Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M. L. DOUGLASS Colgate-Palmolive Company, 909 RiverRd., Piscataway, NJ 08854; B. L. KABACOFF Revlon Research Center, 945 ZeragaAve., Bronx, NY 10473; G. A. ANDERSON The Dow Chemical Company, 1710 Building,Midland, M148640, and M. C. CHENG, The Procter and Gamble Company, Ivorydale Technical Center,5299 Spring GroveAve., Cincinnati, OH 45217.
Received June29, 1978. Authors represent theNitrosamine Task Force oftheCosmetic, Toiletryand Fragrance Association, 1133 15th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Synopsis
N-Nitroso compounds are formed from the interactionof many types of organo-nitrogen compounds and nitrosatingagents.Ease of nitrosationis determined by compoundstructure, nature of the medium and the presence of catalysts. The two categories, nitrosamines and nitrosamides, differ mainlyin their CHEMICAL stabilityandmechanism of biological activity.NITROSAMINES are more stableand difficultto DESTROY, but their FORMATION can be INHIBITED by substances which react preferentiallywith the nitrosating agent.The carcinogenic activityof thesecompounds in laboratoryanimalsvarieswidely from highly potent
to innocuous.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Advances in analytical techniquesallow modern industrial society to detect trace amountsof undesirablesubstances in its physicalenvironment.There hasbeen legitimate concern that we are creating conditions that have serious adverse effects on human health. Recently, minute levels of nitrosamines have been found in some consumerproducts,including cosmetics (1). While not attempting to judge whether thesesubstances at parts-per-billion levelshave a significant physiological effect, we are presentinga review of nitrosaminechemistryto aid workers in the cosmetic and allied industries in their research on the subject.
581
582
II. TYPES
N-Nitroso compoundsare formed by the interactionof a nitrogen-containing organic compound--suchas an amine, amide, urea, guanidine,urethaneor cyanamide--and a nitrosatingagent, suchasa nitrogen oxide.
These compounds can be divided into two categories--nitrosamines and nitrosamides--which differ in their chemicalstability, the mechanism of their carcinogenicityand their mutagenicity (2-4).
N-Nitrosamines
R
N--N=O
R,R'
alkyloraryl
/
R'
N-Nitrosamides
R
N--NO
alkyloraryl
O
/
z
nitrosamide
O
R',2NC-NH
nitrosourea
II
R',.,NC-0 R'OC-NC l
nitrosoguanidine
nitrosourethane
nitrosocyanamide
nitrososulfonamide
R'SO2--
The nitrosaminesare very stable once they are formed. They require chemical modification in an enzyme-catalysed reactionbefore they exhibit carcinogenic and mutagenicactivity(2, 3, 5). By comparison the nitrosamides can be hydrolysed, especially in neutral and alkaline solution. They exhibit carcinogenicand mutagenic activitieswithout modificationand malignanttumors are produced at the site of their
application (2-5).
III.
CARCINOGENICITY
OF N-NITROSO
COMPOUNDS
The first report that nitrosaminescausecancer in laboratory animalswas that rats fed low levels (50 ppm) of dimethylnitrosamine in their diet developedliver cancer(6, 7).
Since then more than 120 nitrosamines and nitrosamides have been examined for
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
5 83
Table
Structure
D5o a
log (1/Do)
3.2 3.2
(CHaCH2)2NNO
CHaNCH2CHzC1
0.00063
0.00061
I
NO
CHaNCH2C6Hs
0.00080
3.1
I
NO
3.0
CHaNCHzCHzNCHa
NO NO
0.0039
2.4
(CHa)2NNO (n-CaH7)zNNO
Intermediate Activity, 1.1 to 2.0
(NCCH2)2NNO
0.0054 0.0088
0.012
2.3
2.1
1.9
NNO
O NNO
0.012
1.9
0.011
1.9
1.8
CHaCHzNCHzCHzOH
0.016
I
NO
(n-CiH9)2NNO
O.O25
1.6
O.O25 NO
1.6
n-C4H9N(CH2)4OH
NO
0.031
1.5
O.O39
1.4
I
Minimal Activity, <1.0
NO
(i-CaHT)zNNO
O
0.11
1.0
II
(CHaCOCHzCHz)zNNO (n-CH)2NNO CHaNCH2COzH
0.18
0.7
0.26 0.24
0.6 0.6
I
NO
(HOCHzCHz)zNNO
0.89
0.05
continuedon p 584
584
Structure
D.50 a
log (1/Ds0)
No DetectableActivity
(C6H.02NNO (C6HCH2)NNO
NO
(HO.,CCH=)=NNO
(12)
aD.50= mean total carcinogenic dose,expressed in mol/kg body wt, for productionof tumors in 50% of the
animals.
carcinogenic activity in animals. Comprehensivereviews of the results have been published(2, 4, 5).
