Heat

1
Heat is…

energy that is transferred from one

body to another because of a difference
in temperature.

2
units of heat

calorie: the amount of heat necessary to

raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1 Celsius degree.

Calorie: (with a capital C) also known as

kilocalorie (kcal), is the heat needed
to raise 1 kg of water by 10
Celsius.

Btu: British thermal unit is the heat

required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water by 10
F.

equal to 0.252 kcal = 1055 J 3

A given amount of work is always equivalent to a
particular amount of heat input:

 4.186 J = 1 cal

4.186 x 10 3
J = 1 kcal

4
Kinetic energy
transformed to heat (energy conservation):

KEi = KEf + Q

where:

KEi = Initial kinetic energy

KEf = final kinetic energy
Q = heat produced

5
Examples:

•How many calories are required to raise the temperature of 8

grams of water by 50 C?

Solution:
No. of cal = 8 grams x 1 cal/gram-10C (50 C)
= 40 cal Answer

2. A couple ate too much ice cream and cake. They each overrated
by 500 Calories. To compensate they wanted to (a) do an
equivalent amount of work by climbing stairs. (b) How much total
height must each climb if each had a mass of 60 kg?

Solution: 500 Calories 500 kcal Joules?

(a) W = 500 kcal (4.186 x103 J/kcal) = 2.1 x 106 J

answer
(b) from W = mgh, h = W/mg
h = (2.1 x 106) J/ 60 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 3600 m
(!!) 6
…examples

3. When a 3.0-g bullet, travelling with a speed of 400 m/s, passes

through a tree its speed is reduced to 200 m/s. How much heat Q
is produced and shared by the bullet and the tree?
Solution:
KEi = KE f + Q

where Q is the heat produced.

Q = ½ m (vi2 - vf2) = ½ (0.003 kg)[(400 m/s)2 – (200
m/s)2]

= 180 J

= 180 J x 1 cal / 4.186 J

= 43 cal.

7
thermal energy or internal energy:
the sum total of all the energy of all the molecules in
an object.

temperature (in Kelvins):

a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual
molecules.

heat:
refers to transfer of energy (such as thermal energy)
from one object to another due to a difference in
temperature.

8
 Two equal-mass hot ingots of iron may have the
same temperature, but two of them have twice
as much thermal energy as one does.

Direction of heat flow depends on temperature.

Thus, if 50 g of water at 300C is mixed with 200 g of

water at 250C, heat flows from the water at 300C, even
though the internal energy of the 250C water is much
greater because there is so much more of it.

9
 Instruments used to measure temperature
are called…

thermometers

their operation always depends on the expansion

of a material (usually mercury or alcohol) with an
increase in temperature.

10
 Scales used to measure temperature
quantitatively are the

Celsius (or centigrade)

Fahrenheit and

Kelvin

11
 To convert from Fahrenheit scale to Celsius
and vice versa :

0
C = 5/9 ( 0F - 32);

0
F = 9/5 ( 0C )+ 32

Rather than memorize these relations, simply

remember that:

0 0C = 320 F
50C = 90 F
1000C = 2120 F
12
Example:

Normal body temperature is 98.60 F. What is this in the Celsius scale.

Solution: 370 C.

13
The atomic theory of matter states that:

If a pure substance were cut into smaller and

smaller bits, eventually a smallest piece of that
substance would be obtained which could not be
divided further. This smallest piece was called an
atom, which in Greek means “indivisible.”

14
15
Models of the Atom

Experimental data has been the impetus behind the creation and
dismissal of physical models of the atom.

Rutherford's model, in which electrons move around a tightly packed,

positively charged nucleus, successfully explained the results of scattering
experiments, but was unable to explain discrete atomic emission—that is, why
atoms emit only certain wavelengths of light.

Bohr began with Rutherford’s model, but then postulated further that
electrons can only move in certain quantized orbits; this model was able to
explain certain qualities of discrete emission for hydrogen, but failed
completely for other elements.

Schrödinger’s model, in which electrons are described not by the

paths they take but by the regions where they are most likely to be found, can
explain certain qualities of emission spectra for all elements; however, further
refinements of the model, made throughout the 20th century, have been
needed to explain all observable spectral phenomenon.
16
The law of definite proportion:

When two or more elements combine to form a

compound, they always do so in the same
proportion by weight.

E.g., table salt is always formed from 23 parts sodium and 35 parts
chlorine; and water is formed from one part hydrogen and eight parts
oxygen, by weight.

The weight proportions of each element required to form a

compound correspond to the relative weights of the combining
atoms.

