E I PK O PL =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A = BK ?E HAIFA?J = K O L HAIFA?JEL= A JA >IAHL= I AIJ I HAIK J=@ I A = .ECKH= # # @ @A JA A I GKA = >=I @AHEL=@=I I F IEJEL=I = E ?HA A J=H I B=?J HAI ?HA?A A FH @K?J  IE A >=HC I @A?HA?EA JAI ?=@= K E@=@ I @A ?=@= B=?J H =K A J= A FH @K?J A A I GKA AI= FH F H?E  2 H A A F = FH @K?JELE@=@ =HCE = @A ?=FEJ=  = CKH= @A = E GKEAH@= KAIJH= ? = JA K =K A J @A ?=FEJ= A =C I GKA ?AH  = F=HJA I E GKEAH@= @A = CH ?= HAIK J= A K = CH= ?= JE@=@ @A FH @K?J A A A LAHJE?=  @A JH =@ K E ?HA A J KO CH= @A  = F=HJA @A I = = @AHA?D= E F E?= K ?HA?E EA J ?=IE K @A FH @K?J  = CH ?= @A = BK ?E IA D=?A ?=@= LA I ?AH?= = = ?AH 

.ECKH= # # 1 GKEAH@= 2H @K?JELE@=@ =HCE = @A 6H=>=

=HCE = @A +=FEJ= ,AHA?D= 2H @K?JELE@=@

,AHEL=?E

@A H@A IKFAHE H

+ O= DA I ANF E?=@ AI F IE> A @AHEL=H K = BK ?E f : I I @A K = LA ) F=HJEH @A @EIJE J I J @ I ? F E E I @EBAHA ?E=I EJ=I IA AIJ=> A?A

"&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

=FH NE =?E AI >=IJ= JA FHA?EI=I @A =I @AHEL=@=I A E ? KI @A =I BK ?E AI EI =I I GKA AI F A FK J I F=HJE?K =HAI$ - AIJ= IA??E FHAIA J= I I ? @EC I ? IE> A D=?AH @AHEL=?E @A H@A IKFAHE H A )6 )* O ?KO= KJE E@=@ AIJ =J=@= = =F E?=?E AI A? E?=I O = DAHH= EA J=I @A CH= KJE E@=@ F=H= JA =I I =L= =@ I A A? = O JH=I ?EA ?E=I

polyder

) ECK= GKA = @AHEL=?E @A FHE AH H@A @A K F E E polyder FAH EJA ? JE K=H @AHEL= @ L=HE=I LA?AI A K = I = @E A IE ) F=HJEH @A = IE J=NEI O= @A E@= @A ? = @ =D H= AI A?AI=HE GKA A E FKJ IA= = @AHEL=@= = JAHE H A IK @ABA? J F=H= AC=H = = @AHEL=@= IKFAHE H D=O GKA E L ?=H A ? @EC J= J=I LA?AI ? IA= HAGKAHE@ 8A= I A IECKEA JA A A F F=H= ? IE@AH=H polyder A A ?=I @A @AHEL=@=I ?KO H@A IA= =O H = K

-A F

I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A F E E f (x) = 5x4 + 9x3 + 8x2 + 3x + 1 ) = JE?= A JA = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A f (x) AI f (x) = 20x3 + 27x2 + 16x + 3 O = IACK @= AI f (x) = 60x2 + 54x + 16 >IAHLA I A HAIK J=@ A@E= JA A KI @A polyder

# % 0= A

2=I  -I?HE>E E JAHAI= @AHEL=H

P=[5 9 8 3 1]

IA

)6 )*

A LA?J H @A ? A ?EA JAI GKA

2=I

)D H= E L ?=

I = = HKJE = @ I LA?AI

Q=polyder(polyder(P))
- HAIK J=@ GKA A JHAC= )6 )* AI [60 54 16] GKA ? HHAIF @A = HAIK J=@ GKA D=> = I D= =@ A = I K?E = = JE?= 0=O GKA HAI= J=H GKA )6 )* ?KA J= @A @AHA?D= = E GKEAH@= = F=HJEH @A x0 AI @A?EH A JE AH A A LA?J H @A HAIFKAIJ=I AI K AI?= =H = LA J= = @A KI @A polyder H=@E?= A = B=?E E@=@ F=H= D= =H A F E E I KO CH= @AI @AHEL=@=I KO = J=I @A>E@ = = FHA?EIE K HE?= @A )6 )* O JA@E I GKA IEC E ?= D=?AH K = CH= ?= JE@=@ @A @AHE L=?E AI

- F=HJE?K =H A AIJA ?=F JK @A 6=O H

IA => H@= = =FH NE =?E

@A BK ?E

AI F H

A@E @A = -NF= IE

>HA @A +=F JK

"'

gradient

=I @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H A A ?=I @A K = I = L=HE=> A I B ?E AI @A ?= ?K =H A@E= JA A ? = @ gradient )I F=H= D= =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= ? gradient A KAL E FKJ AI A CH=@EA JA = JAHE H A JA A ? JH=@

-A F

# & 0= A

=I @ I @AHEL=?E

I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E f (x) = x 3 6H=I D=?AH 4 3 AI ? HHAIF @EA JAI = JE = = = JE?= A JA AI f (x) = 2 9x

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
function f=ej7(x); f=x.^(2/3);

= @AHEL=H A K

2=I

JH

?DAH @AJAH E =H

I @=J I @A =I L=HE=> AI

x=[-10:1:10]; z=ejemseis(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H
gradient

I CH=@EA JAI K

HE? I @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA

PX2=gradient(gradient(z,1),1)
- HAIK J=@ @A =F E?=H gradient AI ALE@A JA A = .ECKH= # $ @ @A >IAHL= I = ECK= @=@ ANEIJA JA A JHA A HAIK J=@ = = JE? O A HAIK J=@ K HE? )IE EI ? gradient IA >JEA A HAIK J=@ I KO FHA?EI I F=H= @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H @EB ?E AI @A ?= ?K =H = = JE?= A JA F H A A F = =F E?=H gradient = K = BK ?E K JEL=HE=@= D= = I = =JHE DAIIE= = K = =JHE GKA =CHKF= =I IACK @=I @AHE L=@=I @A K = BK ?E O JEA A = B H = FK JK= E =@= A = A?K=?E # '

Hf ( x) =

2f x1 f xn x1

f x1 xn 2 f xn

# '

= B H = I B ?E @A D= =H = DAIIE= = ? gradient F=H= IKF C= I K = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI AI JH=I D=>AH E L ?=@ = HKJE = O D=>AH >JA E@ I LA?J HAI FX O FY GKA ? HHAIF @A = =I @AHEL=@=I HAIFA?J = x A y HAIFA?JEL= A JA IA = = = ? = @ @ I LA?AI I FAH AIJ= LA E JH @K?EA @ ?=@= LA = =JHE @A E CA AI

#
Primera Derivada de f(x)=x
1.8

/-,2/3
6

8AHIE
2/3

2HA E E =H

Segunda Derivada de f(x)=x

1.6

1.4

3 1.2 2 1 PX2 0.8 0 0.6 1 0.4 0.2 0 10 8 6 4 2 0 x 2 4 6 8 10 PX 1

4 10

0 x

10

.ECKH= # $

=I @ I FHE AH=I @AHEL=@=I @A f (x) = x 3 8A= I A J K JEL=HE=@=I ?AI A - A F # ' F=H= >IAHL=H

HAIK J= JA @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=?E A KI @A gradient A BK ?E AI

-A F

# ' 0= A
x2 y2

f (x, y ) = + ? HHAIF @A =

I = =JHE DAIIE= = @A = BK ?E @AI?HEJ= A A - A F # ! ) = JE?= A JA JH=I D=?AH =I IK?AIEL=I @AHEL=?E AI = =JHE

2 0 0 2
@ @A >IAHL= DAIIE= = I GKA =I @AHEL=@=I ?HK =@=I I ECK= AI = C ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A =

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
function f=ej9(x,y); f=x.^2+y.^2;

= @AHEL=H A K

2=I

JH

?DAH @AJAH E =

I @=J I @A =I L=HE=> AI

x=[1:5];y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); Z=ej9(X,Y);

2=I ! += ?K =H A CH=@EA JA K
gradient [PX,PY]=gradient(Z,1,1);

HE? @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA

>HA @A +=F JK

#

2=I " 1 L ?=H A ? = @ gradient F=H= D= =H @A = =JHE DAIIE= =

[PXX,PXY]=gradient(PX,1,1) [PYX,PYY]=gradient(PY,1,1)

I?

A JAI

- HAIK J=@ @A )6 )* I KAIJH= KO ? =H= A JA GKA PXY=PYX=0 GKA AH= = C @AI? ?E@ >IJ= JA I HAIK J=@ I @A PXX O PYY I J= ? ?HAJ I ? I = JAHE HAI - DA?D @A GKA I HAIK J=@ I @A =I ? K =I I ANJAHE HAI F=H= A ?=I @A PXX O A @A =I =I I ANJAHE HAI F=H= A ?=I @A PYY @E AH= @A IK?A@A F HGKA = IAH gradient K J @ >=I=@ A @EBAHA ?E=I I HAIK J=@ I @A =I AIGKE =I JEA A JH J H E ? A ?K= D=?AH @EBAHA ?E= O )6 )* =KJ JE?= A JA AI =IEC = K = =FH NE =?E 2AH = = O = ? K = @A ?A JH I ? ? KOA JAI A HAIK J=@ @A = @AHEL=?E A = > I ?=I I AI ? >IAHL= I A =I =JHE?AI #  5E CA AH= E = I A HAIK J=@ F=H= I @A ?K=JH A A A J I = F H A A F ?EA A A A J I A HAIK J=@ AI K?D I BKAHJA O = =O H = @A I ? F A JAI @A =I =JHE?AI PXX O PYY IAH

PXX = 1 1 1 1 1

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

2 2 2 2 2

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1 1 1

PYY =

1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1

# 

- A ?=I @A BK ?E AI K EL=HE=@=I F=H= ?= ?K =H @AHEL=@=I @A I = @A IACK @ H@A IA HAF E?= A FH ?AI @A A ? JH=H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= IA @AJAH E = = @AHEL= @= E A@E=J= A JA = JAHE H = =GKA = GKA @AIA= I A ? JH=H 8A= I A IECKEA JA A A F F=H= AIJ=> A?AH K HE?= A JA ? IA D= = = JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= @A K = BK ?E I = JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E f (x) = x 3 = FHE AH= 7 4 3 3 @AHEL=@= @A f (x) AI f (x) = 10 = IACK @= ? HHAIF @A = f (x) = 70 3 x 9 x O = JAH?AH= 1 3 8A= I ?K AI A HAIK J=@ @A = @AHEL=?E K HE?= AI f (3) (x) = 280 27 x

-A F

#  += ?K A

10

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
function f=ej10(x); f=x.^(10/3);

= @AHEL=H A K

#

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I

JH

?DAH @AJAH E =H

I @=J I @A =I L=HE=> AI

x=[-10:10]; z=ej10(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H A JAH?AH CH=@EA JA K

gradient

HE? @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA

PX3=gradient(gradient(gradient(z,1),1),1)
- HAIK J=@ @AI?HEJ F H = =JHE PX3 ?KO= H = AI F IEJEL= A ECK= =  ' " #  IA= = JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E AI ?HA?EA JA AI = HAIFKAIJ= K HE?= = E L ?=H JHAI LA?AI gradient I >HA = BK ?E f (x) - HAIK J=@ @A CH= ?=H PX3 >IAH L= I A = .ECKH= # % @ @A A HAIK J=@ = = JE? O A K HE? I ECAH= A JA @EIJE J I = ?=KI= @A AHH H @A JHK ?= EA J E DAHA JA = = =FH NE =?E K HE?= 2 (O(h ))
Tercera Derivada Numerica
10 10

Tercera Derivada Analitica

6 PX3

y 8 6 4 2 0 x 2 4 6 8 10

0 10

0 10

0 x

10

.ECKH= # %

= JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= @A f (x) = x 3

A@E= JA gradient O @EHA?J= A JA

diff

= HKJE = diff J= >E AI JE F=H= D= =H @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H >IJ= JA F=H= @AJAH E =H = @AHEL=@= @A H@A IKFAHE H F=H= F H A A F K = BK ?E K EL=HE=@= D=O GKA E JH @K?EH = ? = @ = @AHEL=@= E A@E=J= A JA = JAHE H IE GKAHA I D= =H = ?K=HJ= @AHEL=@= A E FKJ AI = JAH?AH= @AHEL=@= O =I IK?AIEL= A JA - IECKEA JA A A F KAIJH= ? =H= A JA ? IA JH=>= = ? diff A BK ?E AI K EL=HE=@=I

>HA @A +=F JK

#! I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A - A F # " f (x) = x 2

5

-A F

#  += ?K A

2=I  +HA=H = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E

F1=diff(x.^(5/2))/h

2=I

1 L ?=H KAL= A JA A ?

= @

F2=diff(F1)/h
= I= E@= F2 AI = IACK @= @AHEL=@= K HE?= @A = BK ?E x 2 GKA AI K = BK ?E ?HA?EA JA  = H = @A LA?J H AI &$  !! 2=H= AN= E =H BK ?E AI K JEL=HE=@=I D=O GKA AIFA?E ?=H @A GK H@A O A GK @E A IE AI = @AHEL=@=  IA= IE AIJ @AHEL= @ HAIFA?J = x = y  - A - A F #  AI ALE@A JA ? AI A KI @A diff A A ?=I @A I @A K = L=HE=> A
5

-A F
f (x, y ) =

#
x2 + y2

+= ?K A

I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E

@A - A F

#'

2=I 

= =H = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= E L ?= @ A ?

= @ diff

ZX=diff(Z,1,2); ZY=diff(Z,1,1);

2=I ) F=HJEH @A AIJ=I @AHEL=@=I A ? = ?=@= L=HE=> A

ZXX=diff(Z,2,2) ZYY=diff(Z,2,1)

JH=H =I @AHEL=@=I HAIFA?J

2=I ! -IJ=> A?AH =I @AHEL=@=I ?HK =@=I

ZXY=diff(ZX,1,1) ZYX=diff(ZY,1,2)
- AIJA A A F =FHA?E= I A KI @A I AH I @A =?KAH@ = H@A @A = @AHEL=@= GKA IA IEC= - A 2=I J = I Z @AHEL @ HAIFA?J = x @ I LA?AI A L= H ? HHAIF @EA JA = ZXX O @AIFK I D=?E @ HAIFA?J = y @ I LA?AI A L= H @A ZXY ,A JH =@ A A 2=I ! JA A I =I @AHEL=@=I ?HK =@=I = F=HJEH @A 2=I  >JA A I = @AHEL=@= @A Z HAIFA?J = x F=H= KAC @AHEL=H ? y ZXY O A IECKEA JA F=I AI A ?=I AN=?J= A JA E LAHI ZYX +=>A = J=H GKA A FHE AH AH @A = IE J=NEI AIJ @AJAH E = @ A H@A @A = @AHEL=?E EA JH=I A IACK @ AIJ=> A?A ?K AI = L=HE=> A HAIFA?J = = GKA IA @AHEL= =@A I I HAIK J=@ I I I EI I

#"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

GKA I @A - A F # & ZXY O ZYX I ?AH IE A >=HC =I JH=I @AHEL=@=I I I A ?KA JAI GKA ? gradient J @ I I A A A J I @A =I =JHE?AI ZXX O ZYY I -IJ IA FAH?E>A A = A?K=?E # 

ZXX = 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

PYY = 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

# 

"

fdhess

0= =H DAIIE= =I ? gradient diff FKA@A IAH JA@E I O ? O= LE I E FHA?E I ?K= @ IA =IEC = F ? I @=J I = FH ?AI -NEIJA JH = C HEJ GKA A ?KA JH= @A % = AH= I AN=?J= = DAIIE= = fdhess FAH EJA D= =H A )6 )* = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A K = BK ?E ?= ?K =@= A K L=HE I FK J I = IE J=NEI @A AIJA ? = @ AI H=fdhess(f,x,varargin) @ @A f ? HHAIF @A = >HA @A = BK ?E @A @ fval = f(x) x AI A FK J @A AL= K=?E O varargin I =HCK A J I =@E?E = AI F=H= f  F?E =  - HAIK J=@ @A ? = @ AI H AI @A?EH = IACK @= @AHEL=@= A A FK J @A AL= K=?E

-A F

>JA C= I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E A A FK J  ' O D=C= I IK = EIEI

# !

f (x, y ) = x3 3xy 2

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

= @AHEL=H A K

function f=ej11(x,y); f=x.^3-3*x*y^2;

2=I
fdhess

+= ?K =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA

H=fdhess(ej11,10,-9)
)6 )* = BK ?E A
%

KAIJH= K HAIK J=@ A FK J  ' =

> N +

K HE? GKA I FAH EJA = = E =H = B H = @A >IAHL=H = CH ?= @A = BK ?E A = .ECKH=

2-+

-IJ= HKJE = FAHJA A?A = J

>HA @A +=F JK

##

# & LA I GKA A A FK J  ' = BK ?E AI ?HA?EA JA O = ? JA =H = ? = I K?E @A )6 )* JH=I = A A?K?E @A fdhess 60 AIJ= HAIFKAIJ= I @E?A = C ALE@A JA = BK ?E A A FK J  ' ?HA?A = K = J=I= ?HA?EA JA O = =C EJK@ @A HAIK J=@ I @= = @E A IE @A AIA ?HA?E EA J AI @A?EH ? B H A IA AL= A fdhess A K FK J @ @A = FA @EA JA IA= KO CH= @A A HAIK J=@ @A ? = @ AI FH CHAIEL= A JA =O H

.ECKH= # &

= BK ?E

f (x, y ) = x3 3xy 2

-A F

# "

>IAHLA

I ?K

AI = B H = @A = BK ?E

f (x) = x3 + y 3 A A

FK J  

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

= @AHEL=H A K

function f=ej12(x,y); f=x.^3+y.^3;

2=I
fdhess

+= ?K =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= A A FK J  

A@E= JA

H=fdhess(ej12,0,0)
6H=I =F E?=H fdhess A AIJA A A F LA I GKA A HAIK J=@ @A ? ?K AI ?AH )6 )* ? H = GKA CH ?= A JA >IAHL= I A = .ECKH= # ' = BK ?E 3 3 x + y A   AI F = = F H GKA IA ? ? KOA GKA = = BK ?E AI ?HA?EA JA E @A?HA?EA JA O GKA IK J=I= @A ?HA?E EA J AI AN=?J= A JA ECK= = ?AH

#$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

.ECKH= # '

= BK ?E

f (x) = x3 + y 3

-NF= IE

@A 6=O H

) @EBAHA ?E= @A =I BK ?E AI I F E E I I K?D I = A => AI @AI@A = FAHIFA?JEL= @A ? ?K FAH=?E = O I FAH EJA K =?AH?= EA J I IA ?E = FH > A = GKA IA AIJ JH=J= @ 2 H AI AI KO ? =FH NE =H BK ?E AI D= = @ IKI @AHEL=@=I IKFAHE HAI O HC= E @ =I F H A@E @A F E E I 7 = B H = @A D=?AH AI F=H= K x ?AH?= = a

f (x) = f (a)+ f (a)(x a)+

f (a) fn f (a) (x a)2 + (x a)3 + (x a)n + E (x, a, n) 2! 3! n! #  

GKA AI = =@ @AI=HH @A = BK ?E ? K = -NF= IE @A 6=O H - J H E E (x, a, n) @AJAH E = A AHH H @A = =FH NE =?E = = BK ?E f (x) +K= @ l m E (x, a, n) = n 0 IA @E?A GKA A @AI=HH @A F E E = HA@A@ H @A a ? LAHCA = BN  I= LA #

-A F
F HF E

# # 8A=

I = BK ?E f (x) = 5x 3 32 O IK =FH NE =?E E @A 6=O H = HA@A@ H @A FK J x = 12

@A CH=@ JHAI

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
function f=ej13(x) f=5*x.^(2/3)-32;

= @AHEL=H A K

>HA @A +=F JK

#%

2=I - JH ?DAH @AJAH E =H A FK J @ @=J I FAHJE A JAI @A = BK ?E

xa=[-2:0.1:18]; x=12*ones(size(xa)); X(1,:)=ej13(xa);

@A IA =FH NE = O

2=I ! + EJAH=JEL
for i=2:4

IJHKEH =I @AHEL=@=I @A = BK ?E

A@E= JA K FH ?AI

X(i,:)=gradient(X(i-1,:)); end

2=I " - ?
for k=1:4

JH=H A F E

E @A 6=O H = HA@A@ H @A 

POL(k,:)=(((X(k,:).*(xa-x).^(k-1)))/factorial(k-1)); end poltaylor=sum(POL,1)

- HAIK J=@ AI K = =FH NE =?E K J = = CH ?= @A = BK ?E F H K J H E @A AHH H GKA AI E =FH NE =?E AI @A?EH IE E ?HA >JA @H = I K = =FH NE =?E ,A AIJ= B H = = =FH NE =?E FK J FHALE= A JA AIJ=> A?E@ AHH HAI ?HA?A O = =FH NE =?E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ JHAI ALE@A JA A = .ECKH= #  = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA = >=I CH ?=I AIJ @AJAH E =@= LAHI= A JA FH F H?E = = =K A J I A A H@A @A = A J=H= I =H>EJH=HE= A JA A AH @A @AHEL=?E AI I FHA?EI= = = BK ?E A A FK J  O IK LA?E @=@ AI JE F=H= =?AH?=HIA = = BK ?E I = A JA A K O IK LA?E @=@ F HGKA = = A =HIA @A AIA FK J I FEAH@A IA JE@

)F E?=?E

- -GKE E>HE A A

@A

@A + KH

+ IE@AHA I K AH?=@ ? FKAIJ F H @ I H =I GKA FH @K?A K >EA D C A O GKA A BHA J= K = BK ?E @A @A = @= p = 100 Q @ @A Q AI = ?= JE@=@ =CHAC=@= @A >EA Q = q1 + q2 @ @A q1 AI = ?= JE@=@ FH @K?E@= F H = H =  O q2 AI A FH @K?J @A = H =  +=@= K = @A =I H =I i JEA A K = BK ?E @A 2 qi 5KF C= I GKA =I H =I I H=?E = AI O @AIA= ? IJ I ?K=@H JE?= @A = B H = 2 =NE E =H >A A ?E +K AI A AGKE E>HE @A AIJ= A? =

#&
30

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

20

f(x) Aproximacion Punto x

10

10

f(x) 20
30

40

50

60

70 2

10

12

14

16

18

.ECKH= #  2HE H A H

= BK ?E

f (x) = 5x 3 32 O IK =FH NE =?E

@A CH=@ JHAI

AH @A>A I AIJ=> A?AH ?K AI A FH > A = GKA GKEAHA HAI LAH ?=@= K = @A =I =I = A FHAI= i LA @A K = ?= JE@=@ qi O @=@ GKA =?AFJ= A FHA?E GKA JEA A A AH?=@ HA?E>A K J J= @A pqi + J= >E A BHA J= ? IJ I A >A A ?E @A = = i AI = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA IKI E CHAI I O IKI ? IJ I

= pqi c(qi )

# !

@ @A AI A >A A ?E - ? ?K A L= H @A = L=HE=> A GKA D=?A GKA = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= IA= ?AH AI K FK J ?H JE? @A = BK ?E  =IA NE E IE F A A JA K ?= >E A = B H = @A = BK ?E  5E @AHEL= I F=H?E= A JA = BK ?E @A >A A ?E @A = H =  IA= = @AHEL=@= AI F=H?E= F HGKA = H =  ? JH = = FH @K??E @A IKI B >HE?=I FAH = ?= JE@=@ @A = H =  O ECK= = I = ?AH >JA A I K FK J ?H JE? @A = BK ?E >IJ= JA F=H= I=>AH IE AIJA HAIK J=@ AI K NE K E @A>A I HA?KHHEH = = IACK @= @AHEL=@= IE AI F IEJEL= AIJ= I D=> = @ @A K E IE AI AC=JEL= K NE 8A= I A J ?AI ?K AI = BK ?E @A >A A ?E ? F=H= AIJ= A? =
2 qi 2 + A FH > A = AI =NE E =H = A?K=?E # " AIJ=> A ?= IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E F=H= = H = 

= (100 Q)qi

# " I = FHE AH= O =

2=I  -I?HE>EH K

A ? KH

>HA @A +=F JK

#'

function pi=cournot(q1,q2); pi=(q1.*(100-q1-q2))-((q1.^2)/2);

2=I BK ?E

+HA=H

I @=J I @A = L=HE=> A q1 @A = L=HE=> A q2 O @A =

q1=[0:1:100]; q2=q1; [QU,QD]=meshgrid(q1,q2); Z=cournot(QU,QD);

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?