Although there is no direct evidencethat N-nitroso compounds causecancerin man, their carcinogenicity has been demonstrated in many other animal species including mice, rats,hamsters, fish,rabbits,guineapigs,dogsand monkeys(4, 5, 9). About 80% of the N-nitroso compounds testedare carcinogenic to somedegree.Their potency varieswidely, from compounds where a singledoseis sufficientto inducetumors to those where large dosesgiven repeatedlyproduce no malignancy(2, 5). To illustrate the range of activity representativenitrosamines are classified in Table I according to carcinogenic potency(10). The carcinogenic doseis expressed in the way suggestedby Wishnok et al. (11) so that larger numbers indicate higher carcinogenicity.
Wishnok and coworkers (11) recently demonstratedthat the carcinogenic potency of many nitrosamines correlatesquantitativelywith a combinationof their hexane-water partition coefficientsand the electronic inductive effects of substituentson the qcarbon. Earlier Wishnok and Archer (13) showed that carcinogenicityis inversely related to the number of carbon atoms of acyclic dialkyl nitrosamines.Lijinsky (14) found that the reverse is true for cyclic nitrosamines,where the larger molecules are more potent, and that there are major changesin target organswith a changein ring
size.
The frequently proposedmechanismof action (2, 3, 15) shownbelow accounts for the enzymaticactivationrequired by nitrosamines, but not nitrosamides, and indicates that only nitrosaminescontaininganq-hydrogen are carcinogenic. The requirement for activation of nitrosaminesis defined as an enzyme-catalysed hydroxylationof an q-carbon. This step is supportedby correlations of the degreeof carcinogenicitywith q-carbon substituents(11) and by recent work showing that preformed q-acetoxy nitrosaminesare direct acting carcinogens not requiring enzymaticmodificationfor activity(16).
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
585
RCH--
N--CHR',,
NO
hydroxylasc
.
RCH--N--CR'
ON OH
RCH--N=N--OH
R.,CH-
NHNO
O:CR'2
-H
R2CHN +
diazonium
' R2CN2
diazoalkane
II
R'C
N--N:O
H20
R'COzH
RNHNO
IV.
A.
CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
OF N-NITROSO
COMPOUNDS
Much of the chemistry of N-nitroso compoundsin aqueous solution can be summarized by the following scheme.
H
(1) (2)
(3)
Y--NO
Y'-
(3)
Y'--NO
Y-
Y--NO + Z
(4)) unreactiveproducts
(4)
586
the nitrosating agentY--NO depends on the natureof Y. Catalysis ofnitrosation by Y' species resultsfrom its prior reactionwith Y--NO (eq 3), which produces the more active nitrosating agent Y'--NO. When Y is a secondaryamine function, eq 1
describes transnitrosation asit is definedin this paper.
Inhibition of nitrosationoccurs by reaction of inhibitor Z with nitrosating agent Y--NO in the irreversible eq 4, whichis muchfasterthan 1 andproduces unreactive products.Destruction of N-nitroso compounds by denitrosation is described by eq 2. Addition of Z, in this casecalleda trap or scavenger, is necessary to prevent via 4 the reversalof denitrosation, eq 1. Details of these reactionsand the chemistryof N-nitroso compounds not includedin
this scheme are described below.
B. FORMATION
1. NitrosatingAgents
a. Inorganic Species. Several nitrogen oxide speciesare nitrosatingagents,but nitrous acid (HONO) and the nitrite ion (ONO-) are themselves inactive(19). Known inorganic nitrosatingspeciesare:
Substance Medium
N2Oa
gas(20, 21)
water (19, 22-27) organicsolvent (2)
NO2/N204
water (25-27)
organic solvent (28, 29) gas (21, 30) water ( 19, 22, 23, 31- 37)
YNO
H2ONO +
NO
The interrelationshipbetween active nitrosatingagents (underlined) and inactive species is summarized below.For simplicity, the equations are not balanced.
NO +
HONO+
--H +
HNO -
--HO
Mn+
' NOa
NO
NO
YNO
+ H20
NO-
H20
Io_
In moderately acidicaqueous nitrite solutions the nitrosating agentis nitrousanhydride,N2Oa(19, 22-24), formedfrom nitrous acid,pK = 3.138 at 25(41, 42), after protonation of nitrite ion according to eqs5 and6.