By measuring the relative amounts of each element needed to form

a large variety of compounds, experimenters established the relative
weights of atoms, now referred to as atomic or molecular mass.
17
Unified atomic mass units (u)

The relative weights of atoms and molecules, based

on assigning the abundant carbon atom, 12C, the value of
exactly 12.0000 u

The atomic mass of hydrogen, the lightest atom, is

1.0078 u. Values for other atoms are found in the periodic
table.

The molecular mass of a compound is the sum of

atomic masses of the atoms making up the molecule.

18
Brownian movement

Named after the biologist Robert Brown, who is

credited with its discovery 1827.

While observing tiny pollen grains suspended in water, Brown

noticed that the tiny grain moved about in tortuous paths, even though the
water appeared to be perfectly still. It turned out that Brown’s tiny pollen
grains are jostled about by the vigorous barrage of rapidly moving molecules
of water.

The atoms (or molecules) of any substance are

continually in motion.

19
 thermal equilibrium

two objects at different temperatures

and in thermal contact are said to have
reached thermal equilibrium when they
eventually get the same temperature.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

if two systems are in thermal

equilibrium with a third system, then they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

20
Conduction
Heat transfer through a material by the collision of atoms.

Convection
Heat transfer by a circulating path of fluid particles.

Radiation
The process in which energy is transferred by means of
electromagnetic waves.

E.g., visible lights, microwaves, radio waves, radar, and infrared rays.

21
Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred by three processes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is the transfer of heat along a solid object; it is this process that makes the
handle of a poker hot, even if only the tip is in the fireplace. Convection transfers heat
through the exchange of hot and cold molecules; this is the process through which
water in kettle becomes uniformly hot even though only the bottom of the kettle
contacts the flame. Radiation is the transfer of heat via electromagnetic (usually infrared)
radiation; this is the principal mechanism through which a fireplace warms a room. Radiation
and convection are important to the movement of energy through the Sun.
22
Calculating Heat Transfer

specific heat capacity (c) the amount of

energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1.0 kg of a
substance by 1.00C.

cwater = 4.18 x 103 J/Kg-0C

The quantity of heat or gained or lost by a body,

Q, is directly proportional to the mass, m, of a the
body, its specific heat capacity, c, and the change in
the body’s temperature Δt. I.,

Q = mc Δt
23
Sample Problem 1:

How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 2.2 kg of water from
200C to the boiling point?

Solution: m = 2.2 kg
c = 4.18 x 103 J/kg-0C
Δt = 1000C - 200C = 800C.

Q = mc Δt
= 2.2 kg x 800C x 4.18 x 103 J/kg-0C
= 7.4 J x 105 J Answer
Principle of Heat Exchange

When heat is transferred from one body to

another, the amount of heat lost by the hot
body equals the amount of heat gained by
the cold body.

Qlost = Qgained
24
m c Δt + m c Δt = 0
Sample Problem 2:

A 200-g piece of iron (c= 4.5 x 102 J/kg-0C) at 3500C is submerged in 300 g
of water at 100C to be cooled quickly. Determine the final temperature of
the iron and the water.

Solution: m (iron) = 200 g

m (water) = 300 g

Let temperature be tf.

Δti = tf - 3500C
Δtw = tf - 100C

mici Δti + mwcw Δtw = 0

(0.20 kg)(4.5 x 102 J/kg-0C)(tf - 3500C) + (0.30kg)(4.18 x 103 J/kg-0C)(tf -

100C) = 0

tf = 330

25
Substance C (J/kg-0C) Substance C (J/kg-0C)

Glass 8.4 X 102 Water 4.18 X 103

Iron 4.5 X 102 Alcohol 2.5 X 103

Brass 3.8 X 102 Ice 2.1 X 103

Silver 2.4 X 102 Steam 2.1 X 103

lead 1.3 X 102 Aluminum 9.2 X 103

26
Solve:

•Calculate the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of the following:

(a) 8.4 kg of water by 6.00C

(b) 2.1 kg of alcohol by 320C

2. Determine the heat lost when

(a) 3.7 kg of water cools from 310C to 240C

(b) a 540-g of silver cools from 780C to 140C

3. An electric immersion heater delivers 0.05 MJ of energy to 5.0 kg of a liquid,

changing its temperature from 320C to 420C. Find the specific heat capacity of
the liquid?

4. Determine how much brass can be heated from 20 to 32 using 1.0 MJ of

energy.

27
5. A 2.5-kg pane of glass, initially at 410C, loses 4.2 x 104 J of heat. What is the
new temperature of the glass?