= @ gradient F=H= =I @AHEL=@=I

[PX,PY]=gradient(Z,1,1); [PXX,PYX]=gradient(PX,1,1) [PXY,PYY]=gradient(PY,1,1);

+ KAIJH E JAH I AI = @AHEL=@= F=H?E= @A = A?K=?E # " HAIFA?J = = L=HE=> A >= A ? JH @A = H =  q1  @A>A I >IAHL=H ?K AI I I IEC I @A I A A A J I @A PXX F=H= I=>AH IE AIJ= I A ? JH= @ K NE K E = ? ? KIE AI = AIFAH=@= ?=@= ? F A JA @A PXX AI AC=JEL AI @A?EH A FK J ?H JE? GKA D= A I F=H= A FH > A = AI K NE ,A JH =@ A HAIK J=@ @A = >=I @AHEL=@=I ?HK =@=I AI A EI O AI AC=JEL F H J= J A >EA FH @K?E@ F H K = @A =I H =I AI IKIJEJKJ @A = JH= HAIK J=@ GKA D=> = I IKFKAIJ @AI@A A FHE ?EFE = = H =H GKA = >=I D=? = A EI FH @K?J A JH=I F= =>H=I = JA ?K= GKEAH ALA JK= E@=@ ? A FH @K?J @A = H =  A ? IK E@ H FKA@A @AIF = =H IK FHABAHA ?E= D=?E= A FH @K?J @A = H = @=@ GKA I = EI JEF @A >EA  ) ECK= =H PX = ?AH @AJAH E = I ?K AI = HAIFKAIJ= FJE = @A = H =  = JA ?= >E I A = FH @K??E @A = A J ?AI = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A K = BK ?E ECK= =@= = ?AH AI = .K ?E @A A H 4AIFKAIJ= @A = H = GKA = ?K J AI FJE FH @K?EH = JA ?K= GKEAH AIJH=JACE= @A IK ? FAJE@ H= +=@= K = @A =I BK ?E AI @A A H HAIFKAIJ= @A AIJA FH > A = AIJ @AI?HEJ=I A = .ECKH= #  CH ?= GKA IA >JEA A @A D=?AH = ?KHL= @A ELA @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= A   ? contour (QU,QD,PX,[0 0]) - AGKE E>HE @A AIJA @A AIJ ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H A FK J @A ? HJA A JHA = >=I BK ?E AI @A A H HAIFKAIJ= AI= AI = ?= JE@=@ = FH @K?EH @A ?=@= K = @A =I H =I ALE@A JA A = .ECKH= #  ? A FK J ACH + A FH > A = AI IE JHE? = >=I H =I =NE E = = EI = BK ?E @A >A A ?E  K = >KA = F IE>E E@=@ @A A ? JH=H A AGKE E>HE ? FKJ=?E = A JA AI IKF AH @A = JA = GKA = ?= JE@=@ FH @K?E@=

$
100

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

90

Funcion de mejor respuesta Firma 1

80

70

60

2 50
40

30

q*

20

Funcion de mejor respuesta Firma 2

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

q* 1

.ECKH= #  - @K F E @A + KH

@A = >=I H =I AI = EI = F H A @A IA AIJ=> A?A @ @A AIJ I FK J I @A = ?KHL= @A ELA @A PXX A   F=H= @AIFK I @AJAH E =H ?K AI @A I ? F A JAI @A I LA?J HAI F IE?E A = =JHE @A @=J I E E?E= AI I ECK= AI -IJ= B H = AI = GKA IA @AI=HH = A A IECKEA JA I?HEFJ F=H= ?= E =H A AGKE E>HE

[i,j]=find(PX==0); for n=1:length(i); if QU(i(n),j(n))==QU(j(n),i(n)) l=i(n); m=j(n); else 0; end end

AI l=q = 26 O m=q = 26 )I A AGKE E>HE qi IA= ?=@= K = @A =I H =I FH @K?A 1 2 K = ?= JE@=@ ECK= = $ K E@=@AI -IJA HAIK J=@ AI AN=?J= A JA A EI GKA =GKA GKA IA CH= IE A LA @A = = E =H J @ A FH > A = = F=HJEH @A = H =  JH=>= H= I ? = H = = @EBAHA ?E= H=@E?= A = L=HE=> A @A ? JH @A = H = A ?KAIJE GKA IAH = A J ?AI q2 O @A AI= B H = = J =H A CH=@EA JA F=H= = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= =GKA = =JHE GKA D=>H = GKA AN= E =H IAH = = IACK @=

>HA @A +=F JK

$

#!

- AH?E?E I

 7 = A FHAI= JEA A K I ? IJ I A BK ?E @A = ?= JE@=@ @A = B H = c(q ) = 5q + 15 - ?KA JHA K HE?= A JA I ? IJ I =HCE = AI @A = H = +K J AI IK ? IJ 5 AIJ I ? IJ I =HCE = AI ? IJ= JAI 5E =I I 3K JEF @A HA @E EA J I FHAIA J= AIJ= A FHAI= - ?KA JHA K HE?= A JA = @AHEL=@= @A f (x) = 0.025x3.71 4x O CH= GKA A HAIK J=@ A )6 )* ! 7 = A FHAI= JEA A = IECKEA JA BK ?E = /H= GKA AIJA BK ?E > ,AHELA = BK ?E A @A FH @K??E
1

A@E= JA diff
2

q = K 3 L3

)6 )* ?

HAIFA?J = ?=FEJ= O = JH=>= 3K HA =?E

gradient
JEA A I ? A ?EA JAI

?  - ?KA JHA J @=I =I IACK @=I @AHEL=@=I @  3K JEF @A HA @E EA J I FHAIA J= @A = BK ?E ? I HA @E EA J I

" 6HAI H =I FH @K?A K >EA D C A = ?KHL= @A @A = @= =CHAC=@= AI P (Q) = a q1 q2 q3 @ @A qi AI = ?= JE@=@ FH @K?E@= F H = H = i i = 1, 2, 3 O a > 0 )IK = GKA I ? IJ I @A ?=@= H = I ?AH = - ?KA JHA O CH= GKA A ?=@= H = > 0= A F H J @ I K )6 )* =I BK ?E AI @A A H HAIFKAIJ= @A =

HE? I A AGKE E>HE @A + KH IA K A

J @A AIJ= A?

?  3KA IK?A@A IE =I H =I  O A AGKE E>HE

/H= GKA KAL= A JA O A ?KA JHA

# - = .ECKH= #  = =FH NE =?E @= ?EAHJ I I= J I = HA@A@ H @A ?AH 2 @H = ANF E?=H F H GK = BK ?E JEA A AIJA ? F HJ= EA J 3K IK?A@A A = =FH NE =?E ?K= @ AIJ = HA@A@ H @A ?AH $ -I KO ? GKA =I FAHI =I ? FHA IACKH I @A B H = GKA JH= I AH= HA?KHI I @A K AIJ=@ >KA = K AIJ=@ = ?K= @ HA= A JA I A?AIEJA >IJ= JA F=H= GKA AIJA FHE ?EFE IA ?K F = AI A?AI=HE GKA A =CA JA GKA ? FHA A IACKH IA= =LAHI = HEAIC O F=H= @AJAH E =H AI= =LAHIE = HEAIC IA HA?KHHA = K = A@E@= ? ?E@= ? + A ?EA JA @A )LAHIE = 4EAIC @A )HH M 2H=JJ GKA IA @A A ?

cu (c) u (c)

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

- JH=I F= =>H=I A ? A ?EA JA @A =LAHIE = HEAIC @AFA @A @A =I FHE AH=I @ I @AHEL=@=I @A = KJE E@=@ = IECKEA JA BK ?E @A KJE E@=@ AI KO KJE E =@= A A@E?E @A = =LAHIE = HEAIC O IA = = = BK ?E @A )LAHIE + IJ= JA 4A =JEL= = 4EAIC +44) F H IKI IEC =I A E C I + IJ= J 4A =JELA 4EI )LAHIE  c1 5E > 0 = 1 u(c) = 1 ln c 5E = 1 5E = 0.6 @AJAH E A =I @ I FHE AH=I @AHEL=@=I K HE?=I @A = BK ?E +44) A ?KA JHA A ? A ?EA JA @A =LAHIE = HEAIC @A )HH M 2H=JJ O CH= GKA A )6 )* 3K FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH = F=HJEH @A =I CH ?=I % 0=C= K = FH CH= =?E GKA HA= E?A K = =FH NE =?E 1 BK ?E f (x) = x2 4x 3 A A FK J x = 9 @A CH=@ IAEI F=H= =

& - = BK ?E @AJAH E =@= A A - A F # ! AL= A ? fdhess I FK J I %#  O  %#  3K FKA@A @A?EH HAIFA?J = =I J=I=I @A ?HA?E EA J @A = BK ?E + F=H= @ I HAIK J=@ I ? = .ECKH= # & 3K FKA@A ? ? KEH @A = B H = @A = BK ?E -I ? ?=L= -I ? LAN= 6 A @EIJE J I FK J I O @AJAH E A GK IK?A@A ? A L= H @A fdhess ? B H A IA L= =?AH?= @ = =I AIGKE =I O = A = @ @A ?AH ' =I IECKEA JAI A?K=?E AI

15 =

1 (c dT + I dr + dG) dy 1c M P dM dW M W mr dr dy

# # # $

1 my
FLL M 2 P FL

HAFHAIA J= A AGKE E>HE @A I AH?=@ I @A >EA AI AJ=HE O @A JH=>= A K = A? = O IA = = 15 15 AI = A?K=?E # # O HAFHAIA J= A AGKE E>HE A A AH?=@ @A >EA AI FH @K?J @A = A? = ECK= = @A = @= @A ?=@= IA?J H O = A?K=?E # $ AI A AGKE E>HE A A AH?=@ AJ=HE  BAHJ= @A @E AH ECK= = @A = @= @A @E AH  =@A I y HAFHAIA J= = FH @K?J O dy I IKI ?= >E I )I T I I E FKAIJ I G A C=IJ F > E? r = J=I= @A E JAH I M = =I= AJ=HE= W A I= =HE O dT, dG, dr, dM O dW IKI HAIFA?JEL I ?= >E I FL O FLL I = FHE AH= O = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E @A FH @K??E F (K, L) HAIFA?J = JH=>= =I L=HE=> AI AN CA =I AI @A?EH =GKA =I ?KO L= H IA AIJ=> A?A F H BKAH= @A @A I dT, dG, dM O dW O =I L=HE=> AI A @ CA =I ?KO L= H IA @AJAH E = = ?= >E=H K = L=HE=> A

>HA @A +=F JK

$!

AN CA = I dy O dr 5KF EA @ GKA =I L=HE=> AI AN CA =I ?= >E= dT = dM = dW = 0 O GKA c = 0.4 I = 1.2 my = 1.5 F (K, L) = K 0.5 L0.5 M = 0.02 P = 0.09 O mr = 0.9 @AJAH E A = =JHE =? >E= = = HA@A@ H @A FK J dy = 0.1 O dr = 0.08

#"

)F

@E?A
)6 )* AI ? A J > N 5O > E? GKA ?HA= K = AIJHK?JKH= @A @=J I GKA = =?A = K = HAFHAIA J=?E ? = @ syms FAH EJA ? IJHKEH L=HE=> AI O ANFHAIE = = JE?= A JA IA FKA@= D=?AH @EBAHA JAI FAH=?E AI ?=I @A =I @AHEL=@=I = HKJE = GKA FAH EJA >JA AH =I IA FKA@A @AHEL=H ? > AJ I IE > E? I

JH= B H = @A @AHEL=H A > AJ IE > E? AI @A?EH K ?=H=?JAH IJE?= @A I > AI IE > E?=I @A B H = GKA =JA JE?=I ? A =I - A AI diff 8A= I A J ?AI ?

-A F

# $ ,AHELA

I = BK ?E

f (x, y ) = x3

A@E= JA K = ANFHAIE

IE > E?=

2=I  ,A
syms x

EH = ANFHAIE

IE > E?=

2=I
f=x^3

1 JH @K?EH = BK ?E

= @AHEL=H

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?
diff(f)

= @ @E

- HAIK J=@ @A AIJA FH ?AI AI = @AHEL=@= @A f HAIFA?J = x 3*x^2 +K= @ GKA HA I D= =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E IA E L ?= = EI ? = @ FAH AIFA?E ?= @ A CH=@ @A = @AHEL=?E diff(f,2) - AIJA ?=I A KAIJH= @A GK H@A AI = @AHEL=@= GKA )6 )* AIJ ?= ?K = @ 2=H= A ? JH=H = @AHEL=@= @A K = ? IJ= JA J= >E @A>A @A EHIA = ? IJ= JA ? K = ANFHAIE IE > E?=

-A F

# % ,AHELA

Ic=7

A@E= JA K = ANFHAIE

IE > E?=

2=I  ,A
c=sym(7)

EH = ANFHAIE

IE > E?=

$"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I

1 L ?=H A ?

= @ @E

diff(c)
- HAIK J=@ @A AIJA FH ?AI AI ans=0 5E IA DK>EAIA A A?KJ=@ @EHA?J= A JA diff(7) = HAIFKAIJ= IAH = [] F HGKA % AI K = ANFHAIE IE > E?= 8A= I = B H = A = GKA IA JH=>= = A ? = @ ?K= @ >KI?= I D= =H @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A ANFHAIE AI ? I @A K = L=HE=> AI

-A F

# & 0= A

A@E= JA ANFHAIE

I = @AHEL=@= F=H?E= @A f (x, y, z ) = x3 y 5 + yz HAIFA?J = y AI IE > E?=I

2=I  ,A
syms x y z

EH =I ANFHAIE

AI IE > E?=I

2=I

1 JH @K?EH = BK ?E

GKA GKAHA

I @AHEL=H

f=x^3*y^5+y*z

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?
diff(f,y)

= @ @E

)6 )* IJH=H A J ?AI 5*x^3*y^4+z GKA AI IE F A A JA = @AHEL=@= F=H ?E= @A f HAIFA?J = y diff J= >E FAH EJA A ? JH=H = @AHEL=@= @A =JHE?AI ? IJEJKE@=I F H A A A J I IE > E? I @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

-A F

# ' 0= A

I = @AHEL=@= @A =
2

=JHE

A=

mx 5 m cos(x) x sen(m) 3x + 5m

2=I  ,A
syms m x

EH =I ANFHAIE

AI IE > E?=I

2=I

1 JH @K?EH =

=JHE GKA GKAHA

I @AHEL=H

A=[m*x^(2/5) m*cos(x);-x*sin(m) 3*x+5*m]

2=I ! 1 L ?=H A ?
diff(A)

= @ @E

>HA @A +=F JK

$#

- HAIK J=@ @A E L ?=H diff AI = @AHEL=@= @A = =JHE A HAIFA?J = x @AJAH E =@ A = A?K=?E # % JH=I D=>AH IE F E ?=@ A HAIK J=@ )GK A ? = @ A A?K J K = @AHEL=?E A A A J = A A A J J = @ ? E FKJ = =JHE A )@A I ?K= @ ? A AIJA ?=I IA AIFA?E ?= HAIFA?J = ?K L=HE=> A A KIK=HE GKEAHA @AHEL=H =KJ JE?= A JA )6 )* D=H ? x O IE x ANEIJA A = BK ?E A @AB=K J @A FH CH= = AI @AHEL=H ? = L=HE=> A I ?AH?= = = x A JHA =I FHAIA JAI A = BK ?E

2 m 5 3 x5

m sen(x) 3

# %

sen(m)

,A JH =@ J= >E AI F IE> A D=?AH -NF= IE AI @A 6=O H = = JE?= A JA ? A ? = @ taylor = IE J=NEI @A AIJ= HKJE = AI A FHE AH= E IJ= ?E= @A EH = ANFHAIE IE > E?= F=H= KAC E L ?=H A ? @EC ? = BK ?E = =FH NE =H A H@A O A FK J = HA@A@ H @A GKA IA D=?A = =FH NE =?E 8A= I A IECKEA JA A A F F=H= >IAHL=H A KI @A taylor

-A F

#  )FH NE A

K = -NF= IE

I = BK ?E @A 6=O H @A JAH?AH H@A

f (x) = x 5 7x = HA@A@ H @A $

A@E= JA

2=I  ,A
syms x

EH = ANFHAIE

IE > E?= = =H = BK ?E O @AJAH E =H A H@A

2=I 1 L ?=H A ? = @ O A FK J @A =FH NE =?E

F1=taylor((x^(3/5)-7*x),3,6)
1 = HAIFKAIJ= AI F1 AI @A?EH 6 5 42 + 1/10 63/5 7 (x 6) 300 6 5 (x 6)2 GKA AI = -NF= IE @A 6=O H @A JAH?AH H@A = HA@A@ H @A $ F=H= f (x)
3 3

$$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+=F JK

1 JACH=?E
E@= 3KE JAH ,EAC + HHA@ H

1 JH @K??E
=JA JE?=I >IAHL= I ? = ?=@= FAH=?E A ? HHAIF @A K = E LAHI= )I = IK = JEA A = HAIJ= = K JEF E?=?E = @ELEIE O = @AHEL=?E = E JACH=?E A ?=FEJK = JAHE H LE I = @AHEL=?E O =D H= I ? HHAIF @A ANF AH IK E LAHI= = ?K= JEA A @ I E JAHFHAJ=?E AI = E JACH=?E ? K FH ?AI F=H= @AJAH E =H = BK ?E @AHEL=@= GKA AGKEL= A B H = A JA = ?K= @ IA ? ?A IK

f (x)dx = f (x)

; F H JH =@ I HA?J=I

DAHH= EA J= F=H= @AJAH E =H HA=I @A HACE

AI ?KO I

EJAI

- A? = = E JACH=?E AI JE F=H= @AJAH E =H A E F=?J @A K FH OA?J I >HA A >EA AIJ=H = F=HJEH @A I AN?A@A JAI @A ? IK E@ H O FH @K?J H D= =H K = BK ?E @A + IJ 8=HE=> A ?K= @ ? ?A I = @A + IJ =HCE = AL= K=H A E CHAI J J= ? A HA= >= = ?KHL= @A E CHAI =HCE = O ? DAHH= EA J= F=H= I K?E =H A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI GKA HAFHAIA JA = @E E?= @A IEIJA =I A? E? I A JHA JH=I =F E?=?E AI $%

$&

/-,,EHA?J I ) CA>H=E? 1 @A E@= ) JE@AHEL=@= 5KIJEJK?E 2=HJAI

polyint

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

J @ I @A I K?E =

FKJ=?E

5O I int 1 JACH=?E ) CA>H=E? I AL= K=@ I ,EHA?J I 5KIJEJK?E 2=HJAI ,A E@=  HA= >= J @ I = ?KHL= @A I K?E 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E 4AC = @A 5E FI =
quad8 trapz

K HE? I ? FKJ=?E

quad

+K=@H=JKH= /=KIIE= =
quadl

2=H= D= =H E JACH= AI ANEIJA L=HE I J @ I I = = JE? I = CA>H E? I ? I I @A IKIJEJK?E O F H F=HJAI O I K HE? I ? HAC = @A 6H=FA?E O HAC = @A 5E FI 5=>A I GKA I J @ I JE AI ? FKJ=?E = A JA I I K HE? I F H J= J A AIJA ?=F JK AIJK@E=HA I I FHE ?EF= AI J @ I K HE? I @A E JA CH=?E GKA )6 )* KJE E = O GKA @AI@A KAC I IEHLA I F=H= = E JACH=?E @A E@= - ?K= J = = E @A E@= LAHA I A = FHE AH= IA??E = E JACH=?E F H HAC = @A ANF A JA O JH J @ A A =F @E?A @A AIJA ?=F JK - = IACK @= IA??E E JH @K?E I O= K J @ K HE? = 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E A = JAH?AH= => H@=HA I = HAC = @A 5E FI O F H JE A ? ?K @A E JACH= AI @ > AI

$

1 JACH=?E

F H 4AC = @A -NF

A JA
I IE

-I K @A I FH ?A@E EA J I @EHA?J I @A E JACH=?E E @A E@= = CA>H=E?= F AI O AI =F E?=> A E?= A JA = ANFHAIE AI ?KO ANF A JA AI ? IJ= JA

xn dx =


xn+1 +C n+1

)F @E?A @A AIJA ?=F JK -N?AFJ ?K= @ n = 1

1 6-/4)+1 +

$'

A ? = @ polyint )6 )* @AI? F A A F E E = E JACH=H A L=HE I E I O =F E?= = ?=@= K AIJ= HAC = 5E A >=HC AIJA FH ?A@E EA J FHAIA J= = HAIJHE??E @A IAH =F E?=> A E?= A JA = F E E I @A ANF A JAI =JKH= AI N 5K IE J=NEI AI

L=polyint(p,k)
, @A F AI A LA?J H = ? I ? A ?EA JAI @A F E ! @A = ? IJ= JA @A E JACH=?E ; ? I= E@= >JA A ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E E JACH=@ E = E JACH=H O I A LA?J H = A L= H ? I

-A F
= ?= ?K =H

$  8=

I = ?= ?K =H = E JACH= @A f (x) = x4 8x2 + 3x AI @A?EH L= (x4 8x2 + 3x)dx I I ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E ? LA?J H

2=I  1 JH @K?E 2=I

p=[1 0 -8 3 0] % Vector entrada

7JE E = IA ? = @ polyint

in=polyint(p) % Sintaxis
; >JA A I in = 0.2 0 -2.6667 1.5 0 0 *=I=@ I A AIJA HAIK J=@ I=>A I GKA

(x4 8x2 + 3x)dx = 0.2x5 2.6667x3 + 1.5x2

-A F

8= I = ?= ?K =H I ? IJ I L=HE=> AI @A K = A FHAI= ?KO I ? IJ I =HCE = AI AIJ @=@ I F H = IECKEA JA BK ?E

CM g (q ) =
3

q3 + 2q + 5 3
I

2=H= D=?AH @A>A I D= =H ( q3 + 2q + 5)dq =IK EA @ k = 0 O= GKA AIJ= ?= ?K = @ I ? IJ I L=HE=> AI O I J J= AI

!

5E IA

EJA

)6 )* =IK A

%

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I  p=[1/3 0 2 5]; % Costo Marginal 2=I

>JA A

CV=polyint(p) % Sintaxis con k=0

I CV =

0.0833 0 1 5 0

0A I D= =@ = BK ?E @A ? IJ I L=HE=> AI CV (q ) = 0.0833q 4 + q 2 + 5q F H A@E @A K = = JE@AHEL=@= AI @A?EH E JACH= @ = BK ?E @A ? IJ =HCE = ? HHAIF @EA JA

4AC = @A 6H=FA?E

= 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E AI ? IE@AH=@= ? K J @ @A =FH NE =?E E A= F HGKA KJE E = A=I HA?J=I F=H= =FH NE =HIA = K = BK ?E @=@= f (x) GKA FAH EJA ?= ?K =H b " IA KAIJH= A = .ECKH= $  a f (x)dx @A = B H = ?
Regla del Trapecio

y0=f(x0) yn

yn1

y a=x0 x1 x2 . . . xn=b

.ECKH= $  4AC = @A 6H=FA?E - A E JAHL= [a, b] D=O IK>@ELEIE AI  @ I @A = F EJK@ x A @ @A IA JH= = K = HA?J= A JHA =I E CA AI ? IA?KJEL=I B H = @ K JH=FA?E ,A AIJ= = AH= A
-IJ= J=?E AI = EI = GKA KJE E = I A I ?=F JK I = JAHE HAI A I GKA x0 , x1 , . . . , xn AH= L=HE=> AI )GK I KJE E = I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H L= HAI K HE? I @A = L=HE=> A x IECKEA @ = ,H=FAH '%'
"

1 6-/4)+1 HA= @A FHE AH JH=FA?E AIJ @=@= F H

%

HA= J J= @A

1 (y0 + y1 )x 2 I n JH=FA?E I AI @A?EH A HA= >=

b

= ?KHL= AI
n1

f (x)dx
a

1 (y0 + yn ) + 2

yi
i=1

GKA AI ?

?E@= ?

= HAC = @A JH=FA?E F=H= = E JACH=?E

=FH NE =@=

)6 )* =F E?= AIJA J @ F H A@E @A ? = @ trapz 2=H= KJE E =H AI A?AI=HE @A EH K LA?J H x GKA @AJAH E = A E JAHL= @A E JACH=?E [a, b] O = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA I @ I x # )@A I AI A?AI=HE @A EH = BK ?E = E JACH=H f (x)$ O =I E CA AI y @A = BK ?E )I = IE J=NEI ? F AJ= IAH =

h=m % h representa a x, m es un numero x=[a:h:b]; % Intervalo [a,b] y distancia entre nodos h y=f(x); % Funcin a integrar f, imagenes y in=trapz(y)*h % Regla trapezoide
2 H JH =@ A ? = @ cumtrapz ?= ?K = A HA= =?K K =@= D=IJ= ?=@= @ KJE E = @ = HAC = @A JH=FA?E ? A EI E FKJ @A trapz -IJ= BK ?E HAIK J= KO JE F=H= ?= ?K =H FH >=>E E@=@AI A AIJ=@ IJE?= D= = @ A HA= >= = ?KHL= @A = BK ?E @A @A IE@=@ =?K K =@=

-A F

$ ! 8=

I = ?= ?K =H
7 2

x4 (49 x2 )1/2 dx
@A E JACH=?E

2=I  +HA=

I A LA?J H x A A E JAHL=

[2, 7] ?

h=0.1

h=0.1 x=[2:h:7];

2=I

,A E CH=H

I A LA?J H E =CA GKA ? HHAIF

@A = = BK ?E

GKA L=

I = E JA

y=(x.^4).*(49-x.^2).^(1/2);
# $

)6 )* JEA A FHA@AJAH E =@ x = 1 h=1 inline A K M-file

%

/-,IA ? = @ trapz F=H= D= =H A HA= >=

8AHIE = BK ?E

2HA E E =H

2=I ! 7JE E =

in=trapz(y)*h
7JE E = @ h=0.1 A HA= >= = ?KHL= @A x4 (49 x2 )1/2 AI ECK= = 11447.90 - JHA I FAGKA IA= A L= H @A x h =O H IAH A AH @A @ I O F H J= J A HAIK J=@ IAH I AN=?J -I =I ? ? K h=0.01 A HA= AI ECK= = 11504.92 O ? h=0.000001 A HA= AI ECK= = 11506.69

-A F

$ " 0= =H A AN?A@A JA @A ? IK E@ H A A
@A

FH @K?J @ F H

= 4 O ?KO= BK ?E

AH?=@ ? FAJEJEL @A K E LAHI= @A @A = @= AIJ E F ?EJ= A JA @=@=

p(q 2 + 4q + 3) = 192
Ejemplo 7.4 11 10 9 8 7 6 Excedente del Consumidor

p
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 q 6 7 8 9 10 11 (q*,p*)

.ECKH= $ ,=@ GKA p = 4 O q = 5 @A>A

5 0

-N?A@A JA @A + I D= =H

IK E@ H

q2

192 dq (4 5) + 4q + 3
@A E JACH=?E E LAHI= @A @A = @=

2=I  +HA= 2=I

I A LA?J H q A A E JAHL= q=[0:5]; ,A E I A LA?J H E =CA BK ?E p=(192)./(q.^2+4.*q+3);

1 6-/4)+1

%!