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
587
H+
ONO-
HONO
(5)
2HONO
--'
ONNO2
H20
(6)
At lower pH, more rapid nitrosation by the nitrous acidium ion (19, 22, 38-40) becomesimportant, especiallyfor weakly basicaryl arninesand amides.
HONO + H+ -'-' H2ONO + (7)
Certain anions, Y-, catalyse the reaction in water by forming nitrosating species
Y--NO which are more reactive than NzOa.
HONO
Y-
H+
Y--NO
HO
(8)
Of the anioniccatalysts studiedthiocyanate hasthe greatesteffect (23, 31-37). Halide ions are also catalytic in the order SCN-, 1- > > Br- > Ci- (19, 22, 23, 31, 33, 35).
In aqueoussolutionat pH > pKa of HNO2 the rate of nitrosationdrops rapidly with increasing pH, because the concentrations of active nitrosatingspecies generatedin situ decrease.No nitrosation by aqueous nitrite has been observed above pH 7.5. When formaldehyde(equimolarwith amine) is added to neutral or basicsolutions,nitrite can nitrosatesecondary amines,but at a slower rate than in acid solutions(46, 47). Nitrosamine yieldsvary with stericaccessibility of the nitrogenatom. Chloral (46, 47), pyridoxal and various benzaldehydes(48) are also catalytic, but less so than formaldehyde.Acetoneand acetaldehyde are inactive.The proposed mechanism (eq 9) involves nucleophilic attack by nitrite on an iminium ion intermediate following by collapse of the adductreleasing the carbonylcatalyst.
--OH+ +
ReNH
O--CHR'
'
RNCHR'
RN--CHR'
..
(9) RzN-CHR'
"
R=N--NO + O---CHR' * N--O
588
In organicsolventsNOCI, N2Oa, N204 and NOBF4 have been usedaspreparativenitrosationreagents(23, 25). Use of NOa (2) or NzO4 (28) in carbontetrachlorideor acetic acid gives high yields of nitrosamides. With secondary amines NzO4 in methylene chloride reactscleanly either as a nitrosatingagent at 0 or as a nitrating agent at -80 (29). Since NO2 is in equilibrium with N204 (49), statementsin the literatureon effectsof either substance mustbe criticallyviewed.
Nitrosation of amides occurs faster in two-phase systemscomposedof an organic solventand aqueousHNOz solutionat pHi or in methylenechloride extractsof 2 M aqueous HNO2 than in water alone at pHi (50). Nitrosation of aminesdissolved in methylene chloride in contactwith solid sodium nitrite occursby a reaction which involves the solvent (51).
Recent studieshave shown that secondaryamines react with NzOa and NzO4 gases dissolved in aqueous alkalinesolutions (pH 6-14) at a rate greaterthanin acidifiednitrite (25-27). Although both nitrogen oxides might be expected to undergo rapid hydrolysis at pH > 5 to yield unreactiveNOz- and NOa-, aminesof widely different reactivitycompeteeffectively with water andOH- for dissolved NzOa andN204. Nitric oxide (NO) alone is inactive but is oxidized by oxygento NOz and thus to the reactive nitrosatingagentsNzOa and N204 (25, 27, 36). Rapid nitrosationby NO under anaerobicconditionsoccursin the presenceof iodine or Ag(I), Cu(I), Cu(II),
Zn(II), Fe(III) or Co(II) salts(19, 27).
b. Organic Species. N-Nitrosamines themselves act as nitrosating agents. Aromatic nitrosamines, such as nitrosodiphenylamine, transnitrosate secondaryaminesunder
neutral conditions in organicsolvents (52, 53) probablyby a free radicalmechanism (53). The process is more rapid in acidicaqueous solutionand occursby a heterolytic mechanism (53, 54). The slowertransnitrosation betweenaliphaticsecondary amines
requires more extreme conditionsor catalysisby nucleophilicagents,such as thiocyanateand halideions(23, 55, 56).
Nitrosation of morpholine by aromatic and aliphaticC-nitro compoundsin tetrahydrofuranat 70Chasrecentlybeenreported(57). Furtherwork is required to ascertain whether nitrosationoccursby direct reactionof aminewith the C-nitro functionor is causedby agentsderived from inorganicnitrite present asa syntheticcontaminantor decomposition product. Primary and secondarynitroalkanesdecomposeto nitrite in dilute alkaline solutions(58).