6. A 120-g mug at 210C is filled with 210 g of coffee at 910C. Assuming all of the heat
lost by the coffee is transferred to the mug, what is the final temperature of the coffee?
The specific heat capacity of the mug is 7.8 x 102 J/kg-0C.

28
The First Law of Thermodynamics

The increase in internal energy of a system is

equal to the heat added plus the work done on the
system.
Assume that if 10 calories of heat are added to a sample of
gas, its temperature rises by 20C. If we add the same 10 calories to a
sample of the same gas that has twice the mass, we discover that the
temperature rises by only 10C. Adding the same amount of heat does
not produce the same rise in temperature because the larger sample of
gas has twice as many particles and therefore each particle receives
only half as much energy on the average.

29
Absolute Zero

Since there is a limit to how much internal energy can be

removed from a system, it is reasonable to assume that there is a
lowest possible temperature, This is known as absolute zero and has
a value of -2730C (0K).

The feasibility of reaching this temperature was argued

extensively and it was eventually concluded that it was impossible.
This belief is formalized in the statement of the

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Absolute zero may be approached

experimentally but can never reached.

30
Change of State

The change from the gaseous state to the liquid state (or from
the liquid to the solid), or vice versa, is known as a change of state.

While the gas condenses into a liquid, energy continues to leave

the system, but the temperature remains the same. Most of this energy
comes from the decrease in the electric potential energy between the
molecules as they get closer together to form the liquid. The energy that
must be released or gained per unit mass of material is known as

latent heat

31
 heat of fusion (LF): heat required to change 1 kg of a
substance from the solid
to the liquid state.

the heat of fusion of water is 79.7 kcal /kg, or, in SI

units, 333 kJ/kg (= 3.33 x 105 J/kg).

heat of vaporization (LV) heat required to change a

substance from the liquid to the
vapor state.
for water, LV is 539 kcal/kg or 2260 kJ/kg.

The heats of vaporization and fusion also refer to the

amount of heat released by a substance when it changes
from a gas to a liquid, or from a liquid to a solid.

The heat involved in a change of phase depends also

on the total mass of the substance, i.e.:

Q = mL
32
Change of State

33
Materia Melting Latent Heat Boiling Latent Heat
l Point (melting) Point (evaporization)
(0C) (0C) (0C)
kJ/kg cal/g kJ/kg Cal/g

Nitrogen -210 25.70 6.14 -196 199 47.50

Oxygen -218 13.80 3.30 -183 213 50.90

Water 0 334.00 79.80 100 2,257 539.00
Aluminu 660 396.00 94.60 2,467 10,900 2,600.0
m 0

Gold 1064 63.00 15.00 2,807 1,710 409.00

34
35
 How much energy is released when 5 kg of water freezes at 00C?

Answer: Q = mL = (5.00 kg)(3.33 X 105 J/kg) = 1.67 x 106J of energy released.

Examples:

1. Making ice. How much energy does a refrigerator have to remove from 1.5
kg of water at 200C to make ice at – 120C?

Solution: Heat must flow out to reduce the water from 200C to
00C, to change it to ice, then to lower the ice from 00C
to – 120C,

Q = mcw (200C - 00C) + mLF + mcice[00C – (- 120C)]

= 1.5 kg(4186 J/kg-0C)(200C) +1.5 kg(3.33 x105 J/kg) + 1.5 kg(2100
J/kg- 0C)(120C)
= 6.6 x 105 J = 660 kJ

36
2. Will all the ice melt? At a party, a 0.50-kg chunk of ice at – 100C is placed in
3.0 kg of “iced” tea at 200C. At what temperature and in what phase will the final
mixture be? The tea can be considered as water.

Solution: Before we can write down an equation, we must first

check to see if the final state will be all ice, a mixture of
ice and water at 00C, or all water. To bring the 3.0 kg of
water at 200C down to 00C would require an energy
release of

mwcw (200C - 00C) = 3.0 kg(4186 J/kg-0C)(200C) = 250 kJ

On the other hand, to raise the ice from - 100C to 00C, would require

micecice [00C – (- 100C)] = 0.50 kg(2100 J/kg-0C)(100C) = 10.5 kJ

and to change the ice to water at 00C would require

miceLF = 0.50 kg(333 kJ/kg) = 167 kJ

37
for a total of 10.0 kJ + 167 kJ = 177 kJ. This is not enough energy to bring the
3.0 kg of water at 200C down to 00C, so we know that the mixture must end
up all water, somewhere between 00C and 200C. Now we can determine the
final temperature T by applying the conservation of energy and writing

heat to raise 0.50 kg of ice from - 100C to 00C, plus

heat to change 0.50 kg of ice to water, plus
+ heat to raise 0.50 kg of water from 00C to T equals
heat lost by 3.0 kg of water cooling from 200C to T, so