2=I ! += ?K =

I A AN?A@A JA @A ? IK E@ H D= = @ A HA= >= = ?KHL= A A E JAHL= O HAIJ= @ A HA= F H @A>= @A FHA?E @A AGKE E>HE ? F @A I LAH A = .ECKH= $ xco=[trapz(p)]-20 % 20=54

7JE E = @ h=1 A AN?A@A JA @A ? IK E@ H AI ECK= = 64.2857 ? h=0.01 A AN?A@A JA AI ECK= = 57,85 O ? h=0.000001 A HA= AI ECK= = 57.8493 JH= B H = @A ?= ?K =H E JACH= AI A )6 )* D=?EA @ KI @A = 4AC = @A 6H= FA?E AI F H A@E @A ? = @ qnwtrap GKA D=?A F=HJA @A + FA? 6 > N -IJA ? = @ ?= ?K = K LA?J H x GKA ? JEA A I A A A J I x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn  =I ?E=@ I = I @ I LAH .ECKH= $  O IK LA?J H @A FAI I F @AH=?E AI% w 2=H= ?= ?K =H = E JACH= @A = BK ?E f (x) A [a, b] >JA A I =I E CA AI @A ?=@= K @A I @ I O =I K JEF E?= I F H K LA?J H @A F @AH=?E AI = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ AI

[x,w]=qnwtrap(n,a,b)
, @A n AI A AH @A @ I a,b HAFHAIA J= A LA?J H @A =>I?EI=I O w AI K LA?J H @A F @AH=?E AI EJA @A I E JAHL= I x AI A I

-A F

$ # 2=H= >IAHL=H =I @EBAHA ?E=I A JHA trapz O qnwtrap I K?E =HA

$!? # @ I = @ [x,w]=qnwtrap(51,2,7); 8A?J H E =CA y=(x.^4). *(49-x.^2).^(1/2); K JEF E?= I A LA?J H JH=IFKAIJ @A F @AH=?E AI w F H A LA?J H y in=w*y

= E JACH= @A - A F

2=I  5E J=NEI @A ? 2=I

2=I ! 2=H= >JA AH = E JACH=

HA= >= = ?KHL= AI 11447.90 GKA AI A EI = @ trapz ? h=0.1 )I F @A I LAH ? @ I A qnwtrap AI AGKEL= A JA = K h ?=@= LA trapz
%

HAIK J=@ = ?= =@ ? A K =K A J @A AH @A =I FAGKA A A ? = @

JE IK> E JAHL=

- = 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E = F @AH=?E FAI @A x x0 , x1 ) O (xn1 , xn  AI O AI x F=H= I @A I 2

HA= @A FHE AH O

%"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

$!

4AC = @A 5E FI

= 4AC = @A 5E FI ? ?E@= J= >E ? ?K=@H JE?= F=H=> E?= D=?A F H CA AH= K = A H =FH NE =?E GKA = HAC = @A JH=FA?E & F HGKA CH= K = =FH NE =?E = = BK ?E @=@= F H A@E @A =H? I F=H=> E? I @A A A LAHJE?= ' GKA F=I= F H JHAI E CA AI AGKE@EIJ= JAI IAF=H=@=I A JHA I F H h
Regla de Simpson

y1 y0

y2

yn2

yn yn1

y a=x0 x1 x2 . . . xn2 xn1 xn=b

.ECKH= $ ! 4AC = @A 5E FI HA= @A = FHE AH= F=H > = IAH =

x (y0 + 4y1 + y2 ) 3 = IK = @A J @=I =I HA=I @A E JAHL= [a, b] ? IJEJKOA = E JACH= @A BK ?E AI @A?EH

b

E@= @A =

f (x)dx
a

x y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + . . . + 2yn2 + 4yn1 + yn 3

F=H= = E JACH=?E =FH NE =@=

GKA AI = HAC = @A 5E FI
5E A IA J= @EI? I K?E AI ' 8AH  -IJ=
&

>=HC = HAC = @A JH=FA?E HAIK J= I FHA?EI= A ?=I I A I GKA A E JACH= @ FHA JE KE@=@ A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= ?K= FKA@A ?KHHEH A =F E?=?E AI A? E?=I ? @A AIGKE = I= LA  #= J=?E IECKA = ,H=FAH '%' 2=H= K = HALEIE I FH BK @= LAH AEJD @ '%'

1 6-/4)+1

%#

-IJA J @ @A E JACH=?E AI ?= ?K =@ F H )6 )* = JH=L I @A ? = @ quad 5K E FKJ I I EJAI [a, b] O = BK ?E = E JACH=H f (x) O= IA= ? > AJ inline ANFHAIE ?DAH ? LE I A A ?=F JK " @A =GK A =@A = JA KJE E =HA I = FHE AH= y=inline(f(x)) in=quad(y,a,b)

-A F

$ $ ,AJAH E =H A HA= >=

1 0

= ?KHL= @A

1 1+x2

AI @A?EH ?= ?K =H

dx 1 + x2

2=I  ,A>A 2=I

-

I ?HA=H = BK ?E inline y=inline(1./(1+x.^2).^(1/2)); I A HAIK J=@ @A = E JACH= F = JA=@=

+ A ? = @ quad D= = in=quad(y,0,1)

HA= >=

= ?KHL= B H =@= @AI@A ?AH D=IJ= K

@A = BK ?E

AI in = 0.8814 AH?=@ @ @A

-A F
A FHA?E

$ % 0= =H A AN?A@A JA @A FH @K?J H .ECKH= $ " A K

p = 7 O = BAHJ= @A FH @K?J AIJ @=@= F H p= q2 q+1

,=@ GKA p = 7 O q = 7.8875 @A>A

I D= =H

7.8875 0

q2 dq (q + 1)
ANFHAIE @EHA?J=

2=I  ,A>A

I ?HA=H = BK ?E A AIJA ?=I D=HA I ? A JA A = IE J=NEI @A quad xpr=quad((q.^2)./(q+1),0,7.8875)

- J ?AI A AN?A@A JA @A FH @K?J H AI xpr = 25.4035 JH= B H = @A ?= ?K =H E JACH= AI A )6 )* D=?EA @ KI @A = 4AC = @A 5E FI AI F H A@E @A ? = @ qnwsimp GKA D=?A F=HJA @A + FA? 6 > N 5K IE J=NEI AI IE E =H = = @A ? = @ qnwtrap ? I EI I E FKJI O >JA EA @ HAIK J=@ I = C I

%$
Ejemplo 7.4

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

12

10

p
6 Excedente del Productor 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 q 8 10 12

.ECKH= $ " -N?A@A JA @A 2H @K?J H

-A F

$ & 2=H= >IAHL=H =I @EBAHA ?E=I A JHA quad O qnwsimp I K?E =HA
$$? # @ I I = IE J=NEI @A ? = @ [x,w]=qnwsimp(50,0,1); +HA= I A LA?J H E =CA y=(1./(1+x.^2).^(1/2)) K JEF E?= I A LA?J H JH=IFKAIJ @A F @AH=?E

= E JACH= @A - A F

2=I  7JE E = 2=I

2=I ! 2=H= >JA AH = E JACH=

AI w F H A LA?J H y in=w*y >JA A I in= 0.8814

$"

1 JACH= AI , > AI

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# = FH FA IE

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int(f)
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ans=(-1/6*x^3)*(49-x^2)^(3/2)-49/8*x*(49-x^2)^(3/2)... +2401/16*x*(49-x^2)^(1/2)+117649/16*asin(1/7*x)
2=H= ?= ?K =H AIJ= E JACH= A A E JAHL= [2, 7] @A>A I @A EH =I L=HE=> AI IE > E?=I O = BK ?E ? A A A A F = JAHE H O KAC A A?KJ=H int(f,2,7) = E JACH= @A E@= A A E JAHL=

[2, 7] AI

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f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) f (P1 ) + (1 )f (P2 ) f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) f (P1 ) + (1 )f (P2 ) f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) M in{f (P1 ), f (P2 )} f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) M ax{f (P1 ), f (P2 )}

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=JHE 0AIIE= =

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

&'

2=I ! 1 L ?=H = HKJE = F=H= CH= ?=H

plot(x,y) b=0.2 c=0.1 line([3.5,13.5],[f(3.5),f(13.5)],color,r,LineStyle,-) text(3.5-b,f(3.5)+b,P_ {1},Fontsize,10,Fontweight,Bold) text(13.5+c,f(13.5)-c,P_ {2},Fontsize,10,Fontweight,Bold)
f(x) = ln x
3

2.5

f(x)

1.5

P1

0.5

10

15

.ECKH= % 

J @ CH

)6 )* =HH = ? HAIK J=@ = .ECKH= %  6 = @ I FK J I P1 O P2 @A = CH ?= IA >IAHL= GKA IA ?K F A = @A E?E @A BK ?E ? ?=L= A %  5A >IAHL= J= >E GKA ? ?K =GKEAH F=H @A FK J I AIJ= @A E?E IA I=JEIB=?A 2 H J= J F @A I @A?EH GKA = BK ?E AI ? ?=L=

-A F

8 F H A FA @EA JA

) = E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E f (x) = x3 4x2 + J @ @A @AHEL=@=I ?= ?K = @ A CH=@EA JA K HE? O = = E = @ IK

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
f=inline(x.^3-4*x.^2+8)

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

'

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

h=0.01 % Amplitud de x y del gradiente x=[-2:h:5]; y=f(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H A CH=@EA JA K
fx=gradient(y,h)

HE?

A@E= JA = E IJHK??E plot(x,y,x,fx) IA FKA@A HAIK J=@ I ? A = .ECKH= %

Gradiente Numrico
40

LEIK= E =H CH

?= A JA

f(x) = x 4x + 8
f fx

30

20

f(x)

10

10

20 2

.ECKH= %

/H=@EA JA K

HE?

+ IA A ?E = JAHE H A JA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= fxx AI = FA @EA JA @A = BK ?E fx 2 H AIJ= H= IE = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E fx AI ?HA?EA JA  @A?HA?EA JA AIJ E @E?= @ GKA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A f AI F IEJEL=  AC=JEL= O F H J= J = BK ?E AI ? LAN=  ? ?=L= - = CKH= % IA >IAHL= GKA = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E f AI @A?EH fx HAFHAIA J=@= A A CH ? ? fx AI @A?HA?EA JA f AI ? ?=L= D=IJ= K FK J @A E ANE p [1, 2] + @AJAH E =H ?K AI AIA FK J JA I GKA A FK J @A E ANE AI A L= H E @A fx O GKA I L= HAI K HE? I @A x O @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E BKAH CK=H@=@ I A =I L=HE=> AI x O fx A )6 )* HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2 H J= J F=H= I=>AH ?K AI =FH NE =@= A JA A FK J @A E ANE >=IJ= ? D= =H A L= H @A x GKA ? HHAIF @A = I FAGKA @A J @ I I AH I ? JA E@ I A A LA?J H fx F=H= ?K= F @A I KJE E =H A ? = @ min =I

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

'

[p,i]=min(fx) pinf=[x(i) p]

% Mnimo de fx % Punto de inflexion

= FHE AH= A= A ?KA JH= A I FAGKA @A J @ I I L= HAI @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A f fx  CK=H@= AIJA L= H A p O = F IE?E GKA IJA L= H ?KF= @A JH @A LA?J H fx = CK=H@= A i = IACK @= A= CK=H@= A pinf A L= H E @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= F O IK ? HHAIF @EA JA L= H A x x(i) -IJA FH ?A@E EA J =HH = ? HAIK J=@

pinf = 1.3300 -5.3332

- L= H  !!! AGKEL= A JA = 8 6  AI A FK J x A A GKA = BK ?E ? ?=L= = IAH ? LAN=

f (x) F=I= @A IAH xF HA

-A F

% ! ) = E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E

J @ @A @AHEL=@=I = = E = @

f (x) = = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E 

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E
f=inline(sqrt(x)) fxx=inline(-0.25x^(-1.5)

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

h=0.00001; x=[0:h:2]; y=f(x); y2=f2(x);

2=I ! /H= ?=H = BK ?E

plot(x,y) hold on plot(x,y2)

O IK IACK @= @AHEL=@=

2=H= D=?AH A = EIEI @A = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A AIJ= BK ?E ?= ?K = I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= O = E JH @K?E I ? JH= BK ?E A A FH CH= = y2 = .ECKH= % ! >IAHL= I GKA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= AI @A?HA?EA JA E @E?= @ GKA = BK ?E AI ? ?=L=

-A F
A

% " ) = E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E

J @ @A @AHEL=@=I ?= ?K = @ CH=@EA JAI @A = BK ?E

f (x) = x7 F H IK?AIEL= A JA

'
f=x
30

/-,3.5

8AHIE
2.5

2HA E E =H

0.25x

4.5

fxx = 8.75x

1.5

3.15x

20

10

f(x)

10

20 f fxx 30 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

.ECKH= % ! /H=@EA JA K

HE?

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

f O IK IACK @= @AHEL=@= fxx

f=inline(x.^3.5));

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

h=0.001; x=[0.2:h:4]; y=f(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H A CH=@EA JA K

HE?

yxx=gradient(gradient(y,h),h)

2=I " /H= ?=H = BK ?E

plot(x,y) hold on plot(x,yxx)

O IK IACK @= @AHEL=@= ?= ?K =@= K

HE?= A JA

) F=HJEH @A I ? ?AFJ I LEIJ I A A ?=F JK # A ? = @ gradient A A FH CH= = FAH EJA ?= ?K =H K HE?= A JA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E ? A CH=@EA JA @A = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= /H= ?= @ IE K J A= A JA AIJ= IACK @= @AHEL=@= ? = BK ?E >JA A I = .ECKH= % ! ,A AIJ= CKH= I=>A I = IACK @= @AHEL=@= fxx AI F IEJEL= A A E JAHL= A GKA = BK ?E AI ? LAN= -NEIJA K FK J @A E ANE A A E JAHL= x = [2.5, 3.5] A @ @A = BK ?E F=I= = IAH ? ?=L=

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

'!

- ? ?K @A = IACK @= @AHEL=@= K HE?= AIJ = =?A =@ A A LA?J H yxx FK J @A E ANE AI A L= H @A AIJA LA?J H I ?AH?= = ?AH % O IK F IE?E @A JH @A AIA LA?J H

ind=find(yxx>-10*h&yxx<10*h); pinf=[x(ind);yxx(ind)];
- = FHE AH= A= A ? = @ find A ?KA JH= = F IE?E @A I L= HAI @A LA?J H yxx GKA I =O HAI GKA   10 h O A HAI GKA  10 h AIJA AI A ?HEJAHE F=H= @AJAH E =H I L= HAI IK ?EA JA A JA ?AH?= I = ?AH & = IACK @= A= = =?A = A A LA?J H pinf I A A A J I @A I LA?J HAI x O yxx ? HHAIF @EA JAI = =I F IE?E AI @A LA?J H ind ,A AIJ= B H = A LA?J H pinf AI pinf = 2.7780 -0.0032 7 = @A =I LA J= =I GKA BHA?A AIJA J @ AI GKA A ? ?K @A = IACK @= @AHEL=@= AI K HE? F H GKA HAGKEAHA GKA IA E JH @K ?= ANF ?EJ= A JA = B H = BK ?E = @A = IACK @= @AHEL=@=

-A F
A

% # ) = E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E
f

f (x) =

x 2x2 +3

F H

J @ @A @AHEL=@=I KJE E = @ fhess

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E 2=I

+HA=H I @=J I

f=inline(x./(2*x.^2+3));

h=0.001; x=[-2:h:2]; y=f(x);

2=I ! += ?K =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= F H

A@E @A fhess

for i=1:length(x) fxx(i)=fhess(f,[1,1],x(i)); end;

5A IA A??E = A I ?AH?= = ?AH F HGKA A ? ?K @A LA?J H yxx AI K HE? O F H J= J E CK @A IKI ? F A JAI AI AN=?J= A JA ECK= = ?AH & )K GKA AIJA L= H FKA@A IAH A H JA I GKA A A A A J I FAGKA A L= H =>I KJ  @A LA?J H yxx AI 0.0032 F H GKA IE AIJ=> A?E H= I K ?HEJAHE A H F H A A F 0.001 A ? JH=H = I A FK J @A E ANE
%

'"

/-,O IK IACK @= @AHEL=@=

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

2=I " /H= ?=H = BK ?E

plot(x,y) hold on plot(x,fxx)

Segunda Derivada Numrica

0.4 0.3

f(x) = x/(2x +3)

f fxx

0.2

0.1

f(x)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 2

1.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

.ECKH= % " 5ACK @= @AHEL=@= ?

fhess
A A GKA = BK ?E

= .ECKH= % " KAIJH= GKA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= AI F IEJEL= A A E JAHL= = BK ?E AI ? LAN= D=IJ= A FK J @A E ANE x = 0 O = F=HJEH @A = IA D=?A ? ?=L= O IA IACK @= @AHEL=@= AC=JEL=

-A F
x2
F H

% $ ) = E =H = ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E

A@E @A IKI ? K J I? J H

f (x) =

2=H= LAH CH ?= A JA = ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A AIJ= BK ?E A FHE AH KC=H JA A I GKA JH= =H K = ?KHL= @A ELA @A HABAHA ?E= F H A A F J A I f = 9 KAC @A A JH= = I JH=I @ I ?KHL=I @A ELA K = =O H f = 16 O K = A H f = 4 2 H JE @AJAH E = I I ? K J I ? J H - ? K J ? J H IKFAHE H AI =GKA ? K J D=?E= A ?K= ?HA?A =I ?KHL=I @A ELA EA JH=I GKA A ? K J ? J H E BAHE H IA K>E?= A =GKA = HACE D=?E= = ?K= @A?HA?A =I ?KHL=I @A ELA /H ?= A JA IA JEA A = .ECKH= % # ) F=HJEH @A = ?KHL= @A ELA @A HABAHA ?E= f = 9 A ? K J ? J H ? HHAIF @A = ? K J [5, 3] [3, 5]' F HGKA A AIJ= @EHA??E AIJ
'

IKFAHE H =I ?KHL=I

5EA @ HECKH I I A ?

K J ?

J H

IKFAHE H A AIJA ?=I ? HHAIF

@A = [, 3] [3, ]

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),
f(x) = x
2

'#

25

20

y=16 15

f(x)
10 y=9 5 y=4 0 5

.ECKH= % # +

K J I+

J H

@A f (x) = x2

@A ELA @A =O H L= H f = 16 -IJA ? K J AIJ IA = =@ A = CH ?= ? A =H?=@ H

 - ? K J ? J H E BAHE H @ @A IA K>E?= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A A H L= H f = 4 ? HHAIF @A = ? K J [3, 3] O AIJ IA = =@ A = CH ?= ? A =H?=@ H
 ,A AIJ I @ I ? K J I I A ? K J ? J H E BAHE H AI ? LAN F H ?K= F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LAN=

-A F
F H

% % ) = E =H = ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ f (x) = x3 4x2 + 6

K J I? J H

A@E @A IKI ?

,A KAL JA A I GKA =H JHAI ?KHL=I @A ELA K = @A HABAHA ?E= f = 1 O @ I GKA IA K>E?= F H A ?E = f = 4 O F H @A>= f = 2 @A = ?KHL= @A ELA @A HABAHA ?E= KAC @A A IA = = I CH ?= A JA I ? K J I ? J H IKFAHE H   A E BAHE H  O @AJAH E = I ?K @A AIJ I @ I ? K J I AI ? LAN - ? K J ? J H E BAHE H @ @A IA K>E?= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A A H L= H f = 2 AIJ IA = =@ ?
 O ? HHAIF @A = ? K J [1.5, 1][1.38, 3.61] - ? K J ? J H IKFAHE H @ @A IA K>E?= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A =O H L= H
0A


I =IK E@ A ? 8AH J= %

K J [5, 3] [3, 5] F=H= E KIJH=H A A A F

@A

= AH= FHA?EI= A

= CH

?=

'$
f(x) = x 4x + 6
8

/-,3 2

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

y=4 4

f(x)

2 y=1

y=2 2

6 1 0 1 2 3 4

.ECKH= % $ +

K J I+

J H

f = 4 AIJ IA = =@ ?
 O ? HHAIF @A = ? K J [1, 1.38] [3.61, 4.2] E CK @A AIJ I @ I ? K J I AI ? LAN F H GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? ?=L= O J= F ? AI ?K=IE? LAN= ,A =GK A =@A = JA =IK EHA L=@=I ? HHAIF @A = ? ?K fhess O fdhess I? ? LA ?E GKA A J @ @A = EIEI @A @AHE K HE? @A = IACK @= @AHEL=@= A@E= JA =I HKJE =I

%!

.K ?E

AI ?

@ I L=HE=> AI *EL=HE=@=I

7 = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI  >EL=HE=@= f (x, y ) IA @A A ? K = BK ?E ?KO 2 @ E E AIJ @A E@ A R K HE?= A JA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A K = BK ?E @A K = L=HE=> A AI K LA?J H GKA A ?=@= F IE?E ? JEA A K AI?= =H - BK ?E AI @A @ I L=HE=> AI ?=@= ? F A JA @A AIA LA?J H AI K = =JHE DAIIE= = LAH A?K=?E %  -IJ E F E?= GKA IA @A>A ANJH=AH I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI O I L= HAI FH FE I @A ?=@= =JHE DAIIE= = DAIIE= = H =@= F=H= F @AH ? ? KEH I >HA = ? ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@ ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E LAH 5O@I=AJAH ''$ H=   O

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

'%

2=H= @AJAH E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ KJE E =HA I A J @ CH ? O A ? ?K K HE? @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = EA JH=I GKA F=H= ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE ? LANE@=@ KJE E =HA I A J @ CH ? = =JHE DAIIE= = H =@= O I ? K J I ? J H

-A F
F HA 5=>A

% & ) = E =H = ? LANE@=@ O ? ?=LE@=@ @A f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 + (x + y )2

J @ CH ? I GKA = BK ?E

f (x, y ) AI ?
A

LAN= IE
B

f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) f (P1 ) + (1 )f (P2 )

O? ?=L= IE
A B

% %

f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) f (P1 ) + (1 )f (P2 )

% &

-IJ=I @AIECK= @=@AI JEA A @ I F=HJAI = F=HJA ) AI = E =CA @A = ? >E =?E E A= @A I FK J I P1 O P2 O = F=HJA * AI = ? >E =?E E A= @A =I E CA AI 2=H= = = E =H = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A ?K= GKEAH BK ?E F H AIJA J @ LE IK= E = I =I F=HJAI ) O * @A =I A?K=?E AI % % O % & A = CH ?= @A = BK ?E - KAIJH A A F

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

A K M-file = =@ fej1

function f=fej8(x,y); f=x.^2+y.^2+(x+y).^2

2=I

+HA=H

I @=J I

x=[-100:10:100];y=x; [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); F=fej8(X,Y);

2=I ! /H= ?=H

mesh(X,Y,F)
+ IA >IAHL= A = .ECKH= % % IA = =@E K = A= ? JE K= O K = @EI? JE K= GKA HAFHAIA J= =I F=HJAI ) O * @A =I A?K=?E AI % % O % & HAIFA?JEL= A JA >IAHL= I GKA F=H= AIJ I @ I FK J I = A= ? JE K= AIJ F H @A>= @A = A= @EI? JE K= ?K= E F E?= GKA )* AI @A?EH GKA = @A E?E @A BK ?E ? LAN=

'&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

f(x,y)=x2+y2+(x+y)2
x 10 6 5 4
4

P1

P2

f(x,y)

3 2 1

0 100 50 0 50 100 100 50 0 100 50

.ECKH= % %

J @ /H

?=LE@=@ O +

LANE@=@

IA ?K F A F=H= AIJ I @ I FK J I )@A I IA >IAHL= GKA AIJ ?KHHA F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=HA = @A FK J I @A @ E E @A = BK ?E 2 H AIJ= H= F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ? LAN= AIJHE?J=

-A F
5=>A

% ' ) = E =H = ?K=IE? LANE@=@ O ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ @A f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 +

J @ CH ? LAN= IE
B

(x + y )2 F H A

I GKA = BK ?E

f (x, y ) AI ?K=IE?
A

f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) M ax{f (P1 ), f (P2 )}

O ?K=IE? ?=L= IE
A B

% '

f (P1 + (1 )P2 ) M in{f (P1 ), f (P2 )}

% 

2=H= AIJ=I @AIECK= @=@AI = F=HJA ) AI = E =CA @A = ? >E =?E E A= @A I FK J I P1 O P2 = F=HJA * AI = E =CA I FAGKA = O = F=HJA * AI = E =CA I CH= @A 2=H= = = E =H = ?K=IE? LANE@=@ O ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ @A ?K= GKEAH BK ?E F H AIJA J @ LEIK= E = I =I F=HJAI ) * O * @A =I A?K=?E AI % ' O %  A = CH ?= @A = BK ?E

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

''

f(x,y)=x2+y2+(x+y)2
x 10 6 5 4
4

P2

f(x,y)

3 2 1

P1

0 100 50 0 50 100 100 50 0 100 50

.ECKH= % &

J @ /H

+K=IE?

?=LE@=@ O +K=IE?