2. Nitrogen Compounds
a. Primary Amines. The well-known deamination of primary aliphaticamineswith ni-
trite in cold aqueous acidyieldsa varietyof products (22). The rapidreaction proceeds through unstable primary nitrosamineand diazonium ion intermediates.The latter reactswith nucleophiles presentto form substitution, eliminationand rearrangement products.
RNH2 + NO-,H +
R----N=O
I
H
RI=N--OH
(lO)
alcohols, alkenes (
Nuc
R--N
N+ +
HO
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
589
R.,NH
NO%,H +) R.,NNO
(11)
Diamines with a second primary amine function appropriately located for intramolecularreaction with the diazonium ion form secondarynitrosaminesat high temperatures or longreaction timesasillustrated by the followingexamples (59).
H2N
NH2
2NO
HCI salt
0.025 M
moist
0.050 M
160C,2 hr
in citrate-phosphate buffer, pH 3.4
100C, 1 hr
22% yield
1.6%
0.39%
22C, 6 days
Higher levels of stableo-alkoxynitrosamines are producedfrom the reactionof primaryamines with aldehydes in the presence of alcohols and nitrite undermildly
acidicconditions(60, 61).
> R--N--CH=OR'
I NO
(12)
However, mixtures of primary aminesand aldehydes without alcoholdo not reactwith nitrite at pH 3 (62).
b. Secondary Amines. Nitrosaminesformed directly from secondary aminesare stable. In moderatelyacidicaqueousnitrite solutionsN2Oa, formed from two moleculesof HNO2 (eq 6) is the nitrosatingagent. The rate-determining step in the reaction is electrophilic attackby N=Oa on the free electronpair of the unprotonated amine(eq 13). Rate equation 14 describes the kinetics.
R=NH + NzOa --> RzNNO + HNOz (13)
rate =
k[R2NH] [HNO=] z
(14)
590
As predictedby the rate equation(33) for simplebasicamines(pKa > 5), the nitrosation rate in water is maximumat pHmax= 3 to 3.4 (23, 24, 40, 63, 64) nearthe pKa of HNO2. For a given amine as the pH increases abovepHmaxthe rate decreases, because the concentrationof HNO2 decreases. As the pH decreases below pHmaxthe rate decreases, because the concentrationof unprotonatedamine decreases. At a givenpH the rate of nitrosation increasesas the basicityof the amine decreases, becauseof the higher relative concentration of unprotonated amine present. Thus, the following order of reactivityis found at pH 3.0:
Amine /NH
pKa 11.2
OX /NH H=+N/NH
\ /
8.7 5.57
Relative
rate (23, 33)
930
180,000
Nitrosation of secondary amino acids(65, 66) occursat an optimumpHmx = 2.25 to 2.5 (34, 40). The reactionfollowsrate eq 14, but the pH-rate profileis changed by the fact that two amine species react--RNHCHR'CO=and RNHCHR'CO2H. c. Tertiary Aminesand RelatedCompounds. Tertiary amines have generally been regarded as inert to nitrosation, even though their conversion to secondary nitrosamines was reported over 100 yearsago (67). Because dealkylationis required, the reaction occurs to a significantextent only at elevated temperatures in weakly acidic media (68-70). At 25C and pH 3.4 nitrosationof tertiary aminesis about 10,000 times slowerthan that of related secondary amines(23). The followingmechanism hasbeen proposed(23, 68, 69) for nitrosative dealkylation
and nitrosamine formation:
I
RzNCH2R' + N=Oa
' N0+ H0
R=N--CHR'
--HN0
I
ON
I
H
R,N=CHR'
HO
(15)
RNNO
N20a
RNH
R'CHO
With mixed tertiaryalkyl aryl amines ring C-nitrosation alsooccurs (19). Two related compounds--the nitrogen acetalhexamethylenetetramine (71) and the drug antipyrinewhich has an eneaminestructure(23, 72)--undergo N-nitrosation muchmore rapidlyand extensively than normaltertiaryamines. In bothcompounds at least one of the three N-substituents is in a higher oxidationstatethan in typical tertiaryamines andnitrosation undoubtedly occurs by a differentmechanism (70).
d. Quaternary Aminesand Amine Oxides. Quaternaryammoniumcompounds apparently react slowlywith nitrite in acidicmedia.The initial dealkylationrequiredaccountsfor their lower activity comparedto tertiary aminesand may not involvethe nitrosatingagent (73). The relative reactivity of secondary,tertiary and quaternary
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
591
amines is indicated by the following data gathered for reaction of a ratio of 5 mol NaNO2/mol amineat 78CandpH 5.6 for 4 hr (73).