10.5 kJ + 167 kJ + 0.50 kg(4186 J/kg-0C)(T)

= 3.0 kg(4186 J/kg-0C)(200C – T)
14,000T = 73,800
T = 5.10C

38
39
Condensation
Condensation, in physics, is the process of reduction of matter into a
denser form, as in the liquefaction of vapor or steam. Condensation is the result of the
reduction of temperature by the removal of latent heat of evaporation, the liquid product
being known as condensate. The removal of heat shrinks the volume of the vapor and
decreases the velocity of, and the distance between, molecules. According to the
kinetic theory of behavior of matter, the loss of energy will lead to the transformation
of the gas into a liquid condensate.

Condensation is an important part of the process of distillation and in the

operation of steam engines, where exhaust steam is converted back into water by a
device called a condenser.

In meteorology, both the formation of clouds and the precipitation of dew,

rain, and snow are known as condensation.

In chemistry, condensation is a reaction involving the union of atoms in the

same or different molecules. The process often leads to the elimination of a simple
molecule such as water or alcohol to form a new and more complex compound, often
of greater molecular weight.

40
Thermal Expansion

When the temperature increases, nearly all materials expand,

but not all materials expand at the same rate.

Solids, being most tightly bound, expand the least, while all
gases expand at the same rate.

Each material’s characteristic thermal expansion is reflected in

a number called its coefficient of expansion. The coefficient of
expansion gives the frictional change in the size of the object per degree
change in temperature.

41
The expansion for a particular object is
given by:

ΔL = αLΔT

where ΔL = change in length

α = coefficient of
expansion

ΔT = change in
temperature

L = original length

42
 …Thermal Expansion

Over small temperature ranges, the linear nature of thermal

expansion leads to expansion relationships for length, area, and
volume in terms of the linear expansion coefficient .

43
Linear Expansion

The relationship governing the linear expansion of a long

thin rod can be reasoned out as follows:

44
 One notable exception to this general rule is water. It
usually undergoes a normal thermal expansion, but as it
approaches its freezing point, it will expand instead of shrink.

As an object expands or contracts with a temperature

change, its change in length depends on three quantities:

the original length,

the temperature change, and

the thermal properties of the material composing

the object.

45
 Think about a metal rod that is 3 ft (1 m) long and
has its temperature increased to the point where it
expands by one hundredth of a millimeter.

Now consider two such identical rods placed end

to end. They are the equivalent of a single rod 6 ft (2 m)
long that will expand by two hundredths of a millimeter
for the same temperature increase. Hence a larger object
will have a greater change in length with temperature
than a smaller object, simply because the larger object
has more material to expand.

46
 Secondly, the change in length also depends on the
temperature change.

An object will expand twice as much for a 20° temperature

change as for a 10° temperature change.

In a third variable, different materials also expand at

different rates. For example, with a given temperature change, a
block of wood will not expand as much as a similar block of metal.

The coefficient of thermal expansion, found by

experimentation, is a property of the material that accounts for the
different expansion rates for different materials.

Using these three factors, the change in length of an object is

equal to the coefficient of thermal expansion multiplied by the original
length multiplied by the temperature change.
47
Expansion Concepts

48
49
Thermal Expansion Coefficients at 20 C
Fractional expansion Fractional expansion
Material
per degree C x10^-6 per degree F x10^-6
Glass, ordinary 9 5
Glass, pyrex 4 2.2
Quartz, fused 0.59 0.33
Aluminum 24 13
Brass 19 11
Copper 17 9.4
Iron 12 6.7
Steel 13 7.2
Platinum 9 5
Tungsten 4.3 2.4
Gold 14 7.8
Silver 18 10
50
Problem:

By how long does a 50-meter steel bridge expand overnight if its

temperature increases by 400C overnight? The coefficient of expansion
of steel is 0.000011 meter for each meter of length for each degree
Celsius in temperature.

Solution:

ΔL = αLΔT
= 0.000011/ 0C x (50 m)(400C) = 0.022 m

51
Conceptual Questions

•A block of wood falls from a chair and lands on the floor. What happens to the
kinetic energy of the block?

The ke is converted to thermal energy (and energy of distortion)

2. What does the zeroth law of thermodynamics tell us about measuring the
temperature of an object?

Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature.

3. Can two objects be in thermal equilibrium when they are not touching?
Explain.

Yes, if they have the same temperature.