LANE@=@

- = CKH= % & IA >IAHL= GKA J @ I I FK J I @A = A= ? JE K= F=HJA ) @A = @A E?E % ' I I FAGKA I ECK= AI = FK J P2 F=HJA * @A = @A E?E % ' + AIJ ?KHHA F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=H @A FK J I F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LAN=

-A F

%  ) = E =H = ? LANE@=@ O ? ?=LE@=@ @A = BK ?E
A K M-file = =@ fej9

f (x, y ) = x0.5 y 0.5

2=I  +HA=H = BK ?E

function f=fej9(v); y=v(2); x=v(1); f=(x.^0.5).*(y.^0.5);;

2=I

+HA=H I @=J I 5A ?HA= I @=J I J HAI x A y O A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= meshgrid )@A I AI A?AI=HE = =I H@A =@=I @A = B H = (x, y ) A = =JHE DAIIE= = -IJ IA D=?A ?

F=H= A ? K J @A I= E@= A I LA? A JHA A I KJE E = @ = E IJHK??E =?A =H A K LA?J H p J @=I =I F=HA =I GKA IA L= = ?= ?K =H K HE?= A JA = JE = E IJHK??E 

x=[0.1:10:100.1]; y=x;


2=H= K = ANF E?=?E

@A = IE J=NEI X(:) F=H= K =

=JHE X LAH A ?=F JK



/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); p=[X(:);Y(:)];

2=I ! += ?K =H =

=JHE 0AIIE= = O @AJAH E =H IE AI @A E@= IA E@A E@= E @A E@= + FAH=?E AI =JHE?E= AI F @A I ?= ?K =H I A HAI FHE ?E F= AI @ E = JAI O =H>EJH=HE I @A = =JHE DAIIE= = O ? A ? = @ det F @A I D= =H A @AJAH E = JA @A AIJ=I IK> =JHE?AI 6= >E F @A I D= =H I L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = ? A ? = @ eig ) F=HJEH @A AIJ I ? ?K I F @A I AIJ=> A?AH IE = =JHE DAIIE= = ?= ?K =@= A K FK J AI @A E@= F IEJEL= AC=JEL= IA E@A E@= F IEJEL= AC=JEL= 4AFEJEA @ A FH ?AI A m FK J I O JA EA @ A ?KA J= =I FH F IE?E AI % " O % # F @A I ? ? KEH I >HA ? ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@

for m=1:length(p); H=fdhess(fej9,p(:,m)); vp(1:2,m)=eig(H); end

7 = LA ?= ?K = I = =JHE DAIIE= = @A = BK ?E A K FK J F @A I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI F=H= K ? K J EJ @A FK J I O KAC KJE E =H = CK @A I ?HEJAHE I @A E@ I = JAHE H A JA ? A @A @AJAH E =H IE = BK ?E AI ? ?=L= AIJHE?J= ? LAN= AIJHE?J= 2 H A A F ? FAH=?E AI = JHE?E= AI F @A I ?= ?K =H I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI O =H>EJH=HE I @A = =JHE DAIIE= = O ? A ? = @ det F @A I D= =H A @AJAH E = JA @A AIJ=I IK> =JHE?AI 6= >E F @A I D= =H I L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = ? A ? = @ eig ) F=HJEH @A AIJ I ? ?K I F @A I AIJ=> A?AH IE = =JHE DAIIE= = ?= ?K =@= A K FK J AI @A E@= F IEJEL= AC=JEL= IA E@A E@= F IEJEL= AC=JEL= 4AFEJEA @ A FH ?AI A m FK J I O JA EA @ A ?KA J= =I FH F IE?E AI F @A I ? ? KEH I >HA ? ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@ 5ECKEA @ KAIJH A A F ? A ?A I F H ?= ?K =H A )6 )* = =JHE 2 2 2 DAIIE= = @A f (x, y ) = x + y + (x + y ) 5=>A I GKA IK =JHE 0AIIE= = AI

Hf (x, y ) =
= =JHE 0AIIE= = AI ? )6 )* @A>A I  ,A EH = BK ?E

4 2 2 4

IJ= JA F=H= J @ FK J (x, y ) 2=H= ?= ?K =H = A

A K M-file = =@ BA %

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),



function f=fej72(v); y=v(2); x=v(1); f=x.^2+y.^2+(x+y).^2;

JAIA GKA = BK ?E HA?E>A ? E FKJ K LA?J H L O @ I L=HE=> AI IAF=H=@=I x y  A ?K= ? JEA A A IK FHE AH= F IE?E A L= H @A = L=HE=> A x O A = IACK @= F IE?E A L= H @A = L=HE=> A y ,A EH AA F FK J @A J A FK J A A ?K= L= = ?= ?K =H = 0AIIE= = )K GKA A KAIJH I=>A I GKA = 0AIIE= = AI ? IJ= JA AI A?AI=HE @AJAH E =H K = H= @A A AI GKA = =JHE DAIIE= = AI ?= ?K =@= F H A@E @ I K HE? I 7JE E?A I A FK J v = (x, y ) = (4, 5)

v=[4;5];
! 1 L ?=H = HKJE = fdhess

H=fdhess(fej72,v)
A A ?=I @A fhess

H=fhess(fej72,[1,1],v)
= I= E@= @A )6 )* AI

H = 4 2 2 4
)K GKA I FH ?A@E EA J I K HE? I O I HAIK J=@ I I I EI I F=H= KAIJH FH F IEJ AI I FH ?JE? KJE E =H = HKJE = fdhess F H ?K= IJ= AI = GKA KJE E =HA I @A =GK A =@A = JA + A ?E = I = JAHE H A JA = =JHE DAIIE= = AI JE IE CH= I =@A ?K=@= A JA ANJH=AH = E B H =?E GKA IJ= I BHA?A 2=H= A F @A I KJE E =H =I FH F IE?E AI GKA ?EJ= I = ? EA @A AIJ= IA??E I AIFA? ?= A JA F @A I ?= ?K =H I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI =H>EJH=HE I O ?= ?K =H IK @AJAH E = JA ? = E IJHK??E det D= =H I L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE DAIIE= = F H A@E @A = E IJHK??E eig )K GKA AI B ?E ?= ?K =H A )6 )* I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI @A K = =JHE @A ?K= GKEAH J= = AI @EB ?E ?= ?K =H I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI =H>EJH=HE I 2 H IE F E?E@=@ A AIJA ?=I KJE E =HA I A ?HEJAHE @A L= HAI FH FE I I L= HAI FH FE I @A

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

KAIJH= =JHE H I 1 = 2 2 = 6 ,A>E@ = GKA I L= HAI FH FE I I AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL I O = GKA = =JHE DAIIE= = AI ? IJ= JA JEA A A EI L= H A J @ FK J x, y  F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = =JHE DAIIE= = AI @A E@= F IEJEL= O F H J= J = BK ?E f (x, y ) AI AIJHE?J= A JA ? LAN= + K J I + J H - A ?=F JK " AIJK@E= I = E IJHK??E contour O contour3 GKA I JE AI F=H= LEIK= E =H =I ?KHL=I @A ELA O I ? K J I ? J H @A K = BK ?E @A @ I L=HE=> AI f (x, y ) 4A? H@A I GKA = E IJHK??E contour IEHLA F=H= LEIK= E =H =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A KAIJH= BK ?E f (x, y ) A A F = x, y R2  EA JH=I GKA = BK ?E contour3 IEHLA F=H= LEIK= E =H =I ?KHL=I @A ELA A A F = x, y, f R3  6= >E HA? H@A I @A AIJA ?=F JK = E IJHK??E subplot GKA KAIJH= @EBAHA JAI CH ? I IE K J A= A JA 7 = LA ?HA=@= = BK ?E O I @=J I F=I I F=H= CH ?=H F @A I = = E =H = ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A KAIJH= BK ?E f (x, y ) @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

subplot(2,2,1) contour3(X,Y,Z,40) % 40 Curvas de nivel arbitrarias title(Contour3); subplot(2,2,2) cn=[2 6 10 14 20 30]; % Curvas de nivel predeterminadas contour(X,Y,Z,cn) title(Contour); subplot(2,2,3) [cs,h]=contour(X,Y,Z,cn); hs=clabel(cs,h) title(Contour - clabel); subplot(2,2,4) contourf(X,Y,Z,cn) title(Contourf);
) F=HJEH @A AIJ=I E IJHK??E AI >JA A I

= CKH= = KAIJH= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A = BK ?E f (x, y ) A A F = N O B = CKH= > KAIJH= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA A A F = N O = CKH= ? =@A I @A IJH=H = CK =I ?KHL=I @A ELA KAIJH= A L= H @A f (x, y ) A ?=@= K = @A

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,), A = CKH= @ IA >IAHL= =I ?KHL=I @A ELA ?

!

AIJ=I ?KHL=I 2 H JE I ? J H I HA A I

5A >IAHL= A AIJ=I CH ?=I GKA I ? K J I ? J H E BAHE HAI @A = BK ?E f (x, y ) I ? LAN I F H ?K= F @A I = H =H GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LA N= -H= @A AIFAH=HIA FKAIJ GKA O= D=> = I LEIJ GKA = BK ?E AI ? LAN= O =@A I I=>A I F H = FH F IE?E GKA J @= BK ?E ? LAN= AI ?K=IE ? LAN= =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= 7 JE ?HEJAHE F=H= @AJAH O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E AI = =JHE 0AIIE= = @= A   2=H= KAIJH A A F F @A I A FA =H F = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= @A f (x, y ) O ?= ?K =H = A A E =H = ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ (x, y ) @A E H =@= Hf H D= =H = = JE?= A JA FK J (x, y ) ! "

0 2x + 2(x + y ) 2y + 2(x + y ) (x, y ) = Hf 4 2 2x + 2(x + y ) 2y + 2(x + y ) 2 4 0 80 100 (3, 4) = Hf 2 80 4 100 2 4

)D H= L= I = ?= ?K =H AIJ= =JHE A )6 )* 2=H= A KJE E = BK ?E fej72 ? >E = I I ? = @ I fdjac O fdhess =I I =

p=[3,4]; % Punto de evaluacin J=fdjac(fej72,p); % Gradiente de f H=fdhess(fej72,p); %Hessiana de f Ho=[0 J;J H]; % Hessiana Orlada de f
= I= E@= @A )6 )* AI

Ho = 0 80 100

80 4 2

100 2 4
GKA IE A @AJAH E = JA @A J @ I = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LAN= += ?K A I Dk @A AIJ= I I Dk @A

5=>A I F H = FH F IE?E =JHE AI A H GKA ?AH AIJ= =JHE

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

for k=1:1:length(Ho)-1; D=Ho(1:k+1,1:k+1); %MPD de orden k dt(i)=det(D); % Determinante de MPD end dt

= FHE AH= A= E @E?= = )6 )* GKA I ? ?K I @A =I IECKEA JAI A=I @A >A HAFAJEHIA F=H= ?=@= L= H @A k - AI= EI = A= IA AIJ=> A?A GKA k J = H I L= HAI @A 1 2 IEA @ 2 A HAIK J= JA @A = E IJHK??E length(Ho)-1 - ? = @ @A = IACK @= A= ANJH=A A A H FHE ?EF= , E = JA @A H@A k @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= 2 H A A F ?K= @ k = 1 , AI A A H FHE ?EF= @A H@A O AIJ @=@ F H D=Ho(1:2,1:2) = JAH?AH= A= ?= ?K = A @AJAH E = JA @A A H FHE ?EF= @ E = JA GKA IA ?= ?K A = IACK @= A= O CK=H@= AIJA L= H A = F IE?E i @A LA?J H dt = JE = A= = KJE E = I F=H= LAH I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H dt = I= E@= @A )6 )* ? format bank AI

dt = -6400.00 -33600.00
AI @A 2=H= A KAIJH= F IEJEL I @A )6 KAIJH E JAH I = =C EJK@ @A AIJ I AH I IE I >EA IK IEC AI JE A ? = @ format + ) KJE E =H AIJA ? = @ = I= E@= II > I AIF=?E A > = ? F=H= E @E?=H A A A J I GKA I AC=JEL I ?AH HAIFA?JEL= A JA ,A EA @ AIJA B H =J = I= E@= )* AI

dt = E @E?= @ GKA J= J A FHE AH ? F A JA @A LA?J H ? A IACK @ I AC=JEL I -IJ I FAH EJA ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E f (x, y ) AI ?K=IE? LAN= A A FK J (x, y ) = (3, 4) ) @EBAHA ?E= @A = =JHE DAIIE= = @A KAIJH= BK ?E f (x, y ) = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= ?= >E= IAC A FK J A @ @A = ?= ?K A I A?AIEJ= I A J ?AI CA AH= E =H A J @ = JAHE H F=H= ?= ?K =H = =JHE DAIIE= = H =@= A @EBA HA JAI FK J I = = LA 2=H= A A?AIEJ= I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI m LA?AI @ @A 2=H= E KIJH=H = m I J @=I I FK J I A I GKA IA @AIA= AL= K=H = =JHE H A K ? K J B H = A GKA IA CA AH= E = L= I = AL= K=H = =JHE H EJ @A FK J I FHE AH GKA @A>A I D=?AH AI @A EH @E?D ? K J 5KF C= I GKA L=

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

#

I = AL= K=H AIJ= =JHE A A ? K J S = {(x, y ) x [3, 5] y [4, 1]} - J ?AI @A E I AIJA ? K J A )6 )*

x=[3:1:5]; y=[-4:1:-1];
KAC @A AIJ @A>A I ?HA=H K LA?J H p GKA ? @A FK J I F IE> AI =I JA C= J @=I =I F=HA =I (x, y )

[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); p=[X(:);Y(:)]; @ @A m AI A 2 H JE HAFAJE I m LA?AI A FH ?AI @A ?= ?K =H H AH @A FK J I A @ @A L= I = AL= K=H = =JHE H AI @A?EH A AH @A ? K =I @A LA?J H p for m=1:length(p); % Repetir m veces J=fdjac(fej72,p(:,m)); % Gradiente H=fdhess(fej72,p(:,m)); % Hessiana Ho=[0 J;J H]; % Hessiana Orlada for k=1:1:length(Ho)-1; % Repetir k veces D=Ho(1:k+1,1:k+1); % MPD dt(k,m)=det(D); % Determinante de MPD end end dt
- LA?J H dt HAIK J= JA AI @A J= = x @ @A ? HHAIF @A = AH @A A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI GKA IA AL= = A = =JHE H O  ? HHAIF @A 2 HAA F = AH @A FK J I A I GKA IA AL= K = =JHE H = FHE AH= ? K = @A LA?J H dt ? JEA A A @AJAH E = JA @A I @ I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI @A = DAIIE= = H =@= AL= K=@= A A FK J (x, y ) = (3, 4) 5A >IAHL= GKA J @ I I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H E F E?= GKA I A HAI FHE ?EF= AI @ E = JAI @A F H J= J = BK ?E A A ? K J S AI ?K=IE? )


dt I I H LAN=

AC=JEL I ?K= A HAI GKA ?AH O

=HC @A J @= = IA??E

DA

I = = E =@

=?

?=LE@=@ ?

LANE@=@ ?K=

)K GKA A A A A F IA J =H ? ?K I F=H= K ? K J 5 I ANJA I

KO F ? I L= HAI F=H= x O y AI B ?E D=?AH I EI I ) =I I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H dt I AC=JEL I

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 + (x + y )2 F H @EBAHA JAI J @ I 5E A >=HC AIJ= BK ?E AI ALE@A JA A JA ? LAN= O =K GKA D= IE@ JE F=H= FH F IEJ I @A ANF E?=?E AI E F HJ= JA JH=J=H ? BK ?E AI A @ @A IK ? ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@ AI J= ALE@A JA O= GKA AI A AIJ I ?=I I A @ @A = DAHH= EA J= ? FKJ=?E = FKA@A HAIK J=H KO JE - A IECKEA JA A A F HA= E = I A = EIEI @A ? IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ F=H= K = BK ?E ) @EBAHA ?E= @A A A F = JAHE H ANF E?=HA ?E ! O= GKA KAIJH FH F IEJ ? AIJA A A F )6 )* F=H= = = E =H H FE@= A JA = B H = @A F=I I GKA IA @A>A IACKEH A ?=@= J @ @A = A A F = JAHE H ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@ ?K= K F ? I ? F E?=@= I A @AJ= A ?=@= E IJHK? AI IJH=H = KJE E@=@ @A = BK ?E O A IA =H I EIEI ? IE AH= A A

%!

-A F
J @ /H ?

% ! f (x, y ) = x0.5 y 0.5

AI ? ?=L= O F H J= J

- = CKH= IA >IAHL= GKA AIJ= BK ?E ?K=IE? ?=L= = =HC @A IK @ E E

=JHE 0AIIE= = ,A EA @ FHALE= A JA = BK ?E A K M-file = =@ BA %! O = F=HJEH @A ? K J EJ @A FK J I S = {(x, y ) x (0, 100] y (0, 100]} IA JEA A

x=[0.1:10:100.1]; % Valores para x y=[0.1:10:100.1]; % Valores para y [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); % Valores para f(x,y) p=[X(:);Y(:)]; % Vector con puntos (x,y) for m=1:length(p); % Repetir en todos los puntos H=fdhess(fej73,p(:,m)); % Matriz Hessiana vp(1:2,m)=eig(H); % Valores propios end tam=size(vp); tol=0.000016 for i=1:tam(1)*tam(2); % Valores propios if abs(vp(i))>tol; % V. propios cercanos a cero
!

)K GKA =I E IJHK??E

AI I

> IE?= A JA =I

EI =I

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

%

vp(i)=vp(i); else vp(i)=round(vp1(i)); % Redondear end end

0A I =IK E@ L= HAI F=H= x O y AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL I )@A I @A>E @ = GKA A ? ?K @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = AI K HE? I L= HAI GKA IJ= =JHE ? JEA A IA =FH NE = ? CH= FHA?EIE = I L= HAI HA= AI =K GKA I AN=?J= A JA ECK= AI F H GKA A = CK I FK J I D=O L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE DAIIE= = GKA I F IEJEL I =K GKA KO ?AH?= I = ?AH 2=H= @AFKH=H A LA?J H vp @A AIJ I L= HAI AI A?AI=HE A IACK @ FH ?A@E EA J A A ?K= F H A@E @A ? = @ round =GKA I L= HAI
IK ?EA JA A JA ?AH?= I = ?AH tol IA =FH NE = = ?AH 5A >IAHL= GKA J @ I I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H vp I F IEJEL I  A HAI ECK= AI GKA ?AH  F H ?K= F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ? ?=L= O F H J= J J= >E AI ?K=IE? ?=L= -IJ JE F @A I LAHE ?=H ? = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@=

=JHE 0AIIE= =

H =@=

x=[0.1:10:100.1]; % Valores para x y=[0.1:10:100.1]; % Valores para x [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); % Valores para f(x,y) p=[X(:);Y(:)]; % Vector con puntos for m=1:length(p); % Repetir m veces J=fdjac(fej73,p(:,m)); % Gradiente H=fdhess(fej73,p(:,m)); % Hessiana Ho=[0 J;J H]; % Hessiana Orlada for k=1:1:length(Ho)-1; % Repetir k veces D=Ho(1:k+1,1:k+1); % MPD dt(k,m)=det(D); % Determinante de MPD end end
- LA?J H dt AI @A J= = x  - = F IE?E i, j  IA AIJA LA?J H IA D= ?= ?K =@ A @AJAH E = JA @A A H FHE ?EF= @ E =JA @A H@A i @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= ?= ?K =@= A A FK J j ) >IAHL=H I

& ? F A JAI @A AIJA LA?J H KJE E = @

/-,=I E IJHK??E

8AHIE AI

2HA E E =H

format + dt
IA >IAHL= GKA J @ I I ? F A JAI @A = FHE AH= = @A AIJA LA?J H I AC=JEL I EA JH=I GKA I ? F A JAI @A = IACK @= = I F IEJEL I E @E?= @ GKA I A HAI 2HE ?EF= AI , E = JAI @A H@A  D1  AL= K=@ I = =HC @A ? K J S I AC=JEL I EA JH=I GKA I @A H@A I F IEJEL I ) F=HJEH @A I ?HEJAHE I @A AL= K=?E O @A = E B H = ?E GKA I FH F H?E = AIJA LA?J H F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? ?=L=

K J I+

J H

5A >IAHL= GKA A ? K J ? J H IKFAHE H AI ? LAN F H ?K= F @A I ? ? KEH J= >E F H AIJA ?HEJAHE GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? ?=L=

% " .K ?E @=I

AI ?

JHAI

I L=HE=> AI  K JEL=HE=

KAIJH FH F IEJ A AIJ= IA??E AI E KIJH=H ? @ I A A F I = = AH= A GKA IA ANJEA @A I J @ I @A = EIEI @A ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ F=H= BK ?E AI @A JHAI I L=HE=> AI +K= @ JA A I BK ?E AI ? JHAI L=HE=> AI O= IA FKA@A KJE E =H A J @ CH ? FKAIJ GKA O= AI F IE> A LEIK= E =H = BK ?E 5E A >=HC IKI ?KHL=I @A ELA IA LEIK= E = A R3 O F H J= J AI L E@ A AIJ=I BK ?E AI KJE E =H A J @ @A ? K J I ? J H =@A I @A I J @ I @A =JHE 0AIIE= = O 0AIIE= = H =@= - BK ?E AI @A ?K=JH I L=HE=> AI AI F IE> A KJE E =H A J @ CH ? O A J @ @A + K J I ? J H F H ?K= I @EIF A I @A I J @ I @A =JHE 0AIIE= = O =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@=

%"

-A F

% " f (x, y, z ) = x4 + 3y 4 + 5z
I

=JHE 0AIIE= = ) ECK= GKA A I ?=I = JAHE HAI FHE AH @A>A ?HA=H = BK ?E A K M-file = =@ BA %"

function f = fej74(v); z=v(3);

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),

'

y=v(2); x=v(1); f=x.^4+3*y.^4+5*z;

KAC @A AIJ @A>A I ?HA=H K ? K J EJ @A FK J I S A I GKA GKAHA I AL= K=H = =JHE H 2=H= AIJA A A F F @A I =IK EH K ? K J S = {(x, y, z ) x [10, 10] y [10, 10] z [10, 10]} GKA L= = AIJ=H ? JA E@ A A LA?J H p

x=[-10:1:10]; % Valores para x y=x;z=x; % Valores para y,z [X,Y,Z]=meshgrid(x,y,z); % Valores para f(x,y) p=[X(:);Y(:);Z(:)]; % Vector con puntos
2 H JE E L ?= I = HKJE = fdhess F=H= ?= ?K =H = =JHE DAIIE= = A ?=@= FK J @A LA?J H p ?= ?K = I IKI L= HAI FH FE I ? IK ? HHAI F @EA JA @AFKH=?E  O = F=HJEH @A = E B H =?E ? JA E@= A A LA?J H vp F @A I ? ? KEH I >HA = ? ?=LE@=@ O ? LANE@=@ @A = BK ?E

for m=1:length(p); H=fdhess(fej74,p(:,m)); vp(1:3,m)=eig(H); end tam=size(vp) tol=0.000016 for i=1:tam(1)*tam(2); if abs(vp(i))>tol; vp(i)=vp(i); else vp(i)=round(vp(i)); end end
5A >IAHL= GKA J @ I I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H vp I ?K= E @E?= GKA = BK ?E AI ? LAN= AC=JEL I

=JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= 5A IECKA I EI I F=I I GKA JH=>= = I A A A A F = JAHE H = E?= @E ?=?E AI GKA = ECK= GKA DE?E I ? A LA?J H @A L= HAI FH FE I @A = =JHE DAIIE= = A?AIEJ= I @A



/-,FKH=H A LA?J H GKA ? JEA A I @AJAH E = JAI @A @ E = JAI @A = =JHE DAIIE= = H =@= I

8AHIE A

2HA E E =H

HAI FHE ?EF= AI

x=[-10:1:10]; % Valores para x y=x;z=x; % Valores para y,z [X,Y,Z]=meshgrid(x,y,z); % Valores para f(x,y) p=[X(:);Y(:);Z(:)]; % Vector con puntos (x,y,z) for m=1:length(p); J=fdjac(fej74,p(:,m)); H=fdhess(fej74,p(:,m)); Ho=[0 J;J H]; for k=1:1:length(Ho)-1; D=Ho(1:k+1,1:k+1); dt(k,m)=det(D); end end tam=size(dt); tol=0.00016;

for i=1:tam(1)*tam(2); % Depuracin if abs(dt(i))>tol; dt(i)=dt(i); else dt(i)=round(dt(i)); end end

5A >IAHL= GKA J @ I I ? F A JAI @A LA?J H dt K = LA @AFKH=@ I I F IEJEL I ?K= E F E?= GKA = F=HJEH @A = E B H =?E @A = =JHE 0AIIE= = H =@= F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LAN=

+ K J I+ J H 4A? H@A I GKA =I ?KHL=I @A ELA F=H= f (x, y, z ) = 4 4 x + 3y + 5z HAIK J= @A ECK= =H = BK ?E = K = ? IJ= JA ,A AIJ= = AH= JA A I GKA =I ?KHL=I @A ELA AIJ @=@=I F H = x4 + 3y 4 + 5z = z=
x4 3y 4 5

)I = FAI=H @A F @AH LEIK= E =H = BK ?E f (x, y, z ) I F @A I LEIK= E =H IKI ?KHL=I @A ELA A A F = (x, y, z ) 2=H= LEIK= E =H AIJ=I ?KHL=I

+)81,), ; +

8-:1,),



@A ELA A )6 )* KJE E = I I EI I F=I I GKA IA HAGKEAHA F=H= CH= ?=H K = BK ?E A R3 AI @A?EH AIFA?E ?=H = BK ?E ?HA=H I @=J I O F H JE E L ?=H A ? = @ F=H= CH= ?=H F=HJE?K =H A AIJA ?=I AI GKA L= I = HAFAJEH A JE F=I n LA?AI @ @A n AI A AH @A ?KH L=I @A ELA GKA @AIA= I LEIK= E =H 2=H= AIJA A A F L= I = LEIK= E =H ?K=JH ?KHL=I @A ELA @A = BK ?E @=@=I F H = (10000, 0, 10000)  +HA=H = BK ?E A K M-file = =@ B? A %"

function z=fcnej74(x,y,alpha) z=(alpha-x.^4-3*y.^4)*(1/5);

+HA=H I @=J I

x=[-10:0.1:10];y=x; % Datos para x,y [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y); alpha=[-10000 0 10000]; % Curvas de nivel

! 1 L ?=H A ? = @ F=H= CH= ?=H

for i=1:length(alpha) Z=fcnej74(X,Y,alpha(i)); mesh(X,Y,Z) hold on end

) F=HJEH @A AIJ=I E IJHK??E AI JA A I LAN OF H

5A >IAHL= A AIJ= CH ?= GKA A ? K J ? J H E BAHE H AI ? J= J F @A I ? ? KEH GKA = BK ?E AI ?K=IE? LAN=

2 H JE IJH=HA I K A A F @A K = BK ?E ? I @A JHAI L=HE=> AI - AIJA ?=I J= F ? F @A I KJE E =H A J @ @A ? K J I ? J H O= GKA IA FKA@A LEIK= E =H =I ?KHL=I @A ELA @A = BK ?E 2 H J= J I E? I J @ I ? FKJ=?E = AI @EIF E> AI F=H= AIJA ?=I I I @A =JHE DAIIE= = O =JHE DAIIE= = H =@=

%"

-A F

% # f (w, x, y, z )

=JHE 0AIIE= =

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

=JHE 0AIIE= =

H =@=

+=F JK

&

FJE E =?E
E@= 3KE JAH H = =@ =@

= H=?E = E@=@ @A I =CA JAI AI K IKFKAIJ BHA?KA JA A JA KJE E =@ = JA H = A? E?= -IJ E F E?= GKA A I >KIGKA IEA FHA = A H = AH= @A HA= E =H IKI ? I=I AI @A?EH >KIGKA FJE E =H IKI =?JELE@=@AI )I I ? IK E@ HAI IEA FHA GKEAHA =NE E =H = KJE E@=@ GKA A FH F H?E = I >EA AI GKA ? FH= O I FH @K?J HAI =NE E =H IKI >A A ?E I E E E =H IKI ? IJ I - AIJA ?=F JK JH=>= =HA I = F=HJEH @A DAHH= EA J=I ? FKJ=?E = AI A FH > A = @A D= =H I NE I E I @A K = BK ?E  FJE E =?E AIJ JE?= @AFA @EA @ @A IE A = HAFHAIA J= KJE E@=@ >A A ?E I ? IJ I @A E EJ= @ A ? K J @A I K?E AI @A =?KAH@ = HAIJHE??E AI IE =I D=O 5AC   K = ?=H=?JAHE =?E J FE?= @A FH > A =I @A FJE E =?E AI A ? JH=H L= HAI ANJHA I @A K = BK ?E f (x, y ) HAIJHE CE@= = K IK>? K J >EA AIFA?E ?=@ @A R2 + =NE E =H f (x, y ) IK AJ= = g (x, y ) 0 x0 y0 BK ?E AI @EBAHA ?E=> AI )GK = f (, ) IA A ? ?A @ @A f g R2 ++ R I ? BK ?E > AJEL O = g (, ) ? BK ?E HAIJHE??E ? K J B=?JE> A - A FH > A = CA AH= D=> = I @A =NE E =H @=@ GKA E E E =H AGKEL= A = =NE E =H A AC=JEL @A = BK ?E 6= >E F @A FJE E =?E ? I AIJ=> A?AH K = IA?KA ?E= CA AH= F=H= HAI LAH K FH > A = @A FKJ=?E = A JA 2HE AH @A>A I D=?AH K = EIEI ?K= EJ=JEL !

