159
4
Transformers
Ac transformers are one of the keys to allowing widespread distribution ofelectric power as we see it today. Transformers efficiently convert electricityto higher voltage for long distance transmission and back down to lowvoltages suitable for customer usage. The distribution transformer normallyserves as the final transition to the customer and often provides a localgrounding reference. Most distribution circuits have hundreds of distribu-tion transformers. Distribution feeders may also have other transformers:voltage regulators, feeder step banks to interface circuits of different volt-ages, and grounding banks.
4.1Basics
A transformer efficiently converts electric power from one voltage level toanother. A transformer is two sets of coils coupled together through a mag-netic field. The magnetic field transfers all of the energy (except in anautotransformer). In an ideal transformer, the voltages on the input and theoutput are related by the turns ratio of the transformer:where
N
1
and
N
2
are the number of turns and
V
1
and
V
2
are the voltage onwindings 1 and 2.In a real transformer, not all of the flux couples between windings. This
leakage
flux creates a voltage drop between windings, so the voltage is moreaccurately described by
V N N V
1122
=
V N N VXI
L
11221
= −
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160
Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems
where
X
L
is the leakage reactance in ohms as seen from winding 1, and
I
1
isthe current out of winding 1.The current also transforms by the turns ratio, opposite of the voltage asThe “ampere-turns” stay constant at ; this fundamental rela-tionship holds well for power and distribution transformers.A transformer has a magnetic core that can carry large magnetic fields.The cold-rolled, grain-oriented steels used in cores have permeabilities ofover 1000 times that of air. The steel provides a very low-reluctance path formagnetic fields created by current through the windings.Consider voltage applied to the
primary
side (source side, high-voltageside) with no load on the
secondary
side (load side, low-voltage side). Thewinding draws
exciting
current from the system that sets up a sinusoidalmagnetic field in the core. The flux in turn creates a back emf in the coil thatlimits the current drawn into the transformer. A transformer with no loadon the secondary draws very little current, just the exciting current, whichis normally less than 0.5% of the transformer’s full-load current. On theunloaded secondary, the sinusoidal flux creates an open-circuit voltage equalto the primary-side voltage times the turns ratio.When we add load to the secondary of the transformer, the load pullscurrent through the secondary winding. The magnetic coupling of the sec-ondary current pulls current through the primary winding, keeping constantampere-turns. Normally in an inductive circuit, higher current creates moreflux, but not in a transformer (except for the leakage flux). The increasingforce from current in one winding is countered by the decreasing force fromcurrent through the other winding (seeFigure 4.1). The flux in the core ona loaded transformer is the same as that on an unloaded transformer, eventhough the current is much higher.The voltage on the primary winding determines the flux in the transformer(the flux is proportional to the time integral of voltage). The flux in the coredetermines the voltage on the output-side of the transformer (the voltage isproportional to the time derivative of the flux).Figure 4.2 shows models with the significant impedances in a transformer.The detailed model shows the series impedances, the resistances and thereactances. The series resistance is mainly the resistance of the wires in eachwinding. The series reactance is the leakage impedance. The shunt branchis the magnetizing branch, current that flows to magnetize the core. Most ofthe magnetizing current is reactive power, but it includes a real powercomponent. Power is lost in the core through:•
Hysteresis
— As the magnetic dipoles change direction, the core heatsup from the friction of the molecules.
I N N INI NI
12121122
= =
or
NI NI
1122
=
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Transformers
161
FIGURE 4.1
Transformer basic function.
FIGURE 4.2
Transformer models.
Magnetic equivalent circuitElectric circuit
φ
core
φ
core
φ
L
1
φ
L
2
R
0
I
1
I
2
V
1
V
2
E
1
E
2
E
1
N
1
N
2
E
2
N
1
I
1
N
2
I
2
L
1
L
2
L
1
and
L
2
arefromtheleakagefluxes,
φ
L
1
and
φ
L
2
Since
R
0,
N
1
I
1
N
2
I
2
Magnetizingbranch
Detailed transformer modelSimplified model
Idealtransformer
Copyright © 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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