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EpidermisDermisSubcutaneouslayer
Thick skinThin skin
Hair shaftsSweat glandStratum basaleStratum corneumSebaceousglandBasement membraneAdipose cells(fat)EpidermisDermisSubcutaneouslayerAdipose cells(fat)Hair follicleArrector pilimuscleSweat gland poresNerveVeinArterySweat glandStratum basaleDermal papillaeEpidermal ridgesStratumcorneumBasementmembraneSweat glandporesMeissner’scorpuscleNerveVeinArteryPaciniancorpuscle
OVERVIEW FIGURE
Comparison between thin skin in the arm and thick skin in the palm, including contents of the con-nective tissue dermis.
185
CHAPTER
10
Integumentary System
Skin and its derivatives and appendages form the
integumentary system.
In humans,skin de-rivatives include nails,hair,and several types ofsweat and sebaceous glands.Skin,or
integument,
consists oftwo distinct regions,the superficial epidermis and a deep dermis.The superficial
epi-dermis
is nonvascular andlined by
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
with distinctcell types and cell layers.Inferior to the epidermis is the vascular
dermis,
which ischaracterizedby dense irregular connective tissue.Beneath the dermis is the
hypodermis,
or the
subcutaneouslayer
ofconnective tissue and adipose tissue that forms the fascia seen in gross anatomy.
Epidermis: Thick Versus Thin Skin
The basic histology ofskin is similar in different regions ofthe body,except regarding the thick-ness ofthe epidermis.
Palms
and
soles
are constantly exposed to increased wear,tear,and abra-sion.As a result,the epidermis in these regions,especially the outermost stratified keratinizedlayer,is thick.Skin in these regions is called
thick skin.
Thick skin also contains numerous
sweatglands,
but it lacks hair follicles,sebaceous glands,and smooth muscle fibers.The remainder ofthe body is covered skin called
thin skin.
In these regions,the epidermisis thinner and its cellular composition simpler than that ofthick skin.Thin skin contains
hairfollicles,sebaceous glands,
and
sweat glands.
Attached to the connective tissue sheath ofhairfollicles and the connective tissue ofthe dermis are smooth muscle fibers,called
arrector pili.
Also associated with the hair follicles are numerous sebaceous glands (see the overview figure).
Dermis: Papillary and Reticular Layers
Dermis is the connective tissue layer that binds to the epidermis.The junction ofthe dermis withthe epidermis is irregular.The superficial layer ofthe dermis forms numerous raised projections,called
dermal papillae,
that interdigitate with evaginations ofepidermis,called
epidermalridges.
This region ofskin is the
papillary layer
ofthe dermis.This layer is filled with loose ir-regular connective tissue and connective tissue fibers,capillaries,blood vessels,fibroblasts,macrophages,and other loose connective tissue cells.The deeper layer ofdermis,called the
reticular layer,
is thicker and contains dense irregu-lar connective tissue.It is characterized by connective tissue fibers and fewer cells than are foundin the papillary layer.No distinct boundary is seen between the two dermal layers.Also,dermisblends inferiorly with the
hypodermis,
or the
subcutaneous layer,
which contains the superfi-cial fascia and adipose tissue.The connective tissue ofthe dermis is highly vascular,and it contains numerous blood ves-sels,lymph vessels,and nerves.Certain regions ofskin exhibit
arteriovenous anastomoses,
which areusedfor temperature regulation.Here,blood passes directly from arteries into veins.Inaddition,the dermis contains numerous sensory receptors.
Meissner’s corpuscles
are locatedcloser to the surface ofskin in dermal papillae,whereas
Pacinian corpuscles
are found deeper inthe connective tissue ofthe dermis (see the overview figure).
FUNCTIONAL CORRELATIONS
Epidermal Cells
Four types ofcells are found in the epidermis ofskin.The dominant cells,called
keratinocytes,
are arranged in distinct and recognizable layers.Keratinocytes divide,grow,migrate up,and un-dergo
keratinization
or
cornification,
and form a protective layer for skin.The other threetypes ofepidermal cells—melanocytes,Langerhans cells,and Merkel cells—are interspersedamong the keratinocytes.
Epidermal Layers
Five epidermal layers are found in the human body:the stratum basale (germinativum),stra-tum spinosum,stratum granulosum,stratum lucidum,and stratum corneum.
Stratum Basale (Germinativum)
The
stratum basale
is the deepest,or basal,layer in epidermis.It consists ofa single layer of columnar to cuboidal cells that rest on a
basement membrane
separating the dermis from theepidermis.The cells are attached to one another by cell junctions,called
desmosomes,
and tothe underlying basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes.
Cells in the stratum basale serve asstem cells for the epidermis;thus,much increased mitotic activity is seen in this layer.The cellsdivide and mature as they migrate up toward the superficial layers.All cells in the stratum basalecontain
intermediate keratin filaments
that increase in number as the cells move upward.
Stratum Spinosum
As the cells move upward in the epidermis,a second cell layer,called the
stratumspinosum,
forms.This layer consists offour to six rows ofcells.In routine histologic preparations,cells inthis layer shrink.As a result,the developed intercellular spaces between cells appear to form nu-merous cytoplasmic extensions,or spines,that project from their surfaces.The spines representthe sites where desmosomes areanchored tobundles ofkeratin filaments,or
tonofilaments,
and to neighboring cells.Tonofilaments provide resistance to abrasion ofthe epidermis.
Stratum Granulosum
Cells above the stratum spinosum become filled with dense basophilic
keratohyalin granules
and form the third layer,called the
stratum granulosum.
Three to five layers offlattened cellsform the stratum granulosum.Keratohyalin granules are the source ofthe soft keratin in skin.These granules are not surrounded by a membrane and are associated with bundles ofkeratinfilaments.In addition,the cytoplasm ofthese cells contains
lamellar granules
formed by lipidbilayers.The lamellar granules are discharged into the intercellular spaces ofthe stratum gran-ulosum as layers of
lipid
and seal the skin.
Stratum Lucidum
In thick skin only,
stratum lucidum
is translucent and barely visible;it lies just superior to thestratum granulosum.The stratum lucidum contains tightly packed cells that lack nuclei or or-ganelles and are dead.The flattened cells in this layer contain densely packed keratin filaments.
Stratum Corneum
The
stratum corneum
is the fifth and most superficial layer ofskin.All nuclei and organelles havedisappeared from these cells.Stratum corneum primarily consists offlattened,dead cells that arefilled with soft
keratin filaments.
The keratinized,superficial cells from this layer are continually shed,or
desquamated,
and replaced by new cells arising from the deep stratum basale.
FIGURE 10.1
Thin Skin: Epidermis and Contents of the Dermis
This illustration depicts a section ofthin skin from the general body surface,where wear and tearare minimal.To differentiate between the cellular and connective tissue components ofskin,aspecial stain was used.With this stain,the collagen fibers ofthe connective tissue componentsstain blue,and the cellular components stain bright red.
186
PART II — ORGANS
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