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A FH > A = AI @A?EH E@A JE ?=H A JEF @A BK ?E > AJEL = GKA I A BHA J= I A JEF @A HAIJHE??E AI O IK ? F HJ= EA J IE AI F IE> A @A = AH= CH ?= F=H= JA AH E@A= @A = HACE @ @A IA FKA@A A ? JH=H = I K?E 6A EA @ ? =H=I =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @A FH > A ? FKJ=?E = A JABK ?E > AJEL HAIJHE??E AI =F E?= I = HKJE = ? FKJ=?E = FAHJE A JA IAC @A>A I IAH KO ?KE@=@ I ? = E JAHFHAJ=?E @A = F @A I ?HA=H =I BK ?E AI CH=@EA JAI AJ? 2 H JE A FH > A = )@E?E = A JA I HAIK J=@ I

) FJE E =H IA FKA@A FHAIA J=H L=HE I ?=I I IAC A JEF @A BK ?E AI GKA AIJA I JH=>= = @ ?K= @ = BK ?E > AJEL AI E A= O D=O HAIJHE??E AI ?=I GKA LAHA I A = FHE AH= IA??E A = IACK @= FHAIA J= I FJE E =?E @A BK ?E AI @A EI JEF FAH ? HAIJHE??E AI O F H JE JA @HA I A ?=I A GKA =I BK ?E AI I E A= AI - = EIEI @A ? ?=LE@=@ ? LANE@=@ ?K=IE? ?=LE@=@ O ?K=IE? LANE@=@ @A BK ?E AI GKA LE I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H I D=H K?D I B ?E = ? FHA IE @A AIJ I FH > A =I

&

FJE E =?E

E A= IE HAIJHE??E

AI

,A KAIJH FH > A = CA AH= @A FJE E =?E A AIJ= IA??E LAHA I A ?=I F=HJE ?K =H A A GKA f (x, y ) JEA A B H = E A= )@A I JA A I g (x, y ) BK ?E HAIJHE??E F H GKA @A>A I >KI?=H = I K?E A J @ A @ E E @A = BK ?E > AJEL -NEIJA L=HE I J @ I K HE? I F=H= I K?E =H AIJA ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A FJE E = ?E ? J= AI J= AI O J= AI GKA LAHA I A AIJ= IA??E K J ? =I HKJE =I @A )6 )* GKA D=?A KI @A A I

&

E E E =H
> AJEL F H

+ AIJ= HKJE = D= = I = E =CA I FAGKA = @A KAIJH= BK ?E GKA = KJE E = I F=H= I K?E =H FH > A =I @A E E E =?E

-A F


&
m n f (x) = x3 4x2 + 6

- CA AH= AI A H JH=>= =H ? BK ?E AI @A E@=I A K A O= GKA IA FKA@A @E ?=H B ?E A JA O FAH EJA D=?AH KI @A JH=I BK ?E AI @EIF E> AI A )6 )* - FH > A =I IA ?E I AI FH ?JE? JH=>= =H ? BK ?E AI E E A

261 1 )+1

# F H E E

2=I  )

EIEI +K= EJ=JEL @A FH > A = 2 @A I LAH A = .ECKH= &  A ? J= EA J @A = BK ?E f (x) O @A IK @AHEL=@= fx A K = F=HJA @A IK @ S = {x [3, 6]} .ECKH= &  + F HJ= EA J @A f (x)

5=>A I @A ?=F JK = JAHE H GKA = BK ?E AI ? ?=L= F=H= A E JAHL= (, 1.3333) O ? LAN= A A E JAHL= (1.3333, ) - = CH ?= >IAHL= I GKA A K FK J ?AH?= = x = 0 AIJ= BK ?E JEA A K NE OA K FK J ?AH?= = x = 3 K E

2=I

+HA=H BK ?E AI 2 @A @A ? = @ inline

I E JH @K?EH = BK ?E

F H

A@E

f=inline(x.^3-4*x.^2+6)

2=I ! 1 L ?=H HKJE = @A I K?E

,A>A I ?HA=H =I E CA AI @A f (x) A K = LA?E @=@ IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A = HA@A@ H @A x = 3 O KAC JA EA @ AIJ I L= HAI AI? CAH A I FAGKA @A J @ I A I!

h=0.01; x=[2:h:4]; % Puntos cercanos a x=3 y=f(x); % Crear imgenes [ym,ind]=min(y); % Imgen ms pequea xm=x(ind); % Argumento que minimiza
- = FHE AH= A= ?HA= IAC GKA = = E = I A >KI?= I - = IACK @= - = JAH?AH= IA D= = = E @A LA?J H y .E = A JA A E E E = = f (x) + I I FK J I ?AH?= I = x = 3 x [2, 4] GKA A F=I  AI K FK J ?AH?= = E GKA A= AIJ =I E CA AI @A AIA ? K J @A FK J I CA I FAGKA = K J ? IK F IE?E @A JH = ?K=HJ= A= A ? JH= I A L= H @A x GKA

HAIK J=@ >JA A I xm=2.67 O ym=-3.4814 - ?=I @A HAGKAHEH =O H FHA?EIE F=H= x I IA HAGKEAHA HA@K?EH A L= H @A F=H AJH h 2=H= A ?=I @A BK ?E AI K EL=HE=@=I IJA AI A J @ I IA ?E A A GKA IA D= = E I ? FKJ=?E = A JA

JAIA A = CKH= &  GKA A AIJ I FK J I = FHE AH= @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E IA D=?A ?AH 4A? H@A I GKA AIJ=> A?E I A ? K J S = {x [3, 6]} I ? A FH F IEJ @A LEIK= E =H A ? F HJ= EA J @A = BK ?E - HA= E@=@ KAIJH ? K J @A I= E@= @ E E @A f (x) I J @ I I HA= AI F H GKA AIJ= I >KI?= @ FK J I FJE I GKA AIJ A = BH JAH= IE FK J I FJE I E JAHE HAI A I GKA IA ?K F = = ? @E?E f = 0
!

$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

+=F JK

'

5EIJA =I ,E
,EAC + HHA@ H =HE / A

E? I

I ?=F JK I = JAHE HAI I DA I ?KF=@ @A I FH ?A@E EA J I KJE E =@ I F=H= = = E =H O FJE E =H @EBAHA JAI JEF I @A BK ?E AI 6 @ I AIJ I J @ I IA A =H?= @A JH @A K ? JANJ AIJ JE? A A GKA AI F IE> A >IAHL=H I ? F HJ= EA J I @A =I L=HE=> AI = JH=L I @A JEA F - AIJA ?=F JK I ? ?A JH= I A I J @ I K HE? I O =F E?=?E AI ? FKJ=?E = AI KJE E =@ I A IEJK=?E AI @ @A A JEA F KAC= K F=FA E F HJ= JA O= IA= ? K = L=HE=> A ? JE K= A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI  @EI?HAJ= A?K=?E AI A @EBAHA ?E=I  - = = AI = CK EI FHE AH= F=HJA @A ?=F JK ANF E?= I I J @ I K HE? I O ? FKJ=?E KJE E =@ I A = I K?E @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H@E =HE=I FHAIA J= @ I A A F I O =F E?=?E AI A? E?=I - = IACK @= F=HJA @AI=HH = I A AIGKA = F=H= =I A?K=?E AI A @EBAHA ?E=I

'
-?K=?E

-?K=?E

AI ,EBAHA ?E= AI O ,E
E?= + JE K= ) 75

E?= +

JE K=

AI ,EBAHA ?E= AI,E

.) 6) 7 ) 1 64 ,7++1 -5 - -+ ) A?K=?E =I A?K=?E AI I

,- )5 -+7)+1

-5 ,1.-4- +1)

AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H@E =HE=I IE F A A JA ? HAIFA?J = JEA F

'

J @ I

HE? I

,AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= = CA>H=E? I K?E =H K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI E F E?= A ? JH=H = B H K = @A = =I BK ?E AI GKA I=JEIB=C= A IEIJA = +K= @ E CK = ? @E?E E E?E= AI @A E@= = I K?E ? IEIJA A D= =H K = B H K = CA AH= %

&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A =I BK ?E AI 2AH IE =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @A FH > A = I @AJAH E =@=I AI F IE> A >JA AH =I BK ?E AI AIFA? ?=I GKA I K?E = A ? K J @A A?K=?E AI 2 H A A F = I K?E =H = CA>H=E?= A JA = A?K=?E x = 3x >JA A I GKA A ? K J @A BK ?E AI GKA ?K F A AIJ= A?K=?E LEA A @=@ F H = B H K = CA AH= x(t) = Ae3t @ @A A FKA@A IAH ?K= GKEAH AH HA= 2AH IE =CHAC= I = ? @E?E E E?E= x(0) = 4 = E?= BK ?E GKA I=JEIB=?A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= O = ? @E?E E E?E= AI x(t) = 4e3t -I A?AI=HE = J=H GKA =I ? @E?E AI A?AI=HE= A JA JEA A GKA IAH E E?E= AI J= >E FKA@A E F AHIA ? @E?E AI A JH I A J I @A JEA F ? @E?E AI @A BH JAH=+ @E?E @A .H JAH= - A A A F IE E F A I = ? @E?E @A BH JAH= x(2) = 5 = BK ?E F=HJE?K =H GKA I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E O A IEIJA = @A @E E? AI x(t) = 0.0123e3t 2 H JH =@ F H = =JKH= A = @A I J @ I = I K?E K HE?= @A IEIJA =I @E E? I E F E?= GKA = C JEF @A ? @E?E @A>= IAH E FKAIJ= -I @A?EH GKA = ? JH=HE @A J @ = CA>H=E? AI F IE> A >JA AH E C JEF @A A?K=?E CA AH= @A =I BK ?E AI I K?E ) I = KJE E =H J @ I K HE? I K ?= A ? JH= I J= AI BK ?E AI IE GKA HA= E = I K = =FH NE =?E K HE?= = A =I ,AFA @EA @ @A JEF @A ? @E?E E FKAIJ= E E?E= @A BH JAH= A FH ?A@E EA J @A I K?E K HE?= ?= >E= 5E J = I K = ? @E?E E E?E= HAI LAH K IEIJA = @E E? ? IEIJA A =FH NE =H =I BK ?E AI I K?E = F=HJEH @A A J @A JEA F A A GKA AI E FKAIJ= J= ? @E?E JH=I F= =>H=I = =FH NE =?E IA HA= E = D=?E= =@A = JA ) AIJA JEF @A FH > A =I IA AI ? ?A ? A >HA @A 2H > A =I @A 8= H 1 E?E= 2H > A =I @A 8= H 1 E?E= 182 182 IAA2H > A =I @A 8= H 1 E?E= 1 E?E= 8= KA 2H > A I IAA182 F H IKI IEC =I A E C I O B H = A JA ? IEIJA A =FH NE =H x(t) A K E JAHL= @A JEA F @AJAH E =@ @A @ GKA

x (t) = f t, x(t) x(t0 ) = x0

' 

- FH ?A@E EA J @A I K?E @A K 182 ? IEIJA F H CA AH= A J =H = ? @E?E E E?E= O AL= K=H = A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ,A AIJ= B H = IA JEA A K FK J O = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E A A FK J + AIJ I @ I A A A J I O D=?EA @ KI @A F E E @A 6=O H AI F IE> A =FH NE =H A L= H @A = BK ?E A A IECKEA JA FAH @ @A JEA F -IJA FH ?A@E EA J IA HAFEJA K = O JH= LA D=IJ= = ?= =H A EJA IKFAHE H @A E JAHL= @A JEA F ? IE@AH=@ I J @ I K HE? I KJE E =@ I F=H= = I K?E @A FH > A =I @A L= H E E?E= I ANF E?=@ I A @AJ= A I =@A = JA

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

'

7 = CA AH= E =?E @A I FH > A =I @A L= H E E?E= I I @A E =@ I 2H > A =I @A 8= HAI A = .H JAH=2H > A =I @A 8= H A = .H JAH= *82 *82 IAA2H > A =I @A 8= H A = .H JAH=* K @A@ 8= KA 2H > A I IAA2H > A =I @A 8= H A = .H JA H= - AIJA JEF @A FH > A =I E F A I ? IK >HA E @E?= ? @E?E AI @A BH JAH= = IEIJA = @E E? = I K?E @A AIJ I IEIJA =I HAIK J= I ? F E?=@= F HGKA AI F IE> A E F AH L=HE=I ? @E?E AI = = LA O F HGKA = =FH NE =?E = =I BK ?E AI IA HA= E = = JAI O @AIFK I @A ?=@= ? @E?E I J @ I K HE? I KJE E =@ I F=H= HAI LAH AIJA JEF @A FH > A =I I =L= =@ I F H GKA IAH  JH=J=@ I A AIJA E>H ) ? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I = CK I J @ I K HE? I KJE E =@ I F=H= I K?E =H FH > A =I @A L= H E E?E= -I A?AI=HE =? =H=H GKA ANEIJA K = CH= ?= JE@=@ @A J @ I F H GKA FHAJA @A I =>=H?=H J @ I I = C HEJ I ANEIJA JAI I E EJ= I = I J @ I I IA ?E I GKA IEHLA @A >=IA F=H= I @A I J @ @A -K AH + ?E@ J= >E ? J @ @A = J= CA JA =FH NE = = ?KHL= I K?E @A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= = JH=L I @A K F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@  2=H= A JA @AH A = C HEJ IKF C= I GKA = BK ?E x(t) I=JEIB=?A A IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI '  O JH=I D=?AH = ANF= IE @A F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@  = HA@A@ H @A t + h >JA A I

J @ @A -K AH

x(t + h) x(t) + hx (t)

+ >=IA A A IEIJA = '  A =FH NE =H x1 = A?K=?E

' 

'  O =IK EA @ h = 1 AI F IE> A

x1 = x0 + f (0, x0 )
;= ? x1 AI F IE> A A ? - CA AH= JA A I GKA JH=H K = =FH NE =?E @A x2 O =I IK?AIEL= A JA

xi+1 = xi + hf (ti , xi )

' !

-I E F HJ= JA HA?= ?=H GKA D= = I =FH NE =?E AI F H GKA A ?=@= EJAH= ?E = I K?E AN=?J= AI A L= H =FH NE =@ I K AHH H ?K=@H JE?
2=H= K = ANF E?=?E ? =H= O IA ?E = @A AIJ I J @ I LAH .=? AH  ! ?=F $ + = =FH NE =?E AI @A FHE AH CH=@ A AHH H HAIK J= IAH K = BK ?E ?K=@H JE?= @A J= = @A F=I IE = =FH NE =?E AI @A IACK @ CH=@ A AHH H =I ?E=@ = IJ= AI K = BK ?E ? >E?= O =I IK?AIEL= A JA


/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

x (t + h) = x(t + h) + O h2
7 = B H = @A @EI E KEH = E AN=?JEJK@ @A I HAIK J=@ I AI J =H J= = F=I I FAGKA I F H A A F h = 0.1 5E A >=HC = HA@K?EH A J= = F=I @A = EJAH=?E IA =K A J= A AH @A FAH=?E AI =HEJ JE?=I @EI E KOA = LA ?E@=@ @A = C HEJ -NEIJA K JEF @A = C HEJ I ? ? = C HEJ I =@=FJ=JEL I GKA @KH= JA A FH ?AI EJAH=JEL >IAHL= A F HJ= EA J @A I AHH HAI A ?=@= AJ=F= ? A @A HA@K?EH E ?HA A J= = @A F=I IAC IA= A?AI=HE I @A @A GKA ?E@ I ? J=H A

- FH CH= = I?HEFJ GKA IA FHAIA J= = ? JE K=?E KAIJH= = FH CH= =?E ! AH @A @A J @ @A -K AH - KIK=HE @A>A @A EH ? = JAHE HE@=@ A EJAH=?E AI n = ? @E?E E E?E= x0 A J= = @A F=I h O A JEA F E E?E= t0 6= >E @A>A IAH AIFA?E ?=@= A JH ?DAH = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ?KO= IE J=NEI AI dxdt=f(t,x) N N J J B HE  NE  NE D BJE NE JE  JE D A @ -NEIJA A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI F=HJE?K =HAI A =I ?K= AI A = C HEJ FKA@A HAIK J=H F ? ABA?JEL = = D H= @A =FH NE =H = I K?E K - AIJ I ?=I I AI HA? A @=> A HA?KHHEH = JH JEF @A J @ I 7 @A I FH ?A@E EA J I = JAH =JEL I I IE F AI AI A J @ @A -K AH J @ @E ?=@ @A -K AH ) ECK= GKA A A J @ =FH NE = I = I K?E ? K F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@  5E AL= K= I = HA@A@ H @A t + h IE @A t >JA EA @ "
!

@A -K AH HE?= A JA I AIJ=> AI @E ?=@ @A -K AH A >=HC

- A?J H =L= =@ A J @ I K HE? I FKA@A ? IJ=J=H GKA ANEIJA FH CH= =?E AI I A ?EA JAI GKA =I FHAIA J=@=I A AIJ= F=HJA @A ?=F JK I FH CH= =I =GK FHAIA J=@ I JEA A K > AJEL ANF IEJEL O F H J= J BKAH FH CH= =@ I JA EA @ A ?KA J= A AH @A FAH=?E AI =HEJ JE?=I ?K= GKEAH JH= A@E@= @A A ?EA ?E= @A K J @ K HE? " J @ @A -K AH @E ?=@ IA >=I= A A DA?D @A GKA F=H= K = BK ?E ?K= GKEAH= g (x) IE = BK ?E AI HA =JEL= A JA
>EA ? F HJ=@= O h AI IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA = @AHEL=@= @A =

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

x(t) x(t h) + hx (t)

) F=HJEH @A = A?K=?E = JAHE H AC= I = = IECKEA JA HAC = @A EJAH=?E

' "

xi = xi1 + hf ti , xi )
.E = A JA = HAC = @A EJAH=?E F=H= xi+1 AI ' #

xi+1 = xi + hf ti+1 , xi+1 )

-IJ= HAC = @A EJAH=?E AI @A E =@= B H K = E F ?EJ= @A -K AH O= GKA AI F IE> A @AIFA =H xi+1 A J H E I @A ti O @A xi ,=@ I K t0 O K x0 A L= H @A = L=HE=> A A = IECKEA JA EJAH=?E AI A L= H GKA I K?E A = IECKEA JA A?K=?E

x1 x0 hf t1 , x1 ) = 0
+ IE IK LA @A

' $

IA FKA@A >IAHL=H A ?=@= EJAH=?E AI A?AI=HE I K?E =H K = A?K=?E E =H = = ' $ 1 @AFA @EA JA A JA @A JEF @A A?K=?E  E A= E A=  I K?E E ?HA A J= A AH @A ? ?K I O F H J= J @EI E KOA = ?E@=@ @A I K?E - = CK I ?=I I K J @ I ABA?JEL AI A J @ 4K CA KJJ= GKA FHAIA J= I = ? JE K=?E

J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= -IJA J @ A ?KA JH= K = I K?E =FH NE =@= @A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= F=HJEA @ @A K F E E @A 6=O H @AJAH E =@ +K= @ A F E E @A 6=O H KJE E =@ AI @A CH=@ IA D=> = @A K J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A IACK @ H@A 4 4 IAA J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= IE F H A A F K = C HEJ 4 FH LEA A @A K F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ " AI @A E =@ J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A " H@A IE F A A JA 4 "4 " IAA J @ @A 4K CA # KJJ= -IJA JE AI K @A I FH ?A@E EA J I I KJE E =@ I F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I @A L= H E E?E= F H IK B ?E FH CH= =?E AIJ=>E E@=@ O LA ?E@=@ @A I K?E
BK ?E A K FK J AI =FH NE =@= A JA ECK= = = @AHEL=@= @A = BK ?E A K FK J =@O=?A JA g (x) g (x + h) g (x h) g (x) # ,A = EI = B H = A J @ @A -K AH AI J= >E ? ?E@ ? J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A FHE AH H@A O= GKA IA >JEA A = F=HJEH @A K F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ 

J @ @A 4K CA

KJJ=

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

= E@A= > IE?= @A J @ ? IEIJA A ANFHAI=H =I @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H @A F E E @A 6=O H A J H E I @A = FHE AH @AHEL=@= 2=H= D= =H = =FH NE =?E @A 4K CA KJJ= @A F H A A F IACK @ H@A F=HJE I @A = =FH NE =?E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ @ I

x(t + h) = x(t) + hf t, x(t) +

h2 f t, x(t) +O(h3 ) 2

' %

7 = LA >JA E@= AIJ= =FH NE =?E IA >KI?= B H K =H = IACK @= @AHEL=@= A J H E I @A = FHE AH= f t, x(t) 4A HC= E = @ I J H E I @A = A?K=?E ' % JA A I

x(t + h) x(t) +

h h f t, x(t) + f t, x(t) +hf t, x(t) 2 2

@A

) F=HJEH @A K = =FH NE =?E @A 6=O H @A FHE AH H@A F=H= K = BK ?E @ I L=HE=> AI AI F IE> A IJH=H GKA $

x(t + h) x(t) +

h h f t, x(t) + f t + h, x(t) + f t, x(t) 2 2

,A AIJ= B H = = A?K=?E GKA @AJAH E = A FH ?AI EJAH=JEL A A 4K CA KJJ= @A IACK @ H@A AI

J @ @A

xi+1 = xi +
@ @A

1 (F1 + F2 ) 2

F1 = hf (ti , xi ) F2 = hf (ti + h, xi + F1 )
- IECKEA IACK @ JEA F E @A E@=
$

JA I?HEFJ KAIJH= K = FH CH= =?E @A J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A H@A AH @A EJAH=?E AI A J= = @A F=I = ? @E?E O A E?E= AI @A>A IAH AIFA?E ?=@ I ? = JAHE HE@=@ = ECK= GKA @A>A IAH = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= A JH ?DAH
AIJHE?J= LAH E ?=E@ ''" F CI #" #$

5E IA @AIA= HALEI=H K = @A@K??E

5156- )5 ,1 N N J J B HE  B B NE JE A @

1+ 5

D BJE NE D BJE D NE B  NE  # B B   JE D

2=H= D= =H = =FH NE =?E @A 4K CA F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ " O IACKE HAC = @A EJAH=?E AI

