ANRV390-EG34-03 ARI 9 June 2009 15:39
and in some cases overwhelmed by resourceuse in a different part of the larger ecosys-tem, as illustrated in this article by the caseof the Xingu Indigenous Park (PIX) in Brazil. The functional interdependency of resourcesystems poses an important question regard-ing social capital: How do different types of management arrangements help facilitate solu-tions to intricate cross-level problems? As ex-pressed by Cash et al. (5) in the context of co-management structures, the complex nature of cross-level resource-use systems requires insti-tutional arrangements that facilitate the copro-duction, mediation, translation, and negotia-tion of information and knowledge within andacross levels.Institutions facilitating cross-level environ-mental governance become an important formof social capital. A more detailed discussion ispresented below, but we want to start with a working definition of social capital as referringto the value of trust generated by social net- works to facilitate individual and group coop-erationonsharedinterestsandtheorganizationof social institutions at different scales.Considerable agreement exists on the use-fulness of eight institutional design principles
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(6, 7) to explain why some governance arrange-ments for environmental resources at local andsubregional levels are robust (8, 9). Translatingthese principles for application to higher levelsof social organization remains a challenge (10–15) and is the focus of the eighth institutionaldesign principle, “nested enterprises,” whichis the importance of nesting local and largerinstitutionalarrangementstoaccommodatethegoals and interests of groups organized at dif-ferentlevels.Importantchallengesareinvolvedin scaling up institutional design principles andbuildingupsocialcapitalforlinkinggovernancesystems across levels of social organization(5, 6, 16–20). These include the following:
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1. Clearly defined boundaries; 2. congruence between localconditions,appropriation,andprovisionrules;3.adaptability ofcollectivechoicearrangements;4.appropriatemonitoring;5. graduated and implementable sanctions; 6. mechanismsfor conflict resolution; 7. recognized rights to organize; and,8. nested enterprises.
Comanagement:
amethod for supplyinggovernance thatfeatures cooperativedecision makingamong users andpublic authorities
Governance:
a socialfunction centered onsteering human groupstoward mutually beneficial outcomesand away frommutually harmfuloutcomes
a. Fit: the challenge of linking spatial scaleand units of analysis created by mis-matches between environmental and in-stitutional boundaries;b. Boundaries: the challenge of recognizingcompetingrulesofsubtractabilityandex-clusion operating in different parts of thesame ecosystem;c. Authority: the challenge of recognizingshifts in jurisdiction and authority overresources,including overlaps,atdifferentlevels;d. Sanctions: the challenge of accountingfor[apotentially]invertedcorrelationbe-tween compliance with rules and scale(i.e., level of compliance decreases as youmove from local to international levels);ande. Knowledge and information: the chal-lengeofunderstandingproblemsofcred-ibility, saliency, and legitimacy resultingfrom differences in knowledge systemsandaccesstoinformationatdifferentlev-els and by different groups. We address these concerns in the followingorder. Section 2 provides an example of a suc-cessful local effort to govern PIX, which hasonly one local level of governance associated with it. Initially, the threat of invasion aroundpark borders led indigenous groups to identify mechanisms and forms of internal organizationtoenhanceandenforceexclusionrulesfornon-Indians. Over time, however, the lack of largergovernance units, with appropriate incentivesto buffer the pressure created by internationalcommodity markets (e.g., beef, soybeans, andlumber), has allowed extensive deforestation allaround the protected park. Nested within thelarger Xingu River watershed, the park has be-come the sink and “corridor” for multiple pol-lutants derived from the clearing of vegetationaround headwater springs, overuse of fertilizer,and extensive smoke from forest clearing. NowPIX itself is threatened by externalities fromthe surrounding agricultural areas, given thelack of effective institutions organized at thatlevel and between the park and its surroundingagricultural and urban systems. Perception and
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Social Connectivity and Governance 3.3
A n n u . R e v . E n v i r o n . R e s o u r c . 2 0 0 9 . 3 4 . D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s . a n n u a l r e v i e w s . o r g b y S T O C K H O L M U N I V E R S I T Y - L I B R A R Y o n 0 7 / 1 8 / 0 9 . F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .
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