Amine % Yield of (CHa)2NNO
(CHa)2NH
(CHa)aN
9.6
0.9
(CHa)4N + (CHa)2NCH=CH=OH
(CHa)aN + CH= CH=OH
0.6 1.6
0.0002
Severalnaturallyoccurringquaternaryammoniumcompounds were found to be much lessreactivethan the tetramethylammoniurn ion (73). The tribenzylmethylarnmoniurn
ion is reportedto be unreactive undersimilarconditions (68). No nitrosation of 10-a M hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromideby a 20-fold excess of nitrite at 25Cand
pH 3.5 wasobservedafter 40 min (44).
amines (74). However, at 90 to 100C and pH 4 to 5 both classes show similar reactivity (68, 70, 74). Two mechanisms that accountfor the changein relative reactivity with conditions havebeenproposed (70, 74). e.Secondary and TertiaryAmides. For secondary amides,aswith amines, the nitrosation condition mostwidelyinvestigated hasbeennitrite in aqueous acid.
N-Alkyl ureas andcarbamates are rapidlynitrosated at pH 1 to 2. The nitrousacidium ion is the main nitrosating agentfor theseand other amides(eq 16) and the reaction
rate follows eq 17 (23, 39, 40).
ZNHR
H=O
H+
(16)
(17)
[H +]
The reactionrate increases aboutten timesfor each 1-unit drop in pH from 3 to 1 and doesnot show a pH maximum. At pH > 2.5 nitrosation by NzOa contributes (39).
In acidicaqueous media nitrogensubstrates decrease in propensitytoward nitrosation in the order 2-imidazolidone> acyclicN-alkylurea > N-arylurea > N-alkylcarbamate > less basic dialkyl and secondaryaromatic amines (pK < 9) and tertiary eneamines> more basicdialkyl amines> N-alkylamides,N-acylureas,N-alkylguanidines and tertiary amines(23).
High yieldsof nitrosamides are obtainedfrom reactions of amideswith N=Oa (2) or SgO4 (28) in organicsolvents. However, N-methylacetamide in aqueous solutionat pH 13 doesnot reactwith addedSzO4, conditions underwhichsecondary amines are rapidly nitrosated(27). Apparently the weakly basic amide is too unreactive to competewith hydrolysis of the nitrosating agent.
Nitrosation of tertiary amidesin acidicaqueoussolutionsof nitrite at high concentrations and temperatures produceeither nitrosamides or nitrosamines (23, 70, 75). Nitrosationof trialkylureas givesthe corresponding nitrosoureas. Dialkylnitrosamines are the major productfrom dialkyl-or trialkylthioureas, 1,1-dialkylureas, 1,1-dialkyl3-phenylureas and tetraalkylureas.
592
C. INHIBITION
competewith the amine for nitrosating species. The reductionpotentials of various nitrogenoxides(76) listedbelowcanaid in selecting appropriate oxidizing andreducingagents for destruction of nitrite.
In acid solution:
E(volts)
HNO2 + H20 NOa- + 3H + + 2eNO + H20 ,- HNOz + H + + eNzO + 3HzO 2HNOz + 4H + + 4eIn basic solution:
NO2-
2OH-
NOa-
HzO
2e-
-0.01
NO
NzO
+
+
2OH6OH-
NOz2NO2-
+
+
HzO
e+ 4e-
+0.46
-0.15
3HzO
i. InhibitionbyAscorbic Acid Ascorbic acid inhibits nitrosamineformation by rapid reduction of the nitrosating agent(77). Sincetheproduct NO canbe air-oxidized to
CH2OH CH2OH
Ascorbic acid
Dehydroascorbic acid
the nitrosatingagent $204, excess ascorbic acidmust be addedto inhibit nitrosationin systems exposedto air. Literature reports describing ascorbic acid inhibition of nitrosamine formation in amine-nitritesystems are summarized in Table II. Under in vitro conditions ascorbic acid inhibited nitrosamineformation. It inhibited the toxic and carcinogenic effectsattributable to in vivo nitrosamine formationwith two exceptions. In one caseadenoma inductionby N-nitrosomorpholine and mononitrosopiperazine increased with added ascorbicacid (78). In anotherit inhibited in vivo synthesis of N-nitrosomorpholinein rats and consequent liver tumors,but enhanced forestomach papillomas and carcinoma
(79).