KJJ= @A ?K=HJ H@A F=HJE I @A I K FH ?A@E EA J = C )I =

xi+1 = xi +
@ @A

1 (F1 + 2F2 + 2F3 + F4 ) 6

F1 = hf (ti , xi ) F = hf (t + 1 h, x + 1 F ) 2 i i 2 2 1 1 1 F = hf ( t + h, x + 3 i i 2 2 F2 ) F = hf (t + h, x + F ) 4 i i 3
,=@ GKA = =FH NE =?E AI HA= E =@= = F=HJEH @A K F E E @A 6=O H @A CH=@ " A J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A H@A " JEA A K AHH H =I ?E=@ 5 O h )K GKA AI F IE> A >JA AH J @ I 4 @A H@A IKFAHE H ? A @A @EI E KEH = =C EJK@ @A AHH H IK KI HAIK J= I ? IJ I A J H E I @A FH ?AI= EA J ? HAIFA?J = = C HEJ 4 "

4AC = @A 6H=FA?E 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E 4AC = @A 6H=FA E@A IAA4AC = @A 6H=

I HABAHE I = = 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E FA?E 4A? H@A I GKA A = IA??E $ ? K J @ @A =FH NE =?E E A= @A K = E JACH= - FH ?A@E EA J ? IEIJ = A @ELE@EH A E JAHL= @A E JACH=?E A IK>E JAHL= I F=H= KAC IK =H =I HA=I @A I JH=FA?E I @A ?=@= K @A AIJ I O =I F @AH =FH NE =H A HA= >= = ?KHL= = B H K = GKA KJE E = I F=H= ?= ?K =H A HA= @A ?=@= JH=FA?E AH= %
%

8AH = CKH= $ 

"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

x y0 + y1 2

' &

= E@A= > IE?= @A = 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E A = I K?E @A 182I ? IEIJA A E JACH=H = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= '  A A E JAHL= t, t + h O KAC =FH NE =H = KJE E = @ = A?K=?E ' & ) E JACH=H = A?K=?E = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE @EBAHA ?E= '  A A E JAHL= AIFA?E ?=@ >JA A I

t+h

t+h

x (t)dt =
t t

f t, x(t) dt

' '

t+h

x(t + h) x(t) =
t

f t, x(t) dt
@A = B H = '  = AH=

4A HC= E = @ J H E

AC=

I = K = HAC = @A EJAH=?E
ti+1

xi+1 = xi +
2 H = A?K=?E

f t, x(t) dt
ti

' & = E JACH= FKA@A IAH =FH NE =@= @A = IECKEA JA

ti+1

f t, x(t) dt =
ti

h f (ti , xi ) + f (ti+1 , xi+1 ) 2

? ?E@= ? =

,A AIJ= B H = >JA A 4AC = @A 6H=FA?E

I = IECKEA JA HAC = @A EJAH=?E

xi+1 = xi +

h f (ti , xi ) + f (ti+1 , xi+1 ) 2

J @ @A 6H=FA?E = ECK= GKA A J @ @A -K AH @E ?=@ AI K FH ?AI E F ?EJ @A I K?E GKA HAIK J= IAH AIJ=> A =K GKA @A >= = LA ?E@=@ O = J ? IJ ? FKJ=?E = 7 = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AIA ?E= @A I J @ I O= FHAIA J=@ I AI GKA I J @ I @A K I F=I AI @A?EH ?= ?K = xi+1 J = @ ? >=IA = xi 5E A >=HC ANEIJA JH JEF @A = C HEJ I @A E =@ I J @ I K JEF=I GKA A ?=@= EJAH=?E D=?A KI @A I L= HAI xi1 xi2 x0

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5 @A

# I J @ I K JEF=I H=@E?= A A K AH @A L= HAI IA HA= E = = =FH NE =?E @A = E JACH= 7 @A I ?E@ AI A J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD KJ GKA

= @EBAHA ?E= A JHA ?=@= K KJE E =@ I O A = B H = ? J @ I K JEF=I I? FHAIA J= I = ? JE K=?E

J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD K J -IJA J @ =@A I @A IAH K = C HEJ K JEF=I D=?A F=HJA @A I J @ I @A E =@ I FHA@E?J H ? HHA?J H -IJ= ? =IA @A = C HEJ I HA= E = K = FHE AH EJAH=?E F=H= ?= ?K =H K = FHA@E??E @A xi+1 FHA@E?J H  O KAC = KJE E = F=H= EJAH=H @A KAL ? A @A >JA AH K L= H ? HHACE@ @A ? ?K E E?E= @A xi+1 ? HHA?J H  - = C HEJ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD K J ? IEIJA @A @ I FH ?A@E EA J I KO F=HA?E@ I A J @ )@= I *=IDB HJD O A J @ )@= I KJ - FHE AH IA A ?=HC= @A ?= ?K =H A FHA@E?J H EA JH=I GKA A IACK @ CA AH= A ? HHA?J H 8A= I ?=@= K @A AIJ I J @ I F H =F=HJA J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD - = C HEJ I ? A ?EA JAI ? IEIJA A =FH NE =H = E JACH= @A IEIJA = '  A ? JH= @ @AI? ?E@ I (a, b, c, ...) @A = IECKEA JA A?K=?E
ti+1 ti

J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD

KJ

J @ )@= I

*=IDB HJD

f t, x(t) dt = h af (ti , xi ) + bf (ti1 , xi1 ) + cf (ti2 , xi2 ) + ...

'  =I B H HAI xi = ?K= A FH

,AFA @EA @ @A AH @A L= HAI = JAHE HAI KJE E =@ I A H@A @A K =I @A )@= I *=IDB HJD ?= >E= 2 H A A F IE KJE E = I I L= O xi1 D=> = I @A K = B H K = )@= I *=IDB HJD @A H@A A @A>A I A ? JH=H I ? A ?EA JAI (a, b) ) ? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I ?A@E EA J F=H= >JA AH IKI L= HAI 2=H= B=?E EJ=H = ANF IE?E O IE F H@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@ IKF ti = 0 O h = 1 2 H GKA KAIJH FH > A = ? IEIJA A HAI LAH
0+1 0

C=

I GKA

f t, x(t) dt af (0, xi ) + bf (0 1, xi1 )

'  

,A>A I @AJAH E =H I ? A ?EA JAI a O b ANECEA @ GKA = A?K=?E '   IA= AN=?J= ?K= @ I E JACH= @ I I F E E I @A IACK @ A H CH=@ & 6 = I? >=IA I IECKEA JAI F E E I
&

)GK KJE E =

I A FH ?A@E EA J FH FKAIJ F H

E ?=E@ ''" F C & "

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

p0 (t) = 1 p1 (t) = t
,A AIJ= B H = I ? A ?EA JAI @A>A ?K F EH A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI

1 0 1 0

p0 (t)dt = ap0 (0) + bp0 (1) p1 (t)dt = ap1 (0) + bp1 (1)
J H E J H E E@=I > 2=H= = I ?K= AI

- FHE AH IK = @ @A =I @ I A?K=?E AI = JAHE HAI ? HHAIF @A = af (ti , xi ) @A = A?K=?E '  O A IACK @ IK = @ ? HHAIF @A = bf (ti1 , xi1 ) @A = EI = A?K=?E ) I K?E =H =I E JACH= AI @A JA A I @ I A?K=?E AI A J H E I @A KAIJH=I @ I E ? C EJ=I a O b B H K = @A IACK @ H@A I ? A ?EA JAI I a = 3/2 O b = 1/2 I K?E = A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI

1 = (1)a + (1)b 1 = (0)a + (1)b 2

)D H= ? IE@AHA I K = B H K = )@= I *=IDB HJD @A H@A " ,A>A I ANECEH GKA = =FH NE =?E IA= AN=?J= ?K= @ A E JACH= @ IA= K F E E @A ?K=HJ A H CH=@ 6 = I ? >=IA I IECKEA JAI F E E I

p0 (t) = 1 p1 (t) = t p2 (t) = t(t + 1) p3 (t) = t(t + 1)(t + 2)

,A = AH= GKA =I A?K=?E AI GKA @A>A I=JEIB=?AH I ?K=JH ? A ?EA JAI I

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

1=a+b+c+d 1 = b 2c 3d 2 5 = 2c + 6d 6 9 = 6d 4

= I K?E @A IEIJA = AI a = 55/24 b = 59/24 c = 37/24 O d = 9/24 )I = HAC = @A EJAH=?E @A = A?K=?E '  AI

xi+1 = xi +

h 55f (ti , xi ) 59f (ti1 , xi1 ) + 37f (ti2 , xi2 ) 9f (ti3 , xi3 ) 24 ' !

-I E F HJ= JA A ?E =H GKA A J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD HAGKEAHA @A FA @EA @ @A H@A ?EAHJ AH @A L= HAI = JAHE HAI 2 H CA AH= IA KJE E = A = C HEJ A 4 " F=H= ?= ?K =H I - AIJ I ?=I I A = C HEJ 4 " AI @A E =@ = C HEJ @A E E?E

- IECKEA JA I?HEFJ FHAIA J= K = FH CH= =?E @A J @ )@= I *=IDB HJD @A ?K=HJ H@A A A GKA A = C HEJ @A E E?E KJE E =@ AI A J @ @A -K AH - KIK=HE @A>A @A EH FHALE= A JA A AH @A EJAH=?E AI n = ? @E?E E E?E= x0 A J= = @A F=I h A JEA F E E?E= t0 O A = tf - JH ?DAH AI A?AI=HE AIFA?E ?=H = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ? = IE J=NEI dxdt=f(t,x)

& N N J J D JB J B HE !  ) C HEJ @ D BJE NE NE  NE @ JE  JE D A @

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A 1 E?E

-K AH

B HE " !  . H K = @A )* @A ?K=HJ H@A NE  NE D " ## BJE NE #' BJE  NE  !% BJE  NE  ' BJE ! NE ! JE  JE D A @ 2=HJEA @ @A = ? @E?E E E?E= O KJE E = @ A J @ @A -K AH A FH CH= = HA= E = JHAI EJAH=?E AI F=H= ?= ?K =H I FHE AH I L= HAI @A N 7 = LA > JA E@ I x1 x2 O x3 = HAC = @A EJAH=?E ' ! AI KJE E =@= F=H= CA AH=H I IECKEA JAI L= HAI D=IJ= = ?= =H A AH FHA@A E@ @A EJAH=?E AI n J J= A = C HEJ HA= E = n EJAH=?E AI JHAI ? A = C HEJ @A -K AH O A HAIJ ? = B H K = @A )@= I *=IDB HJD J @ @A )@= I K J -IJA J @ HA IK J= KO F=HA?E@ = = B H K = )@= I *=IDB HJD IE A >=HC E ? HF H= K A A A J =@E?E = @=@ GKA = HAC = @A EJAH=?E GKA IA >JEA A AI K = C HEJ E F ?EJ )D H= >KI?= I IECKEA JA B H = I ? A ?EA JAI =@A?K=@ I F=H= =FH NE =H = E JACH= @A =

J @ )@= I

KJ

ti+1 ti

f t, x(t) dt = h af (ti+1 , xi+1 ) + bf (ti , xi ) + cf (ti1 , xi1 ) + ...

- FH ?A@E EA J F=H= D= =H I L= HAI @A (a, b, c, ...) AI A IE E =H = KJE E =@ F=H= ?= ?K =H I ? A ?EA JAI @A = B H K = @A )@= I *=IDB HJD )I AI F IE> A >JA AH = B H K = @A )@= I K J @A H@A # F=H= =FH NE =H = E JACH= ? = IECKEA JA HAC = @A EJAH=?E

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

'

xi+1 = xi +

h 251fi+1 + 646fi 264fi1 + 106fi2 19fi3 720

' "

@ @A fi = f (ti , xi ) + F @A I >IAHL=H A FHE AH IK = @ @A JH @A F=H JAIEI AIJ A J H E I @A xi+1 AI @A?EH GKA A L= H @A = L=HE=> A @A>A IAH ?= ?K =@ @A B H = E F ?EJ= ,A>A I A ? JH=H A xi+1 GKA ?K F = = IECKEA JA A?K=?E

xi+1 xi

h 251fi+1 + 646fi 264fi1 + 106fi2 19fi3 = 0 ' # 720

@A ti , ..., ti3 O xi , ..., xi3 I L= HAI ? ?E@ I +K= @ A IEIJA = @E E? AI @A JAH?AH =O H H@A = A?K=?E ' # HAIK J= IAH E A= O IK ' I K?E A ?=@= EJAH=?E HAGKEAHA A KI @A = C HEJ I AIFA?E= AI + HA IK J=@ @A AIJ A = C HEJ E F ?EJ HAIK J= I AIJ=> A FAH J= >E I A J O I ? IJ I A J H E I @A FH ?AI= EA J JH= B H = @A ?= ?K =H A L= H @A xi+1 ? IEIJA A E JH @K?EH A = A?K=?E @A )@= I *=IDB HJD ' " A L= H @A xi+1 >JA E@ F H A = C HEJ JH=I F= =>H=I A A = C HEJ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD KJ A HAIK J=@ @A = B H K = @A )@= I *=IDB HJD AI A FHA@E?J H EA JH=I GKA A ? HHA?J H AI HAIK J=@ @A = B H K = )@= I KJ - ?DAH FHAIA J=@ A = IECKEA JA F CE = KAIJH= K = FH CH= =?E @A J @ )@= I K J @A GKE J H@A K J ? = B H K = )@= I *=IDB HJD @A ?K=HJ ? = C HEJ @A E E?E IA KJE E = A 4 " - KIK=HE @A>A @A EH FHALE= A JA A AH @A EJAH=?E AI n A J= = @A F=I h = ? @E?E E E?E= x0 A JEA F E E?E= t0 O A = = tf 6= >E AI A?AI=HE @A EH = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ? = IE J=NEI dxdt=f(t,x)
'

2=H= K = >HALA E JH @K??E I >HA E A= AI LAH .=? AH  ! ?=F !

J @ I K

HE? I KJE E =@ I F=H= HAI LAH A?K=?E

AI

! N N J J NF N D JB J B HE !  ) C HEJ B D BJE NE B D BJE D NE B NE  NE  # B B  NFE  NE  JE  JE D A @ B HE " !  += ?K

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@A 1 E?E

4 "

@A FHA@E?J H )@= I *=IDB HJD

NFE  NFE D " ## BJE NFE #' BJE  NFE  !% BJE  NFE  ' BJE ! NF E !  += ?K @A ? HHA?J H )@= I KJ 

NE  NE JE NE NE  ' NFE  NE JE  JE A @

D %   # BJE D NFE  $"$ B $" BJE  NE  $ BJE  BJE ! NE !  D

- FH CH= = ?= ?K = E E?E= A JA I L= HAI x1 x2 O x3 F H A J @ 4 " + AIJ I L= HAI O ? x0 A FH CH= = >JEA A A FHA@E?J H @A x4 KJE E = @ = B H K = @A )@= I *=IDB HJD 7 = LA >JA E@ A FHA@E?J H xp A ? HHA?J H AI CA AH=@ F H A@E @A = C HEJ @A )@= I KJ I = JAHE HAI I I J @ I > A =I @A L= H E E?E= -I E F I = C HEJ I O= GKA @AFA @EA E? = CK =I LA?AI HAIK J= A K HE? I > IE? I KJE E =@ I F=H= = I K?E @A FH HJ= JA ? ?AH = J ? E?= =F E?=@= F H ?=@= K @A @ @A =I FH FEA@=@AI F=HJE?K =HAI @A IEIJA = @E H KJE E =H K K JH J @ 7 A A F ? =H @A

5156- )5 ,1 AIJ I

1+ 5 E? I H CE@ I -?K=?E AI ,EBAHA ?E= AI 4 CE@=I

!

I IEIJA =I @E

2=H= = E =H AIJ= FHE AH= F=HJA I >HA J @ I K HE? I = ? JE K=?E D=?A I A ?E = I IEIJA =I @E E? I H CE@ I O = B H = ? IA I K?E = ? FK J=?E = A JA )K GKA A A? = I IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H=H= LA HAIK J= IAH @A AIJA JEF AI A?AI=HE JA AH A ?KA J= AIJA ?HEJAHE = = D H= @A A BHA J=HIA = K IEIJA = @E E? ? A @A AI? CAH A = C HEJ I A ?EA JA A J H E I @A AIJ=>E E@=@ O LA ?E@=@ @A I K?E

5EIJA =I ,E
-?K=?E

E? I 4 CE@ I

AI ,EBAHA ?E= AI 4 CE@=I

7 IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI IA @E?A H CE@ ?K= @ K L=HE I L= HAI FH FE I @A IK =JHE =? >E= = =I ?E=@= I @A =IE=@ CH= @AI A =C EJK@  -IJ E F E?= GKA = I K?E K HE?= AI KO IA IE> A = FAGKA I ?= >E I A A J= = @A F=I GKA FKA@A CA AH=H AHH HAI E F HJ= JAI A A FH ?AI @A E JACH=?E K HE?= O F H J= J A = =FH NE =?E = = I K?E @A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= 7 AA F IA ?E @A K = A?K=?E H CE@= AI = IECKEA JA A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ' $

x = 10x

= I K?E = = JE?= AI @A = B H = x(t) = Ae10t E @E?= @ GKA = A@E@= GKA F=I= A JEA F A L= H @A x(t) 0 7JE E = @ = B H K = @A -K AH A?K=?E ' ! = HAC = @A EJAH=?E GKA >JA A I F=H= AIJA ?=I F=HJE?K =H AI

xi+1 = xi + h(10xi ) xi+1 = (1 10h)xi

-I ? =H GKA IE A A FH ?AI @A E JACH=?E K HE?= KJE E = I K J= = @A F=I h > 2/10 A FH ?AI EJAH=JEL ? LAHCA (|x(t)| ) ?K= ? ?KAH@= ? = E JKE?E @A = I K?E = = JE?= - = CKH= '  IA >IAHL= = I K?E = = JE?= O = I K?E K HE?= @A = A?K=?E = JAHE H ? x0 = 10 O h = 0.21 EA JH=I = I K?E = = JE?= ? LAHCA J E?= A JA = ?AH = I K?E K HE?= FHAIA J= K ? F HJ= EA J I?E = JA ANF IEL 5E HA@K?E I A J= = @A F=I @A
ANEIJA K = HAC = F=H= @A EH ?K @ K L= H FH FE AI @A =IE=@ CH= @A -IJ @AFA @A @A IEIJA = @E E? ? GKA AIJA I JH=>= = @ - A A A F A L= H FH FE = 10 HAIK J= @A =IE=@ CH= @A A =C EJK@ FAH A JH I ?=I I J= LA


/-,Solucion Numerica vs. Solucion Algebraica

40

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

30

20

10

x(t)

10

20

30

x(t)=10e10t xi+1=(110h)xi
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

40

.ECKH= '  5 K?E

HE?= h = 0.21

  = 0.09 >JA A CKH= ' 

I K ?

F HJ= EA J @EBAHA JA A

= I K?E

HE?= LAH

- AIJA ?=I =K GKA = I K?E K HE?= AI ? F AJ= A JA ECK= = = I K?E = = JE?= I >IAHL= I K ? F HJ= EA J IE E =H  J E? ? LAHCA JA -I ? =H GKA = E JACH=?E K HE?= @A = A?K=?E x = 10x HAIK J= KO IA IE> A = ?= >E I A A J= = @A F=I GKA FKA@A CA AH=H =FH NE =?E AI K HE?=I KO @EBAHA JAI = =I I K?E AI = = JE?=I - A A A F = JAHE H A FH > A = @A ? LAHCA ?E= I K?E = I HA@K?EA @ h 5E A >=HC AIJA FH ?A@E EA J FHAIA J= @ I @E ?K J=@AI  @A@K?EH GK J= FAGKA @A>A IAH A J= = @A F=I FKA@A HAIK J=H ? F E?=@  O  = IE CH=H= I >JA AH K h IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA AIJ E F E?= K =O H AH @A EJAH=?E AI O F H J= J K =O H ? IJ ? FKJ=?E = JH= B H = @A I K?E =H = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ' $ ? IEIJA A KJE E =H A @E ?=@ @A -K AH A?K=?E ' # = HAC = @A EJAH=?E GKA >JA A I AI J @

- A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI IA ?E =I AI F IE> A @AJAH E =H K h IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA F=H= >JA AH K = I K?E AIJ=> A FAH ? A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI I ? F E?=@=I AIJA FH ?A@E EA J HAIK J= I ? F A O A = CK I ?=I I ?=IE E F IE> A



5156- )5 ,1

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Solucion Numerica vs. Solucion Algebraica
10 9 8 7 6 5

!!

x(t)=10e x =(110h)x
i+1

10t

x(t)
4 3 2 1 0 1

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

.ECKH= '

5 K?E

HE?= h = 0.09

xi+1 = xi + h(10xi+1 ) xi xi+1 = (1 + 10h)

2 H AIJA J @ = E JACH=?E K HE?= HAIK J= AIJ=> A IE E F HJ=H A J= = @A F=I KJE E =@ - CA AH= I J @ I I KJE E =@ I F=H= = I K?E @A IEIJA =I @E E? I H CE@ I I I = C HEJ I E F ?EJ I F H IK CH= AIJ=>E E@=@ ? HAIFA?J = J= = @A F=I = @AILA J= = @A AIJ I = C HEJ I AI IK >= = LA ?E@=@ @A I K?E O IK CH= ? IJ @A FH ?AI= EA J GKA FKA@A IAH ?HK?E= A FH > A =I @A CH= =C EJK@ JH I J @ I ? = C HEJ I FHA@E?J H ? HHA?J H A J @ @A 4 IA >H ? J= >E I KJE E =@ I F=H= = I K?E @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H CE@=I -I? CAH K J @ @A I K?E @AFA @A @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I F=HJE?K =HAI @A IEIJA = @E E? GKA AIJA I JH=>= = @

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+ = @ ode45odesolvers!ode45 6EF @A 2H > A = 4 CE@ ) C HEJ + >E =?E @A K J @ 4K CA KJJ= @A ?K=JH ? K @A ?E ? AL= K= ?E AI ? ?E@ ? A F=H @A , H = @ 2HE ?A + >E =?E @A K J @ 4K CA KJJ= @A H @A @ I ? JH @A H@A JHAI @A E =@ A F=H @A * C=? E 5D= FE A )@= I *=IDB HJD KJ

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ode23todesolvers!ode23t

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6 @ I I I LAHI @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI GKA E ? KOA )6 )* KJE E = = EI = IE J=NEI 2 H AIJ= H= FH F A I I IECKEA JAI F=I I CA AH= AI F=H= I K?E =H K FH > A = @A L= H E E?E= @EBAHA ?E= ? = IECKEA JA IE J=NEI f=odefun(t,x0,p1,p2,...) @ @A odefun AI A >HA @A = BK ?E 5KI E FKJI I K LA?J H ? I L= HAI ? HHAIF @EA JAI = JEA F t =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @A FH > A = x0 O K I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI p1, p2,... - A ?=I @A K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI ? n L=HE=> AI IA @A>A D=?AH K F = JA= EA J =JHE?E= IEA @ x0 K LA?J H @A J= = n 1 GKA ? JEA A =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @A =I n L=HE=> AI LAH A A A F ' " - JH m-file AIFA?E ?=H =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 O A E JAHL= @A JEA F t A A GKA IA @AIA= D= =H = I K?E -IJA E JAHL= @A JEA F FKA@A ? IJHKEHIA @A @ I = AH=I 7 = B H = AI ? ?=H A L= H E E?E= O = @A JEA F D=?EA @ GKA A LA?J H t IA= @A J= = 2 1 = JH= F IE>E E@=@ AI @AJAH E =H I m A J I A GKA IA @AIA= AL= K=H = I K?E K HE?= A JA @ @A A J= = @A LA?J H JEA F AI m 1

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@A

5156- )5 ,1

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T 7 LA?J H @A J= = t 1 ? IA ?= ?K = I K?E J= >E

I L= HAI @A = L=HE=> A JEA F A ? ?E@ I ? F=I I =I ? JEA A = I K?E ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI

I GKA @A

X 7 = =JHE @A J= = t n @ @A =I ? K = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= F=H= ?=@= K = @A =I

) ? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I @EIJE J I A A F I GKA E KIJH= = B H = @A KJE E =H ?=@= I LAH @A )6 )* D=?EA @ B=IEI A =I @EBAHA ?E=I FK JK= AI @A ?=@= HKJE = ,A>E@ = CH= AH @A F?E AI ANEIJA JAI E JA J= I CA AH= E =H = NE A KI @A AIJ=I = =F E?=?E AND=KIJEL= @A J @=I A =I F=H= ?=@= A A F IA FH F A ? A AH?E?E F=H= A A?J H

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@EA

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x =3x
6 = @ =I IECKEA JAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 = 1 O x0 = 5

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= A?K=?E A ? JH= I GKA = I K?E CA AH= AI @A K E? AGKE E>HE A x = 3 GKA =@A I AI AIJ=> A ) =H K HE?= A JA = A?K=?E @E E?= F=H= ? F=H=H FKJ=?E =

2=I  +HA=H = A?K=?E

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 =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I

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11 0 67 0 0 0

successful steps failed attempts function evaluations partial derivatives LU decompositions solutions of linear systems

.E = A JA )6 )* =HH = A @E=CH= = @A B=IA (t, x) ALE@A JA A = .ECKH= ' ! =I @ I JH=OA?J HE=I ? HHAIF @A = ?=@= ? @E?E E E?E= O I ? H?K I = =HC @A A =I IA = = I A J IA I GKA IA AL= K = I K?E )I A ? JH= I GKA A AGKE E>HE AI x = 3 O AI AIJ=> A F H ?K= J = F=HJEH @A L= HAI IKFAHE HAI A E BAHE HAI IA ? LAHCA =IE J JE?= A JA 5E @AIA= I LEIK= E =H A LA?J H T O = =JHE X IE CA AH=H A @E=CH= = @A B=IA F @A I D=?AH K = FAGKA = L=HE=?E A A 2=I ! @A EA @ = F?E Outputfcn ? odeprint )I )6 )* I FHAIA J= = T O = X A = 8A J= = @A + = @ I IE CH= ?=H I ,A JH= F=HJA ?K= @ JA A I @EBAHA JAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI AI F IE> A @AIA=> A HA= E =H ? F=H=?E AI A JHA =I @EBAHA JAI I K?E AI 5E A A 2=I ! @A E I
- AIJA ?=I A LA?J H T HAIK J= IAH ECK= = LA?J H t 5 ?K= @ A LA?J H t JEA A @ I ? F A JAI t=[t0 tfinal] )6 )* A JHAC= K LA?J H @A I= E@= T ? K AH @EBAHA JA @A ? F A JAI
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5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5
dxdt=3x
5

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4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

1.5

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3.5

4.5

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+K= @ = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= AI I ? F A = E@A JE ?=H A FK J E E?E= O A FK J = HAIK J= I ? F E?=@ - AIJ I ?=I I AI F IE> A >IAHL=H GKA I JE I A J I I CH= ?=@ I =KJ JE?= A JA ? ? H?K I @A ? H LAH@A -I A?AI=HE =? =H=H GKA IEA FHA GKA =I I K?E AI IA= ? LAHCA JAI A FK J = JA @H = >=I ? F A JAI ECK= AI 2 H A A F ?K= @ =I I K?E AI ? LAHCA = @EBAHA JAI AGKE E>HE I A FK J = JA @H =I ? F A JAI ECK= AI - IECKEA JA A A F E KIJH= AIJA ?=I O = B H = F=H= F @AH E@A JE ?=H ? LAHCA ?E= KJE E = @ odephas2

6 = @ =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 = 1.5 x0 = 0.5 x0 = 2.5 O x0 = 5 O A E JAHL= @A JEA F $  ! I K?E A I = IECKEA JA A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E=
>IAHLA I GKA = I K?E AI A?AI=HE E E?E=H A t0 = 0
$

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FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@= = F=HJEH @A ?K= GKEAH

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dxdt=3x
5

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8AHIE

2HA E E =H

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.2

x =5
0

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

x =1
0

.ECKH= ' " +

JH=IJA @A , I +

@E?E

AI 1 E?E= AI ?