4. How do units of heat and temperature differ?

The units do not represent the same physical quantity (Joule & Kelvin)
52
5. What is the difference between heat and temperature?

Heat is a flow of thermal energy, whereas temperature is the average

kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules.

6. How do the internal energies of a cup of water and a gallon of water at the
same temperature compare?

The gallon of water has much more internal energy.

7. Under what condition is the first law of thermodynamics valid?

Under all conditions.

8. Does it take more thermal energy to raise the temperature of 5 grams of

water than 5 grams of ice by 6C?

The water because it has a larger specific heat.

53
9. How is specific heat defined?

The heat added divided by product of the mass and the resulting
temperature change.

10.Why do climates near the coasts tend to be more moderate than in the
middle of the continent?

It takes tremendous amount of thermal energy to change the

temperature of the water in the ocean.

11. Given that the melting point and freezing temperatures of water are
identical, which determines whether a mixture of ice and water will freeze or
melt?

It will freeze if heat is removed, melt if heat is added.

12. Why can an iceberg survive floating for several weeks in seawater that’s
above freezing?

54
 It requires a lot of thermal energy to melt the ice without changing its
temperature. Also, ice is not a very good conductor of thermal energy

13. What would happen to a pot of water on the stove if there were no latent
heat of vaporization required for converting water to steam?

The water would vaporize instantly when it reached the boiling

temperature.

14. If you put an unwrapped steak in the freezer, it freezes and then overtime
dries out. Why?

The ice in the steak sublimes.

15. An old biker’s adage is, “If your feet get cold, put on a hat.” What is the
physics behind this?

A lot of thermal energy is lost from the head.

55
16. Why is it possible to hold a lighted match until the flame burns quite
close to your finger?

Wood is a poor thermal conductor.

56
Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

A "heat engine" is a machine which converts internal energy

(from a high temperature body) into some other form of energy.

When the lid on a pan of boiling water is lifted by the steam

inside, the internal energy of the steam is being converted to
gravitational potential energy of the lid. This is a very simple example
of a heat engine.

The conversion of energy from some other form of energy to

internal energy of a substance can be done with 100% efficiency of
conversion. For example, 100J of electrical energy will be converted to
100J of internal energy by a resistor.

Conversion of energy from internal energy to some other form

cannot be done with the same efficiency.
57
 To show this, consider the possible heat engine shown below. (The
diagrams are very simplified but are similar to some real heat engines).

Gas expanding, doing To obtain more work,

work, pushing piston we must now push the
down. piston back up

58
 If we simply push the piston back up we will do just as much
work as we obtained during the expansion stage: not a very
satisfactory situation!

To make sure that we do less work pushing the piston back to

its original position we could allow the gas to cool down before
pushing the piston up. Or we could let this still quite hot gas escape,
push the piston up and then put in fresh gas.

However you do it you will always find that you need to allow
the gas to give up some of its internal energy to the surroundings
(as it cools down). Therefore, the conversion of energy from internal
energy of the hot gas can never be 100% efficient.

59
 This is one illustration of the second law of thermodynamics
which can be stated in many different ways. One statement is as
follows

No heat engine, operating in a continuous cycle, can

do work without transferring some internal
energy from a hot body to a cold body.

That is, even the best theoretical heat engine cannot

convert 100% of the incoming heat into work.

The hot body is called the heat source and the cold body
(often the surroundings) is called the heat sink

60
Question: How much work does a heat engine perform if it
extracts 100 joules of energy from a hot region and exhausts 60
joules to a cold region?

Answer: Conservation of energy requires that the work be

equal to 40 joules, the difference between the input and the output.

Real Engines

In the case of heat engines the efficiency is ɳ of an engine is

equal to the ratio of the work W produced divided by the heat Q from
the hot region.

ɳ = W/Q

61
Carnot’s ideal heat engine has the maximum theoretical efficiency
which can be expressed as a simple relationship using Kelvin
temperatures:

ɳ = 1 – Tc/Th

Carnot’s efficiency is larger if the temperature of the

exhaust region Tc is low or that of the hot region is high.

Given that Carnot’s engines cannot run much hotter than

5500C, and that temperatures cannot be much lower than 500C,
calculate the maximum theoretical efficiency of the steam
engines.

ɳ = 1 – Tc/Th = 1 – 323 K / 823 K = 0.61 = 60%

62
Question: What is the maximum theoretical efficiency for a heat
engine running between 1270C and 270C?

Answer: ɳ = 1 – 300 K/400 K = 1 – 0.75 = 25%

63