Table II
Reference 80
continued on p 593
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
93
Table II (continued)
Amine
(or Amide)
Aminopyrine
System Investigated
Hepatotoxicity, Rats
Reference
81, 82
Aminopyrine
Carcinogenesis, Rats
In vitro
83 84
85
Chlordiazepoxide
Chlordiazepoxide
Inhibits nitrosamine
formation.
Toxicity, Rats
Dimethylamine Dimethylamine
86
87
nitrosamineformation. High
concentrations inhibited such
formation. Formation and
88
Morpholine Morpholine
In vitro
90
Nitrosomorpholine
formation and tumor-
genesisin rats
91 92 93
Dimethylamine Pyrrolidine
Proline
Meat-curing mixtures
94
78
frequency in some cases. Increases adenoma frequency when given with the
nitrosamines.
In vitro
96
97
594
Phenol
Phenol
Gallic Acid
Amine
--
System
In vitro
Reference
98
asrapidly asdimethylamine.
Morpholine
Diethylamine
Adenomainduction, Adenomastronglyinhibited.
Mice
78 99
Gallic Acid
In vitro
Gallic Acid
Diethylamine
In vitro
Catalyses nitrosamineformation
(see text). Inhibited nitrosamine formation.
Inhibited nitrosamine formation.
100
96
93
Gallic Acid
Propyl
Gallate
Propyl
Gallate
92
101
Propyl
Gallate
Hepatotoxicity, Rats Inhibited liver pathol. GOT, GPT and ornithine carbamoyl
transf erase.
Tannic Acid
Dimethylamine
In vitro
93
Tannin
o-Tocopherol o-Tocopherol
Piperazine, Aminopherazone
Dimethylamine Dimethylamine
Proline
96
93
Inhibited dimethylnitrosamine
formation.
102,103
Inhibited nitrosopyrrolidine
formation.
Aminopyrine
t-ButylPyrrolidine hydroquinone
In vitro, Oil/Water
Hepatotox., Rats
Inhibited
nitrosamine formation.
93
Dimethylamine t-Butylhydroquinone
101
2,6-Di-t-butylp-cresol
(BHT)
Dimethylamine
Hepatotox., Rats
Relativelyineffective.
101
Dimethylamine
Hepatotox., Rats
Relatively ineffective.
101
4-Methylcatechol
Piperidine
Piperidine
Dimethylamine
In vitro
104
104
93 93
Chlorogenic
Acid
Vanillin
In vitro
Hydroquinone
Thymol
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
93
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
595
2. Efjct ofPhenols onNitrosamine Formation In Table TTT are summarized literature reportsof the cc. of phenolson the c __ .. of nitrosamines in amine--nitrite systems. In most cases phenolsinhibited nitrosamine formation,but sometimes their presence intensifiednitrosamineproduction.
In systems containing nitrite, phenols andsecondary amines several reactions compete: --formation ofquinones(eq 19)
--formation ofC-nitrosophenols(eq 20)
--direct formation of N-nitrosamines
+ 2HNO2
>
+ 2NO
2H20
(19)
+ HNO2 )
+ H20
NO
(20)
Under someconditions phenolscancatalyse nitrosamineformation. In the presenceof excess nitrite 4-methylcatechol catalyses the nitrosation of dimethylamine and piperidine (104) and both p-cresol and p-nitroso-0-cresolcatalysethe nitrosation of pyrrolidine (105).
Walker, Pignatelliand Castegnaro (100) investigatedthe effects of 0-65 mM_gallic acid on the formation of nitrosodiethylamine from 75 mM nitrite and 500 mM diethylamine.Figure 1 and Table IV are adaptedfrom their data obtainedat pH 4.2 where maximumnitrosamine formationoccured.In the absence of gallicacid 0.39 mM nitrosamine was formed. At the lowest level of gallic acid added, 12.5 mM, nitrosamine formation increasednine-fold. However, further increasesin gallic acid concentration decreased nitrosamineformation linearly. Extrapolationof the linear relationship(Figure 1) indicatesthat addition of 144 mM gallic acid would result in complete inhibition of nitrosamineformation.This is equivalentto approximately2 mol of gallicacidper mol of nitrite. This result is consistent with that obtainedby Davies and coworkers(105) who found that the rate of nitrosation of pyrrolidine by nitrite increased linearly with the concentrationof p-nitroso-0-cresol. They demonstratedthat the nitrosating species responsible for catalysis is an adductof nitrite and a tautomer of the nitrosophenol.A similar mechanism probably operateswith gallic acid where a large excessof nitrite would lead to catalysis by C-nitrosogallicacid.