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x = 4x2 x3 x 6
- ? JH=H = I K?E CA AH= @A AIJ= A?K=?E HAIK J= ? F E?=@ 5E A >=HC AI A?AI=HE A ? JH=H = I K?E F=H= F @AH @AJAH E =H GKA JEA A JHAI AGKE E>HE I @ I AIJ=> AI x = 3 O x = 1 O K E AIJ=> A x = 2 += ?K A I = I K?E ? FKJ=?E = O = = E?A I K HE?= A JA = AIJ=>E E@=@

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5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

"

O outputsel FJE I @AIAJ KJFKJB?   @AFD=I   KJFKJIA   !  = = A?K=?E - I LAH GKA KJE E =

2=I " 1 L ?=H A I LAH F=H= D= =H = I K?E

I AI ode45 6:
'

@A"#(A

J N FJE

I

- LA?J H t ? JEA A I A A A J I ? HHAIF @EA JAI = A J E E?E= O = A J = @A AL= K=?E O >JA A I K LA?J H I= E@= T @A J= = 2501 1 ?KO I A A A J I E E?E= O JAH E = A AIJ I @ I L= HAI FAH A JHA I GKA J= >E IA A ?KA JH= J @ I I @A I A J I A GKA IA AL= K = I K?E ,A AIJ= = AH= ?K= @ t ? JEA A A A A J I AI F IE> A ? JH =H I A J IOA AH @A ? F A JAI =@A?K=@ AI @AJAH E =@ F H A I LAH )6 )* J= >E CA AH= K LA?J H X @A J= = 2501 4 GKA IEC E ?= GKA A FH ?AI @A I K?E @A = A?K= ?E @EBAHA ?E= IA DE A # A J I = F=HJEH @A ?K=JH @EBAHA JAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI ) @A EH outputsel ? A LA?J H [1 3] A E @E?= I = I LAH GKA =I ? @E?E AI GKA GKAHA I ? JH=IJ=H ? odephas2 I = K O = JHAI AI @A?EH x0 = 1.5 O x0 = 2.5 - = .ECKH= ' # AI F IE> A >IAHL=H = ? LAHCA ?E= @A = >=I I K?E AI @=@ GKA I ? H?K I ? HHAIF @EA JAI = I JE I A J I IA A ?KA JH= I ?AH?= K I = JH I GKA I ? H?K I @A I A J I E E?E= AI -IJ IEC E ?= GKA A ?= >E A ?=@= K = @A =I I K?E AI = A@E@= GKA JH= I?KHHA A JEA F AI ?=@= LA I FAGKA )@A I AI ? =H GKA ?=@= I K?E ? LAHCA = K AGKE E>HE @EBAHA JA F HGKA A FK J = AI   ! E @E?= @ GKA = I K?E @A = FHE AH ? @E?E ? LAHCA = AGKE E>HE x = 1 EA JH=I GKA = IACK @= D=?A = x = 3 ) F=HJEH @A = CH ?= F @A H FE@ = I K?E @A = FHE @=@ GKA = ?KHL= A I JE @A x0 = 1.5 AI ?=IE ?AH CH= @A =K GKA ?=@= LA A
- HA= E@=@ =I I K?E AI @A I LAH I IA ?E ode45
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I ? F=H=H ?K @A =I @ I I K?E AI ? LAHCA I AH ? @E?E E E?E= ? LAHCA I H FE@ GKA = JAH?AH= I A J I AI ?=IE LAHJE?= A ?= >E A = I K?E EA JH=I GKA A @A = JAH?AH= IECKA IEA @ HA =JEL= A JA H
I @EBAHA JAI I LAHI I IE E =HAI F H GKA DA I AI? CE@ A

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3

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2HA E E =H

2.95

2.9

2.85

2.8

x =2.5 2.75
0
2.7

2.65

2.6

2.55

2.5 1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

0.9

0.8

x =1.5
0

.ECKH= ' # +

F=H=?E

@A =I +

@E?E

AI x0 = 1.5 O x0 = 0.5

+K= @ E CK = @A =I I K?E AI ? LAHCA I ? H?K I K ?= IA =?AH?= K I = JH I O F H A ? JH=HE JEA @A = IAF=H=HIA LAH - AH?E?E % 7 = IEJK=?E KO F=HA?E@= A = ?K= I ? H?K I IA =?AH?= K I = JH I IK?A@A ?K= @ K = @A =I I K?E AI ? LAHCA EA JH=I GKA = JH= I - AIJA ?=I = CH ?= KAIJH= K = ?KHL= D HE J= LAHJE?= @AFA @EA @ @A ?K= @A =I @ I I K?E AI IA= ? LAHCA JA LAH - AH?E?E & - HAIK A JA A I GKA IE I ? H?K I @A = CH ?= >JA E@ ? = BK ?E odephas2 JEA @A = =?AH?=HIA K I = JH I A J ?AI JA A I GKA = >=I I K?E AI I ? LAHCA JAI O IE =@A I IA FHAIA J= JA @A ?E=I ANJHA =I ? K = ?KHL= D HE J= LAHJE?= A J ?AI = CK = @A =I I K?E AI IA A ?KA JH= ? LAHCEA @ I H FE @= A JA GKA = JH= 2 H JH =@ ?K= @ >IAHLA I K =?AH?= EA J @A I ? H?K I = ANEIJA ?E= @A K = ?KHL= D HE J= LAHJE?= AI E @E?E @A GKA K = @A =I  I K?E AI ? LAHCA EA JH=I GKA = JH= = BK ?E odephas3 I FAH EJA ANJA @AH A = EIEI ? F=H=JEL = JHAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI - AIJA ?=I = CH ?= AI LEIK= E =@= A JHAI @E A IE AI I ?HEJAHE I @A ? LAHCA ?E= I ECK= AI = I @A odephas2 IEA FHA O ?K= @ IA JA C= A ?KA J= GKA
-I ? =H GKA AIJ= B H = @A E@A JE ?=H ? LAHCA ?E= =@A I @A HAIK J=H KO IK> AJEL= @AFA @A = F E= A JA @A = AI?= = =@ FJ=@= A ?=@= A A O I AI =F E?=> A = A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI =KJ =I 4A? A @= I ? F A A J=H A = EIEI >=I=@ A @AFD=I ? @E=CH= =I @A B=IA odeplot


5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

"!

IA JH=J= @A K = CH ?= !, = .ECKH= ' $ KAIJH= = CH ?= >JA E@= ? F=H= =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 = 1.5 x0 = 0.5 O x0 = 2.5
dxdt=4x x x6
2 3

odephas3

2.9

2.8

x =2.5 0
2.7

2.6

2.5 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.8 1 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.5 1 1.1 0.8

x =0.5 0

x0=1.5

.ECKH= ' $ +

JH=IJA @A 6HAI +

@E?E

AI 1 E?E= AI ?

odephas3

-A F

' ! 4AI L=

I = IECKEA JA A?K=?E

@EBAHA ?E=

=KJ

x =

b atx2 x

+ =I ?K=JH ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 = 8 x0 = 2 x0 = 4 O x0 = 10 A A E JAHL=  # -IJ= A?K=?E AI IAF=H=> A AI D C A= O I K?E =H = = = JE?= A JA AI K FH ?AI ? F A 8A= I IK I K?E ? FKJ=?E = ? a = 0.4 O b = 30

2=I  +HA=H = A?K=?E

@EBAHA ?E= A K m-file  2=H= AJH I )@E?E = AI

BK ?JE @N@J A !J N = > @N@J > = J N  N

2=I

- JH ?DAH @A EH =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 A E JAHL= t O I L= HAI @A I F=H AJH I a O b

@A JEA F

"" J  # N & "  =  " > !

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8AHIE

2HA E E =H

 ,A

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I 2=H= AJH I KJE E = I F?E AI

2=I ! ,A EH =I F?E AI @A I LAH - AIJA A A F 2=I " 1 L ?=H A I LAH F=H= D= =H = I K?E
AIJ= A?K=?E H CE@=I  6: @EBAHA ?E= D=?A

= = A?K=?E =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A A?AI=HE KJE E =H K = HKJE = F=H= A?K=?E AI

@A !J>(A ! J N

= >

,=@ GKA DA I @A?E@E@ AIFA?E ?=H E CK = F?E @A>A I KJE E =H I F=H JAIEI ?K=@H=@ I [] = A J @A E L ?=H = HKJE = ,A ? JH=HE A FH CH= = E JAHFHAJ= A L= H @A FHE AH F=H AJH ? A L= H @A =I F?E AI
dxdt=(300.4tx )/x
30

20

10

x(t)

10

20

30

10

15

.ECKH= ' % ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (t, x) @A x = ) ECK= GKA A ?K= GKEAH A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= =KJ ?KA JH= A BK ?E @A JEA F - AIJA ?=I = A?K=?E x = 0 AI


batx2 x

= A I AGKE E>HE I IA A GKA @AI?HE>A I AGKE E>HE I

+K= @ a J = L= HAI CH= @AI ?K= @ = I K?E IA HA= E = F=H= L= HAI @A J KO = J I A FH ?AI @A E JACH=?E K HE?= FHAIA J= FH > A =I -I F IE> A KJE E =H ?K= GKEAH HKJE = F=H= I K?E =H A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H CE@=I 0A I AI? CE@ ode23tb F H IK =O H LA ?E@=@ @A I K?E A AIJA FH > A = F=HJE?K =H

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

"#

x(t) =

b at

5E KJE E = I = F?E odeplot >JA A I A @E=CH= = @A B=IA (t, x) .ECKH= ' % A A GKA F @A I >IAHL=H GKA =I JH=OA?J HE=I @A AGKE E>HE I AIJ=> AI F HGKA = F=HJEH @A ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @EBAHA JAI =I I K?E AI IEA FHA ? LAHCA D=?E= A =I 0=IJ= =D H= DA I HAIKA J K = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= = = LA =D H= FHAIA J=HA I K = CA AH= E =?E F=H= = I K?E @A IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI - IE CKEA JA A A F E KIJH= A FH ?A@E EA J @A I K?E @A K IEIJA = @A 2 2

-A F

' " 4AI L=

I?

FKJ=?E

A JA A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E

AI

v = 10u + 7v u = u + 4v
+ =? @E?E E E?E= v0 = 1 O u0 = 0 A A E JAHL= E? @=@=I =I ?  # @E?E AI E E?E= AI LEA A @=@=

= I K?E = = JE?= @A IEIJA = @E F H =I IECKEA JAI A?K=?E AI

v (t) = 0.7143 e11t + 0.2857 e3t u(t) = 0.2857 e11t 0.2857 e3t
E? AGKE E>HE AI v = 0 O u = 0 O @=@ I I L= HAI FH FE I @A = 2 = 3 I=>A I GKA IA JH=J= @A K AGKE E>HE @A FK J @A IE = )D H= ?= ?K A HE H I K HE?= A JA = I K?E O? F=HA I= ? =JHE 1 = 11

= I K?E

= JA

2=I  ,A EH A IEIJA = @E

E? A A =H?DEL ej4.m

"$ BK ?JE @N@J A "J N L N  ? F A JA  @A N AI L K N   ? F A JA @A N AI K @L@J  K % L @K@J K " L  5EIJA = @E = E?

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

@N@J @L@J @K@J  ? F A JA  @A @N@J AI @L@J  ? F A JA @A @N@J AI @K@J

2=I

- JH x0

?DAH

@A

EH A E JAHL=

@A JEA F t O =I ?

@E?E

AI E E?E= AI

J # L  K  N L K  ? F A JA  @A N AI L  ? F A JA @A N AI K

2=I ! ,A EH =I F?E AI @A I LAH - AIJA A A F KJE E =

BK ?E FJE I @A I= E@= @AIAJ KJFKJB?   @AF J = = A?K=?E

I odeplot ?

2=I " 1 L ?=H A I LAH F=H= D= =H = I K?E

ode45
6: @A"#(A " J N FJE I

7JE E =

I = HKJE =

- AIJA ?=I F=H= I K?E =H A IEIJA = @E E? ?HA= I K = LA?J H x GKA ? JEA A = =I L=HE=> AI v O u ,A AIJ= B H = A LA?J H @A ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI x0 JEA A I L= HAI @A =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI F=H= ?=@= L=HE=> A v0 O u0 O A LA?J H dxdt
,=@ GKA A A L= H =>I KJ H CE@ NE L= H FH FE @A = =JHE =I ?E=@= = IEIJA = AI K?D GKA A L= H FH FE I FAGKA AIJ= I IACKH I GKA A IEIJA = @E I CH= @A E? AI

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

"%

JEA A I L= HAI @A = @AHEL=@= @A ?=@= L=HE=> A ? HAIFA?J = JEA F dvdt O dudt ) F = JA=H @A AIJ= B H = A IEIJA = @E E? =I HKJE =I @A )6 )* FKA@A I K?E =H IE K J A= A JA = >=I A?K=?E AI + I= E@=I ode45 CA AH= K LA?J H T @A J= = m 1 GKA ? JEA A I A J I @A AL= K=?E @A = I K?E O K = =JHE X @A J= = m 2 @ @A =I ? K =I I = I K?E F=H= ?=@= ! L=HE=> A = BK ?E odeplot CA AH= IE K J A= A JA I @E=CH= =I @A B=IA t, v  O t, u A = EI = CH ?= LAH .ECKH= ' & =  2 H JH =@ IE KJE E = I = BK ?E odephas2 >JA A I A @E=CH= = @A B=IA v, u .ECKH= ' & >  - = >=I CH ?=I F @A I >IAHL=H GKA =I I K?E AI F=H= ?=@= L=HE=> A I ? LAHCA JAI
a)
150 70

b)

60

50 100

v(t) u(t)

40

v(t)

u(t)
30

50

u(t)
20

10

0 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

v(t)

.ECKH= ' & = ,E=CH= =I @A .=IA (t, v ) O (t, u)

> ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (v, u)

2=H= F @AH >IAHL=H GKA   AI K AGKE E>HE @A FK J @A IE = AI A?AI=HE J =H A ?KA J= I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI = HA@A@ H @A AIJA FK J 5E A >=HC ? IE@AH=H I ? @E?E AI E F E?= K FH > A = O= GKA =I HKJE =I @A )6 )* = FAI=H @A I K?E =H IEIJA =I @E E? I @A L=HE=I L=HE=> AI FAH EJA I K?E =H I F=H= I @A K = ? @E?E E E?E= = = LA 5E F H A A F A?AIEJ= I ? F=H=H =I I K?E AI @A @ I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @A>A I I K?E =H @ I LA?AI A IEIJA = @E E? IECKEA JA A A F FHAIA J= = I K?E @A IEIJA = F=H= ! ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI F H A@E @A = HKJE = rk4
+K= @ JH=>= = I ? K = I = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= IE = =JHE >JA E@= X JA = K J= = @A m n AIJ IEC E ?=>= GKA = I K?E AH= ?= ?K =@= A m A J I F=H= n ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI )D H= A J= = m n @A = =JHE X E @E?= GKA IA D= ?= ?K =@ =I I K?E AI @A n L=HE=> AI F=H= m A J I
!

"&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

-A F

' # 3KAHA

= JAHE H A A E JAHL=

I I K?E =H A EI IEIJA = @A A?K=?E AI @A A A F   # F=H= =I IECKEA JAI ! ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI

1. (v0 , u0 ) = (10, 9) 2. (v0 , u0 ) = (10, 10) 3. (v0 , u0 ) = (10, 11)

2=H= F @AH I K?E =H A IEIJA = @E E? IE K J A= A JA F=H= =I ! ? @E?E AI L= I = KJE E =H A I LAH rk4 GKA D=?A F=HJA @A J > N + F-? + IK >HA E @E?= AIJ= HKJE = KJE E = A J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A ?K=HJ H@A F=H= D= =H = I K?E - ? = @ FHAIA J= = EI = IE J=NEI @A I odesolvers @A )6 )* =K GKA ANEIJA = F IE>E E@=@ @A @A EH = C JEF @A F?E AI -I A?AI=HE HAI= J=H GKA A I LAH KJE E = K J= = @A F=I F H GKA I FKA@A IAH KJE E =@ F=H= I K?E =H IEIJA =I @E E? I H CE@ I 2 H J= H= = E?= B H = @A I K?E =H K IEIJA = H CE@ F=H= =I @EBAHA JAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI AI F H A@E @A K = FH CH= =?E AIFA?E= GKA E L K?H= L=HE=I EJAH=?E AI LAH A AH?E?E ' )? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I A FH ?A@E EA J @A I K?E E? A K m-file = =@ ej5

2=I  ,A EH A IEIJA = @E

BK ?JE @N@J A #J N =C  4AGKEAHA =C L N  = IE J=NEI AI = EI = GKA A A " K N  @L@J  K % L @K@J K " L @N@J @L@J @K@J

2=I

JH =H?DEL

@A

EH =I ?

@E?E

AI E E?E= AI x0 O A E JAHL= =? A J I

@A JEA F

J   #  #  L    K '   N L K

 8A?J H + K

5156- )5 ,1

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"'

2=I !

AI F IE> A @A

2=I " 1 L ?=H A I LAH F=H= D= =H = I K?E

6: H "A " J N

2=H= KJE E =H rk4 @A>A A JA AI KJE E =@ F=H= =?AFJ=H ? A JH=@=I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI @A E?E @A AIJ I F=H

I E JH @K?EH flag A = IE J=NEI @A = BK ?E -IJ IE F A GKA = ECK= GKA =I HKJE =I @A )6 )* A I LAH FKA@= I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI - AIJA A A F KJE E = I FAH A = =F E?=?E A? E?= IAH @A CH= E F HJ= ?E= = AJH I F=H= F @AH HA= E =H IE K =?E AI

>IAHLA I GKA = @A E?E @A LA?J H JEA F J= >E ?= >E= EA JH=I GKA F=H= =I HKJE =I @A )6 )* E F HJ= IE A LA?J H JEA F AI K LA?J H = ? K " = A I LAH rk4 HAGKEAHA GKA A LA?J H @A JEA F IA= ? K = O GKA ? JA C= J @ I I A J I @A AL= K=?E - A 2=I ?HA= I K LA?J H = ? L= HAI A JHA  O  # O KAC JH=IF A I F=H= >JA AH A LA?J H t I LA?J HAI v0 O u0 @A>A I @A EH I @A J= B H = GKA = FHE AH ? F A JA @A = > I LA?J HAI CA AHA = FHE AH ? @E?E E E?E= O =I IK?AIEL= A JA )I = JAH?AH ? F A JA @A LA?J H v0 K J ? = JAH?AH ? F A JA @A LA?J H u0 ? B H = = JAH?AH ? @E?E E E?E= -IJ J= >E E F E?= GKA ?=@= K = @A =I ? K =I @A = =JHE x0 AI K = ? @E?E E E?E= + HAIK J=@ >JA A I A LA?J H T @A 11 1 ECK= = LA?J H t O = DEFAH =JHE X @A 11 2 3 =I @E A IE AI @A X E @E?= GKA I K?E = I K IEIJA = ? L=HE=> AI F=H= JHAI ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI A  A J I @EBAHA JAI ) ? JH=HE @A I I LAHI @A )6 )* = HKJE = rk4 CA AH= E C JEF @A CH ?= @A>A I CH= ?=H = K= A JA I @E=CH= =I @A B=IA I @E=CH= =I @A B=IA F= H= ?=@= K = @A =I L=HE=> AI A?AIEJ= I KJE E =H A ? = @ squeeze F=H= HA LAH K = @A =I @E A IE AI @A = DEFAH =JHE # O KAC CH= ?=H ? JH= A JEA F 2 H A A F F=H= CH= ?=H A @E=CH= = @A B=IA t, v  JA A I GKA HA LAH = @E A IE @A = L=HE=> A u
- J @ I I A A F I = JAHE HAI DA I @A E@ A LA?J H JEA F ? A >=HC I HAIK J=@ I ?= >E= IE A LA?J H JEA F AI K LA?J H ? K = # - ? = @ squeeze HA KALA = @E A IE @A K = =JHE 8 =IA +K=@H
"

,E=CH= =I @A .=IA (t, v) O (t, u) 2=H= CA AH=H

LA?J H

= IE

 F C !!

# F JJ IGKAA A:   - AIJA ?=I = IACK @= @E A IE @E=CH= = @A B=IA t, u @A>A I HA F JJ IGKAA A: 

/-,-

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2HA E E =H

? HHAIF @A = u 5E @AIA= LAH = FHE AH= @E A IE

I CA AH=H A

- = > I @E=CH= =I @A B=IA .ECKH= ' ' IA >IAHL= GKA F=H= @ I @A =I ? @E ?E AI E E?E= AI =I I K?E AI @A = >=I L=HE=> AI I ANF IEL=I EA JH=I GKA F=H= = JH= I L= HAI @A v O u IA =?AH?= A J= A JA D=?E= 
a)
200 80

b)

150

60

100

40

50

20

v(t)

u(t) 0
20

50

100

40

150

60

200 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

80 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

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0.5

.ECKH= ' ' = ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (t, v )

> ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (t, u)

AI A LAHIKI

,E=CH= = @A .=IA (v, u) 2=H= CH= ?=H AIJA @E=CH= = @A B=IA J= >E
?AI=HE KJE E =H squeeze 5E A >=HC = JH= =I F JIGKAA A:   IGKAA A: ,A AIJ= B H = >JA A  =D H= CH= ?= I K = @E A IE

I A @E=CH= = @A B=IA (v, u) ALE@A JA A

= .ECKH= ' 

+ IA FKA@A >IAHL=H =I ? @E?E AI  ' O   CA AH= I K?E AI E AIJ=> AI GKA IA = A = H FE@= A JA @A AGKE E>HE 2 H JH =@ = ? @E?E E E?E=   IECKA K = JH=OA?J HE= D=?E= A AGKE E>HE   5E DK>E H= I ?= ?K =@ = I K?E F=H= K E JAHL= @A JEA F I CH= @A >IAHL=H = I ? = JH=OA?J HE= GKA F=HJA A   = E = A A FK J @A AGKE E>HE

5156- )5 ,1
15

1+ 5

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10

u(t) 0

10

15 25

20

15

10

10

15

20

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v(t)

.ECKH= '  ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (v, u) 2=H= @AJAH E =H GKA ABA?JEL= A JA A AGKE E>HE AI @A IE = AI A?AI=HE J ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI = HA@A@ H @A   - HAIK J=@ GKA IA >JEA A AI ? ? = I K?E = = JE?= @A FH > A = =H I IEIJA JA

'!
@A

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M

@A +HA?E EA J @A 5
M

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$

A > AJEL @A =F E?=H =I DAHH= EA J=I ? FKJ=?E = AI FHAIA J=@=I A =I IA? AI = JAHE HAI = ? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I A @A > IE? O IK HAIFA?JEL= FH
M 4 >AHJ '#$ ) + JHE>KJE J JDA 6DA HO B -? E?I 8 %  .A> '#$ $# '" E? /H MJD 3K=HJAH O KH =

5 B -?

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A I GKA ANEIJA K I >EA A = A? = IK A J t AI Yt 7 = F=HJA @A AIJ= FH @K??E AI ? IK = BH=??E @A FH @K?J GKA IA =D HH= AI ? IJ= JA O FH FA IE =HCE = = =D HH=H s =I GKA A =D HH J J= A

ELA @A FH @K??E E@= O = JH= AI =D LEA A @AJAH E =@= A A J t AI St

A A HH=@= F H = = sYt

- IJ ? @A ?=FEJ= Kt ? IEIJA A = =?K K =?E @A E? >EA @A = A? = t  AI = E LAHIE ?= >E A A JEA F @A AIJA IJ ? @A ?=FEJ= dKt /dt K AJ= & )@A I ? A =D HH IEA FHA AI ECK= = = E LAHIE JA A I = IECKEA JA E@A JE@=@ > IE?= A ?=@= E IJ= JA @A JEA F

t = sYt K
E? >EA @A = A? @EIF E> A A = A? FH @K??E

' % C= @A

= AI FH @K?E@ KJE E = @ ?=FEJ= O JH=>= = JA? = IA A ?KA JH= HAFHAIA J=@= F H = IECKEA JA BK ?E

Yt = F (Kt , Lt )
)@A I IA IKF A GKA = FH @K??E FHAIA J= HA @E EA J I ? ' GKA AIJ= BK ?E IA IKF A D C A= @A CH=@ K 1 JH @K?EA @ ' & A ' % >JA A I

' & IJ= JAI = AI?= = F H

t = sF (Kt , Lt ) K

' '

2 H JH =@ ? HAIK J=@ @A K ?HA?E EA J AN CA O ? JE K @A = F > =?E = BKAH = => H= L IA E ?HA A J= = K = J=I= ? IJ= JA n AI @A?EH

Lt = L0 ent
%

' 

- AIJ= IA??E KAIJH > AJEL AI FHAIA J=H = FH CH= =?E ? FKJ=?E = @A @A @A 5 M 2=H= K = ANF IE?E JA HE?= I FH BK @= HA? A @= I HALEI=H A IECKEA JA E>H   A =HJ ?K HECE = ?K= GKEAH JANJ CK = @A FHE AH ?KHI @A =?H A? = & 0=> = I @A E LAHIE AJ= FKAI IKF A I GKA D=O @AFHA?E=?E @A ?=FEJ= +K= @ ANEIJA @AFHA?E=?E @A ?=FEJ= = E LAHIE AJ= AI ECK= = = E LAHIE >HKJ= @AI? J= @ = @AFHA?E=?E = FH CH= =?E @A @A ? @AFHA?E=?E IA @A = ? A AH?E?E F=H= A A?J H LAH A AH?E?E  ' )@A I @A IKFKAIJ @A D CA AE@=@ @A CH=@ K F H CA AH= IA IKF A GKA = BK ?E @A FH @K??E ?K F A =I IECKEA JAI ? @E?E AI FK > 0, FL > 0 FKK < 0, FLL < 0 FKL > 0 O =I @A E =@=I ? @E?E AI @A 1 =@=

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

#!

- ' ' L AI A A F A J J= O A '  L AI = BAHJ= @EIF E> A @A JH=>= )IK EA @ GKA = A? = IEA FHA IA A ?KA JH= A F A A F A AI F IE> A E JH @K?EH '  A ' ' >JA EA @

t = sF (Kt , L0 ent ) K

' 

= = JAHE H AI K = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= @A K = I = L=HE=> A K (t) GKA @AJAH E = = IA @= @A =?K K =?E @A ?=FEJ= ? IEIJA JA ? A F A A F A @A = BKAH = => H= @EIF E> A A ?=@= A J @A JEA F 7 = LA ? ?A I =I IA @=I @A IJ ? @A ?=FEJ= O @A = BKAH = @A JH=>= K J ? = BK ?E @A FH @K??E F @A I ?= ?K =H = IA @= JA F H= @A FH @K?J HA= + AIJ=I JHAI F @A I ?= ?K =H = FH @K?JELE@=@ =HCE = @A JH=>= O @A ?=FEJ= O F H ? IECKEA JA A I= =HE HA= O = J=I= @A E JAH I I E JAHAI= HAANFHAI=H = A?K=?E '  A J H E I FAH ? FEJ= FKAIJ GKA AI ? HHA?J @A?EH GKA K F= I AI I HE? F HGKA FH @K?A I GKA = JAI I >EA IA ? IE@AH= GKA K F= I AI I HE? IE IKI D=>EJ= JAI A FH A@E FH @K?A I GKA ! = JAI 2 H JH =@ F = JA=H A @A A L=HE=> AI FAH ? FEJ= HAIK J= ? LA EA JA @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= = = JE? @=@ GKA FAH EJA ?=H=?JAHE =H CH ?= A JA = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= = A?K=?E '  @A E @E?= A AH @A JH=>= =@ H A = L=HE=> A k ? = HA =?E ?=FEJ= JH=>= -IJ= HA =?E GKE =I ?K= GKEAH JH >EA @A ?=FEJ= GKA D=O F H ?=@=

kt =

Kt Lt

'

2=H= ?= ?K =H = J=I= @A ?HA?E EA J @A = L=HE=> A k I=?= I C=HEJ =@ I @A = A?K=?E O KAC @AHEL= I ? HAIFA?J = JEA F >JA EA @

= = > I

t t L t k K = kt Kt Lt
4AA F = = @ >JA A I
!

' ! O = A?K=?E ' 

= J=I= @A ?HA?E EA J @A = BKAH = @A JH=>=

F '

#"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

t k sF (Kt , Lt ) = n kt Kt t k 1 = sF 1, n kt kt t = skF 1, 1 nkt k kt kt = sF (kt , 1) nkt

' "

= BK ?E F (kt , 1) HAFHAIA J= = FH @K??E J J= CA AH=@= F H k K E@=@AI @A ?=FEJ= FAH ? FEJ= ?K= @ K = K E@=@ @A JH=>= AI KJE E =@= ,A AIJ= B H = A FHE AH J H E @A = A?K=?E ' " ? HHAIF @AH = = = BH=??E =D HH=@= @A = FH @K??E F H D=>EJ= JA - IACK @ J H E E @E?= GKA A IJ ? @A ?=FEJ= @EI E KOA ? ? IA?KA ?E= @A ?HA?E EA J @A = F > =?E .E = A JA AI F IE> A >IAHL=H GKA A ?=FEJ= FAH ? FEJ= ?HA?A @A?HA?A O AI ? IJ= JA ?K= @ A =D HH FAH ? FEJ= AI =O H A H A ECK= GKA A J H E nkt 0=IJ= A A J I DA I @A E@ = CK =I FH FEA@=@AI CA AH= AI @A = BK ?E @A FH @K??E FAH = FH CH= =H @A>A I KJE E =H K = BK ?E @A FH @K??E AIFA? ?= - AIJA ?=I L= I = JH=>= =H ? = BK ?E @A FH @K??E JEF + >> , KC =I! ? = 0.5 O = 0.5 2 H J= J = BK ?E @A FH @K??E FAH ? FEJ= AI

0.5 0.5 F (Kt , Lt ) = Kt Lt 0.5 0.5 F (kt , 1) = kt 1 0.5 F (kt , 1) = kt

6= >E AI A?AI=HE @A EH K I L= HAI F=H= =I J=I=I @A =D HH O ?HA?E EA J @A = F > =?E 5KF A I GKA s = 15.5 % O n = 2.2 % ) ? JE K=?E FHAIA J= I = HAIFA?JEL= FH CH= =?E @A @A 2H CH= =?E - FHE AH KC=H @A>A I ?HA=H K m-file = =@ fsolow.m A A ?K= L= I = AIFA?E ?=H = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= ' " ) ? JH=HE @A I A A F I = JAHE HAI A I ?K= AI = E?= BK ?E AIFA?E ?=@= A A m-file AH= = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= A t O = BK ?E @A FH @K??E FAH ? FEJ= A EI ?DAH L= I = @A EH k
!

8AH ?=FI " # O %

5156- )5 ,1 BK ?JE @ BI @ I FH @K??E

1+ 5 MJ = FD= I   = FD=  = FD=

##

BK ?JE O FH @K??E O = FD=

=I @ I FHE AH=I A=I @A FH CH= =?E I KJE E =@=I F=H= @A EH = A?K=?E @E AI @A E@= A AIJ=I BAHA ?E= ' " >IAHLA I GKA = BK ?E @A FH @K??E A=I IE F A A JA AI HABAHA ?E=@= = BK ?E @A FH @K??E JEF + >> , KC =I AI AIFA?E ?=@= A =I @ I JE =I A=I @A FH CH= = -IJ= B H = @A FH CH= =?E AI KO KJE E =@= F H ?K= J FAH EJA @EI E KEH A AH @A ?DAH I @AIJE =@ I F=H= A @A = JEA F GKA CA AH= =O H ANE>E E@=@ A = AIFA?E ?=?E @A EI - IECKEA JA F=I ? IEIJA A ? IJHKEH K KAL ?DAH = =@ solowprog.m A A ?K= L= I = @A EH I F=H AJH I @A @A O = E L ?=H = HKJE = @A I K?E ode45 ? A=H ? ? ? IA = = FD=  # I  ##  J    "  FJE I @AIAJ KJFKJB?   @AF J 8= I = ? IE@AH=H K D HE JA @A JEA F @A  " O = ECK= GKA ?K= GKEAH FH > A = @A L= H E E?E= AI A?AI=HE E F AH K = ? @E?E E E?E= F H GKA k0 = 2 = HKJE = @A I K?E O IKI F?E AI I E L ?=@=I @A = EI = B H = GKA A I A A F I = JAHE HAI 6 @A"#(BI M J  FJE I = FD= I  @A

- @E=CH= = @A B=IA (t, k ) = k = 49, 63

KAIJH= GKA A ?=FEJ= FAH ? FEJ= @A AGKE E>HE ? HHAIF

@A

@A

@A +HA?E EA J @A 4= IAO

@A +HA?E EA J @A 4= IAO

@A

@A +E?

@A /

@ME

'

-?K=?E

AI A ,EBAHA ?E= O ,E

E?= ,EI?HAJ=

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Modelo de Solow
41.8

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

41.6

41.4

41.2

41

kt
40.8

40.6

40.4

40.2

40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

.ECKH= '  ,E=CH= = @A .=IA (t, kt )

- AH?E?E I
 + IE@AHA A IECKEA JA 2H > A = @A 8= H 1 E?E=

x = 4x x0 = 2
= += ?K A = I K?E K HE?= KJE E = @ A I?HEFJ @A J @ @A -K AH O @A J @ 4 FHAIA J=@ I A = FHE AH= IA??E @A ?=F JK = I K?E K HE?= @A>A ?= ?K =HIA F=H=  A J I O F=H= A E JAHL= @A JEA F [0, 2] 6A C= A ?KA J= GKA @A>A ?= ?K =H A J= = @A F=I =@A?K=@ F=H= ?K>HEH A E JAHL= @A JEA F A  A J I > /H= GKA = I K?E = CA>H=E?= O K HE?= @A = > I J @ IA K = CKH= -NEIJA = CK = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA I @ I J @ I EI =

? + IJHKO= K m-file A A GKA A J= = @A F=I EJAHA J = @  L= HAI -IJ I L= HAI @A>A A ? JH=HIA A JHA  # O  O @A>A AIJ=H ECK= A JA AIF=?E=@ I )OK@= KJE E?A A ? = @ linspace F=H= CA AH=H AIJA LA?J H 5 K?E A A 182 ? IE@AH=@ F=H=  A J I O K JEA F E E?E= t0 = 0 /A AHA K = CKH= F=H= ?=@= L= H @A h A = GKA IA KAIJHA =I I K?E AI @A = > I J @ I K J ? = I K?E = CA>H=E?= 3K IK?A@A = ?= >E=H A J= = @A F=I 3K J @ AI I AIJ=> A

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

#%

 4A= E?A = FH CH= =?E

A = F CE = J @ 4

@A J @ @A 4K CA KJJ= @A ?K=HJ H@A FHAIA J=@ ! - FH CH= = @A>A HAGKAHEH I EI I E FKJI GKA A I?HEFJ @A

= 5 K?E A A 182 @A A AH?E?E  ? = FH CH= =?E AJH I KJE E =@ I I I EI I GKA A A EJAH= = > + ? F=HA CH ?= A JA = I K?E = I K?E = CA>H=E?= AI >JA E@=I F H A @A F=I

@AI=HH

=@=

I F=H OA 4 "

J @ 4

? 3K IK?A@A IE =K A J= A J= =

! +

F=HA CH ?= A JA = I K?E J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E=

F H A J @ @A )@= I *=IDB HJD ? A KJ A A E JAHL= [t, t + h] ,A = IECKEA JA

x = x0 =
+K AI I IA IE> A = ?= >E I A A J= = @A F=I

" + IE@AHA FH > A = @A L= H E E?E= @A A AH?E?E = JAHE H

= /A AHA K = =JHE A202 @ @A = FHE AH ? K = IA= = I K?E F H A ? = @ ode113 O = IACK @= = @A I?HEFJ @A = C HEJ *=IDB HJD K J @A = F CE = ! > += ?K A A LA?J H ? K dj = aj 1 aj 2 ? /H= GKA d ? = d ?KO=I ? 3K F A JAI ?K F = >JA E@= )@= I

= IECKEA JA HAC =

JH= A JEA F

I @E?A AIJA HAIK J=@

)K GKA A J @ KJE E =@ IA= A EI = @EBAHA ?E= H=@E?= A GKA A ? = @ @A )6 )* E ? HF H= = C HEJ I =@E?E = AI F=H= ?= >E=H A J= = @A F=I IAC IA= A?AI=HE FAH EJEA @ K = A H =FH NE =?E = = I K?E 

# + IJHKO= K m-file A A GKA IA

@E ?=@ @A -K AH I K?E A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= H CE@=

KAIJHA CH ?= A JA GKA A KI @A J @ = A FH > A = @A E JACH=?E K HE?= @A = IECKEA JA

x = 10x

#&

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

$ + IE@AHA A IECKEA JA FH > A = @A L= H E E?E=

x = b ax x0 = 1.8
= + IJHKO= K ?DAH A A GKA KJE E = @ A ? = @ tic toc @A )6 )* IA ? F=HA A JEA F GKA HAGKEAHA ode23 O ode23tb F=H= I K?E =H A IEI JA = A A E JAHL= @A JEA F   # 6 A a = 10 b = 20 O AIFA?E GKA I A J I @A AL= K=?E > )IK = a = 10 O ?= ?K A A JEA F HAGKAHE@ F H ?=@= I LAH F=H= # @EBAHA JAI L= HAI @A b A JHA  O  3K IK?A@A ? A JEA F @A I K?E = A@E@= GKA b J = L= HAI I CH= @AI +K @A =I @ I HKJE =I J = I JEA F F=H= I K?E =H A FH > A = ?  .E A b = 100 O ?= ?K A A JEA F HAGKAHE@ F H ?=@= I LAH F=H= # @EBAHA JAI L= HAI @A a A JHA  O  3K IK?A@A ? A JEA F @A I K?E = A@E@= GKA a J = L= HAI I CH= @AI +K @A =I @ I HKJE =I J = I JEA F F=H= I K?E =H A FH > A = @  2 H GK K = HKJE = AI I A J= GKA = JH= -NF EGKA

% &

A?AIEJ K = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= GKA JA C= K AGKE E>HE E AIJ=> A =I @ I ? @E ?E AI E E?E= AI AL= = AGKE E>HE 2 AH I = CH= ?=H ? @AF J O @AFD=I A?AIEJ K 182 ? @ I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI @ 2 AH I = CH= ?=H ? @AF J O @AFD=I @A K = ? LAH = O = JH=

' - A A A F ' # IE A IEIJA = @E

E? F = JA=@ BKAH= H CE@ IAH = F IE> A KJE E =H = HKJE = rk4 -IJ F = JA= K FH > A = F=H= I K?E =H IE K J A= A JA IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI H CE@ I F=H= L=HE=I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI

7JE E = @ ?K= GKEAH HKJE = @A )6 )* F=H= FH > A =I H CE@ I O ? =OK@= @A ? = @ for ? IJHKO= K FH CH= = A A GKA A ?=@= EJAH=?E IA A ?KA JH= = I K?E F=H= ?=@= ? @E?E E E?E= - FH CH= = @A>A =?AFJ=H ? A JH=@=I A >HA @A = BK ?E GKA ? JEA A A IEIJA = @E E? =I ? @E?E AI E E?E= AI A E JAHL= @A JEA F O = CK I F=H AJH I =@E?E = AI + HAIK J=@ IA @A>A >JA AH K LA?J H T O K = DEFAH =JHE X @A m n d

 2H CH= A = BK ?E

GKA ? JEA A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= A A @A J= B H = GKA =?AFJA K F=H AJH F 5E A L= H @A F=H

@A @A 5 M AJH AI p = 0

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

#'

k 1 A J ?AI = BK ?E @A FH @K??E =CHAC=@= AI f (k ) = min{ , } 5E A L= H @A F=H AJH AI p = 1 A J ?AI = BK ?E @A FH @K??E AI f (k ) = k - ?DAH @A>A =?AFJ=H ? E FKJI (t, k, alpha, beta, p, s, n, d)

 -NJEA @= O FH CH= A A

5KF

@A @A 5 M E ? HF H= @ = @AFHA?E=?E C= GKA A ?=FEJ= IA @AFHA?E= = K = J=I= ? IJ= JA d !

@A ?=FEJ=

  7JE E = @ A ?

= @ CH=@EA J @AJAH E = = IA @= @A I= =HE HA= O = J=I= @A E JAH I @A A A F F = JA=@ A = F CE = !%

>IAHLA GKA = @AFHA?E=?E

J J= AI D = dK (t)

$

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2HA E E =H

*E> E CH=B =
* = ?D=H@ ELEAH '&'

A?JKHAI

=?H A?

E?I 6DA

16 2HAII

,H=FAH O E C = '%' # = 4AE FHAIE 0)4 ) 5 ) .=? AH 2 O =HE 6DA 16 2HAII EH= @=

=JA JE?=I F=H= )@ E EIJH=?E NE? FKJ=JE = -?

O -?

! )FF EA@ +

E?I = @ .E = ?A

/=H? = @A = =LEAH AJ =  )FHA @= =J => $  ? IE AIJKLEAH= A FHE AH -I?KA = IKFAHE H @A 1 CA EAH I 1 @KIJHE= AI 7 ELAHIE@=@ 2 EJ ? E?= @A =@HE@ /H II = K@@ A 2HAII 5J= AO ''$ ) CA>H= E A= #= AJD ''& ? /H=M 0E

K AHE?=

AJD @I E -?

E?I += >HE@CA =JA

6DA

16

E ?=E@ , O +DA AO 9 ''" ) EIEI K HE? =I +EA J ? )@@EI 9AI AO 1>AH = AHE?= = ,A =M=HA AEJD @ 5) '%' - + ?K NE?  " )

JE?=I @A + ?K
0)4 ) =?E =

/A EIEI K

AJH = ) = JE?= % = 4AE FHAIE HE?

 = -@E?E 7 ELAHIE@=@

= JE = 1C =?E @A + >E=

I= LA 5AHCE A@  " =JA JE?=I * IE?= F=H= -? ?E O ,E E?= E A 7 ELAHIE@=@ -NJAH =@ @A + =?E = @A + >E= @=@ =?E

EIJ=I ! FJE E = >E= 7 ELAHIE@=@

#= =JA JE?=I * IE?=I F=H= -? EIJ=I  .K @= A J I 7 ELAHIE =?E = @A + >E= O 7 ELAHIE@=@ -NJAH =@ @A + >E= #> =JA JE?=I * IE?=I F=H= -? EIJ=I = @A + >E= O 7 ELAHIE@=@ -NJAH =@ @A + $

+ ?K >E=

7 ELAHIE@=@

$ H= 0A?J H  FJE E =?E E A= O ,E @A + >E= .=?K J=@ @A +EA ?E=I E?D I 9= JAH ''% 6A H = $= ?/H=M 0E 5O@I=AJAH O 2AJAH 0= 2HA JE?A 0= =@HE@

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H =?E =

E?=

= 7 ELAHIE@=@

E?H A?

E?= FHE ?EFE I > IE? I O =F E?=?E =JA JE?=I F=H= A ) EIEI -?

AI E?

@ ''$

@E?A = B=> JE?

acos, 53 alignment, 102 atan, 51 axis, 101 cat, 32 chol, 47, 78 clabel, 106 clc, 9 clear, 9 close, 9 color, 102 colorbar, 109 colormap, 108 contour, 106 contour3, 106 cross, 52, 63 cumtrapz, 171 dblquad, 177 det, 74 diag, 82 diff, 141, 152, 163 doc, 17 dot, 52 eig, 65 eps, 83 fdhess, 154, 188 fdjac, 142 fhess, 188 fjac, 142 font, 102 for, 14, 82 get, 103 gradient, 138, 149 grid, 100 help, 17 if, 13 inf, 98 inline, 94 inv, 73 ipermute, 35 legend, 100 line, 100, 102 linestyle, 102 linewidth, 102 lu, 46, 76 marker, 102 markersize, 102 mesh, 105 meshgrid, 57, 104 min, 191 ndims, 34 norm, 49 orth, 55 permute, 35 plot, 95, 188 plot3, 105 polyder, 136, 148 polyint, 169 qnwsimp, 175 qnwtrap, 173
$!

$"

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

quad, 175 rref, 70 rrefmovie, 71 set, 103 size, 33 sparse, 37 squeeze, 34 subplot, 101, 115 surf, 105 syms, 163 texlabel, 100 text, 100 title, 100 trapz, 171 view, 101 xlabel, 100 ylabel, 100 zlabel, 100 svd, 50 Inputs, 10 Apndice integracin, 179 Bifurcacin, 13 Bucle, 13 Cell Array, 24 cell-array, 122, 124 comandos, 234-236 Comentarios, 7, 8 Command History, 5 Command Window, 2 CompEcon, 2 Compecon Toolbox, 173, 175 Concavidad, 183 Conjunto

de llegada, 94 de salida, 94 Conjuntos contorno inferior, 185 contorno superior, 185 constante de integracin, 169 Contador, 14 Convexidad, 183 Current Directory, 6 Curvas de nivel, 185 Derivacin de orden superior, 147 Derivacin de primer orden, 136 ejm8, 54 Entradas, 10 Error de Truncamiento, 137 Expansin de Taylor, 156 Funcin, 94 cncava, 184 CES, 126 Cobb-Douglas, 125, 128 convexa, 184 cuasicncava, 184 cuasiconvexa, 184 de dos variables, 103 visualizacin de, 103 de una variable, 94 visualizacin de, 94 discontinua, 98, 99 dominio de una, 94 Leontieff, 128 Lineal, 128 Mnimo, 128 parmetros de, 114 rango de una, 94 recorrido de una, 94

5156- )5 ,1

1+ 5

$#

univariada, 188 Funcin Cobb-Douglas, 145 Funcion CARA, 132 CRRA, 132 Funciones, 10, 93 econmicas, 124 Gauss-Jacobi, 80, 81, 87 Gauss-Seidel, 80, 83 Grfico opciones de, 99, 108 Hipermatrices, 31, 35 comandos para, 33 imagen, 94 integracin, 167 integracin definida, 168 integracin indefinida, 168 integral, 169 Integrales Dobles, 176 Iteracin, 11 regla de, 80, 81, 83 Launch Pad, 3

directos, 70 factorizacin de Cholesky, 78 factorizacin de Crout, 76 indirectos, 70, 79 iterativos, 70 numricos, 70, 79 Matrices, 29 a partir de vectores, 57 de coeficientes, 69 de descomposicin, 80, 81, 83 determinante de, 43 dispersas, 36 comandos para, 37 divisin de, 41 divisin izquierda, 41 factorizables, 46 factorizacin de Cholesky, 47 factorizacin LU, 46 generadas automticamente, 37 introduccin de, 30 inversa de, 43 multiplicacin de, 41 norma de, 43 operaciones entre, 41 ortogonales, 55 potenciacin de, 41 rango de, 43 resta de, 41 suma de, 41 tipos de, 36 transpuesta de, 43 traza de, 43 triangular inferior, 77 triangular superior, 77 triangulares inferiores, 43 triangulares superiores, 43

M-File, 6, 8, 9 Mtodo analtico, 11 Gauss-Jordan, 70 inversa, 73 numrico, 11, 13 regla de Cramer, 74 Mtodo de aproximacin lineal, 170 Mtodo de Diferencia Finita, 137 Mtodos analticos, 70

$$

/-,-

8AHIE

2HA E E =H

valores singulares, 47 Scripts, 10 Matrices Sentencia, 13 Dbilmente Condicionadas, 80Simulacin Matriz funciones de dos variables, ampliada, 70 121 definida negativa, 186 funciones de una variable, 114 definida positiva, 186 Sistemas de Ecuaciones, 69 escalonada reducida, 71 homogineos, 73 hessiana, 184 Sistemas Homogneos, 70 hessiana orlada, 185 Sistemas Singulares, 70 semidefinida negativa, 186 Symbolic Toolbox, 163 semidefinida positiva, 186 tematico, 217-221, 223, 225, 228, Matriz Hessiana, 149 231, 251, 255 Matriz Jacobiana, 142 Tolerancia, 83 Menor principal dominante, 186 Toolbox, 1, 3 Metodos factorizacin LU, 76 Valores propios, 64 Modelo de Cournot, 157 Variables Nodo, 173 peso, 173 ponderacin, 173 Objetos, 19 Optimizacin, 213 Outputs, 10 Pareja Ordenada, 103 Path, 16 Planos, 58, 61 distancia a un punto, 63 Rectas, 58, 59 Regla de Iteracin, 16 Regla de Simpson, 174 Regla del Exponente, 168 Regla del Trapecio, 170 Salidas, 10 simblicas, 13 Vectores, 29, 48 ngulo entre, 53 de resultados, 69 de variables, 69 direccin de, 50 magnitud de, 48 norma de, 48 operaciones entre, 51 producto cruz, 52 producto escalar, 52 proyeccin, 54 solucin, 69 Vectores propios, 64 Ventanas de Matlab, 2 Workspace, 4