596
JOURNAL
20
qO
60
80
100
120
lqO
6ALLICAClD mM
Thus, whether a phenol inhibitsor catalyses nitrosamineformationlargelydependson the relative concentration of nitrite and phenol. Excess nitrite C-nitrosatesthe phenol and subsequently forms the catalyticspecies. A large excess of phenol removesnitrite so that it is unavailable for reaction with amine, either directly or catalytically.No catalysis shouldoccur with phenolssuchasc-tocopherol,which are not C-nitrosated because the ring is fully substituted.
Table IV
Effect of Gallic Acid Concentration on Nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) Synthesis from 75 mM Nitrite and 500 mM Diethylamine at pH 4.2
mM NDEA
Found (N)
2.15
2.81 3.10
Calc. (N a)
2.15
2.80 3.13
12.5
0.0
3.48
0.39
3.46
--
SOz
2NO
HzO
-->
N=O
NaNO=
H2NSOaH
-->
NaHSO4
N=
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
597
Table
Compound
Sodium
Bisulfite
Amine
Dimethylamine
System
Effectof SulfurCompound
Reference
93
93 108
Ammonium
Sulfamate
Sulfamic Acid
Inhibits nitrosamine formation. Dimethylamine,mor- Invitro pholine, piperazine Piperazine Human gastricjuice, Inhibits nitrosamineformation.
Aminophenazone
in vitro
Cysteine
Cysteine
Glutathione
Glutathione
Dimethylamine
Piperazine
In vitro
in vitro
93
108
93
Aminophenazone
Dimethylamine
Piperazine
91
93
Methionine
Dimethylamine
The thioIs cysteine and glutathione also inhibit nitrosamine formation. The thioether methionine is less effective. It is postulated that nitrite oxidizes methionine to the sulfoxideor sulfoneand is in turn reducedto nitric oxide (93).
ThioIs reactwith nitrite to form S-nitrosocompounds (109). In the absence of nitrite preformednitrosocysteine reacts withN-methylaniline, morpholine andpyrrolidineto form N-nitrosamines (105). In contrastcatalysis of nitrosation by p-nitroso-0-cresol does not occur in the absence of nitrite. One would suggest transnitrosation of secondary aminesby nitrosothiols, exceptthat molecularoxygenappearsto be necessary
(105).
4. Miscellaneous Inhibitors
The ammonium ion reactswith nitrite to form molecular nitrogen (107) by the following sequence:
NH4 + 2H + + NHa NO2+
H+ H2ONO +
---> H20
H2ONO +
NHa
Vitamin A reacts with nitrite in acid solution but not under neutral conditions (108).
598
Inhibitor
Urea
Urea Reduced NAD
Amine
Dimethylamine
Piperazine Morpholine Dimethylamine Pyrrolidine Piperidine Morpholine
System
In vitro In vitro
Effectof Inhibitor Relatively ineffectivein inhibiting. Inhibitory effect decreases with time.
Inhibits nitrosamine formation.
Reference 93
95
93
In vitro
Caffeine
Ethanol
Lungadenoma, Moderatelyinhibited.
Mice
78 99
Chlordiazepoxide In vitro
Slightinhibitoryeffect.
D.
DESTRUCTION
OF N-NITROSO
COMPOUNDS
N-Nitrosamines are stable compounds and are difficult to destroy once they are formed.They are stablein neutraland strongalkalinesolutions in the absence of light (2, 5). Denitrosation (eq 2) occurs slowlyin acidsolution(1 to 5 M) andiscatalysed by nucleophiles in the order of effectiveness Y = I- > SC(NH2)2> SCN- > Br- > C1(36, 111). To preventreversalof the reaction a substance, whichreacts irreversibly with YNO (eq 4) andmore rapidlythanamine,mustbe added.Relativeefficiency of
variousnitrite traps in 5 M H2SO4was found to be hydrazoicacid and hydrazine > sulfamicacid> aniline > hydroxylamine > urea (112). Ease of denitrosation variesin the order R,R' = aryl > R = aryl,R' = alkyl > R,R' = alkyl (53,113).
H
R
R--N[ +--NO + YI
R'
/
R'
N--H
Y--NO
(2)
Y--NO
Z --> unreactiveproducts
(4)
using a solution of HBr (5 to 10%) in glacial acetic acidif waterisexcluded. Analysis of thenitrite released provides a measure of theoriginal nitrosamine concentration (114). When exposed to ultravioletlight nitrosamines decompose either to aldehydes, nitrogenand nitrousoxideor quantitatively to amineand nitrousaciddepending on thewavelength used. Thereaction isfastest in acid andfaster in neutral than basic solutions.Apparatus andconditions for the photochemical destruction of nitrosamines in solution in thepresence ofa HNO scavenger have beendescribed (115, 116). Nitrosamines can be reducedby zinc in aceticacid,sodiumamalgam, tin in hydrochloricacid,lithiumaluminum hydrideandcatalytic hydrogenation (4, 117). A reduction procedure for destruction of nitrosamines in alkalinesolution with aluminum has beenpublished (118). The corresponding hydrazines are usually formed(eq 26), but other products can be produceddepending on the reducing agentandexperimental
conditions (119). Many hydrazines are carcinogenic, but about 100 timeslesssothan the corresponding nitrosamines (2).
NITROSAMINE
CHEMISTRY
599
reduction
R2NNO
> R2NHNHz
(26)
N-Nitrosamides are hydrolytically unstable. In aqueousacid they decomposeby both denitrosationand deamination pathways(120, 121). Hydrogen bromide in carbon tetrachloridehasbeen usedfor syntheticconversionof nitrosamideto amide (28).
At alkalinepH nitrosamides decompose to diazoalkanes (eq 27) (2, 4, 17, 23, 122).
OH
RCH2N--Z
+ H20
) RCH2NHNO
ZOH
(27)
l
RCHN=N + H20 < RCH2N=NOH
The rate of decomposition increases with increasing pH and varieswith amidestructure (2). At pH 9 the order of stabilitywasfound to be nitrosourea < nitrosamide <
nitrosourethane< nitrososulfonamide < nitrosoguanidine (2). In the solid stateN-nitrosamides sometimesdecomposeexplosively (2). Nitrosourea
samples should be frozen,not merelyrefrigerated (123). Nitrososulfonamides are stable only if kept coolanddry (124).
V. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The basicproblem in minimizing nitrosamineformation is prevention of the reaction between nitrosatingspecies and amines.The nitrosatingspecies are ubiquitousin the environment.Roughly 50 ppb of nitrousoxide and nitrogendioxide are presentin the atmosphereof our cities (125). In soils, streamsand rivers, organismsof the genus nitrosomonasoxidize ammonia to nitrite (126). Some foods have a high nitrate content. These can be reduced in vivo after ingestionof the food. Nitrites are added to somefoodsto preventgrowth of botulinusorganisms. Nitrites are alsowidely usedas
metal corrosion inhibitors.
Removalof nitrosating species from our environmentis a sociological tasknot amenable to immediate solution. In certain cases,steps can be taken to minimize such contamination.Already industry is moving to replace nitrite as a corrosioninhibitor in someapplications and reduceits useasan additivein meat. A more likely generalapproachto preventingthe reactionof nitrosatingspecies and amines is the inclusionof appropriatescavengers into raw materialsand finished products.For example,in the productionof organicraw materials,where a nitration step occursin the synthesis, a smallamount of SO2 can be added before solventremoval in the final step to destroy any traces of nitrite. The excessSO2 would be eliminated by the drying process.Alternatively, a nontoxic nitrite scavenger, suchas ascorbic acid,canbe incorporatedinto the raw materialor finishedproduct. Scavengers which reducenitrosating species can be classified into thosewhich convert
nitrite to NO and those which reduce it further. Most inhibitors described here reduce
nitrite to NO. In the presenceof molecular oxygen NO is readily oxidized to N204 which is a good nitrosating agent.Thus, a sufficientexcess of theseinhibitorsshouldbe incorporated to scavenge oxidized NO. Sulfamatesand sulfitesreduce the nitrites to
600
N2 and N20, respectively, which are not reoxidizedby molecularoxygen.These inhibitorsare not asinnocuous assomeof the weakerreducingagents, however. Cosmeticsare frequently in the form of emulsions.Mirvish has shown that lipids readily extract nitrosating speciesfrom water. Under these conditions, nitrosation reactionsare very fast. Sinceaminesare alsomore solublein the oil phaseof emulsions,it is appropriateto incorporateoil solubleinhibitors,suchas ascorbylpalmitate and g-tocopherol, into suchproductsfor maximum inhibition of nitrosamineformation.
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Editor's Note:
With the acceptance of thisreviewarticle,the JournaloftheSociety ofCosmetic Chemists inaugurates the review sectionof the Journal.We are especially appreciative andindebtedto the Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association for granting the authors permission to publishthis articlein ourJournal. Review articlesare solicitedby special invitation from the Editor and Editorial Committee and are not subject to reviewby the EditorialCommittee. The Journal intends to continue publication of review
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